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The  London  encyclopaedia 


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THE 


LONDON  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


VOL.  III. 


ARSENIC  TO  BELL. 


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J.  H».Uo«,  Printer,  Oucl.  dtrM^  LmmIom. 


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THE 


LONDON  ENCYCLOPiEDIA, 


UNIVERSAL   DICTIONARY 

OF 

SCIENCE,  ART.  LITERATURE,  AND  PRACTICAL  MECHANICS. 

COMPRISING  A 

POPULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PRESENT  STATE  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

ILLUSTRATBD  BY 

NUMEROUS  ENGRAVINGS,  A  GENERAL  ATLAS, 

4liD  APPROPRIATE  DIA0RAM8. 


Sic  opoftci  M  nonn*  invmiIui  ■IicbIIumI  ^ututtf  1 
CoBvlfMor  UBitluir  ooudbw  Mdifcfeae;  d  maen  d  q«ld  ifipoiiitiir,  q«od  hvim  ul  Uttui  pdalo  bod  wponrltl,  et  hk  •(  Ute 
■rtwBf  dMMBlMt,  ec  tUm  fcroUspiobMit,  ae  gwkl  comri^gtcowrhrmtotw.  BroiNuw. 

A  reader  *o«kl  4U  dowD  lo  •  book,  eqwctelly  of  die  WKeitanemM  Uad,  M  B  well-behBfc^  The 

matter  of  the  faBtteserteidiMelf  to  iBtiityUiffaeBto;  bat  if.  aAer  bII  hb  care  aad  paiaa,  •oneihliif  ■hoald  apiiear  ob  the  table 
that  docB  Bot  «alt  tU»  or  tiMt  peiveiiH  iBrte.  thcv  poHteb  pas  U  ofcr  «ltbo«t  Bolice,  and  ooBmend  other  dkhet.  that  thcv  bbv  noi 
dlrtTM  a  kiDd  boM.  TrmuUHm. 


BY  THE  ORIGINAL  EDITOR  OF  THE  ENCYCLOP-fiDIA  METROPOLITANA, 

ASSISTED  BY  EMINENT   PROFESSIONAL   AND  OTHER  GENTLEMEN. 

IN  TWENTY-TWO  VOLUMES. 
VOL.  III. 


LONDON: 

PRINTED  FOR  THOBIAS  TEGG,  73,  CHEAPSIDE ; 

SOLO   BY    N.  BAILES,    PICCADILLY  ;   B.  WILSON,   ROTAL   IfiXCHANOE  ;    J.  XA80N,   CITY  ROAD  . 

BOWDERY   &   KERRY,   OXFORD   STREET: 

GRIFFIN  k  CO.  GLASGOW:   J.  CUMMING,  DUBLIN  :    M.  BAUDRY,  PARI"* :   F.   FLEISCHER,  LEIP8IC  I 

AND  WHIPPLE  &  LAWRENCE,  SaLEH,  NORTU  AMERICA. 

1829.  ^  . 

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LONDON    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ARSENIC. 


ARSENIC,  aptffvueovy  ABSurfcUM*  in  min- 
eralogy and  chemiitiy,  called  bj  Ariirtotle 
«a»^paxq,  by  Theophrastiu  o^msov,  by  th« 
Romans  orpimeotiim  and  arsenicum ;  ia  a  red- 
dish-colored ponderoof  mineral,  caustic,  oor- 
^osi^e,  and  highly  poisonous;  which  was  used 
by  the  ancients  in  medicine  and  painting.  Aristot. 
de  Hist.  Anim.  1. 8yC.  24 ;  Theophnst.;  Dioscor. 
1.  5,  c.  121;  Plin.  1.  34,  c.  18;  Cels.  de  Re 
Med.  1.  5,  c.  5;  Gal.  de  Comp.  Med.  sec.  Loc. 
1. 4.  In  the  Linnsan  system,  il  is  a  genus  of 
metals  having  these  generic  characters:  Bluish 
white,  eome  becoming  bhu^k,  and  fidling  to  pow- 
der in  the  air;  soft  and  extremely  brittle ;  specific 
gravity  6*310 :  subliming  without  melting  in  a 
moderate  heat  in  a  white  powder,  and  emitting 
a  strong  garlic  smell.  Its  sublimed  ozid  gives 
an  acrid  taste  to  water,  and  turns  vegetable 
Uues  red.  When  dissolved  in  muriatic  acid, 
and  awsCfeiy  solution  of  sulphuiated  hydsogen 
poured  into  it,  it  precipitates  a  fine  yellow  pow- 
der. 

The  principal  species  are,  1.  A.  nativum,  aar 
Cive  asenicyof  the  three  varieties:  a.  Unoombined, 
having  a  metallic  lustre  and  separating  into 
sphencal  incrustatioBS.  /3.  With  micaceous 
particles,  y.  Friable  and  porous.  Found  in  the 
British  Isles,  Norway,  German)r,  Saxony,  &c.  in 
spar,  baryte,  br  feldspar,  massive,  mrely  disse- 
minated, often  oomposed  of  hemispheric  lasers, 
corroded,  branchea,  perforated,  botryoidai,  or 
stalactitic;  color  lead-gray,  but  its  suiftce 
soon  tarnishing  and  becoming  black  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air;  streak  bluisb^gray,  powder 
dull  and  blackish ;  sometimes  a  little  sonorous 
when  struck  against  a  hard  body,  and  so  soft 
a^i  to  be  easily  cut  with  a  knife.  Before  the 
blow-pipe  it  emits  a  white  smoke,  diffusing 
its  peculiar  and  highly  pcaaonous  vapors  to  a 
great  distance ;  burning  with  a  blue  name  and 
gradually  vanishing,  depositing  a  white  oxid  in 
Sie  fonin  oT  a  powder:  specific  gravity  6*670 
to  5'729 ;  always  alloyed  with  some  iron,  and 
often  contains  some  cobalt,  bismuth,  silver,  and 
sometimes  a  little  gold. 

2.  A«  calciforme  ;  white  arsenic  ;  white 
oxid  of  arsenic;  white,  soluble  in  eighty 
times  its  weight  of  water.  It  is  found  in  a 
loose  dust  or  mealy  powder ;  in  a  state  of  crys- 
tallisation; or  in  an  indurated  state  combinied 
with  earth;  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  Hungary,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Ice. 
Color  white  or  gray,  with  often  a  tinge  of 
red,  yellow,  green,  or  black :  before  the  blow- 
|npe  it  sublimes,  but  does  not  inflame,  and 
tingBB  borax  green :  specific  gravity  3,700. 

VOL.  in.— Paet  I. 


A.  auripigmentum ;  orpiment,  yellow 
ic.  Ponderous,  yellow,  curved,  or  ui»- 
dulalely  foliated,  of  a  waanr  intemil  lustre, 
evaporating  almost  entirely  bemre  the  blow-pipe. 
Found  in  Great  Britain,  Hungary,  Georgia, 
Turkev,  &e. ;  massive,  disseminated,  or  in  smaH 
unperfeict  crystals;  color,  various  shades  of 
yellow,  with  a  considerable  waxy  lustre,  and 
some  transparency;  streak  otange-vellow,  not 
metallic ;  texture  foliated,  with  the  plates  mostly 
curved  or  undulated,  rarely  striate,  a  litde  flexi- 
ble, but  not  elastic ;  efiervesces  with  hot  nitric 
add,  buns  with  a  bluish  flame,  and  before  the 
blow-pipe  evaporates,  leaving  behind  a  small 
portion  of  esjth:  specific  gravity  3*048  to 
3-521. 

4.  A.  sandaraca;  red  arsenic;  ruby  arse- 
nic; realgar.  Somewhat  ponderous,  rei,  witii 
an  orange-yellow  streak,  in  straight  foliations, 
melting  easily  before  the  blow-pipe;  burning 
with  a  blue  flame  and  white  amenical  vapors. 
Found  in  Sicily,  Naples,  Hungary,  B<^emia, 
China,  Japan,  &c.;  massive,  disseminated,  su- 
perficial, or  crystallised  in  small  acute-angled, 
quadrangular,  or  acicuUr  prisms;  color  auro- 
ra-red, ruby,  scariet,  crimson  or  blood-red,  often 
variegated  vrith  yellow  traces :  texture  lamellar, 
with  the  foliations  a  little  flexible,  and  so  soft 
as  to  be  Gift  vrith  a  knife,  and  frequently  exhibit- 
ing a  brilliant  lustre;  streak  jrellowish-red ;  pow- 
der scariet ;  in  nitric  acid  it  loses  its  color ; 
specific  gravity  3*338. 

5.  A.  sulphuratnm  ;  marcasite  ;  white 
mundic ;  white  pyrite ;  pvritical  arsenical 
ore.  Hard,  bluijD^gray  wim  metallic  lustre, 
before  the  blow-pipe  emitting  white  arsenical 
vapors  and  blue  sulphureous  flames.  Found 
in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
Sweden,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  (cc.  in  irresuhu 
masses,  dissftminatpd,  investing  or  crystallised 
in  cubes  or  four-sided  prisms ;  specific  gravity 
6*622. 

6.  A.  albicans;  misspickel;  marcasite.  Of 
a  steel-white  color  and  lustre,  hard,  emitting 
white  arsenical  vapors  before  the  Uow-pipe, 
but  no  sulphureous  flame  or  vapor,  round 
in  Comwalt,  near  Dublin,  in  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
Saxony,  &c  generally  dispersed  amonff  tin  ores 
in  granulations,  or  crystallised  in  four-sided 
double  pyramids,  or  foujMided  quadrangular 

Krisms :  color  sometimes  silvery,  gray,  or  yeU 
>wi8h,  or  iridesoently  variegated  when  tar- 
nished: texture  compact,  sometimes  a  little 
splintery,  with  the  surface  marked  with  .de* 
cussate  grooves  or  black  ramifications;  efier* 
vesces  wi&i  nitric  add  without  heat,  and  yieldi 

B 


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ARSENIC. 


an  arsenical  smell  when  rubbed.  It  consists  of 
arsenic  alloyed  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
iron,  but  little  or  no  sulphur ;  specific  gravity 
from  5*753  to  6*522. 

7.  A.  argentiferum;  ar^ntiferous  arsenic. 
Of  a  silvery  lustre  and  very  fine  granular  tex- 
ture, emitting  arsenical  vapors  before  the  blow- 
pipe, and  when  fiised  with  lead  leaving  a  silver 
Dead.  Found  in  the  mines  of  Saxony,  Bohemia, 
Germany,  and  Spain;  massive,  disseminated, 
or  acicular;  color  nearly  that  of  the  last,  but 
brighter  and  more  permanent;  bums  with  a 
white  flame,  and  leaves  a  reddish  residuum :  by 
solution  in  nitro-muriatic  acid  the  silver  will  be 
precipitated.  It  consists  of  arsenic,  sulphur, 
iron,  and  from  1  to  10  or  12  per  cent  of  silver : 
specific  gravity  4*087. 

The  following  is  the  method  of  the  celebrated 
Mr.  Chevenix  for  the  assay  and  analysis  of 
arsenical  ores.  Reduce  the  ore  to  a  very  fine 
powder,  and  digest  it  in  nitric  acid  sufficient  to 
acidiiy  and  take  up  the  whole  of  the  arsenic ; 
pour  o£rthe  clear  liquor,  and  boil  on  the  residue 
some  distilled  water :  filter,  and  add  the  water 
to  the  nitrous  solution :  then  neutralise  the  excess 
of  acid  by  potash,  taking  care,  however,  not  to 
have  an  excess  of  alkali,  and  add  nitrate  of  lead 
as  long  as  any  precipitate  takes  place :  wash  the 
precipitate  in  cold  water,  dry,  and  weigh  it 
As  the  arsenical  ores  often  contain  sulphur,  it  is 
possible  that  the  arseniat  of  lead  thus  procured 
may  be  mixed  with  a  little  sulphat  of  lead :  to 
decide  this,  digest  the  powder  in  some  warm 
dilute  muriatic  acid,  and  the  arseniat  of  lead 
will  be  dissolved,  leaving  the  sulphat  behind. 

The  arsenic  of  commerce  is  prepared  in. 
Saxony  by  roasting  the  cobalt  ores  in  the  manu- 
facture of  zaffre.  These  ores  consist  principally 
of  arsenic,  cobalt,  iron,  and  a  little  sulpnur  ^ 
the  first  and  last  ingredients  are  easily  separated 
b^  roasting,  which  is  performed  not  in  the  open 
air,  but  in  an  oven,  the  flue  of  which  runs  hori- 
zontally to  a  considerable  distance  before  it 
bends  upwards.  The  arsenic  and  %ilphur, 
when  liberated,  are  deposited  for  the  most  part 
in  the  horizontal  flue.    In  this  state  it  is  called 

Crude  arsenic,  or  flowers  of  arsenic,  and  the 
form  it  assumes  is  that  of  a  grayish  meal 
streaked  with  yellow,  which  is  occasioned  by 
the  sulphur  uniting  with  parts  of  the  arsenic, 
and  composing  orpiraent.  From  the  crude 
arsenic  the 

White  arsenic  of  commerce  is  prepared  by 
mixing  the  crude  with  potash  or  lime,  and  re-^ 
subliming.  The  sulphur  and  othei  impurities 
are  thus  combined  with  the  alkali,  and  the  white 
oxide  is  driven  over  into  a  heated  receiver,  where 
it  melts  into  a  heavy,,  colorless,  transparent 
glass :  by  exposure  to  die  air  for  a  short  time 
this  glass  becomes  opaque,  and  resembles  in  its 
fi'acture  the  finest  white  china ;  it  is  in  this  state 
that  the  white  arsenic  of  commerce  is  sold  in 
the  shops,  and  kept  in  our  laboratories ;  and 
as  it  is  then  an  oxide  of  the  metal  approaching 
very  nearly  to  a  state  of  purity,  it  is  not 
difficult,  by  separating  its  oxygen,  to  reduce  it 
into  . 

Pure  metallic  arsenic.  For  this  purpose  the 
white  arsenic  is  mixed  with  any  of  the  vegetable 


or  animal  expressed  oils,  till  it  becomes  of  the 
consistence  of  very  soft  glazier's  putty,  and  round 
or  oblong  pieces  of  the  paste  are  dropped  into 
a  Florence  flask,  or  earthen  retort,  so  as  not  to 
adhere  to  the  sides.  It  is  then  put  into  a  sand- 
bath,  or  over  a  gentle  diarcoal  fire,  and  heated 
very  gradually  until  it  ceases  to  emit  thick  va- 
pors, when  the  heat  may  be  increased  by 
degrees  to  obscure  redness.  Shortly  after  the 
vessel  may  be  removed,  and  when  cold,  broken ; 
the  neck  and  upper  part  will  contain  a  crystai- 
Ibed  oxide  of  arsenic ;  below,  a  thick  crust  of 
metallic  arsenic;  and  at  the  bottom  some  impu- 
rities, which  must  be  laid  aside.  The  oiher 
products  are  to  be  pulverised  with  half  their 
weight  of  charcoal,  and  sublimed  again  as  be- 
fore ;  by  which  means  the  arsenic  is  rendered 
pure,  and  will  be  found  to  line  the  vessel  in  the 
form  of  a  shining  crust  and  crystals. 

The  principal  properties  of  pure  arsenic,  be- 
side those  mentioned  in  the  beginning  of  this 
article,  are  the  following : — ^That  it  is  not  per- 
ceptibly soluble  in  water,  and  is  easily  tarnished 
by  exposure  to  the  air;  ihe  best  method  of  pre- 
serving it  unaltered  is  to  immerse  it  in  water  or 
alcohol.  With  carbon  or  hydrogen  it  does  not 
combine ;  but  die  latter  substance,  in  the  state  of 
gas,  dissolves  it  Oxygen  imites  with  it  by 
combustion,  forming  arsenical  acid.  With  sulphur 
it  may  be  readily  united,  forming  either  realgar 
or  orpiment,  according  to  the  proportions  of  the 
ingredients,  or  the  methods  of  uniting  them: 
these  substances  are  really  sulphurets^  of  arsenic, 
and  their  properties,  with  their  mode  of  prepa- 
ration, when  not  found  native,  maybe  found 
under  their  names.  Arsenic  combines  also 
readily  with  phosphorus,  forming  phosphuret  of 
arsenic,  whicn  is  black  and  brilliant ;  but  with 
azotic  gas  it  has  not  been  united.  Muriatic  acid 
attadcs  arsenic  only  if  aided  by  heat;  but,  by 
distilling  equal  parts  of  orpiment  and  corrosive 
muriate  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate)  in  a 
gentle  heat,  a  blackish  corrosive  liquor  is  ob- 
tained, which  is  the  sublimated  muriatof  arsenic, 
or  butter  of  arsenic.  Arsenic  combines  with 
most  metals,  forming  with  them  alloys,  and  ren- 
dering them  more,  fiisible  and  brittle ;  though 
such  of  them  as  were  before  very  fusible  become 
refractory:  it  possesses  also  the  singular  pro- 
perty of  destroying  the  magnetic  virtue  of  iron, 
and  of  all  other  metals  susceptible  of  it 

The  most  useful  alloys  of  arsenic  are : — 1 . 
With  platinum,  which  is  formed  by  ftising  that 
metal  and  the  white  oxide  of  arsenic  together. 
By  this  means  platinum,  itself  so  untractable, 
may  be  wrought  into  the  utensils  required.  The 
mixture,  after  fusion,  is  hammered  at  a  red  heat 
into  bars,  and  the  arsenic  is  gradually  driven  ofl\. 
2.  With  copper,  which  is  formed  by  fiisintr  the 
two  metals  together  in  a  close  crucible,  their  siir- 
fiice  being  covered  with  common  salt,  to  prevent 
the  arsenic  from  being  oxidised  by  the  air.  This 
alloy  is  yhite  and  brittle,  and  when  mixed  with 
a  little  tin  or  bismuth  is  used  for  a  variety  of 
purposes  in  the  arts,  when  it  is  known  by  the 
names  of  white  copper  or  white  tombac.  3. 
With  iron,  which  js  likewise  done  by  fusion. 
This  alloy,  however,  is  often  found  native,  and 
is  then  csdled  misspickel.    The  other  metals  with 


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ARS  2 

^lAdcYk  anenic  has  been  united,  are  gold,  silver, 
tin,  lead,  nickle,  zinc,  antimony,  and  bi9muth : 
it  also  fonns  an  amalgam  with  mercury,  by  keep- 
ing them  some  hours  over  the  fire,  constantly 
agitating  the  mixture.  Arsenic  is  capable  of 
combining  with  two  different  proportions  of 
<)xygen ;  by  the  first  is  formed  4he  white  oxide 
already  described,  or  arsenious  acid,  as  it  is 
denominated  by  Fourcroy,  on  account  of  the 
many  acid  properties  which  it  exhibits ;  by  the 
second  is  prodaced  arsenic  or  arsenical  acid, 
which  vras  discovered  in  1775  by  Sciieele,  who 
also  made  himself  acquainted  with  its  most  re- 
markable properties. 

In  pharmacy,  the  white  oxide  of  arsenic  is 
directed  by  the  London  Pharmacopsia  to  be 
sublimed ;  after  which  it  is  to  be  boiled  with  an 
equal  weight  of  carbonate  of  potash,  in  order  to 
form  the  liquor  arsenicalis,  sometimes  called 
Fowler's  solution,  or  the  tasteless  ague  drop. 
This  contains  one  grain  of  arsenic  in  two  drams, 
is  given  in  doses  of  a  few  drops  in  intermittent 
fevers,  and  in  several  eruptive  diseases.  Caution 
is  necessary  in  the  exhibition  of  so  dangerous  a 
remedy.  Arsenic  has  been  used  externally  in 
cancer,  lupus,  &c.  in  form  of  an  ointment.  For 
an  account  of  arsenic,  as  a  poison,  its  symptoms, 
effects,  and  remedies,  see  Poison. 

Arsenical  Magnet,  Magnes  Arsevicaus, 
is  a  preparation  of  antimony,  with  sulphur  and 
white  arsenic. 

ARSENIUS,  a  deacon  of  the  Roman ch\irch  of 
great  learning  and  pifty,  who  was  selected  by  the 

Sope  as  tutor  to  Arcadius,  sonof  the  emperor  Theo- 
osius.  Arsenius  arrived  at  Constantinople  A.  D. 
389.  The  emperor  happening  one  day  to  go  into 
the  room  where  Arsemus  was  instructing  his  pu- 
pil, found  Arcadius  seated  and  his  preceptor 
standing;  at  this  he  was  exceedingly  displeased, 
took  from  his  son  the  imperial  ornaments,  made 
Arsenius  sit  in  his  place,  and  ordered  Arcadius 
for  the  future  to  receive  his  lessons  standing  un- 
covered. Arcadius,  however,  profited  but  little 
by  his  tutor's  instructions,  for  some  time  after  he 
formed  a  design  of  despatching  him.  Arsenius, 
however,  hearing  of  the  design,  retired  to  the  de- 
serts of  Scet^,  ^ere  he  passed  many  yean  in 
devotion,  and  died  aged  ninety-five. 

Arsenius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  excommunicated  Michael  Pa- 
leologus,  for  taking  the  imperial  crown  from 
John  Lascaris  the  son  of  Theodore.  Though 
Michael  solicited  absolution,  the  bishop  refused, 
unless  he  would  restore  the  crown ;  in  conse- 
quence of  which  Arsenius  was  banished  to  a 
small  island,  where  he  died. 

ARS^NOTHELYS,  among  ancient  natura- 
lists, the  same  with  hermaphrodite.  The  Greeks 
use  the  word  both  in  speaking  of  men  and 
beasts,  it  is  formed  from  ofxr^v  and«3i|Xvc,inale 
and  female. 

ARSEN  VAL,  in  geography,  a  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Aube,  and  chief  place  of 
a  canton  in  the  district  of  Bar-sur-Aube^  twenty- 
three  miles  east  of  Troyes. 

ARSES,  or  ARSAMES,king  of  Persia,  succeed- 
ed Artaxerxes  Ochus  about  A.  M.  3612,  and  a^ 
ler  a  short  reign  of  less  than  four  years  was  slain 


AHS 

by  Bagoas,  who  had  murdered  his  predecessor, 
and  succeeded  by  Darius   Codomanus. 

ARSHIN,  in  commerce,  the  most  common 
Russian  measure  of  length  =  16  vershok  r=  315^ 
Paris  lines.  It  is  also  a  Chinese  measure,  but 
one  Chinese  arshin  =  302  Paris  lines.  Three 
arshins  =   1   fiithom,  and  500  fiuhoms  :=  1 


ARSIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  small  rivet 
which  had  a  northern  course,  and  served  as  a 
boundary  between  Histria  and  lUyria,  to  the 
north  of  the  Flanatic  gulf.  It  there  terminated 
Italy  on  the  north-east  of  the  Polatic  promon- 
tory. 

ARSINOE,in  ancient  geography,  the  name  of 
various  towns  mentioned  by  Strabo,  Ptolemy, 
Stephanus,  &c.  viz.  of  five  towns  in  Cilicia,  one 
of  which  had  a  station  for  ships ;  of  three  in  or  near 
Cjrprus;  viz.  one  inland,  formerly  called  Marium,  < 
another  north  of  it  between  Acamas  and  Soli,  and 
the  third  in  the  south,  with  a  port,  between  Ci- 
trum  and  Salamis.  A  sea-port  in  Cyreqe,  for- 
merly called  Teuchira.  A  town  in  Egypt  near 
the  west  extremity  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  and  soudi 
of  Hierapolis,  called  also  Cleopatris.  Another 
in  the  Nomos  Arsinoites,  mentioned  on  some 
coins  of  Adrian,  and  formeriy  called  CrooodilcH 
rum  Urbs,  from  its  abounding  with  crocodiles ; 
Ptolemy  calls  this  town  an  inland  metropolis, 
with  a  port  called  Ptolemais.  A  sea-port  of  Ly- 
cia  formerly  named  Patara,  but  called  Arsinoe 
by  Ptolemy  Philadelnhus  after  his  queen.  And 
three  towns  of  Troglodytte,  the  chief  of  which 
was  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Arabian  gulf, 
which  towards  Ethiopia  is  terminated  by  a  pro- 
montory called  Dire.  This  Arsinoe  is  called 
Berenice,  with  the  distinction  Epidires;  because 
situated  on  a  neck  of  land  running  out  a  great 
way  into  the  sea.  Also  the  name  of  several 
princesses  of  Egypt;  particulariy,  1.  the  daughter 
of  Ptolemy  Lagus,  and  wife  of  Lysiroachus  king 
of  Thrace :  2.  the  wife  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
who  named  several  towns  after  her. 

Arsmoe,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  papi- 
lio,  found  in  the  island  of  Amboyna,  the  wings 
of  which  are  tailed,  indented,  fulvous,  spotted 
with  black ;  and  the  posterior  ones  markea  both 
above  and  beneath  with  two  ocellated  spots.  It 
is  figured  by  Seba  and  Cramer. 

ARSINOITES,  NoMOS,  an  ancient  district  of 
Egypt,  west  of  the  Heracleotes,  on  the  western 
banks  of  the  Nile. 

ARSIS,  and  Thesis,  in  prosody,  are  names 
given  to  two  proportional  parts  into  which  ever^ 
foot  or  rhythm  is  divided.  By  arsis  and  thesis 
are  usuallv  meant  no  more  than  a  proportional 
division  of  the  metrical  feet,  made  by  the  hand 
or  foot  of  him  that  beats  the  time.  And  in 
measuring  the  quantities  of  words  the  hand  is 
elevated,  as  well  as  let  fall;  that  part  of  the 
time  which  is  taken  up  in  measuring  the  foot, 
by  lifting;  the  hand  up,  is  termed  arsis  or  ele- 
vatH ;  and  the  part  where  the  hand  is  let  fiUl, 
thesis  or  positio.  Vid«  Augustin  de  Musica,  lib. 
ii.  cap.  10.  In  plaudendo  enim  quia  elevatur 
et  poniUir  roanus,  partem  pedis,  sibi  elevatio 
vendicat,  partem  positio. 

Arsis  and  thesis  are  used  as  musical  temi 

B2 


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ART. 


wh€D  the  subject  of  a  fugue  or  point  is  inverted 
or  reversed;  i.  e.  when  one  part  rises  and  the 
other  &lb.  These  two  words  are  Greek :  arsis 
comes  from  oifyw,  tollo,  I  raise  or  elevate ;  0c(nc 
depositio,  remissio^  a  depression  or  lowering. 
These  terms  were  applied  by  the  ancients  to  the 
motion  of  the  hand  in  beating  time.; 

ARSON,  in  Englisli  law,  is  the  malicious  and 
wilful  burning  of  &e  house  or  out-house  of  ano- 
ther man,  which  is  felony.  This  is  an  offence  of 
great  malignity,  and  more  pernicious  to  the  pub- 
lic than  simple  thefl;  because,  first,  it  is  an 
offence  against  that  right  of  habitation  which  ia 
acquired  by  the  law  of  nature  as  well  as  by  the 
laws  of  society;  next,  because  of  the  terror  and 
confusion  that  necessarily  attends  it;  and,  lastly, 
because  in  simple  theft  the  thing  stolen  only 
changes  its  master,  but  still  remains  in  esse  for 
the  benefit  of  the  public ;  whereas  by  burning, 
the  very  substance  is  absolutely  destroyed.— It  is 
also  frequently  more  destructive  than  murder  it- 
self of  which  too  it  is  often  the  cause;  since 
murder,  atrocious  as  it  is,  seldom  extends  be^ 
yond  the  felonious  act  designed;  whereas  fire 
too  frequently  involves  in  the  common  calamity 
persons  unknown  to  the  incendiary,  and  not  in- 
tended to  be  hurt  by  him,  and  friends  as  well  as 
enemies.  If  the  house  be  a  man's  own,  the  act 
is  not  felony  and  punishable  with  death,  but  only 
a  great  misdemeanor,  and  punishable  by  fine, 
imprisonment  or  pillory. 

ARSUR,  AsoB,  Arsaf,  or  Arsid,  a  hamlet  on 
the  coast  of  Syria,  which  has  sometimes  received 
the  name  of  a  city,  because  Solomon  is  supposed 
to  have  built  the  city  Asor  upon  the  site.  It 
contains  a  fortress  and  mosque,  in  the  last  of 
which  are  a  few  Mahommedan  monks. 

ARSURA,  in  anoient  customs,  a  term  used 
for  the  melting  of  gold  or  silver,  either  to  refine 
ihem  or  to  examine  their  vabie.  The  method  of 
doing  this  is  explained  at  large  in  the  Black  Book 
of  the  Exchequer,  ascribed  to  Gervaise  in  the 
chapter  De  Officio  Militis  Argentarii,  being  in 
those  days  of  great  use,  on  account  of  the  vari- 
ous places  and  different  manners  in  which  the 
king's  monc^  was  paid. '  Arsura  is  also  used  for 
the  loss  or  diminution  of  die  metal  in  the  trial. 
In  this  sense  a  pound  was  said,  tot  ardere  dena^ 
rios,  to  lose  many  penny-weights. 

Arsura,  in  medicine,  is  used  by  some  writers 
for  the  erysipelas. 

Arsura,  in  metallurgy,  is  used  for  the  dust 
and  sweepings  of  silversmiths,  and  othen  who 
work  m  silver,  melted  down,  and  which  they  call 
their  sweep. 


HEL.  We,  Hermia,  Uke  two  ardJSeui  gods. 
Created  with  our  needles  both  one  flower. 
Both  on  one  sampler,  sitting  on  one  cushion ; 
Both  warbling  of  one  song,  both  in  one  key  ; 
As  if  our  hand,  our  sides,  voices,  and  minds. 
Had  been  incorporate.  Skdupearc* 

Why,  I  can  smile,  and  murder  while  I  smile ; 
And  cry,  content,  to  that  which  grieves  my  heart ; 
And  wet  my  cheeks,  with  arHflaal  tears.  Id, 

Weaker  than  a  woman's  tear. 
Tamer  than  sleep,  fnnder  than  ignorance. 
And  offtnt  as  unpractis'd  infancy. 

Drydm.  Trmhtt  tmd  Cftmida, 
Rich  with  the  spoils  of  many  a  oonquer'd  land. 
All  arts  and  artiaU  Theseus  could  command. 
Who  sold  for  hire,  or  wrought  for  better  fame 
The  master  painters  and  the  carven  came.      Drydm. 
The  rest  in  rank  :  Honoria,  chief  in  place 
Was  artfitUjf  contrivM  to  set  her  face. 
To  front  the  thicket,  and  behold  the  chace.         Id. 
Vice  is  the  natural  growth  of  our  corruption.     How 
inesistibly  must  it  preyail,  when  the  seeds  of  it  are 
mrtfidfy  sown,  and  industriously  cultivated.      Rogen. 
What  aie   the  most  judidoos  artiaont,  but  the 
mimics  of  natore  ?  WMon't  ArdtHmtms. 

Best  and  happiest  mrtmm. 
Best  of  painters,  if  yon  can. 
With  your  manjr-color'd  art. 
Draw  the  mistress  of  my  heart. 

Thus  areata  melt  the  sullen  ore  of  lead. 
With  heaping  coals  of  fire  upon  its  head ; 
In  the  kind  warmth,  the  metal  learns  to  glow. 
And  loose  from  dross  the  silver  runs  below. 

PameH. 
Sweet  arOm  songster !  thou  my  mmd  doet  raise 
To  airs  of  spheres,  yea,  and  ^o  angels's  lays. 


ART,  *>       Lat   arSf  fix>m    aptnif 

Ar'tful,  manly  energy,  strength,  or 

Ar'tpullt,  skill.    The  power  of  doing 

Ar'tfulmess,        any  thing  arising  from  a 
*  Ar'tisan,  clear  and  perspicuous  know- 

Ar'tist,  pledge  of  what  the  practice 

Ar'tless,  jof  it  requires.    Artfiil  sig- 

Ar'tlessly,  nifies  evil  intention.    f)ne 

Ar'tifice,  who  exercises  a  mechanical 

Ar'tificer,  art  is  an  artisan,  he  who  ex- 

Ar'tifici AL,         ceb  in  the  fine  arts  is  an 
Arti'ficially.  J  artist.    Any  skilfiif  work- 
man is  an  artificer ;  artifice  in  its  present  use 
impLes  deception. 


In  oratoiy,  the  greatest  ar<  is  to  hide  mrt.       &m/». 
If  we  compare  two  nations  in  an  equal  stateof  civi- 
lisation, we  may  remark  that  where  the  greater  free- 
dom obtains,  there   the  greater  variety  of  ortijicial 
wants  will  obtain  also.  Cmnberiand, 

The  merchant,  tiadesman,  and  arii$(m  will  have 
their  profit  upon  all  the  multiplied  wants,  comforts, 
and  indulgences  of  civilised  life.  Id, 

In  every  quarter  of  this  blessed  isle. 
Himself  [the  mind]  both  present  is  and  president. 
Nor  once  retires,  a  happy  realm  the  while. 
That  by  no  officers  lewd  ravishment, 
With  greedie  lust  and  wrong  coanim'd  Mt, 
He  all  in  all,  and  all  in  every  part. 
Does  share  to  each  his  due  and  equal  dole  oompart. 

Fletoker't  Pmple  litmd. 
Among  the  several  arHfieaa  which  are  put  in  prac- 
tice by  the  poets,  to  fill  the  minds  of  an  audience  with 
terror,  the  first  place  is  due  to  thunder  and  lightning. 

Addmm, 
Poets,  like  painters,  thus  unskill'd  to  trace 
The  naked  nature  and  the  living  grace. 
With  gold  and  jewels  cover  ev'ry  part. 
And  hide  with  ornaments  their  want  of  art. 

Pep§*9  Assy  on  Critieitm. 
O  still  the  same  Ulysses,  she  rejoin'd  ; 
In  useful  craft  suooessfuUy  refin'd  ; 
Ar^vl  in  speech,  in  action,  and  in  mind.       Pgpt, 
Btnboflom'd  in  the  deep  where  Holland  lies, 
Methinks  her  patient  sons  before  me  stand. 
Where  the  bcoad  ocean  leans  against  the  land. 
And  sedulous  to  stop  the  coming  tide. 
Lift  the  tall  rampire's  artificial  pride.  CMdmitJL 

A  man  will  no  more  carry  the  artifioe  of  the  bar 
into  the  common  intercourse  of  society,  than  a  man 
who  is  paid  for  tumbling  on  his  hands  will  continue  to 
tumble  when  he  should  walk  on  his  foot. 


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ARTS. 


He  feels  no  ennobling  principle  in  hia  own  hearty 
who  wishes  to  level  all  the  orl^^eMiZinstitations  which 
have  been  adopted  for  giving  a  body  to  opinion,  and 
pennanence  to  fugitive  esteem.  Bmrke, 

Art  has  been  more  particularly  defined  to  be 
a  habit  of  the  mind  prescribing  rules  for  the  due 
production  of  certain  effects ;  or  the  introducing 
the  changes  of  bodies  from  some  fore-knowledge 
and  design  in  a  person  endued  with  the  prin- 
ciple or  iucvltf  of  acting.  The  word  has  been 
sometimes  denied  from  opocy  utility,  profit;  and 
u  found  in  that  sense  in  JElscbylus. 

According  to  lord  Bacon  it  is  a  proper  dispo- 
sition of  the  things  of  nature  by  human  thought 
and  experience,  so  as  to  make  them  answer  the 
designs  and  uses  of  mankind.  Nature,  accord- 
ing to  that  philosopher,  is  sometimes  free,  and  at 
her  own  disposal ;  and  then  she  manifests  herself 
in  a  regular  order;  as  we  see  in  the  heavens, 
plants,  animals,  &c.— Sometimes  she  is  irregular 
and  disorderly  either  through  some  uncommon  ac- 
cident or  depravation  in  matter,  when  theresistance 
of  some  impediment  perverts  her  from  her  course ; 
as  in  the  production  of  monsters.  At  other 
times  she  is  subdued  and  fiahioned  by  human 
industry,  and  made  to  ser%e  the  several  purposes 
of  mankind.  This  last  is  what  we  call  art 
In  which  sense,  art  stands  opposed  to  nature. 
Hence  the  knowledge  of  nature  may  be  divided 
into  the  history  of  generation,  of  pretergeneration, 
and  of  arts.  The  first  considers  nature  at  liber- 
ty; the  second  her  errors;  and  the  third  her 
restraints. 

Art  has  been  distinguished  from  science ;  by 
the  latter  being  regarded  as  furnishing  the  prin- 
ciples of  all  art.  Or  science,  scientia,  all  human 
knowledge,  is  said  to  be  divisible  into  those  purer 
sciences  which  relate  to  the  ideas  or  laws  of  the 
mind,  and  the  relation  they  bear  to  each  other ; 
and  the  mixed  or  applied  sciences-^al  relation 
which  the  same  ideas  bear  to  the  external  world. 
In  this  view  the  mixed  and  applied  sciences  are 
but  other  terms  for  all  the  fine  and  useful  arts. 
Chambers  has  observed  long  ago,  in  the  ex- 
cellent prefiu^e  to  his  original  Cyclopaedia: 
An  Art  and  a  Science,  only  seem  to  differ  as 
less  and  more  pure :  a  science  is  a  system  of 
deductions  made  by  reason  alone,  undetermined 
by  any  thing  foreign  or  extrinsic  to  itself:  an 
art,  on  the  contrary,  requires  a  number  of  data, 
and  postulata,  to  be  nimished  from  without; 
and  never  goes  any  length,  without  at  every  turn 
needing  new  ones.  It  is,  in  one  sense,  the 
knowledge  and  perception  of  these  data  that  con- 
stitutes tiie  art ;  the  rest,  that  is,  the  doctrinal 
part,  is  of  the  nature  of  science ;  which  attentive 
reason  alone  will  descry.  An  art,  in  this  light, 
appears  to  be  a  portion  of  science,  or  general 
knowledge,  considered,  not  in  itself  as  science, 
but  with  relation  to  its  circumstances  or  appen- 
dages. In  a  science  the  mind  looks  directly 
backwards  and  forwards  to  the  premises  and 
conclusions :  iii  an  art  we  also  look  laterally  to 
the  concomitant  circumstances.  A  science,  in 
effect,  is  that  to  an  art,  which  a  stream  running 
in  a  direct  channel,  without  regard  to  any  thing 
but  its  own  progress,  is-  to  the  same  stream 
turned  out  of  its  proper  course,  and  disposed 
into  cascades,  jets,  cisterns,  ponds,   &c.    In 


which  case  the  piogress  of  the  stream  is  nodcon- 
sidered  with  re^ami  to  itself  but  only  as  it  con- 
cerns the  works ;  every  one  of  which  modifies 
the  course  of  the  stream,  and  leads  it  out  of  its 
way.  It  is  easy  to  trace  the  progress  of  the  for- 
mer, from  its  issue,  as  it  flows  consequentially  ; 
but  a  man  ever  so  well  acquainted  witn  this  will 
not  be  able  to  discover  that  of  the  latter,  because 
it  depends  on  the  genius,  humor,  and  caprice 
of  the  engineer  who  laid  the  design.' 

The  learned  author  of  Hermes  says,  li  it  b« 
asked,  What  art  is ;  we  have  to  answer,  *  It  is 
an  habitual  power  in  man,  of  becoming  the  cause 
of  some  effect,  according  to  a  system  of  various 
and  well-approved  precepts.'  If  it  be  asked, 
On  what  subject  art  operates ;  we  can  answer^ 
^  On  a  contingent,  which  is  within  the  reach  of 
the  human  powers  to  influence.' .  If  it  be  asked. 
For  what  reason,  for  the  sake  of  what,  art  ope- 
rates ;  we  may  reply,  *  For  the  sake  of  some 
absent  good,  relative  to  human  life,  wd  attain- 
able by  man,  but  superior  to  his  i  atural  and 
uninstructed  Acuities.'  Lastly,  if  it  be  asked, 
<  Where  it  is  the  operations  of  art  end  V  We  may 
say,  *  Eidier  in  some  energy,  or  in  some  work.' 
— Harrit'i  Three  T^-eatuet,  dialogue  i. 

Arts  are  properly  divided  into  liberal  and  me- 
chanical :— 

Arts,  Liberal,  or  Polite,  are  those  that  are 
noble  or  ingenious,  and  worthy  of  being  culti- 
vated for  their  own  sake,  without  any  immediate 
ftgard  to  any  pecuniary  emolument.  Such  as 
depend  more  on  the  imagination,  or  on  the  la- 
bor of  the  mind,  than  on  that  of  the  hand ;  or 
that  consist  more  in  speculation  than  operation, 
and  have  a  greater  r^^aid  to  amusement  and 
curiosity  than  necessity.  Such  are  poetry, 
music,  painting,  grammar,  rhetoric,  the  military 
art,  aroiitecture,  and  navigation.  They  were 
formeriy  to  be  summed  up  in  the  following  Latin 


Lingua,  IVopos,  Ratio,  Nomeros,  Tonns,  Angalus, 
Astra. 

In  the  eighth  century  the  whole  circle  of  sciei.ces 
was  composed  of  the  seven  liberal  arts,  as  they 
were  called;  viz.  grammar,  rhetoric,  ^ogic^ 
arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy ;  the 
three  former  of  which  were  distinguished  by  the 
title  of  trivium,  and  the  four  lattttr  by  that  of 
quadrivium. 

Arts,  Mechanical,  are  those  wherein  the 
band  and  body  are  more  concerned  than  the 
mind ;  and  which  are  chiefly  cultivated  for  the 
sake  of  the  profit  attending  them.  Of  which 
kind  are  most  of  those  which  furnish  us  with  the 
necessaries  of  life,  and  are  popularly  known  by 
the  name  of  trades  and  manufifcctures.  Such  are 
weaving,  turnery,  brewing,  masonry,  clock- 
making,  carpentry,  joineiy,  foundiy,  printing. 
Sec.  These  arts,  which  indeed  are  innumerHble, 
were  formerly  comprised  in  this  verse: 
Rns,  Nemns,  Anna,  Faber,  Vnlneva,  Lana,  Rates. 

They  take  their  denomination  from  finx^yiif 
machine,  as  being  all  practised  by  means  ot 
some  machine  or  instrument  With  the  liberal 
arts  it  is  otherwise ;  there  being  several  of  them 
which  may  ie  learnt  and  practised  without  any 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


6 


ARTS. 


instrument  at  alt ;  as  logic,  eloquence,  medicine, 
properly  so  called,  &c. 

Lord  Bacon  has  observed  that  the  arts  which 
relate  to  the  sight  and  hearing  are  reputed  liberal, 
beyond  those  which  regard  3ie  other  senses,  and 
are  chiefly  employed  in  matters  of  luxury ;  these 
are  usually  called  th^  fine  arts;  such  are  poetry, 
painting,  sculpture,  music,  gardening,  and  archi- 
tecture. 

As  all  arts  have  this  common  property  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Harris,  that  they  respect  human 
life,  it  is  evident  that  some  contribute  to  its  ne- 
cessities, as  medicine  and  agriculture ;  and  others 
to  its  elegance,  as  music,  painting,  and  [X)etry. 
The  former  seem  to  have  oeen  prior  in  time  to 
the  latter.  Men  must  naturally  nave  consulted 
how  to  live  and  to  support  themselves,  before 
they  began  to  deliberate  how  to  render  life 
agreeable.  Indeed  this  is  confirmed  by  fact ;  as 
no  nation  has  been  known  so  barbarous  and  ig- 
norant as  not  in  some  degree  to  have  cultivated 
the  rudiments  of  these  necessary  arts ;  and  hence 
possibly  they  may  appear  to  be  more  excellent 
and  worthy,  as  having  claim  to  a  preference  de- 
rived from  their  seniority.  The  arts,  however, 
of  elegance  are  not  destitute  of  pretensions,  if  it 
be  true  that  nature  formed  us  for  something 
more  tlian  mere  existence.  Nay  farther,  if  well- 
being  be  clearly  preferable  to  'mere  being,  and 
this,  without  the  other,  be  contemptible,  they 
may  have  reason  perhaps  to  aspire  even  to  a 
superiority.     HarrUy  ubi  n^a^  p.  54. 

The  history  of  the  origin  and  progress  of  par- 
ticular arts  is  recited  under  their  respective  de- 
nominations in  the  coarse  of  this  work.  It  may 
be  here  observed  however,  in  general,  that  most 
of  the  arts  that  are  necessary  to  the  subsistence, 
or  conducive  to  the  convenience  and  comfort  of 
mankind,  have  had  a  very  early  origin. 

Some  useful  arts  must  be  nearly  coeval  with 
tiie  human  race ;  for  food,  clothing,  ^nd  habita- 
tion, even  in  their  original  simplicity,  require 
some  art.  Many  others  are  of  such  antiquity  as 
to  place  the  inventors  beyond  the  reach  of  tra- 
dition. Several  have  gradually  crept  into  exist- 
ence without  any  recorded  inventor  or  history. 
The  busy  mind,  however,  accustomed  to  a  be- 
|;inning  in  all  things,  cannot  rest  till  it  finds  or 
imagines  a  beginning  to  every  art. 

It  has  been  generally  admitted  that  the  arts 
had  their  rise  in  the  East,  and  that  they  were 
conveyed  from  thence  to  the  Greeks,  and  from 
them  to  the  Romans.  The  Romans,  indeed, 
seem  to  have  been  chiefly  indebted  Co  the  Greeks, 
by  whom  they  were  excelled  in  point  of  inven- 
tion. The  Roman£  acknowledged  this  superi- 
ority, for  they  sent  their  youth  to  Greece  in  order 
to  finish  their  education  ;  and  from  this  circum- 
stsncc  we  may  infer,  that  they  considered  that 
country  as  the  seat  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and 
as  a  school  where  genius  would  be  excited  by  the 
most  finished  models^  and  the  taste  corrected  and 
formed.  Pliny  and  other  writers  have,  neverthe- 
less, given  hints  which  lead  us  to  believe  that  the 
Romans  possessed  a  more  extensive  knowledge 
of  the  arts  than  modem  writers  are  sometimes 
willing  to  allow ;  and  that  several  inventions  re- 
garded as  recent  are  only  old  ones  revived  and 
again  applied  lo  nractice.    The  dark  ages  at  oncn 


extinguished  the  knowledge  of  the  past,  and  re- 
tarded the  revival  of  art ;  yet  it  cannot  be  denied, 
that  several  important  discoveries  altogether  un- 
known to  the  ancients  were  made  in  those  ages. 
Of  this  kind  were  the  inventions  of  paper,  paint- 
ine  in  oil,  the  mariner's  compass,  gunpowder, 
pnnting,  and  engravinz  on  copper:  see  the 
several  articles.  After  the  invention  of  the  com- 
pass and  printing,  two  grand  sources  were  opened 
for  the  improvement  of  science.  As  navigation 
was  extended,  new  objects  were  discovered  to 
awaken  the  curiosity  and  excite  the  attention  of 
the  learned ;  and  the  ready  means  of  diffusing 
knowledge  afibrded  by  the  press,  enabled  the  in- 
genious to  make  them  publicly  known.  Igno- 
rance and  superstition,  the  formidable  enemies  of 
philosophy  in  every  age,  began  to  lose  some  of 
that  power  which  they  had  usurped,  and  different 
states,  forgetting  their  former  blind  policy,  adopted 
improvements  which  their  prejudices  had  before 
condenmed. 

In  countries,  however,  where  civil  and  eccle- 
siastical tyranny  prevailed,  the  progress  of  the 
useful  and  elegant  arts  was  slow,  and  struggled 
with  many  difficulties.  Particular  events,  in- 
deed, have  occurred  in  all  ages  and  nations  which 
have  roused  the  exertions  of  genius,  and  furnished  . 
occasion  for  making  important  and  useful  dis- 
coveries. The  history  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and 
even  of  modem  Europe,  will  afford  many  obvious 
fects  that  confirm  and  illustrate  this  observation. 
We  can  add  but  a  few  other  miscellaneous  ones. 

In  different  countries  the  progress  of  the  same 
arts  has  been  extremely  different.  Though  the 
compass  was  used  in  China  for  navigation  long 
before  it  veas  known  in  Europe,  yet  to  this  day, 
instead  of  suspending  it  in  order  to  make  it  act 
freely,  it  is  placed  upon  a  bed  of  sand,  by  which 
every  motion  of  the  ship  disturbs  its  operation. 
Water-mills  for  grinding  com  are  described  by 
Vitravius,  and  wind-mills  were  known  in  Greece 
and  in  Arabia  as  early  as  the  seventh  century ;  yet 
no  mention  is  made  of  them  in  Italy  till  the 
fourteenth;  and  that  they  were  not  known  in 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  appears 
from  a  household  book  of  the  Northumberland 
family,  stating  an  allowance  for  three  mill-horses, 
*  two  to  draw  in  the  mill,  and  one  to  carry  stuff 
to  the  mill  and  fro.'  Water-mills  for  com  must 
in  England  have  been  of  a  late  date.  The  an- 
cients had  mirror-glasses,  and  employed  glass  to 
imitate  crystal  vases  and  goblets ;  yet  they  never 
thought  of  using  it  in  windows.  In  the  thirteenth 
century,  the  Venetians  were  the  only  people  who 
had  the  art  of  making  crystal  glass  tor  mirrors. 
A  clock  that  strikes  the  hours  was  unknown  in 
Europe  till  the  end  of  the  twelfUi  century.  And 
hence  the  custom  of  employing  men  to  proclaim 
the  hours  during  night ;  which  to  this  day  con- 
tinues in  Germany,  Flanders,  and  England. 
Galileo  was  the  first  who  conceived  an  idea  that 
a  pendulum  might  be  useful  for  measuring  time ; 
and  Huygens  was  the  first  who  put  the  idea  in 
execution,  by  making  a  pendulum  clock.  Hook, 
in  1660,  invented  a  spiral  spring  for  a  watch, 
though  a  watch  was  far  from  being  a  new  inven- 
tion. Paper  was  made  no  earlier  than  the  four- 
teenth century;  and  the  invention  of  printing 
was  a  century  later.    Silk  manu&ctures  were 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ARTS. 


long  established  in  Greece  before  silk-wonns 
were  introduced  there.  The  manufacturers  were 
prorided  with  raw  silk  from  Persia:  but  that 
commerce  being  frequently  interrupted  by  war, 
two  monks,  in  the  reign  of  Justinian,  brought 
eggs  of  the  silk-worm  from  Hindostan,  and 
uught  their  countrymen  the  method  of  managing 
them. — ^The  art  of  reading  made  a  very  slow  pro- 
gress. To  encourage  that  art  in  England,  the 
capital  punishment  for  murder  was  remitted,  if 
the  criminal  could  but  read,  which  in  law  lan- 
guage is  termed  benefit  of  clergy.  One  would 
imagine  that  the  art  must  hare  made  a  very  rapid 
progress  when  so  greatly  fevered :  but  there  is  a 
sigiud  proof  of  the  contrary;  for  so  small  an 
edition  of  the  Bible  as  600  copies,  translated  into 
English  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  was  not 
wholly  sold  off  in  three  years.  And  the  people 
of  England  must  have  been  profoundly  ignorant 
in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  when  a  forged  clause 
added  to  the  twentieth  article  of  the  established 
creed  passed  unnoticed  till  about  a  century  ago. 

The  circumstances  which  arouse  the  national 
spirit  upon  any  particular  art,  promote  activity 
to  prosecute  otner  arts.  When  the  Romans 
came  to  excel  in  the  art  of  war,  they  rapidly  im- 
proved in  other  arts.  Nsvius  coraposea  in  verse 
seven  books  of  the  Punic  war;  besides  comedies, 
r^lete  with  bitter  raillery  against  the  nobility. 
Ennius  wrote  annals,  and  an  epic  poem;  and 
Lucius  Andronicus  became  the  father  of  dramatic 
poetry  in  Rome.  And  the  Roman  genius  for 
the  ^e  arts  was  much  inflamed  by  Greek  learn- 
ing when  free  intercourse  between  the  two  na- 
tions was  opened. 

The  progress  of  art  seldom  fails  to  be  rapid, 
when  a  people  happen  to  be  roused  out  of  a  tor- 
pid state  by  some  fortunate  change  of  circum- 
stances :  public  liberty  now  gives  to  the  mind  a 
spring  which  is  vigorously  exerted  in  every  new 
pursuit.  The  Athenians  made  but  a  mean  figure 
under  the  tyranny  of  Pisistratus ;  but,  upon  re- 
gaining their  freedom  and  independende,  arts 
flourished  with  arms,  and  Athens  became  the 
chief  theatre  for  science  as  well  as  for  the  fine 
arts.  The  reign  of  Augustus  Caesar,  which  put 
an  end  to  the  rancor  of  civil  war,  and  restored 
peace  to  Rome  with  the  comforts  of  society, 
proved  an  auspicious  era  for  literature;  and 
produced  a  cluster  of  Latin  historians,  poets,  and 
philosophers,  to  whom  the  modems  are  indebted 
n>r  their  taste.  A  similar  revolution  happened 
m  Tuscany  about  350  years  ago.  That  country 
having  been  divided  into  a  number  of  small  re- 
publics, the  people  excited  by  mutual  petty 
quarrels,  becsmie  ferocious  and  bloody,  flaming 
with  revenge  for  the  slightest  offence.  But  being 
united  under  the  Great  Duke  of  Tuscany,  these 
republics  enjoyed  the  sweets  of  peace  and  a  mild 
government;  when  the  retrospect  of  recent  ca- 
lamities roused  the  national  spirit,  and  produced 
ardent  application  to  arts  and  literature.  The 
restoration  in  England  in  1660,  which  put  an 
end  to  an  envenomed  civil  war,  promoted  im- 
provements of  every  kind,  and  arts  and  industry 
made  a  rapid  progress.  Had  the  nation,  upon 
that  fiivorable  turn  of  fortune,  been  blessed  with 
a  succession  of  able  and  virtuous  princes,  arts 
and  sciences  might  much  earlier  have  flourished 


in  their  modem  perfection.  Some  important 
action  even  of  doubtful  event,  a  struggle  for 
liberty,  the  resisting  a  potent  invader,  or  the 
like,  have  also  had  benencial  influences  on  die 
progress  of  art.  Greece,  divided  into  small 
states  frequently  at  war  with  each  other,  advanced 
in  literature  and  the  fine  arts  to  unrivalled  per- 
fection. The  Corsicans,  while  engaged  in  a  pe- 
rilous war  in  defence  of  their  liberties,  exerted  a 
vigorous  national  spirit;  they  founded  a  univer- 
sity for  arts  and  sciences,  a  public  library,  and  a 
public  bank.  After  a  long  stupor  during  the 
dark  ages  of  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  arts  and  lite- 
rature revived  among  the  turbulent  states  of 
Italy.  The  Royal  Society  in  London,  and  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  were  both  instituted 
after  prolonged  civil  wars  that  had  animated  the 
people  and  roused  their  activitv.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  the  progress  of  arts  and  sciences  towards 
perfection  is  greatly  promoted  by  emulation,  no- 
thing is  sometimes  more  &tal  th^n  to  remove  this 
spur;  as  when  some  extraordinary  genius  appears 
to  soar  above  rivalship.  Thus  mathematics 
long  seemed  to  be  declining  in  Britain:  the 
great  Newton,  havine  surpassed  all  the  ancients, 
left  the  modems  without  any  hope  of  equalling 
him ;  for  what  man  will  enter  the  lists  who  de- 
spairs of  victory  ? 

The  useful  have  in  all  ages  paved  the  way  for 
the  fine  arts.  Men  upon  whom  the  former  had 
bestowed  every  convenience  turned  their  tltoughts 
to  the  latter.  Beauty  was  studied  in  objects  ot 
sight ;  and  men  of  taste  attached  diemselves  to 
die  fine  arts,  which  multiplied  their  enjoyments 
and  improved  their  benevolence.  Sculpture  and 
painting  made  an  early  figure  in  Greece;  which 
afforded  plenty  of  beautiful  originals  to  be  copied 
in  these  imitative  arts.  Statuary,  a  more  simple 
imitation  than  painting,  was  sooner  brought  to 
perfection:  the  statue  of  Jupiter  by  Phidias,  and 
of  Juno  by  Polycletes,  though  the  admiration  of 
all  the  world,  were  executed  long  before  the  art 
of  light  and  shade  was  known.  Another  cause 
concurred  to  advance  statuary  before  painting  in 
Greece,  viz.  a  great  demand  for  statues  of  their 
gods.  Architecture,  as  a  fine  art,  made  a  slower 
progress.  Proportions  upon  which  its  elegance 
chiefly  depends,  cannot  be  accurately  ascertained^ 
but  by  an  infinity  of  trials  in  great  buildings ;  a 
model  cannot  be  relied  on :  for  a  large  and  sinall 
building,  even  of  the  same  form,  require  differ- 
ent proportions.  Literature  as  a  branch  of  the 
fine  arts  deserves  a  separate  consideration.    See 

LlTEEATUBE. 

The  cause  of  the  decline  of  the  fine  arts  may 
be  illustrated  by  various  instances.  The  perfec- 
tion of  vocal  music  is  to  accompany  passion,  and 
to  enforce  sentiment.  In  ancient  Greece,  the 
province  of  music  was  well  understood;  and 
being  confined  witliin  its  proper  sphere,  it  had 
an  enchanting  influence.  Harmony  at  that  time 
wa.s  very  little  cultivated,  because  it  was  of  very 
litde  use;  melody  reaches  the  heart,  and  it  is  by 
it  chiefly  that  a  sentiment  is  enforced,  or  a  pas- 
sion soothed  :•  harmonv,  on  the  contrary,  reaches 
the  ear  only ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  undoubted 
experience,  that  the  melodious  airs  admit  but 
of  very  simple  harmony.  Artists,  in  later  times, 
ignorant  why  haimony  was  so  little  regarded  by 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ART  8 

the  ancients,  applied  themaelTes  tferionsly  to  its 
ctthiyation,  and  have  been  wonderfully  success- 
ful. But  successful  at  the  expense  of  melody ; 
which,  in  modem  compositiondi,  generally  speak- 
ingy  is  lost  amid  the  blaze  of  harmony.  In  the 
Itadian  opera,  the  mistress  is  degraded  to  be 
handmaid ;  and  harmony  triumphs,  with  very 
little  regard  to  sentiment.  Among  the  Greeks 
also,  as  a  conquered  people,  the  nne  arts  de- 
cayed; but  not  so  rapidly  as  at  Rome  under 
her  various  despotic  emperors;  the  Greeks 
farther  removed  from  the  seat  of  government, 
being  less  within  the  reach  of  the  Roman  ty- 
rants. During  their  depression  they  were  guilty 
of  the  most  puerile  conceits;  witness  verses  com- 
posed in  the  form  of  an  axe,  an  egg,  wings,  and 
such  like.  The  style  of  Greek  authors,  in  the 
reign  of  Adrian,  is  unequal,  obscure,  stiff,  and 
affected.  Lucian  is  the  only  exception.  We 
need  scarce  any  other  cause  but  despotism,  to 
account  for  the  decline  of  statuary  ana  painting 
in  Greece.  These  arts  had  arrived  at  their  utni 
most  perfection  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great;  and  firom  that  time  they  declined  gra- 
dually with  the  vigor  of  a  free  people;  for 
Greece  was  now  enslaved  by  the  Macedonian 
power.  It  may  in  general  be  observed,  that 
when  a  nation  becomes  stationary  in  diat  dffgree 
of  power  which  it  acquires  from  its  constitution 
ana  situation,  the  national  spirit  subsides,  and 
men  of  talents  become  rare.  It  is  still  worse 
with  a  nation  that  is  sunk  below  its  former 
power  and  pre-eminence ;  and  worst  of  all,  when 
It  is  reduced  to  slavery.  Other  causes  concurred 
to  accelerate  the  down&ll  of  die  arts  mentioned. 
Greece,  in  the  days  of  Alexander,  was  filled  with 
statues  of  excellent  workmanship;  and  there 
being  little  demand  for  more,  the  later  statuaries 
were  reduced  to  make  heads  and  busts.  At  last 
the  Romans  i>ut  a  total  end,  both  to  statuary 
and  painting  in  Greece,  by  plundering  it  of  its 
finest  pieces ;  and  the  Greeks,  exposed  to  the 
avarice  of  the  conauerors,  bestowed  no  longer 
any  money  on  the  fine  arts.  The  decline  of  the 
fine  arts  in  Rome  is,  by  Petronius  Arbiter,  a 
writer  of  taste  and  elegance,  ascribed  to  a  cause 
different  from  any  above  mentioned,  i.  e.  opu- 
lence, with  its  faithful  attendants  avarice  and 
luxury.  In  England  the  fine  arts  are  far  from 
such  perfection  as  to  suffer  by  opulence.  They 
are  in  a  progress,  indeed,  towiiOs  maturity ;  but 
proceed  at  a  very  slow  pace.  Another  cause 
that  never  fiuls  to  undermine  a  fine  art  in  a 
country  where  it  U  brought  to  perfection,  ab- 
stracting from  every  one  of  the  causes  9bore 
mentioned^  has  been  already  pointed  out.  No- 
thing is  more  fatal  to  an  aft  or  science,  Uian  per- 
formances so  much  superior  to  all  of  the  kind 
as  to  extinguish  emulation.  This  cause  would 
have  been  fiual  to  the  arts  of  statuary  and  paint- 
ing among  the  Greeks,  even  though  they  had 
continued  a  firee  people.  The  decay  of  painting 
in  modem  Italy  is  probably  owing  to  tliis  cause : 
Michael  Augelo,  Raphael,  Titian,  &c.  are  lof^ 
oaks,  that  bear  down  young  plants  in  their 
neighbourhood,  and  intercept  them  firom  the 
sunshine  of  emulation.  Had  the  art  of  paintitig 
made  a  slower  progress  in  Italy,  it  miglit  have 
there  continued  in  vigor  to  ttiis  day.    Archi- 


ART 


tecture  continued  longer  in  vigor  than  painting, 
because  the  principles  of  comparison  in  the 
former  art  were  less  precise  than  in  the  latter. 
The  artist  who  could  not  rival  his  predecessors 
in  an  established  mode^  sought  out  a  new  mode 
for  himself,  vriiich,  though  perhaps  less  elegant 
or  perfiect,  was  for  a  time  supported  by  novelty. 
Useful  arts  will  never  be  neglected  in  a  country 
where  there  is  any  police ;  for  every  man  findis 
his  account  in  them.  Fine  arts  are  more  pre- 
carious. They  are  not  relished  but  by  persons 
of  taste,  who  are  rare;  and  such  as  can  spare 
great  sums  for  supporting  them,  who  are  still 
more  rare.  For  that  reason  they  will  never 
flourish  in  any  country,  unless  patronised  by  the 
sovereign,  or  by  men  of  power  and  opulence. 
And  nchly  do  they  merit  such  patronage,  as  one 
of  the  springs  of  government;  multiplying 
amusements,  and  humanising  manners. 

Art,  the  second  person  singular  of  the  verb 
TO  BE,  of  which  the  English  language  affords  no 
variation,  except  by  adopting  the  pl^nd,  by  say- 
ing You  are,  instead  of  Thou  art.  Thou  beest  in- 
deed was  anciently  used,  but  it  is  quite  obsolete. 

Art  and  Part  in  Scots  law.   See  Accissart, 

ARTA,  or  Larta,  a  gulf,  river,  and  town  of 
European  Turkey,  in  Albania,  or  Epinis,  be- 
longing to  the  government  of  Romania.  Hie 
town  is  seized  on  ^e  river  of  the  same  name, 
nine  miles  north  of  the  spot  where  it  falls  into 
the  gulf  of  Arta,  above  twenty  miles  north-east 
of  Prevesa,  and  about  360  W.  N.  W.  of  Con* 
stantinople.  The  number  of  inhabitants.  Christians 
as  well  as  Turks,  amounts  to  six  thousand,  who 
trade  in  cattle,  wine,  tobacco,  cotton,  flax,  pulse,, 
fur,  leather,  and  other  commodities.  They  also 
manufacture  coarse  woollen  and  other  cloths. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  metropolitan  and  several 
European  consuls.  The  ffulf,  otherwise  called 
the  gulf  of  Prevesa,  ext^s  a  considerable  way 
inland  in  an  eastern  direction,  and  from  its 
rocks  and  sand  banks,  is  very  dangerous.  Long. 
21*»  8' E.,  lat.  39**30'N. 

ARTABA,  an  ancient  measure  of  capacity 
used  by  the  Persians,  Medes,  and  Egyptians. — 
The  Persian  artaba  is  represented  by  Herodotus 
as  bigger  than  the  Attic  medimnus  by  three  Attic 
choenixes;  firom  which  it  appears  that  it  was 
equal  to  6f  Roman  modii ;  consequently  that 
it  contained  166|  pounds  of  wine  or  water,  or 
126}  pounds  of  wheat.  The  Egyptian  artaba 
contained  five  Roman  modii,  and  tell  short  of  the 
Attic  medimnus  by  one  modius ;  consequ  'Utly 
held  133i  pounds  of  water  or  wine,  100  lb.  of 
wheat,  or  sixty  of  flour. 

ARTABANUS,  the  name  of  several  kings  of 
Parthia.    See  Parthia. 

Artabanus,  the  brother  of  Darius  I.  and  the 
uncle  and  murderer  of  Xerxes.    See  Artax- 

ERXE9. 

ARTABAZUS,  the  son  of  Phamacte,  com- 
manded the  Parthians  and  Chorasmians  in  the 
famous  expedition  of  Xerxes.  After  the  battle 
of  Salamis,  he  escorted  the  king  his  master  to 
Ae  Hellespont  with  60,000  chmen  men;  and 
after  the  battle  of  Plataoi,  in  which  Mardonius 
engaged  contrary  to  his  advice,  he  made  a  noble 
retreat,  and  retumed  to  Asia  with  40,000  men. 

ARTAKI,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  N«- 


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y>l]a,  on  the  south  coast  of  the  sea  of  Marmora, 
torty-Bve  miles  east  of  Gallipoli  and  ninetv'  south- 
west of  Constantinople.  Ix>ng:.  27^  3/£^  lat. 
40**  18*  N.. 

Artakui,  a  town  of  European  Turker,  in 
Romania,  forty-eight  miles  north-west  of  Gallic 
poli. 

ARTALIS  (Joseph),  a  native  of  Mazara,  A.  D. 
1628,  who  showed  an  early  inclination  both  for 
poetry  and  arms.  He  finished  his  studies  at  fif- 
teen years  of  age,  when  he  fought  a  duel  and 
killed  his  adversary.  He  took  shelter  in  a  church 
and  afterwards  studied  philosophy.  Candia  be- 
ing besieged  by  the  Turks,  he  went  to  its  relief, 
and  displayed  so  much  valor  that  he  was  created 
a  knight  of  St.  George.  Being  afterwards  en- 
gaged in  several  rencount^  and  always  victori- 
ous, he  got  the  title  of  Chevalier  de  Sang,  or  the 
knight  of  blood.  His  literarv  talents  obtained 
him  the  honor  of  being  elected  a  member  of  se- 
veral academies  in  Italy,  and  his  military  abilites 
procured  him  the  favor  of  several  princes,  partis 
cularly  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  1.  and  Ernest 
duke  of  Brunswick. 

ARTAXATA,  an  ancient  city,  the  metropolis 
of  Armenia  Maior,  and  the  residence  of  the  Ar« 
menian  kings :  tt  was  built  acconding  to  a  plan 
of  Hannibal,  for  king  Artaxiaa ;  and  was  situated 
on  a  branch  of  the  river  Araxes,  which  formed  a 
kind  of  peninsula,  and  surrounded  the  town  like 
a  wall,  except  on  the  side  of  the  isthmus,  but  this 
side  was  secured  by  a  rampart  and  ditch.  The 
town  was  deemed  so  strong  that  Lucullus,  after 
having  defeated  Tigranes,  durst  not  lay  siege  to  it ; 
butPompey  compelled  him  to  deliver  it  without 
striking  a  blow.  It  was  then  levelled  with  the 
ground;  but  the  Armenians  have  a  tradition, 
that  the  ruins  of  it  are  still  to  be  seen  at  a  place 
.called  Ardachat  Sir  John  Chardin  says,  tnat  it 
has  the  name  of  Aidadiat,  firom  Artaxias,  whom 
in  the  east  they  call  Ardediier.  Here  art  the  re- 
inains  of  a  statelypahice,  which  the  Armenians 
take  to  be  that  of  liridates,  who  reinied  in  the 
time  of  Constantine.  One  front  of  mis  building 
is  half  ruined,  and  there  are  many  other  fine  an- 
tiquities. 

Artaxata,  or  Atropatia,  another  city  built 
also  on  the  Araxes,  in  the  northern  pitrt  of 
Media. 

ARTAXERXES  I.  king  of  Persia,  sumfimed 
Longimanus,  from  the  upcommon  length  of  his 
arms,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Xerxes,  and  was 
raised  to  the  throne  A.  M.  3487,  by  Axtabanus, 
the  captain  of  the  guards,  who  bad  privately 
murdered  his  &ther ;  but  persuaded  the  young 
prince  diat  his  elder  brother  Darius  had  done  it ; 
whereupon,  assisted  by  the  guards,  he  killed  Da- 
rius m  liis  bed-«hamber.  But  the  murder  and 
treason  being  afterwards  discovered,  Artabanus 
snflered  the  punishment  he  merited.  Some 
reckon  this  king  the  Ahasuerus  who  married 
Esther;  but,  be  that  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that 
he  greatly  favored  the  Jews,  by  not  only  autho- 
rising them  to  return  to  Judea,  and  rebuild  Jeru- 
salem, but  also  to  collect  money  for  the  use  of 
their  temple  ;  as  well  as  by  remitting  their  tri- 
bute, by  encouraging  their  worship,  and  by 
making  them  a  number.of  valuable  presents,  &c. 
See  his  letter  to  Ezra,  chapter  vii,  10—^6.    For 


9 


ART 


an  account  of  the  otfier  transactions  of  his  reign, 
see  Persia.  He  reigned  about  forty  years,  and 
diedA.A.C.  44^. 

Artaxsrxes  II.  sumamed  Mnemon,  from  his 
great  memory,  succeeded  his  father  Darius  II. 
A.  M.  3546,  but  had  to  contend  for  his  kingdom 
with  his  younger  brother  Cyrns,  who  was  assisted 
by  the  Greeks,  but  was  at  last  overcome  and 
slain.  It  was  after  this  battle  that  Xenophon  dis-  . 
played  his  generalship  by  his  memorable  retreat 
wim  his  army.  Artaxerxes-  reigned  forty-three 
years,  and  died  A.  M.  3589.    See  Persia. 

Artaxerxes  is  also  the  name  given  in  Scrip- 
ture to,  and  probably  assumed  by,  the  impostor 
Oropastes ;  who,  pretending  to  be  Smerais  the 
son  of  Cyrus,  reigned  five  months  in  Persia,  after 
the  death  of  Cambyses.  During  his  short  reign, 
the  enemies  of  the  Jews  applied  for,  and  ob- 
tained, an  interdict  of  the  rebuilding  of  the  d^ 
and  temple.    See  Esra  iv.  7. 

ARTAXIAS,  the  founder  of  the.  kingdom  of 
Armenia  Major.    See  Arm  en  i  a  and  Artaxata  . 

ARTEDI  (Peter),  a  famous  Swedish  natura- 
list, bom  in  1705.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Upsal,  where  he  studied  medicine; 
but  his  time  was  chiefly  dedicated  to  ichthyology, 
in  which  he  made  many  valuable  discoveries.—- 
Such  was  the  friendship  between  him  and  lin- 
ncus,  that  the  longest  liver  was  to  be  heir  of  all 
their  MSS.  He  was  drowned  at  Leyden  in  1735. 
His  Bibliotheca  Ichthyologica  and  Philosophia 
Ichthyologica,  were  pubU&ed  by  Linnsus  in 
1738. 

ARTEDIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  digynia 
order,  and  pentandria  diss  of  plants ;  ranking 
in  the  natural  method, under  die  forty-fifth  order, 
umbellate.  The  involucre  are  pinnatifid ;  the 
floscules  of  the  disc  are  masculine ;  and  the  fruit 
is  hispid  with  scales.  The  principal  species  is, 
viz.  A.  squamata,  with  squamose  seeds,  a  native 
of  the  east.  Rauwolf  found  it  growing  on 
mount  Libanus.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  whose 
stalks  rise  about  two  feet  high,  sending  out  a  few 
side  branches,  garnished  with  narrow  compound 
leaves  resembling  tnose  of  dill. 

ARTEMIDORUS,  a  Grecian  teacher  in 
Rome,  who  being  intimate  with  Brutus,  and 
learning  from  him  of  the  intended  assassination 
of  Caesar,  delivered  a  note  to  him  to  inform  him 
of  it,  as  he  went  to  the  senate-house,  and  desired 
him  to  read  it  immediately,  which  Caesar  neglect- 
ing, fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  plot 

Artemidorvs,  an  ancient  author,  under  An- 
toninus Pius,  fiunous  for  his  Treatise  on  Dreams, 
which  was  first  printed  in  Greek  at  Venice  in 
1518.  Rigaltius  published  an  edition  at  Paris  in 
Greek  and  Latin  in  1603,  and  added  some  notes. 
Artemidorus  wrote  also  treatises  upon  Auguries 
and  Chiromancy;  which  are  not  extant. 

ARTEMISIA  I.  queen  of  Caria,  and  the 
daughter  of  Ligdamis,  marched  in  person  in  the 
expedition  of  Xerxes  against  the  Greeks,  and 
performed  wonders  in  the  sea-fight  nearSalamis, 
A.  A.  C.  480.  Being  pursued  by  an  Athenian 
vessel,  she  attacked  one  of  the  Persian  ships, 
commanded  by  the  king  of  Calyndus,  and  sunk 
it ;  on  which  the  Athenians,  thinking  that  her 
ship  was  on  the  side  of  the  Greeks,  ceased  their 
pursuit ;  but  Xerxes  was  the  principal  person 


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imposed  upon  in  this  affair ;  for  beliering  that  Persia,  from  whence  the  seeds  are  brought  to 

she  had  sunk  an  Athenian  vessel,  he  declared  Europe.    9.  A.  Tulgaris,  or  common  muffwort, 

that  *  the  men  had  behaved  like  women,  and  grows  naturally  on  banks  and  by  the  sides  of 

the  women  like  men/    Xerxes  entrusted  her  foot-paths  in  many  parts  of  Britain:  in  gardens 

with  the  care  of  the  young  princes  of  Persia,  his  it  proves  a  troublesome  weed.    The  scseds  of  the 

sons,  when,  agreeably  to  her  advice,  he  aban-  santonicum  are  small,  light,  chaffy,  composed  as 

doned  Greece  in  order  to  return  to  Persia.  These  it  were  of  a  number  of  thin  membranous  coats 

great  qualities  did  not  secure  her  from  the  weak-  of  a  yellowish  color,  an  unpleasant  smell,  and  a 

ness  of  love:  she  was  passionately  fond  of  a  man  of  very  bitter  taste.    They  are  celebrated  for  an- 

Abydos,  whose  name  was  Dardanu^,  and  was  so  thelmintic  virtues,  which  they  have  in  common 

enraged  at  his  neglect  of  her,  that  she  put  out  his  with  other  bitters,  and  are  sometimes  taken  with 

eyes  while  he  was  asleep.    Having  consulted  the  this  intention,  either  dong  with  molasses  or 


Delphian  Oracle  how  to  extingui^  this  passion, 
and  being  advised  to  go  to  Leucas,  which  was 
the  usage  of  desperate  lovers,  she  took  the  leap 
from  thence,  and  vras  drowned,  and  interred  at 


candied  with  sugar.  They  are  not  often  met 
with  genuine  in  the  shops.  The  leaves  of  the 
sea,  common,  and  Roman  wormwoods  are  used 
as  stomachics,  but  are  all  very  disagreeable :  the 


that  place.    Many  writers  confound  this  prin-  Roman  is  the  least  so  and  therefore  is  to  be  pre- 

cess  with  thevrifeofMausolus.  ferred;  but  the  other  two  kinds  are  generally 

Artemisia  II.,  queen  of  Caria,  the  widow  of  substituted  in  its  place.     The  distilled  oil  of 

king  Mausolus,  has  immortalised  herself  by  the  wormwood  is  sometimes  made  use  of  externally 

honors  which  she  paid  to  the  memory  of  her  as  i,  cure  for  worms.    The  leaves  of  the  vulgaris 

husband.    She  buiu  for  him,  in  Halicamassus,  or  common  mugwort  were  commonly  celebrated 

a  very  magnificent  tomb,  called  the  Mausoleum,  as  uterine  and  antihysteric :  an  infusion  of  them 


which  was  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world, 
and  from  which  the  title  of  mausoleum  was  after- 
wards §^ven  to  all  tombs  remarkable  for  their 
grandeur,  but  died  of  grief  before  the  mausoleum 
was  finished.  She  is  said  to  have  drank  his 
ashes ;  and  to  have  offered  a  prize  of  great  value 
to  the  person  who  should  compose  the  best  eu- 
logium  on  his  memory.  He  died  about  the  end 
of  the  106th  Olympiad,  A.  A.  C.  351. 

Artemisia,  mugwort,  southernwood,  and 
wormwood ;  a  genus  of  the  polygamia  superflua 
order,  and  syngenesia  class  of  plants,  ranking 


is  sometimes  taken,  either  alone  or  in  conjunc- 
tion with  other  substances,  in  suppression  of  the 
menstrual  evacuations.  In  some  parts  of  this 
kingdom  mugwort  is  of  common  use  as  a  pot- 
herb. It  is  now,  however,  very  little  employed 
in  medicine ;  and  it  is  probably  with  propriety 
that  the  London  college  have  rejected  it  from 
the  Pharmacopoeia. 

The  moxa,  so  famous  in  the  eastern  coun- 
tries for  curing  the  gout,  by  burning  it  on  the 
part  affected,  is  the  lanugo  or  dovm  ^wing  on 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  mug- 


in  the  natural  method   under  the  forty-ninth    wort,  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  our  oom- 


order,  composites  nucamentaces.  The  receptacle 
is  either  naked  or  a  little  downy;  it  has  no 
pappus;  the  calyx  is  imbricated  with  roundish 
scales ;  and  the  corolla  has  no  radii.  There  are 
twenty-three  sp^ecies,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  remarkable :  viz. 

1.  A.  abrotanum,  or  southernwood,  which  is 
kept  in  gardens  for  the  sake  of  its  agreeable 
scent,  a  low  shrub,  seldom  rising  more  than  three 
or  four  feet  high.  2.  A.  absinthium,  or  common 
wormwood,  grows  naturally  in  lanes  knd  uncul- 


mon  sort.  From  some  dried  samples  of  this 
plant  which  were  brought  over  to  this  country, 
Mr.  Miller  reckons  them  to  be  the  same,  differ- 
ing only  in  size.  He  supposes  that  the  lanugo 
of  our  mugwort  would  be  equally  efficacious. 
The  abbe  Crosier  says  the  ancient  Chinese  made 
great  use  of  it  in  medicine. 

Artemisia,  yearly  festivals  anciently  observed 
in  divers  cities  in  Greece,  particularly  Delphi,  in 
honor  of  Diana  Artemis.  In  the  artemisia  a 
mullet  was  sacrificed  to  this  goddess,  as  being 


tivated  places,  and  is  too  well  known  to  require    thought  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  her,  be- 


any description.  3.  A.  arborescens,  or  tree-worm- 
wood, grows  naturally  in  Italy  and  the  Levant, 
near  the  sea.  It  rises  with  a  woody  stalk,  six  or 
seven  feet  high,  sending  out  many  ligneous 
branches,  garnished  with  leaves  somewhat  like 
those  of  the  common  wormwood,  but  more 
finely  divided  and  much  whiter.    4.  A.  dracun* 


cause  it  is  said  to  hunt  and  kill  the  sea-hare. 

ARTEMISIUM,  a  promontory  on  the  north- 
east ^of  Euboea,  (called  Leon  and  Cale  Acte 
by  Ptolemy,)  memorable  for  the  first  sea  en- 
gagements between  the  Greeks  and  Xerxes,  of 
which  the  following  account  is  given  by  Gillies : 

The  Grecian  fleet  was  stationed  in  the  harbour. 


cuius,  or  Tarragon,  is  frequently  used  in  sallads,    while  that  of  the  Persians,  too  numerous  for  any 
especially  by  the  French,  and  is  a  very  hardy    harbour  to  contain,  had  anchored  between  the 


plant,  spreading  greatly  by  its  creeping  roots, 

5.  A.  maritima,  or  sea-wormwood,  grows  natu-* 
rally  on  the  sea-coast  in  most  parts  of  Britain, 
where  there  are  several  varieties  to  be  found. 

6.  A.  Pontica,  or  Pontic  wormwood,  commonly 
called  Roman  wormwood,    is    a    low    herba* 


city  of  Castamea  and  the  promontory  of  Sepias, 
on  the  coast  of  Tbessaly.  The  first  liite  of  their 
fleet  was  sheltered  by  the  coast  of  Thessaly ;  but 
the  other  lines,  to  the  number  of  seven,  rode  at 
anchor,  at  sms^l  intervals,  with  the  prows  of  the 
vessels  turned  to  the  sea.    When  they  adopted 


ceous  plant  whose  stalks  die  in  autumn,  and  this  arrangement  the  waters  were  smooth,  the 

new  ones  rise  up  in  the  spring.     The  flowers  sky  clear,  the  weather  calm  and  serene;  but  on 

appear  in  August,  but  are  rarely  succeeded  the  morning  of  the  second  day  after  their  arrival 

by  seeds  in  Britain.  7.  A.  santonicum,  produces  on  the  coast,  the  sky  began  to  lower,  the  appear- 

the  semen  santonicum,  which  is  much  used  ance  of  the  heavens  grew  threatening  and  terrible; 

for  worms  in  children.     It  grows  naturally  in  a  dreadful  storm  succeeded ;  raged  for  three  days 


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vrixYi  unabating  fury,  and  destroyed  400  galleys, 
besides  a  ^ast  number  of  store-ships  and  trans- 
ports. Howeyer,  800  ships  of  war,  besides  innu- 
merable vessels  of  burden,  sailed  into  the  Pega- 
sean  bay  and  anchored  in  the  road  of  Aphete, 
directly  opposite  to  the  harbour  of  Artemisium. 
The  Grecians  had  posted  sentinels  on  the  heights 
of  Euboea,  to  observe  the  consequences  of  the 
storm,  and  to  watch  the  motions  of  the  enemy. 
When  informed  of  the  disaster  which  had  befellen 
them  they  poured  out  a  joyful  libation,  and  sa- 
crificed, with  pious  gratitude,  to  *  Neptune  the 
Deliverer.'  The  Persians,  however,  having  reco- 
vered from  the  terrors  of  the  storm,  prepared  for 
battle ;  and,  as  they  entertained  not  the  smallest 
doubt  of  conquering,  they  detached  200  of  their 
best  sailing  vessels  round  the  isle  of  Eubosa,  to  inter- 
cept the  expected  flight  of  the  enemy  through  the 
narrow  Euripus.  About  sunset  the  Grecian  fleet 
approached  m  a  line,  and  the  Persians  met  them 
with  the  confidence  of  victory,  as  their  ships  were 
still  sufliciently  numerous  to  surround  tnose  of 
their  opponents.  At  their  first  signal  the  Greeks 
formed  into  a  circle,  at  the  second  they  began  the 
fight.  Though  crowded  into  a  narrow  com- 
pass, and  having  the  enemy  on  every  side,  they 
soon  took  thirty  of  their  ships,  and  sunk  many 
more.  Night  came  on,  accompanied  with  an 
impetuous  storm  of  rain  and  thunder;  the 
Greeks  retired  into  the  harbour  of  Artemisium ; 
the  enemy  were  driven  to  the  coast  of  Thessaly. 
By  good  fortune  however,  rather  than  by  de- 
sign, the  greatest  part  of  the  Persian  fleet  es- 
caped immediate  destruction,  and  gained  the 
Pegasean  bay;  but  the  ships  ordered  to  sail 
round  EulxBa  met  with  a  more  dreadful  disaster. 
They  were  overtaken  by  the  storm,  after  they 
had  ventured  farther  from  the  shore  than  was 
usual  with  the  wary  mariners  of  antiquity. 
Clouds  soon  intercepted  the  stars,  by  which  alone 
they  directed  their  course ;  and  after  continuing 
during  the  greatest  part  of  the  night  the  sport  of 
the  elements,  they  all  perished  miserably  amidst 
the  shoals  and  rocks  of  an  unknown  coast.  The 
morning  arose  with  different  prospects  and  hopes 
to  the  Persians  and  Greeks.  To  the  former  it 
discovered  the  extent  of  their  misfortunes ;  to 
the  latter  it  brought  a  reinforcement  of  fifty- 
three  Athenian  ships.  Encouraged  by  this  fia,vor- 
able  circumstance,  they  determined  again  to  at- 
tack the  enemy  at  the  same  hour  as  on  the  pre- 
ceding day,  because  their  knowledge  of  the 
coast,  and  their  skill  in  fighting  their  ships,  ren- 
dered the.  dusk  peculiarly  propitious  to  their 
designs.  At  the  appointed  time  they  sailed  to- 
wards the  road  of  Aphete ;  and  having  cut  off 
the  Cilician  squadron  from  the  rest,  totally  de- 
stroyed it,  and  returned  at  night  to  Artemisium. 
The  Persian  commanders  being  deeply  affected 
with  thf.r  repeated  disasters,  but  still  more 
alarmed  at  the  much  dreaded  resentment  of 
their  k'ng,  determined  to  make  one  vigorous  ef- 
fort ff ;  restoring  the  glory  of  their  arms.  By 
art  ar  i  stratagem,  and  under  favor  of  the  nigl^t, 
the  Creeks  had  hitherto  gained  many  important 
ad»^  Antages.  It  now  belonged  to  the  Persians  to 
cF  oose  the  time  for  action.  On  the  third  day,  at 
noon,  they  sailed  forth  in  the  form  of  a  crescent, 
still  sufficiently  extensive  to  infold  the  Grecian 


ART 

line.  The  Greeks,  animated  by  Ibrmer  success 
were  averse  to  decline  any  offer  of  battle ;  yet  it 
is  probable  that  their  admirals,  and  particularly 
Themistocles,  would  much  rather  have  delayed 
it  to  a  more  favorable  opportunity.  Rage  and 
resentment  supplied  the  defect  of  the  barbarians 
in  skill  and  courage.  The  battle  was  longer, 
and  more  doubtful,  than  on  any  former  occasion; 
many  Grecian  vessels  were  destroyed,  five  were 
taken  by  the  Egyptians,  who  particularly  sig- 
nalised themselves  on  the  side  ot  the  barbarians^ 
as  the  Athenians  did  on  that  of  the  Greeks.  The 
persevering  valor  of  the  Utter  at  length  pre- 
vailed, the  enemy  retiring,  and  acknowledging 
their  superiority,  by  leaving  them  in  possession 
of  the  dead  and  the  wtedL,  But  the  victory 
cost  them  dear;  since  their  vessels,  particularly 
those  of  the  Athenians,  were  reducea  to  a  very 
shattered  condition;  and  their  great  inferiority 
in  the  number  and  size  of  their  smps  made  tfiem 
feel  more  sensibly  every  diminution  of  strength.^ 

Artemisium,  a  town  of  (Enotria,  now  csdled 
St.  Agatha,  in  Calabria,  on  the  river  Pisaurus,  or 
la  Foglia,  eight  miles  distant  from  the  Tuscan  sea. 

Artemisium,  an  andent  town  of  Spain,  on 
the  sea-coast  of  Valencia,  called  also  Dianium, 
and  now  Denia,  possessed  by  the  Contestani. 

ARTEM ON,  a  Syrian  who  resembled  Anti- 
ochus,  king  of  Syria,  so  exactly,  that  by  the  con- 
trivance of  his  queen  Laodice,  he  personated 
him  after  his  death,  and  thus  obtained  the  kingdom. 

Artemon,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Artemo- 
nites,  a  sect  of  Unitarians  who  flourished  about  « 
the  year  210. 

ARTEM  US,  a  promontory  of  Valencia,  called 
also  Cabo  St.  Martin,  and  Pnntader  Emperador. 

ARTENNA,  in  ornithology,  the  name  of  a 
water-bird,  of  the  size  of  a  hen,  of  a  brownish 
color  on  the  back,  and  white  on  the  belly ;  hav- 
ing a  crooked  bill,  and  its  three  fore  toes  con- 
nected by  a  membrane,  but  the  hinder  one  loose. 
It  is  found  on  the  island  Tr^miti,  in  the  Adriatic 
sea,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  avis  Diomedis  of 
the  ancients. 

ARTERIA  AspERA,  Arteria  Bronchia- 
Lis,  &c.    See  Anatomy,  Index. 

Arteria  Venosa,  a  name  given  by  the 
ancients  to  the  pulmonary  vein,  on  the  erroneous 
supposition  of  its  being  an  air-vessel,  and  that  it 
served  for  the  conveyance  of  the  vital  aura  from 
the  lungs  to  the  heart. 

ARTERIACA,  Arteriacs.  Medicines  for 
disorders  of  the  trachea,  and  the  voice.  Arte- 
riacs are  reduced  bv  Gsden  into  three  kinds :  1. 
Such  as  are  void  of  acrimony,  serving  to  mollify 
the  asperities  of  the  part ;  such  as  gum  traga- 
canth,  aster  samias,  starch,  milk,  &c.  2.  Those 
of  an  acrimonious  quality,  whereby  they  stimu- 
late even  the  sound  parts ;  such  as  honey,  tur- 
pentine, bitter  almonds,  iris  root,  &c.  3.  Those 
of  an  intermediate  kind,  soft  and  mild,  yet  deter- 
gent; such  as  butter,  and  preparations  of  al- 
monds, honey,  &c. 

ARTERIOSA  Vena,  or  Arterial  Vein,  a 
denomination  given  to  the  pulmonary  artery. 

ARTERIOSUS  Can  a  lis,  a  tube  in  the  heart 
of  the  foetus,  which,  with  the  foramen  ovale, 
serves  to  maintain  the  circulation  of  tlie  bloo<i| 
and  to  divert  it  from  the  lungs. 


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ART  12 

ARTERY,)    A^nipuhtpirUvstemita,9CCOTd- 

Arte  rial.  )  ing  to  Pliny  and  Cicero.  The 
modems  have  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
human  body  than  this  bare  and  inadequate  defi- 
nition of  the  ancients  affords.  See  Anatomy  for 
a  complete  view  of  the  arteries. 

Unlrenal  plodding  prisons  up 

The  nimble  spiriu  in  the  arterie$. 

8hak$peare.  love's  Labour  Lort, 

Had  not  the  Maker  wrought  the  springy  frame ; 
The  blood,  defranded  of  its  nitrons  food. 
Had  cool'd  and  languished  in  the  arterial  road. 

^ackmore. 

As  this  mixtore  of  Uood  and  chyle  pasmth  through 
the  arterial  tube,  it  is  pressed  by  two  contraiy  forces ; 
that  of  the  heart  driving  it  forward  against  the  sides 
of  the  tube ;  and  the  elastic  force  of  ^e  air,  pressing 
it  on  the  opposite  sides  of  those  air-bladders,  along 
the  sni£ue  of  which  this  arterial  tube  creeps. 

ArbuOnot, 

ARTHEL,  in  law,  something  cast  into  a  court, 
in  Wales,  or  its  marches,  whereby  the  court  is 
letted  or  discontinued  for  the  time.  The  casting 
of  arthel  is  prohibited,  26  Hen.  VIII.  cap.  6. 

ARTHINGTON  (Henry),  a  fenatical  gentle- 
man of  Yoik^ire,  who,  towards  the  end  of  queen 
Elizabeth's  reign,  engaged  in  treasonable  prac- 
tices against  the  government,  with  Edward  Cop- 
pinger  a  servant  of  the  queen's,  and  one  Hacket, 
whom,  in  their  fanaticism  they  styled  '  king  of 
Europe !'  Supposing  themselves  to  be  inspired, 
Coppinger  styled  himself  the '  prophet  of  mercy,' 
and  Anhington  the  '  prophet  of  judgment  V 
Arthington  accordingly  wrote  and  published  his 
prophecies,  wherein  were  intermingled  some  se- 
vere reflections  against  the  lords  of  the  privy 
council,  the  judges,  &c.  They  were  at  last  all 
three  apprehended  in  July^  1591 ;  when  Cop- 
pinger oecame  quite  deranged,  and  never  re- 
covered his  senses.  Hacket  was  tried,  con- 
demned, and  executed ;  and  Arthington.  hearing 
of  Ukis,  wrote  a  submissive  letter  to  the  lords  of 
councU,  which,  after  some  time,  procured  him 
the  queen's  pardon.  He  died  with  the  character 
of  an  honest  but  weak  man. 

ARTHRITICA,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by 
some  to  the  primrose,  and  by  others  to  the  ground 
pine. 

ARTHRITICAL,  >    A^pmt,  ptdii  or  disease 

Arthrit'ick.  )  which  attacks  thejoints^ 

from  apOpov,  a  joint. 

Frequent  changes  produce  all  the  arihiritidk  diseases. 

ArJmtknot. 

Serpents,  worms,  and  leaches,  though  some  want 
bones,  and  all  extended  articulations,  yet  have  they 
arthrUiaal  analogies;  and, by  the  motion  of  fibrous  and 
musculous  parU,  are  able  to  make  progression. 

Bnim^e  Valgar  Erron. 
Unhappy !  whom  to  beds  of  pain 

Arthriiie  tyranny  consigns ; 
Whom  smiling  nature  courts  in  vain. 
Though  mptaie  sings  and  beauty  shines. 

Johnaon'i  Ode  on  Spring, 

ARTHRITIS ;  from  apOpor,  a  joint ;  any 
distemper  that  affecto  the  joints,  but  the  gout 
particularly. 

Arthritis  Plaketica,  Arthritis  Vaga,  the 
\v  andering  gout*  that  gives  pain  sometimes  in  one 
hmb,  and  sometimes  in  another. 

ARTHRODIA,  in  anatomy,  a  species  of  ar- 
ticulation, wherein  the  flat  head  of  one  bone  is 


ART 


received  into  a  shallow  socket  in  the  other.  Tlic 
humerus  and  scapula  are  joined  by  this  species 
of  articulation.    See  Anatomy,  Index. 

Arthrodia,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of 
imperfect  crystals^  found  always  in  complex 
masses,  and  forming  long  single  pyramids,  with 
very  short  and  slender  columns. 

Arthrodia,  in  zoology,  a  cUiss  of  animalcule, 
containing  those  with  visible  limbs. 

ARTHRON;  apOpov,  Greek;  a  joint,  or 
connection  of  bones  proper  for  motion. 

ARTHROSIS,  in  anatomy,  a  juncture  of  two 
bones  designed  for  motion ;  called  also  articu 
lation.    See  Arthrodia. 

ARTHUR,  the  celebrated  hero  of  the^Britons, 
is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Uter,  named  Pen- 
dragon,  king  of  Britain,  and  to  have  been  bom 
in  501.  His  life  b  a  continued  scene  of  won- 
ders. He  kiHed  470  Saxons  with  his  own  hand 
in  one  day;  and  after  having  subdued  many  mighty 
nations,  and  instituted  the  order  of  the  knights 
of  the  Round  Table,  died  A.D.  542,  of  wounds 
which  he  received  in  battle.  The  most  par- 
ticular detail  of  his  story  ahd  his  exploits  is  that 
given  by  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth ;  but  his  history 
is  so  blended  with  the  marvellous  and  the  extra- 
vagant, that  not  only  the  truth  of  the  whole,  but 
even  the  reality  of  Arthur^s  existence,  has  been 
called  in  question.  The  ingenious  Mr.  Whitaker 
however  believes  in  his  inslitution  of  the  cele- 
brated order  of  the  round  table,  as  also  that  it 
was  the  origin  of  others  of  the  like  kind  on  the 
continent 

Arthur's  Seat,  a  high  hill  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Edinburgh^  said  to  have  been  so 
denominated  from  a  tradition  diat  king  Arthur 
surveyed  the  country  frx>m  its  summit,  and  had 
also  defeated  the  Saxons  in  its  neighbourhood. 
This  hill  rises  by  a  steep  and  rugged  ascent,  till  it 
terminates  in  a  rockv  point  near  700  feet  from 
the  base,  being  more  than  double  the  height  of  the 
cross  on  the  top  of  St.  Paul's,  London,,  which  is 
340  feet.  On  the  south  it  is  in  many  parts  a  perpen- 
dicular rock,  composed  of  basaltic  pillars^  regu- 
larly pentagonal  or  hexagonal,  about  three  feet  in 
diameter,  and  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height. 
Contiguous  upon  the  west,  and  partly  connected 
with  it  at  the  base,  are  Salisbury  crags^  of  infe- 
rior height  but  exhibiting  an  appearance  equally 
singular  and  grand.  They  present  to  the  city  an 
awful  front  of  broken  rocks  and  precipices,  form- 
ing a  sort  of  natural  amphitheatre  of  solid  rock ; 
and  backward  fit>m  the  craggy  verge  above,  the 
hill  forms  an  extensive  irregular  slope,  the  surface 
affording  pasture  to  numerous  flocks  of  sheep. 
The  crags,  beside  ores,  spars,  rock-plants,  and 
here  and  there  it  is  said  some  precious  stones,  af- 
ford an  inexhaustible  supply  oi  granite  for  paving 
the  streets,  &c.  In  quarrymg  a  part  of  the  crags 
has  been  worn  down  into  a  spacious  shelf,  having 
the  appearance  of  a  lofW  terrace,  and  stretching 
a  considerable  length.  From  hence  is  a  near  and 
distinct  prospect  of  the  city  with  its  envir6ns  and 
the  adjacent  country.  But  from  the  pinnacle 
called  Arthur's  Seat  the  view  is  more  noble  and 
extensive.  The  traveller  may  here  sit  and  survey 
at  his  ease  the  centre  of  the  kingdom,  besides  hav- 
ing a  complete  view  of  Edinburgh  and  its  castle, 
on  which  he  looks  down  as  if  seated  among  thc» 


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ARTICLE. 


13 


cloudB.  In  a  word,  the  GennanoccaOy  the  whole 
course  of  the  Forth,  the  distant  Grampians,  and 
a  large  portion  of  the  most  populous  and  best  cul- 
ti\ated  part  of  Scotland,  form  a  landscape  sub- 
lime, various  and  beauti^l.  The  denomination 
of  thb  hill,  derived  as  above,  has  been  adduced 
as  an  argument  against  those  who  dispute  the 
existence  of  the  British  Arthur.  That  derivation, 
however,  though  probable,  is  not  without  uncer- 
tainty. For  Arthur's  Seat  is  said  to  be  derived, 
or  rather  corrupted,  from  A'rd  Seir,  '  a  place  or 
Beld  of  arrows,'  where  people  shot  at  a  mark : 
and  this  not  improbably ;  for  among  these  cliffs 
is  a  dell  or  recluse  valley,  where  ue  wind  can 
scarcely  reach,  now  called  the  Hunter's  bog,  the 
bottom  of  it  being  a  morass.  The  adjacent  craggs 
are  supposed  to  have  taken  dieir  name  from  the 
earl  ol  Salisbury,  who,  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.  accompanied  that  prince  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Scots;  though,  according  to  others, 
the  genuine  derivation,  like  that  of  Arthur's  seat, 
is  from  %  Celtic  word  also  corrupted. 
ARTICHOKE,  in  botany.  See  Cinara. 
ARTICLE,  V.  &  n.  ^  Lat.  articulus,  a  di- 
AftTfcuLATEy  vt.  &  o^/.  f  miuutive  of  artuij  a 
Aet^culately,  a  joint  To  enter  into, 

Articula'tiom  .  J  draw  up  or  state  par- 

ticulars, to  make  terms.    To  articulate  is  to  pro- 
nounce each  portion  of  a  sentence  distinctly. 

Prospero.  Hut  dum«  spirit. 

Performed  to  point  the  tempest  that  I  bad  thee. 

Ariel.  To  every  orlaeb.         Shaitpeare.  Tempest. 

Henry's  instructions  were  extreme  curions  and  arti- 

citiate,  and  in  them  more  articles  touching  inquisition, 

than  negotiation}   requiring  an  answer  in   distinct 

articles  to  his  quettions.  Baom. 

In  speaking  under  water,  when  the  voice  is  reduced 

to  an  extreme  exility,  yet  the  articulate  sounds,  the 

words,  are  not  confounded.  Id, 

The  first,  at  least,  of  these  I  thought  den/d 
To  beasts  ;  whom  God«  on  their  creation  day. 
Created  mute  to  all  articulate  sound.  MiUom, 

Antiquity  expressed  numbers  by  the  fingers  on 
«ither  hand.  On  the  left  they  accounted  their  digiu 
and  articaUae  numbers  unto  an  hundred ;  on  the  right 
hand,  hundreds  and  thousands. 

Bream't  Vulgar  Brron, 
If  it  be  said,  God  chose  the  successor,  that  is  mani- 
festly not  so  in  the  story  of  Jephtha,  where  he  orfieM 
with  the  people,  and  they  made  him  judge  over  them. 


By  orfMnblim  I  mean  a  peculiar  motion  and  figure 
of  some  parts  belonging  to  the  mouth,  between  the 
throat  and  lips.  Holder, 

All  the  precepts,  promises,  and  threatenings  of  the 
gospel,  will  rise  up  in  judgment  against  us;  and  the 
artidei  of  our  faith  will  be  so  many  artidee  of  accusa- 
tion ;  and  the  great  weight  of  our  charge  will  be  this. 
That  we  did  not  obey  the  gospel,  which  we  professed 
to  believe  ;  that  we  made  confession  of  the  Christian 
fsith,  but  lired  like  Heathens.  TtOotem. 

Yon  har^e  small  reason  to  repine  upon  that  artkU 
of  life.  Swift, 

The  dogmatist  knows  not  by  what  art  he  directs  his 
tongue,  in  artiouhimg  sounds  into  voices.       QianeUle. 

In  the  mean  time  they  have  ordered  the  preliminary 
treaty  to  be  published,  with  observations  on  each 
artiele,  in  order  to  quiet  the  minds  of  his  people. 

Article,  in  grammar,  is  a  particle  used  in 
most  languages  for  the  declining  of  nouns,  and 
denoting  t^tir  several  cases  and  genders.    The 


use  of  them  chiefly  arises  in  hmgoages  that  have 
no  different  terminations  to  express  the  different 
circumstances  of  nouns.  The  Latins  have  no 
articles ;  but  the  Greeks,  and  most  of  the  modem 
languages,  have  had  recourse  to  them  for  fixing  • 
and  ascertaining  the  vague  signification  of  com- 
mon and  appellative  names.  Many  have  been 
the  controversies  among  grammarians  upon  the 
use  and  meaning  of  these  vwords.  Mr.  Harris, 
whose  knowledge  was  derived  from  the  Greek 
language  and  Greek  grammarians^  and  whose 
principles  are  contradicted  by  the  slightest  'lo- 

auaintance  with  the  Teutonic  and  Arabic,  leads  us 
irough  many  a  maze ;  and  we  might  have  wan- 
dered till  this  moment,  if  Mr.  Tooke,  in  his  obser- 
vations on  the  word  UuU,  in  his  Epea  Pteroenta, 
had  not  pointed  out  to  us  the  open  and  straight 
road.upon  this  subject.  In  the  English  language  we 
call  the  words  a  and  thf  articles ;  ue  Germans  have 
ein  and  £ler;  the  French  un  and  k;  the  Greeka 
6 ;  the  Hebrews  n :  but  the  unfortunate  Latins 
are  said  to  be  without  these  joints  and  pep  in 
n>eech.  But  if  one  binguage  is  without  them, 
th^  are,  it  is  evident,  not  essential  to  language ; 
and  it  will  be  found  difficult  to  make  such  a  defi- 
nition as  shall  exclude  a  variety  of  words,  such 
as  hiCf  thii,  thaty  &c.  from  makmg  a  part  of  this 
division.  In  the  languages  above-mentioned  the 
precise  meaning  of  ue  words  tAe,  der,  k^  6y  and 
n,  cannot  at  first  sight  be  ascertained.  The 
English  word  a  points  obscurely  to  its  meaning, 
but  the  German  ein  and  the  French  un  clear  the 
road  for  investigation.  Hiey  are  to  be  found 
continually  appUed  to  substantives,  and  mean 
one.  If  a  thing  is  generally  reported,  we  say  in 
English,  'they  say,'  meaning  a  great  number  say 
so :  and  so  in  French  it  is  on  cky  or  vma  dkUy 
'one  person  savs  so/  meaning  more  than  one 
person  by  an  ellipsis  very  common  in  that  lan- 
guage :  in  German  it  is  man  tagt,  by  man,  mean- 
ing man  in  general.  We  have  thus  found,  that 
in  two  languages  one  of  the  articles  is  merely  a 
word  of  number.  Probabl;^  it  may  be  so  in 
English;  a  may  mean  onCy  or  it  is  an  abbreviation 
of  any.  By  trying  the  two  senses  it  is  evident 
that  a^  cannot  be  applied  in  the  room  of  a,  but 
that  one  always  can :  and  hence  we  might  con- 
clude that  a  and  am  are  only  other  words  for  one, 
and  answer  to  the  Gennan  dn. 

The  article  the^  as  it  is  called,  may  not  dis- 
cover itself  so  easily.  Yet  let  us  try  the  same 
anidoffy,  for  the  etymology  of  it  is  not  ascer- 
tained. Vie  answers  to  db*  of  the  Germans, 
and  k  of  the  French:  but  what  is  ^  ?  the  t^ 
of  the  Latins ;  and  hence  we  may  reasonably 

§  resume  that  our  word  the  vtuo  more  an  article 
lan  iUe^  and  in  &ct  that  it  comes  from  some 
adjective  of  the  same  signification.  Let  us  try 
by  etymology.  In  German  we  have  derydieydat; 
whidi  was  ancientiy  ther,  thia  (thio  thiu)  thaz, 
and  in  the  plural  thie  (thkr). '  This  looks  very 
much  like  our  the.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  we  find 
to,  ieo,  that :  in  Islandic,  ta,  su,  thai :  in  Gothic, 
M,  to,  thata :  in  Hebrew,  |1>t>  1T»  HT :  etjrmolo- 
logists  perhaps  will  not  be  displeased  at  our 
making  the  words  T\1  and  the  proceed  from  the 
same  original ;  and  we  shall  not  be  afraid  of  ex- 
posing ourselves  to  the  laughter  of  critics,  if  we 
r»^r  3ie  Doric  njvoc  to  the  same  stock.    If  we 


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ART  14 

are  right  in  out  coniectures,  the  word  ths  is  9s 
much  a  pronoun  as  the  iUe  of  the  Latins ;  but,  if 
persons  choose  to  have  a  distinct  class  of  words 
wnder  the  name  of  articles,  we  may  say  that  the 
English  has  two,  a  and  the,  which  'serve  to  de- 
fine and  ascertain  any  particular  object,  so  as  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  other  object  of  the  general 
class  to  which  it  belongs.' 

Father  Buffier  distinguishes  a  third  kind  of 
articles  in  French,  which  he  calls  intermediate 
or  partitive,  serving  to  denote  part  of  the  thing 
expressed  by  the  substantives  they  are  added  to ; 
as,  des  s^avanti  ont  cru,  *  some  learned  men  have 
supposed;'  I  want  delalumiere,  *8ome  light.' 
The  use  and  distinction  of  the  definite  and  inde- 
finite articles  U  or  la,  and  de  or  (^  make  one  of 
the  greatest  difficulties  in  the  French  language; 
as  being  entirely  arbitrary,  and  only  to  be  ac- 
quired by  practice. 

The  most  philosophical  and  probable  account 
is  that  which  has  been  so  abl^  illustrated  by  the 
learned  bishop  Middleton ;  viz.  that  it  is  neither 
more  nor  less  than  the  demonstrative  or  relative 
pronoun,  for  both  were  originally  the  same.  The 
article,  together  with  its  adjunct,  forms  in  fact  a 
proposition,  in  which  the  participle  of  existence 
u  either  expressed  or  understood,  and  which  in- 
volves a  relation  to  something  before  said  by 
ihe  speaker,  or  which  is  suppposed  to  pass  in  the 
mind  of  the  speaker.  Thus,  yipmv  signifies  gene- 
rally <  old  man  ;*  but  h  ykpwv  is  equivalent  to  8, 
yi^v  wy,  where  the  pronoun  8,  *  this,'  implies 
that  the  old  man  now  spoken  of  has  been  men- 
tioned before,  or  that  he  is  in  some  way  or  other 
known  to  the  hearer  or  the  speaker. 

Article,  Articulus,  in  anatomy,  a  joint,  or 
juncture,  of  two  or  more  bones  of  the  body. 

Article,  in  arithmetic,  sometimes  signifies  the 
number  10,  or  any  number  justly  divisible  into 
ten  parts,  as  20,  30,  40,  Ike. 

Articlb  of  Faitb  is  by  some  defined  a 
point  o/  Christian  doctrine,  which  we  are  obliged 
to  believe  as  having  been  revealed  by  God  him- 
ielf,  and  allowed  and  established  as  such  by  the 
church.  The  thirty-nine  articles  were  founded, 
for  the  most  part,  upon  a  body  of  articles  com- 
piled and  published  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
Tbev  were  first  passed  in  the  convocation,  and 
coi^nrmed  by  royal  autliority  in  1562.  They 
were  afterwards  ratified  anew  in  the  year  1571, 
and  again  by  Charles  I.  The  law  requires  a 
subscription  to  these  articles  of  all  persons  or- 
dained to  be  deacons  or  priests,  13  £1.  cap.  12 ; 
of  all  clergymen  inducted  to  any  ecclesiastical 
living,  by  the  same  statute ;  and  of  licensed  lec- 
turers and  curates,  13  El.  cap.  12  and  13,  and 
14  Ch.  11.  cap.  4 ;  of  the  heads  of  colleges,  of 
chancellors,  officials  and  commissaries,  and  of 
schoolmasters.  By  1  William  III.  cap.  10.  dis- 
senting teachers  are  to  subscribe  to  all  except 
the  thirty-fourth,  thirty-fifth,  and  thirty-sixth,  and 
part  of  the  twentieth,  and  in  the  case  of  Ana- 
baptists, except  also  part  of  the  twenty-seventh ; 
othewise  they  are  exempted  from  the  benefits  of 
the  act  of  toleration.  See  Church  of  England. 

Articles  op  the  Clergy,  Articuli  cleri, 
are  certain  statutes  touching  persons  and  causes 
ecclesiastical,  made  under  Edw.  II.  and  III. 

Articles  of  Lambeth  were  nine  articles  on 
the  subject  of  predestination,  and  the  limitation 


ART 


of  saving  grace,  which  were  drawn  up  by  arch- 
bishop Whitgift,  and  recommended  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  students  of  Cambridge,  in  consequence 
of  some  disputes  which  were  raised  in  the  uni- 
versity at  that  time  on  the  above-mentioned  points. 
They  were,  however,  merely  declaratory  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  church  of  England,  and  were  not 
imposed  as  of  public  authority. 

Articularis  Nervus.  See  An  atomy.  Index. 

Articulate  Sounds  are  such  as  express  the 
letters,  syllables,  or  words,  of  an  alphabet  or 
language :  such  are  formed  by  the  human  voice, 
and  by  some  few  birds,  as  parrots,  &c. 

Articulated  Libel,  lioellus  articulatus,  in 
law,  that  wherein  the  parts  of  a  fact  are  set  fortli 
to  the  judge  in  short,  distinct  articles. 

Articulation,  in  anatomy.  See  Anatomy, 
Index. 

Articulation,  in  botany,  is  the  connexion  of 
parts  that  consist  of  joints  or  knees,  such  as  the 
pods  of  French  honey-suckles,  which,  when  ripe^ 
divide  into  so  many  parts  as  there  are  knees  or 
joints ;  also  those  parts  of  plants  which  swell  into 
nodes  or  joints,  and  which  usually  send  forth 
branches. 

Articulation,  in  grammar,  a  distinct  pro- 
nunciation of  word»  and  syllables. 

ARTIFICERS,  among  the  Romans,  had  their 
peculiar  temples,  where  they  assembled  and 
chose  their  own  patron,  or  advocate,  to  defend 
their  causes ;  they  were  exempted  from  all  per- 
sonal services.  Taruntenus  Paiemus  reckons 
thirty-two  species  of  artificers,  and  Constantine 
thirty-five,  who  enjoyed  this  privilege.  Artificers 
were  held  a  degree  below  merchants,  and  argentarii 
or  money-changers,  and  their  employment  more 
sordid.  Some  deny,  that  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
the  Roman  state,  artificers  were  ranked  iu  the 
number  of  citizens :  others,  who  assert  their  cit- 
izenship, allow  that  they  were  held  in  contempt, 
as  being  unfit  for  war,  and  so  poor  that  they 
could  scarcely  pay  any  taxei.  For  which  reason 
they  were  not  entered  among  the  citizens  in  the 
censor's  books ;  the  design  of  the  census  being 
only  to  see  what  number  of  persons  were  vearly 
fit  lo  bear  arms,  and  to  pay  taxes  towaros  the 
support  of  the  state.  In  almost  all  ages,  till 
the  present,  and  under  most  forms  of  govern- 
ment, artificers  have  been  too  little  respected. 
By  means  of  the  arts,  the  minds  of  men  are 
engaged  in  inventions  beneficial  to  the  whole 
community ;  and  thus  prove  the  grand  preser- 
vative against  that  barbarism  and  brutality,  which 
ever  attend  indolence  and  induce  stupidity.  Ra- 
mazini  has  a  treatise  on  the  diseases  of  artificers. 

ARTIFICIAL  Day,  the  time  between  the 
sun's  rising  and  setting  in  any  position  of  the 
hemisphere. 

Artificial  Lines,  on  a  sector  or  scale,  are 
lines  so  contrived  as  to  represent  the  logahthroick 
lines  and  tangents ;  which,  by  the  help  of  the 
line  of  numbers,  solve,  with  tolerable  exact- 
ness, questions  in  trigonometry^  navigation,  &c. 
Chambers   , 

Artificial  Music,  that  which  is  according 
to  the  rules  of  art ;  or  executed  by  instrumenu 
invented  by  art.  It  is  also  used,  in  another 
sense,  for  some  artful  contrivance  in  music ;  as 
when  a  piece  is  sung  in  two  parts ;  one  of  which 
is  by  B  moUe,  or  flat  and  the  other  by  B  sharp. 


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ARTILLERY. 


Fr.  artiUcrie.  Of  doubtful  twisted  ropes  inclined  to  recoil.  Besides  stones^ 
were  also  used  balb  of  earth,  probably  baked 
pelotesy  corrupted  into  pellets  and  bullets.  It 
will  be  sufficient  therefore  to  enumerate  shortly 
the  machines,  though  it  is  to  be  recollected,  that 
ancient  authors  are  perpetually  confounding  the 
appellations.  The  arbalist  is  described  in  1343 
as  a  large  cross-bow,  furnished  with  a  hundred 
gogions,  or  balls,  and  grapple  to  draw  it  up. 

The  balista  is  said  to  be  a  Phcenician  invention 
for  throwing  huge  stones,  confounded  sometimes 
with  *he  catapult,  which  threw  darts,  a  Syrian 
contrivance,  conveyed  to  the  Syracusans,  whence 
it  was  brought  into  Greece  by  Philip  of  Macedon. 
Accounts  of  the  construction  vary,  out  the  cross- 
Upon  one  wing  the  mtUlery  wu  drawn,  being  six-    bow  principle  of  action  seems  the  most  proba- 


ARTIL'LERY. 
origin. 

Have  I  not  heard  great  ordnance  in  the  field  ? 
And  heav'n's  arUUery  thunder  in  the  slcies  ? 

Shakipeare. 
Ill  to  the  tower  with  all  the  haste  I  can. 
To  view  th'  artiOenf  and  ammnnition.  Id, 

And  Jonadian  gave  hit  artillery  onto  his  lad,  ana 
said  onto  him ;  Go,  carry  them  unto  the  city. 

As  when  two  black  douds 
With  heaven's  arHMery  fraught,  come  rattling  on 
Over  the  Caspian,  then  stand  front  to  front 
Hov'ring  a  space,  till  winds  the  signal  blow 
To  join  their  dark  encounter  in  mid  air. 

MilUmU  Paradiie  Loit,h,  ii. 


teen  pieces;  every  piece  having  pioneers,  to  plain 
the  ways.  Hayward. 

He  that  views  a  fort  to  take  it, 
Planta  his  arUUery  against  the  weakest  place. 

Denham, 
Artillery,  in  its  general  sense,    denotes, 

1.  The  offensive  apparatus  of  war,  particularly 
of  the  missile  kind.  Among  the  French  the 
tenn  was  anciently  appropriated  to  archery. 
In  its  modem  signification  it  denotes  certain  fire- 
arms mounted  on  carnages  and  ready  for  action, 
with  their  balls,  bombs,  grenades,  rOckets,  &c. 

2.  In  a  more  extensive  meaning,  it  includes  the 
means  which  facilitate'  their  motion  and  trans- 
port, the  vehicles  over  which  they  traverse  rivers, 
every  thing,  in  short,  necessary  to  them,  or  that 
belongs  to  a  train  of  artillery.  3.  In  a  sense 
still  more  extensive,  the  word  comprehends 
the  men  and  officers  destined  for  the  service 
of  the  artillery.  4.  By  the  term  artillery  is 
likewise  understood  the  science  which  the 
officers  of  artillery  ought  to  possess. 

Sect.  I. — Op  Ancient  Missiles  and  Mili- 
tary Engines. 
The  missfles  of  the  ancients  were  of  three 
kinds,  viz.  on  the  j^rinciple  of  the  cross-bow,  the    mate-griffon  (i.  e.  destroyer  of  the  Greeks)  threw 
sling,  and  the  recoil  of  twisted  ropes.    The  first    both  darts  and  stones. 

sent  forward  darts  and  sometimes  combustible  The  mamt-bdista,  or  cross  bow,  supposed  to 
arrows ;  the  second  was  the  balista  kind,  here-  be  of  Sicilian  and  Cretan  orinn,  was  perhaps  the 
afler  described ;  the  third  acted  like  the  boy's  most  important  machine  of  this  kind,  and  intro- 
bone  bow,  which  by  means  of  a  wooden  lever  duced  into  Europe  by  the  Crusades.  It  was 
and  a  twisted  string  ejects  a  plum-stone.  Dr.  known  in  Englano,  at  least  for  use  in  the  chase, 
Mevrick  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  meet  in  an  as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  Its  appli- 
ancient  manuscript  with  actual  delineations  of  the  cation  to  warlike  uses  (not  its  introduction)  by 
leading  kinds  of  these  engines  used  in  the  middle  Richard  I.  is  well  supported;  it  was  used  in 
ages.  The  bsdista  seems  only  to  have  been  a  Italy  in  1139.  A  legionary  soldier  appears  on 
large  beam^  rather  crooked,  resting  at  about  two-  an  ancient  seal  endeavourmg  to  bend  tne  arcu- 
thirds  of  its  length  on  a  forked  support ;  if  of  balist  with  his  foot.  Five  years  earlier,  mention 
three  legs,  then  called  trepied.  Plate,  Ancient  is  made  of  tumi  balisterii,  or  the  arbaleste-a-tour. 
Artillery,  fig.  1.  At  the  long  end  was  a  great 
pear-shaped  bag,  tied  to  the  beam  by  a  stout 
rope.  At  the  short  end  was  a  larse  box  full  of 
stones.  The  long  end  being  suddenly  released, 
slung  upon  the  enemy  the  contents  of  the  bag, 

through  being  jerked  up  by  the  great  weight  of  bows  used  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  were  of 
the  stone  box.  The  onager,  fig.  2,  threw  a  like  two  kinds ;  the  latdi,  with  its  wide  and  thick 
bag  of  stones,  but  there  was  no  stone-box,  the  bender,  for  quarrels,  and  the  prodd  for  bullets, 
•leam  being  impelled  by  its  position  between    The  stock  of  the  former  was  stiort  and  straight. 


ble.  '  The  scorpio  was  a  smaller  kind  ot  cata- 
pult. In  the  middle  ages,  besides  the  balista, 
catapult,  onager,  and  scorpion,  Grose  mentions 
the  mangona,  and  its  diminutive  mangonel, 
similar  to  the  balista.  The  trebuchet  or  trip- 
getis,  for  throwing  stones,  which  seems  to  have 
been  the  same  as  the  trepied,  before  mentioned, 
though  Dr.  Meyrick  says  the  term  trebuche^ 
appears  to  imply  a  military  engine,  which  ejected 
its  ammunition  from  a  trap-door,  treboccbetto. 
The  petiary,  roatafunda,  bygles  or  bibles,  cou- 
illart,  and  war-wolf  (in  one  sense)  also  machines 
for  ejecting  stones.  The  bricolle,  carreaux  or 
quarrels,  and  the  espringal,  calculated  for  throw- 
ing large  darts,  called  muchettae ;  and  sometimes 
viretons,  i.  e.  arrows  with  the  feathers  put  dia^ 
gonally  so  as  to  occasion  them  to  turn  in  the  air, 
but  it. was  not  limited  to  darts ;  for  according  to 
Dr.  Meyiick,  v.  ii.  p.  63,  in  1342  the  gates 
and  towers  of  Norwich  were  furnished  with 
thirty  espringolds  for  casting  great  stones,  and 
to  every  espnngold  a  hundred  gogions  or  balls 
fastened  up  in  a  box,  with  ropes  and  other  accou- 
trements oelonging  to  them;  which  illustrates 
the  construction  before  given.    The  robinet  and 


^t  drawn  up  by  a  turn ;  and  in  1320,  of  the 
balista  grossa  de  molinellis,  or  one  wound  by  a 
moulinet  or  windlass,  see  fig.  6,  and  the  balista 
grossa  de  arganellis,  i.  e.  one  furnished  with 
tubes  for  ejecting  the  Greek  fire.    The  cross- 


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ARTILLERY 


not  nmch  exoeedtnt^  two  feet,  and  tae  bow  was 
bent  by  the  windlasu  or  mouUnet. 

Of  the  important  battering  ram  Vlinj  and 
others  hare  made  Epeus  the  inventor,  dunngthe 
siege  of  Troy;  but  as  it  is  not  mentioned  by 
Homer,  nor  any  Greek  writer,  Vitnivius  and 
TeituUian  more  probably  assign  the  invention  to 
Pephasmenon,  a  T^rian,  in  the  army  of  Car- 
thage, during  the  siege  of  Cadiz.  There  were 
three  kinds  of  rams;  one  suspended,  fig.  5; 
the  second  running  upon  rollers,  fiff.  3;  the 
third  carried  by  the  men  who  worked  it,  fig.  5. 
At  Haguenau,  and  Morviedro,  the  ancient  Sa- 
guntom,  are  the  remains  of  two :  one  is  topped 
with  a  strong  head  of  iron,  square  and  of  one 
piece ;  the  other  consists  of  three  pieces,  has  a 
ram's  head,  and  is  similar- to  one  on  the  arch  of 
Sererus.  The  ram  was  used  in  the  middle  ages; 
and  S^r  Christopher  Wren,  in  throwing  down 
old  walls,  founct  no  machine  equal  to  it,  parti- 
cularly in  disjointing  the  stones.  The  momentum 
of  one,  twenty-eight  inches  diameter,  180  feet 
long,  with  a  head  of  a  ton  and  a  half  weighed 
41,112  lbs.  and  worked  by  a  thousand  men,  was 
about  equal  to  a  point-blank  shot  firom  a  thirty- 
six  pounder. 

Hardly,  perhaps,  to  be  called  artillery,  but 
materially  assisting  their  operations  were  the 
ancient  rmacultu  or  tettudo  a  covered  machine, 
probably  the  subsequent  sow,  a  very  low  shed, 
long  and  very  sharp  roofed ;  used  to  advance  to 
the  wall,  and  overturn  it  by  sap.  The  uluteus, 
a  machine  covered  with  ozier  work  ana  hides, 
running  upon  three  wheels,  one  in  the  middle, 
and  two  at  the  extremities.  The, cat,  also  a 
covered  shed,  occasionally  fixed  on  wheels,  and 
used  for  protecting  soldiers  employed  in  filling 
up  the  ditch,  preparing  the  way  for  the  movable 
tower,  mining  the  wall,&c.  Some  of  these  cats 
had  crenelles  and  chinks,  from  whence  the 
archers  could  discharge  their  arrows.  These 
were  called  castellated  cats;  and  sometimes 
under  cover  of  this  machine,  the  beseigers  work- 
ed a  small  kind  of  ram ;  fig.  4.  Dr.  Meyrick, 
from  an  ancient  illumination,  has  engraved  one 
of  these,  called  the  chaschateil  or  cat  castle.  It 
resembles  in  form  a  modem  four-post  bedstead 
upon  wheels.  A  miner  is  workmg  under  it 
with  a  pick-axe.  And  to  the  same  purpose  the 
vinea,  another  shed,  was  applied. 

The  beffraeium  or  beffroip  was  a  tower  with 
stories,  moved  up  to  the  walls.  A  cat,  made  of 
osier  twigs  and  leather,  and  covered  with  planks, 
was  used  to  protect  those  ^ho  filled  up  the 
ditches  preparatory  to  wheeling  upon  them  the 
belfries;  from  this  use  of  the  cat,  was  derived 
the  French  word  eschaufimx,  an  elevated  floor, 
and  subsequently  the  Engtish  word  scafibld. 
Elsewhere  Dr.  Meyrick  says,  the  catti  versatiles, 
were  chats  laulx  fiimished  with  drawbridges. 
The  chief  belfries  were  called  brestachis  or 
brestaches.  William  de  Breton  says,  he  caused 
to  be  made  double  brestaches  in  seven  different 

J)laces.  These  were  wooden  castles,  very  highly 
brtified,  surrounded  with  double  quadrangular 
fosses,  at  a  proportionate  distance  from  each 
other,  with  arawbridges  thrown  across  them, 
and  he  had  not  only  these  filled  with  armed 
meop  but  the  int^or  surfiice  of  each  foss,  and 


thus  he  surrounded  the  besieged  by  bis  works* 
Such  wooden  castles  were  also  called  basUles- 
An  interesting  print  of  a  movable  belfroi  is 
given  by  Grose.  It  consists  of  a  ground-floor 
occupied  by  a  ram,  and  four  upper  stories  by 
archen  and  cross-bowmen;  the  hiehest  story 
rose  above  the  walls,  and  fix>m  that  directly  be- 
low, a  drawbridge  was  let  down,  and  rested 
upon  the  wall ;  see  our  fig.  3.  Some  of  these 
towers  used  by  the  early  ancients  were  of  amazing 
magnitude,  being  with  pyramids  twenty,  fifteen, 
or  ten  stages  or  floors. 

Thepricklff  cat,  or  felts  echinataf  was  a  beam, 
bristled  with  oaken  teeth,  which,  being  hung  at 
an  embrasure,  could  be  let  down  upon  an 
enemy.  For  the  same  purpose  was  used  the  fis- 
tucabellica  or  war-hammer,  fitted  with  curved 
nails  and  hooks,  and  suspended  by  a  chain,  to 
draw  up  the  enemy  from  below. 

Missive  wheels  were  formed  of  mill-stones 
joined  by  an  oaken  axis,  and  let  down  upon 
besiegers ;  missive  chariots  were  rolled  down  an 
inclined  plane,  and  retained  by  chains  to  discharge 
hot  or  cold  stones.  In  the  middle  age  the  ma- 
chines were  commonly  made  upon  the  spot. 
Hogsheads  fiiU  of  stones  were  used  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  I.  as  a  protecting  rampart  to  defend 
the  workmen  in  sieges. 

Sect.  II. — Of  Modern  Artillery. 

According  to  Du  Cange  the  word  artillery 
(ars  telaria,  meaning  boi^,  arrows,  and  all  im- 
plements of  war,)  first  occurs  in  Rymer.  Grose 
is  confirmed  by  Dr.  Meyrick  in  assigning  the 
introduction  of  it  to  the  fourteenth  century. 

Cannon  called  dolia  ignivoma,  or  fire-flashing 
vessels,  in  Spain,  were  known  in  Italy  as  early 
as  the  year  1351,  and  were  used  by  our  Edward 
III.  They  were  termed  by  the  French,  gunne, 
and  appear  at  first  to  have  been  of  two  kinds — 
a  large  one  for  discharging  stones,  called  a  bom- 
bard, and  a  smaller  sort  for  discharging  darts>  or 
quarrels.  In  1377,  1  Richard  II.  Thomas  Nor- 
buiy  was  directed  to  provide  horn  lliomas  Rest- 
wold  of  London,  two  great  and  two  less  engines, 
called  cannons,  600  stone  shot  for  the  same,  and 
salt-petre,  charcoal,  and  other  ammunition,  for 
stores,  to  be  sent  to  the  castle  of  Bristol.  At  the 
first  invention  of  cannon,  darts  and  bolts  were 
shot  frt>m  them ;  but,  before  these,  stones  were 
used  instead,  for,  in  1388;  a  stone  bullet,  which 
weighed  195  lbs.,  was  discharged  from  a  bombard 
called  the  trevisan. 

The  bombard  was  so  called  from  tlie  Greek 
PofiPoQ,  which  expressed  the  noise  it  made  in 
the  ^ring.  It  was  a  Greek  invention,  and  there 
is  some  reason  to  conceit  e  that  gunpowder  owed 
its  origin  to  the  same  people.  At  first  used  only 
in  fire-works  amusively,  its  discovery  is  in- 
volved in  obscurity.  From  a  tract  on  Pyrotechny 
by  Marcus  Grecus,  Friar  Bacon,  in  1270,  learned 
that  its  composition  was  two  pounds  of  charcoal, 
one  of  sulphur,  and  six  of  salt-petre,  well  pul- 
verised and  mixed.  It  was  first  made  in  Lng- 
land  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth.  At  first  it  was 
not  corned,  but  remained  in  its  mealed  state.  It 
was  then  called  serpentine  powder,  Meyrick,  v. 
iii.  p.  71.  The  first  oombards  were  made  of  bara 
of  iron,  strengthened  with  welded  hoops  of  the 


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17 


same  metal.  The^  were  short  with  large  bores, 
and  were  'made  with  chambers,  in  imitation  of 
the  tubes  which  ejected  the  Greek  fire.  These 
chambers  consisted  of  the  lower  half  of  the  cy- 
linder, the  upper  being  open  for  the  admission 
of  the  can,  or  canister,  which  held  the  charge, 
from  whence  probably  arose  the  term  cannon. 
One  of  these  may  be  seen  in  the  tower  of  Lon- 
don, and  there  is  another  at  Rhodes  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  on  iti  original  carriage,  and  a 
stone  ball  to  fire  from  it.  It  is  nineteen  feet  in 
length,  two  feet  eight  inches  in  diameter,  its 
(alibre  two  feet,  and  its  thickness  four  inches. 
About  half  the  length  is  of  a  less  diameter,  and 
in  Uiis,  as  in  a  chamber,  was  placed  the  powder, 
while  the  ball  was  in  the  larger  part.  The  car- 
riage was  made  of  timber,  placed  lengthways, 
and  cramped  together.  These  bombards  were 
the  only  kmd  of  cannon  employed  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  were  Grose's  howitser  kind, 
in  use  before  mortars.  After  this  invention  of 
bombs,  that  of  carcases  of  di£ferent  kinds  soon 
followed.  The  former,  according  to  Strada,  took 
place  in  1588.  Grenades  are  said  to  have  been 
first  used  in  1594  in  which  year  the  howitzer 
was  Invented  by  the  Germans.  The  bomb  being 
intended  to  beat  down  buildings  in  its  fall,  or  to 
break  and  destroy  every  thing  around  it,  by  the 
pieces  of  broken  iron  scattered  in  all  directions 
oy  its  explosions,  the  end  proposed  by  the  car- 
case and  grenade  was  to  bum  tne  town  by  means 
of  fire-balls.  The  petard  for  forcing  gates  was 
invented  in  France,  a  short  time  before  the  year 
1579,  and  soon  after  introduced  into  England. 

The  term  bombard  generally  designates  bat- 
tering guns  and  mortars ;  but  the  word  is  also 
applied  to  lighter  cannon.  Accordingly  Dr. 
Meyrick  calls  a  cannon  engraved  by  Strutt,  a 
bombard  on  a  carriage,  light  ip  proportion,  to 
the  bulk  of  the  piece.  Its  trail  consists  of  a  pro- 
longation of  the  cascabale,  which  rests  on  the 
ground,  a  block  of  wood  serving  as  a  quoin  for 
die  purpose  of  depression.  Admitting  that  can- 
non were  not  usea  in  the  field  till  the  fifteenth 
century,  this  gun,  for  it  is  very  small,  is  the  kind 
to  which  Froissart  alludes,  when  he  mentions  two 
hundred  carts  loaded  with  cannon  and  artillery ; 
cannonades  with  bars  of  iron  and  quarrels 
headed  with  brass,  and  cannon  mounted  on  walls 
and  battlements.  The  balls  were  of  stone  adapted 
to  the  calibre.  In  1434  it  is  said  that  the  En- 
glish had  many  kinds  of  projectiles,  'cannons, 
culverines,  and  other  vuglaires,'  more  properly 
vulgaires,  the  ordinary  kind.  The  scorpion  was 
another  sort.  In  an  illuminated  copy  of  the 
Roman  de  la  Rose,  done  at  the  commencement 
of  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  1461,  is  the  de- 
lineation of  an  iron  cannon.  The  piece  is  placed 
in  a  kind  of  trough,  or  bed  of  wood,  wnich  is 
continued  to  the  earth,  not  unlike  a  modem 
horse-artillery  trail.  Grose  very  properly  says, 
that  most  of  uie  earliest  cannons  were  mere  cylin- 
ders, fixed  on  sledges  and  being  often  composed 
of  iron  bars,  iron  plates  rolled,  or  even  jacked 
leather  hooped,  could  be  fired,  because  they 
were  loaded  by  chambers  fixed  in  at  the  breech. 
At  this  time  they  were  generally  purchased  from 
abroad ;  and  though  Henry  VII.  and  VIII.  had 
Flemish  gunners  to  teach  the  art,  yet  they  did  not 
Vol.  III. 


understand  it  upon  mathematical  principles ;  and 
in  the  sixteenth  century  the  ordnance  rarely 
made  more  than  one  discharge,  the  cavalry 
being  able  to  charge  them  before  they  could  load 
again.  Aliens  were  employed  in  1543  in  cast- 
ing great  brass  ordnance,  though  one  John  Owen 
was  said  to  have  so  done  in  .1521.  In  1626, 
2  Charles  I.  one  Arnold  Rotespen  had  a  patent 
for  making  guns  in  a  manner  before  unknown 
in  this  kingdom.  « 

Culverines  were  an  early  denomination  of  a 
species  of  large  camion ;  and  when  the  distinc- 
tion between  battering-pieces  (all  above  twelve 
pounders)  and  field-pieces  commenced,  accord- 
mg  to  Dr.  Meyrick,  temp.  Henry  VIII.  tlie  ap- 
pellations were  numerous.  These  names  were 
derived  from  the  tubes  which  had  been  used  to 
eject  the  Greek  fire,  being  fashioned  so  as  to 
represent  the  mouths  of  monsters.  The  basilisk, 
the  largest,  shot  stones  of  200  pounds  weight. 
It  was  so  denominated  fit>m  a  basilisk  sculptured 
upon  it.  The  shot  in  this  reign  consisted  of 
iron,  lead,  and  stone  balls;  and  ladles  and 
sponges  were  used.  Different  proportions  were 
given  by  various  nations  to  pieces  of  the  same 
denomination ;  but  the  following  table  of  Ord- 
nance in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  applies  m  the 
main  to  the  times  immediately  preceding : 


Denomination. 


Cannon  Royal    . 
Cannon     .    .    .    , 
Cannon  Serpentine  , 
Bastard  Cannon 
Demi-cannon 

Cannon  Petro'    . 

Culverin    .    .     .  . 

Basilisk     .    .     .  . 

Demi-culverin    .  . 
Bastard  Culverin 

Sacar  .... 
Minion  ... 
Faulcon  .  .  . 
Falconet  '.  .  . 
Serpentine  .  . 
Rabinet     .    .    . 


i 

0U 


66 

60 

53| 

41 

33 

24 

m 

15 

n 

5 

5\ 

4 

2 

n 
i 


I 


8i 

B 

7 

7 

6i 


5J 
5 
4 
4 

35 

H 

2 

n 


The  change  introduced  in  the  military  art  by 
'the  modem  artillery.  Dr.  Smith  observes,  has 
enhanced  greatly  both  the  expense  of  exercising 
and  disciplining  any  particular  number  of  sol- 
diers in  time  of  peace,  and  that  of  employing 
them  in  time  of  war.  Both  their  arms  and  am- 
munition are  become  more  expensive.  A  musket 
is  a  more  expensive'machine  than  a  javelin  or  a 
bow  and  arrows ;  a  cannon  or  a  moiW  than  a 
balista  or  a  catapulta.  The  powder  which  is 
spent  in  a  modem  review,  is  lost  irrecoverably, 
and  occasions  a  very  considerable  expense.  The 
javelins  and  arrows  which  were  thrown  or  shot  in 
an  ancient  one,  could  easily  be  picked  up  again, 
and  were  besides  of  very  little  value.    Tne  < 

C 


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ARTILLERY. 


non  and  the  ;flortar  are  not  only  mu'cb  dearer, 
but  much  heavier  machines  than  the  balista  or 
catapulta,  and  require  a  greater  expense  not  only 
to  prepare  them  for  the  field  but  to  carry  them  to 
it.  As  the  superiority  of  the  modern  artillery 
too  over  that  of  the  ancients  is  very  great,  it  has 
become  much  more  difficult,  and  consequently 
much  more  expensive,  to  fortify  a  town  so  as  to 
resist,  even  for  a  few  weeks,  the  attack  of  that 
superior  artillery.  In  modem  war,  the  great  ex- 
pense of  fire-arms  gives  an  evident  advantage  to 
the  nation  which  can  be^t  afibrd  that  expense ; 
and  consequently  to  an  opulent  apd  civilised, 
over  a  poor  and  barbarous  nation.  In  ancient 
times,  the  opulent  and  civilised  found  it  difficult 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  poor  and  bar- 
barous nations.  In  modern  times,  the  poor  and 
barbarous  find  it  difficult  to  defend  themselves 
against  the  opulent  and  civilised.  The  invention 
of  fire-arms,  therefore,  an  invention,  which  at 
first  sight  appears  to  be  so  pernicious,  is  cer-* 
tainly  fiivorable,  both  to  the  permanency  and 
to  the  extension  of  civilisation.  And,  on  the 
whole,  the  invention  of  gun-powder  and  modern 
artillery  may  be  said  to  have  saved  the  effusion 
of  human  blood.  Equestrian  engagements  (the 
principles  on  which  cavalry  act  being  nearly  the 
same  m  every  age,)  are  still  simiUr  in  circum-< 
stances  to  those  which  appear  so  4»xtraordinary 
in  the  battles  of  antiquity. 

The  present  artillery  of  Great  Britain  is  ad- 
mitted to  be  the  most  perfect  force  of  that 
description  in  Europe.  It  was  until  recently 
divide  into  the  artillery  of  the  park,  the  horse 
artillery,  and  the  battalion  guns,  viz.  all  the  light 
pieces  of  ordnance  attached  to  regiments  of  the 
line.  This  latter  description,  however,  has  been 
discontinued  of  late,  and  origades  of  foot  and  horse 
now  comprehend  the  whole  of  our  regular  artillery. 

A  brigade  of  foot  artillery  has  either  five  me- 
dium 12-poundersand  a  heavy  5 ^-inch  howitzer; 
five  9-pounders  and  ditto ;  five  long  6-po*mders 
and  ditto;  five  light  6-pounders  and  a  light  Sc- 
inch howitzer ;  or  six  3-pounders  when  acting  in 
a  mountainous  district.  In  the  late  vrar  the 
9-pounders  were  more  generally  used,  as  best 
opposed  to  the  8-pounders  of  the  French  army. 
The  guns  and  howitzers  are  accompanied  by 
ammunition  cars,  upon  a  new  principle.  To 
every  brigade  is  a  forge  cart,  a  camp  equipage 
waggon,  and  sparegun  carriage,  with  spare 
wheels,  and  tools  for  a  wheeler,  collar-maker, 
and  carriage-smith.  The  proportioning  of  field 
and  battering  ordnance,  for  foreign  service,  is  a 
business  of  great  importance,  from  the  know- 
ledge which  is  requisite  to  fix  upon  all  the  nu- 
merous articles  to  accompany  the  service,  and 
the  method  to  be  pursued  in  equalising,  arrang- 
mg,  and  disposing  of  the  guns,  ammunition,  aad 
stores.  No  certain  criterion  can  ever  be  esta- 
blished as  to  the  proportion  of  artillery  to  be 
sent  upon  any  expedition,  as  it  must  depend 
entirely  upon  Uie  nature  of  the  service ;  and  great 
changes  are  generally  made  to  suit  the  ideas  of 
the  officer  who  is  to  command  the  army,  and 
also  those  of  the  officer  of  artillery,  who  may  be 
selected  to  accompany  it.  But  two  brigades  of 
field  artillery  to  a  division  of  an  army  consisting 
of  6000  men,  may  be  considered  a  good  propor- 
tion, independent  of  the  reserve  park. 


A  troop  of  British  horse  artillery  has  generally, 
five  6-poundei8  and  one  light  5i-inch  howitzer. 
The  French  have  generally  8-pounders  and  a 
6-inch  howitzer,  ^ch  troqp  consisting  of  one 
captain,  one  second  captain,  three  subaltern^, 
two  staff*  Serjeants,  twelve  non-commissioned  of- 
ficers, seventy-five  gunners,  forty-six  drivers,  six 
artificers,  and  one  trumpeter,  with  eighty-six 
draught  horses,  apd  fifty-six  riding  horses,  and 
six  pieces  of  ordnance,  with  carnages  for  the 
conveyance  of  ammunition,  camp  equipage,  and 
stores. ,  Horse  artillery  was  brought  into  the 
service  of  this  country  by  the  duke  of  Richmond 
in  the  year  1792.  There  is  a  colonel-command- 
ant, two  colonels  en  second,  four  lieutenant^ 
colonels,  and  one  major,  attached  to  it.  The 
movements  of  horse  artillery  are  made  with  great 
celerity,  aqd  it  has  been  found,  that  they  are 
perfectly  adapted  to  act  with  cavaUry  in  the  field, 
in  their  most  rapid  movements,  and  are  co|isi- 
dered  as  forming  an  essential  addition  to  the 
artillery  service. 

The  rc^al  artillery  drivers  are  a  corps  first 
formed  about  twelve  years  ago,  by  the  ouke  of 
Eichmond.  Previous  to  the  corps  being  esta- 
blished, the  horses  and  drivers  were  provided  by 
contract ;  but,  as  no  reliance  could  be  placed  on 
the  service  of  either  men  or  horses  so  procured, 
it  was  found  absolutely  necessary  to  abolish  so 
upmilitary  and  destructive  a  plan ;  and  to  em- 
ploy able  men  well  trained  to  the  service.  The 
artillery  horses  are  now  kept  in  the  highest  con- 
dition, the  drivers  being  thoroughly  drilled  to 
the  manoeuvres  of  artillery,  and  capable  of  se- 
curing, by  rapid  movemenU,  advantageous  posi- 
tions in  uie  field.  This  change  arises  from  the 
high  atate  of  excellence  in  which  the  brigades 
are  equipped,  and  from  the  artillery  men  being, 
in  particular  casea^  mounted  upon  the  cars  at- 
tending the  brigades. 

A  park  of  artillery  is  a  sort  of  movable  super- 
numerary detachment,  oontsuning  not  only  light 
guns,  to  replace  such  as  may  be  lost  or  taken, 
but  12-pottnders^  or  18-pounders,  with  8  inch 
howitzeis,  for  the  purpose  of  defending  impor- 
tant  piOtfitions,  entfenched  posts,  &c.  breaking 
down  bridges,  and  conductii^  sieges.  Attached 
to  it  also  are  the  reserve  officers  and  men  of  this 
service.  In  expedition  service,  where  disem- 
barkations of  artillery  take  place,  the  depot  of 
reserve  carriages,  ammunition  and  stores,  is 
usually  formed  near  to  the  spot  where  the  articles 
are  landed  from  the  ships»  and  a  communication 
is  kepi  up  between  the  advanced  park  and  the 
depot,  from  whence  the  articlei  ace  forwarded 
as  demanded  for  the  immediate  exigencies  of  the 
park. 

Regiments  of  artillery  are  always  encamped, 
half  on  the  right  and  half  on  the  left  of  the  park 
The  company  of  bombardiers  (when  they  are 
formed  into  companies,  which  is  the  case  in  al- 
most every  nation  except  England)  always  takes 
the  right  of  the  whole,  and  the  lieutenant  colo- 
nel's company  the  left ;  next  to  the  bombardiers, 
the  colonels,  the  ms^rs,  &c.  so  that  the  two 
youngest  are  next  but  one  to  the  centre  or  park  ; 
the  two  companies  next  to  the  park  are  ibc 
miners  on  the  right,  and  the  artificers  on  the  left. 
In  the  rear  o^  and  thirty-six  feet  fit>in,  the  paik, 
are  encamped  the  civil  list,  all  in  one  line. 


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19 


The  ioUowing  Tables  exhibit  the  latest  official  reflations  for  the  proportion  and  disposition  of 
the  ammunition  attached  to  the  field-pieces  of  our  army. 

TABLE  I. 
Heavy  5|  Iwch  Howitzer. 


^ 


l"3 


B 

c 


Where  carried. 


Howitzer  limber  I  ^fj^^ 

(  Off  Box  . 
}  Near  Box  . 
J  Fore  Box  . 
i  Hind  Box 

Total    . 


S  §>C   Limber 

HI 

||(    Body. 


58 


Case  Shot. 


4      78 


Cartridges. 


78 


58 


LiOHT  5^  Ikch  Howitzer. 


I 


I 


"•Homtasr  limber  I  Of„»^ 


Limber 
Body. 


Box. 
c  Off  Box  . 
i  Near  Box . 
(  Fore  Box . 
l  Hind  Box 

Total    . 


These  are  only  1-lb  cartridges. 

TABLE  n. 
Heavy  Six-Pounder. 


62      10       8       4     84     84     62       8 


10* 

10 

11 

11 

21 

21 


B 


£ 


Where  cazried. 


Gun  limber . 


Limber 


Body.     I 


^  Off  Box    . 

J  Near  Box 

i  OIF  Box    . 

C  Near  Box 
Fore  Box 
Hind  Box 

Total 


Total  for  five  guns      700 


140 


Case  Shdt 


15 


75 


15 


75 


10 


—     10 


20 


100 


190 


950 


Cartridges. 


170 


850 


20 


100 


20 


100 


Light  Six-Pounder. 


r  c  i 

rBox   . 

.  ;  .  . 

8 

^    , 

^_ 

_ 

8 

. • 

, 

_ 

^ 

k\ 

} 

1  Off  Box    .... 
iNearBox.    .    .    . 

16 

5 

•— 



21 

25 

_ 



1 

^  i 

<- 

16 



5 

— 

21 

25 





^ 

^   Limber 

J  Off  Box    ...    . 
i  Near  Box  ...    , 

16 
16 

4 

4 

— 

20 
20 

20 
20 

— 

— 

3 

[   Body. 

tf  Fore  Box  .... 
{Hind  Box.     .     .     . 

Total      .... 

Total  for  five  guns  . 

25 

5 

5 

10 

45 

35 

10 

10 

35 

— 

10 

45 

35 

10 

10 

132 

14 

14 

20 

180 

160 

20     20 

660 

70 

70 

100 

900 

800 

lOO  iioo 

These  are  only  l^-lb.  cartridges. 


C  2 


Digitized  by 


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20 


ARTILLERY. 


TABLE  m. 

NiNE-POUNDER. 


. — . — _ — 1 

Description, 
of  carriage. 

Where  carried 

i 

O 

Case  Shot. 

o 

Cartridges. 

> 

4 

^ 

p. 

i 
pi 

S 

i 

CO 

1 

1 

i 

■V 

n 

fGun  Limber     .     .     ^  "ff  Bo,^^  ;     ;    ;    ; 

11^'™'--  •  \ZfZ.:  :  :  : 

.    i  5  i'  T>    1                   t  t'ore  Box  .... 
.  ^-)Body     .     .     ^HindBox.     .     .     . 

Total 

^                              Total  for  five  guns  .     .     . 

13 
13 
13 
13 
12 
24 

3 
3 
2 

3 

3 
2 

12 

16 
16 
16 
16 
28 
24 

16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
24 

12 

12 

88 

8 

8 

12 

116 

104 

12 

12 

440 

40 

40 

60 

580 

520 

60 

60 

r  Gun  limber,  two  boxes 

lAmunition  Carriage 

)                         Total 

Total  for  five  guns  .... 

26 
52 

3 
5 

3 
5 

10 

32 
72 

32 
62 

10 

kO 

78 

8 

8 

10 

104 

94 

10 

10 

390 

40 

40 

50 

520 

470 

50 

50 

TABLE  IV. 

Medium  Twelve-Pounder, 


1^ 

Wliere  canied. 

1 

1 

Case  shot. 

1 

1 

Cartridges. 

fib 

"(3 

•g. 

05 

^ 
-* 

4 

i 

1 

z 

I.i 
si 

s 

rGunLin,ber...|Offf-^;;;:; 

iHLih.ber..^,«fJ^o-;;;::;; 

'  <U  C**'*'*>  ■  •  •    ^  Hind  Box 

Total 

Total  for  five  guns 

3 
5 

12 
12 
12 
16 

1 

4 
2 

1 

4 
2 

8 

6 
6 
16 
16 
20 
20 

6 

6 
16 
16 
12 
20 

8 

8 

62 

7 

7 

8 

84 

76 

8 

8 

310 

35 

35 

40 

420 

380 

40 

40 

'Gun  Limber...  j  g^f ^  ^  ; ;  ] ; ; ; 

5  to  C  Limber  Box 

5 

5 

22 
13 
13 

1 

2 
2 
2 

1 

2 
2 
2 

6 

6 
6 

32 
17 
17 

6 

6 

26 
17 
17 

6 

6 

£  'S  <  T>  J               S  Fore  Box  ......  ! 

^  |^|Body  ...    jHi^dBox 

Total 

^                       Total  for  five  guns 

58 

7 

7 

6 

78 

72 

6 

6 

1 

O 

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ARTOCARPUS. 


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ARTISCUS ;  from  aproc,  bread ;  in  medicine, 
denotes  a  troche,  more  particularly  that  pre- 

eared  with  vipers  ^esh  mixed  up  with  bread,  to 
e  used  in  th6  composition  of  Venice  treacle. 

ARTIST.    See  Art. 

An  Abtist  has  more  correctly  been  defined 
one  who  practises  any  of  the  liberal  arts  as  a 
profession,  in  distinction  from  the  artisan  who 
mixes  them  with  trade  and  commerce.  The 
Duilder,  it  is  said,  should  not  be  called  an  archi- 
tect, nor  should  Uie  sign-painter,  the  figure- 
caster,  or  plasterer,  the  cnair-sculptor,  com- 
monly called  cabinet-maker,  the  paper-hanger, 
or  wall-decorator,  be  called  artists,  because  their 
employments  do  not  consist  in  the  exercise  of 
the  higher  fiiculties  of  the  mind,  but  in  prac- 
tising lower  departments  of  art,  or  in  executing 
the  thoughts  and  designs  of  others.  We  are  told 
of  a  privilege  granted  at  Vicenza  to  arttsts,  some- 
tliing  like  me  benefit  of  clergy  in  England,  in 
virtue  whereof  a  criminal  adjudged  to  death 
saves  his  life  if  he  can  prove  himself  the  most 
consummate  workman  in  any  usefiil  art  This 
plea  is  allowed  them,  in  favorem  artis,  for  the 
first  offence ;  except  in  some  particular  crimes, 
of  which  coinine  is  one ;  for  here  the  greater  the 
artist  the  more  dangerous  the  person. 

ARTiZOOS;  from  apn  short,  and  ^wiy,  life; 
is  used  by  some  ancient  physicians  for  an  infant 
short-lived  by  reason  of  a  difficult  birth. 

ARTOBRIGA,  an  ancient  town  of  Vindelicia, 
now  called  Altzburg,  in  Bavaria,  on  the  Danube, 
below  Ingolstadt,  according  to  Aventinus ;  but 
Cluverius  supposes  it  to  be  Labenau  on  the 
Saltzbach,  below  Laufien,  in  the  archbishopric 
of  Saltsburg. 

ARTOCARPUS;  from  o^oq,  bread,  and 
capiroc,  fruit;  the  bread-fruit  tree;  a  genus  of 
the  monandria  order  and  monoecia  class ;  natural 
order,  urticae.  It  has  a  cylindric  amentum, 
thickens  gradually,  and  is  covered  with  flowers : 
the  male  and  female  in  a  different  amentum.  In 
the  male,  cal.  none ;  cos.  bivalved.  In  the  fe^ 
male  no  calyx  nor  corolla ;  stylus,  one,  and  the 
dnipa  is  many  celled.  The  species  are,  artocar- 
pus  incisa,  sitodium  incisum,  radermachia  incisa, 
soccus  lanosus,  seu  granosus,  in  French  le  rima, 
ou  fruit  k  pain,  bread-fruit  tree,  native  of  the 
^Molucca  Islands.  Artocarpus  integrifolia,  sito- 
dium macrocarpon,  seu  cauliflonim,  raderma- 
chia Integra,  soccus  arboreus,  seu  tojacca-marum 
Indica,  Indian  jaca  tree,  a  shrub,  native  of  the 
Kast  Indies.  Artocarpus  Philippensis,  a  shrub, 
native  of  the  Phillippine  Islanas.  Artocarpus 
pubescens,  ansjeli,  seu  castania  malabarica,  a 
shrub,  native  of  Malabar.  Though  this  tree  has 
been  mentioned  by  many  voyagers,  particularly 
by  Dampier,  Rumphius,  and  Lord  Anson,  yet 
very  little  notice  seems  to  have  been  taken  of  it 
till  the  return  of  Captain  Wallis  from  the  South 
Seas.  Dampier  states  that  in  Guam,  one  of  the 
£adrone  islaiids,  '  there  is  a  certain  fruit  called 
the  bread-fruit,  growing  on  a  tree  as  big  as  our 
lanre  apple-trees,  with  dark  leaves.  It  is  round, 
and  grows  on  the  boughs  like  apples,  of  the  big- 
ness of  a  good  penny  loaf:  when  ripe  it  turns 
yellow,  soft,  and  sweet,  but  the  natives  take  it 
green,  and  bake  it  in  an  oven  till  the  rind  is 
bbck ;  this  they  scrape  off  and  eat  the  inside. 


which  is  soft  and  white,  like  the  inside  of  new- 
baked  bread,  having  neither  seed  nor  stone ;  but 
if  kept  above  twenty-four  hours  it  is  harsh.  As 
this  fruit  is  in  season  eight  months  in  the  year, 
the  natives  feed  upon  no  other  sort  of  bread 
during  that  time.'  Rumphius  says,  *  the  fruit  is 
shaped  like  a  heart,  and  increases  to  the  size  of  a 
child's  head.  Its  surface  or  rind  is  thick,  green, 
and  covered  everywhere  with  warts  of  a  qua- 
dragonal  or  hexagonal  figure,  like  cut  diamonds, 
but  without  points.  The  more  flat  and  smooth 
these  warts  are  the  fewer  seeds  are  contained  in 
the  firuit,  and  the  greater  is  the  quantity  of  pith, 
and  that  of  a  more  glutinous  nature.  The  inter- 
nal part  of  the  rind,  or  peel,  consists  of  a  fleshy 
substance,  full  of  twisted  fibres,  which  have  the 
appearance  of  fine  wool ;  these  adhere  to  and  in 
some  measure  form  it.  The  fleshy  part  becomes 
softer  towards  the  middle,  where  there  is  a  small 
cavity  formed  without  any  nuts  or  seeds,  except 
in  one  species  which  has  but  a  small  number, 
and  this  sort  is  not  good  unless  it  is  baked  or 
prepared  some  other  way ;  but  if  the  outward 
rina  be  taken  off,  and  the  fibrous  flesh  dried  and 
afterwards  boiled  with  meat  as  we  do  cabbage,  it 
has  then  the  taste  of  artichoke  bottoms.  The  in- 
habitants of  Amboyna  dress  it  in  the  liquor  of 
cocoa-nuts,  but  they  prefer  it  roasted  on  coals 
till  the  outward  part  or  peel  is  burnt.  They 
afterwards  cut  it  mto  pieces  and  eat  it  with  the 
milk  of  the  cocoa-nut.  Some  people  make  fi-it- 
ters  of  it,  or  fry  it  in  oil;  and  others,  as  the  Su- 
matrans,  dry  the  internal  soft  part,  and  keep  it  to 
use,  instead'of  bread,  with  other  food.  It  affords 
a  great  deal  of  nourishment,  and  is  very  satisfy- 
ing, .  therefore  proper  for  hard-^working  people ; 
and  being  of  a  gentle  astringent  quality  is  good 
for  persons  of  a  laxative  habit  of  body.  It  is 
more  nourishing  boiled  in  our  manner  with  fat 
meat,  than  roasted  on  coals.  The  milky  juice 
which  distils  fVom  the  trunk,  boiled  with  the 
cocoa-nut  oil,  make.<i  a  very  strong  bird-lime. 
This  tree  is  to  be  found  on  the  eastern  parts 
of  Sumatra,  and  in  the  Malay  language  is  called 
soccus  and  soccum  capas..  It  grows  likewise 
about  the  town  of  Bantam  in  Java,  and  in 
Balega  and  Madura.' 

In  1791  a  vessel  was  fitted  out  for  the  pur- 
pose of  conveying  a  quantity  of  these  inestinui- 
Dle  trees  to  various  parts  of  his  majesty's  co- 
lonies, under  the  command  of  Captain  Bligh, 
who  set  sail  on  the  2d  of  August,  and  arrived 
at  Otaheite  April  8,  1792.  The  number  of  plants 
taken  on  board  at  Otaheite  was  2634,  in  1281 
pots,  tubs,  and  cases;  and  of  these  1151  were 
bread-fruit  trees.  When  they  arrived  at  Coupang 
200  plants  were  dead ;  but  the  rest  were  in  good 
order.  They  arrived  at  St.  Helena  with  830 
fine  bread-fruit  trees,  besides  other  plants.  Here 
they  left  some  of  them,  and  from  hence  the 
East  Indies  may  be  supplied  with  them.  On 
their  arrival  at  St.  Vincent's  they  had  678  bread- 
fruit treed.  Nearly  half  this  cargo  was  deposited 
here  for  the  use  of  the  Windward  Islands ;  and 
the  remainder,  intended  for  the  Leeward  Islands, 
was  conveyed  to  Jamaica,  and  distributed  as  the 
governor  and  council  of  Jamaica  pleased  to  direct. 
The  exact  number  of  bread-fruit  trees  brought  to 
Jamaica  was  352,  out  of  which  five  only  were 


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ARV  22 

reserved  for  the  botanic  garden  at  Kew.  There 
is  a  distinction  between  that  which  bears  fruit 
with  stones  or  seeds,  and  that  in  which  the  fruit 
has  none.  The  parts  of  fructification  of  that 
tree  which  bears  the  fruit  without  stones  are  de- 
fective. The  amentum,  or  catkin,  which  con- 
tains the  male  parts,  never  expands.  The  styli, 
or  female  parts  of  the  fruit,  are,  likewise  defi- 
cient :  from  which  it  follows  that  there  cSfli  be 
no  stones  or  seeds,  and  therefore  this  tree  can 
only  be  propagated  by  suckers  or  layers;  although 
it  is  abundantly  evident  that  it  nnist  originally 
have  proceeded  from  the  seed-bearing  bread- 
fruit tree.  Instances  of  this  kind  we  sometimes 
find  in  European  fruit,  such  as  the  barberry  and 
the  Corinthian  grape  from  Zant,  commonly 
called  currants,  whicn  can  therefore  be  increased 
only  by  layers  and  cuttings.  Dr.  Solander  was 
assured  by  the  oldest  inhabitants  of  Otaheite, 
and  the  adjoining  islands,  that  they  well  remem- 
bered there  was  formerly  plenty  of  the  seed-bear^ 
ing  bread-fruit;  but  they  had  been  neglected  on 
account  of  the  preference  given  to  the  bread-fruit 
without  seed,  which  they  propagate  by  suckers. 

ARTOIS,  a  ci-devant  province  of  France,  ex- 
tremely fertile,  and  formerly  one  of  the  seven- 
teen provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  The  name 
was  derived  from  the  Atrebates,  the  ancient  in- 
habitants. Its  greatest  length  from  north  to 
south  was  about  twenty-four  leagues,  and  its 
breadth  about  twelve,  being  bounded  on  the 
south  and  west  by  Picardy;  on  the  east  by 
Hainault;  and  on  the  north  by  Flanders.  It  is 
now  included  in  the  department  of  the  Straits 
of  Calais.  Artois  was  always  accounted  a  very 
productive  province.  It  is  rich  in  com  and  hops, 
but  is  deficient  in  wood,  and  yields  little  wine  or 
fruit.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  grain,  fiax, 
hops,  wool,  oil,  cabbage,  and  rape-seed. 

ARTOMELI;  from  oproc,  bread,  and  /icXiy 
honey;  in  ancient  pharmacy,  a  kind  of  cata- 
plasm, prepared  of  bread  and  honey. 

ARTOTYRITES;  firom  oproc  and  mpof, 
cheese ;  a  branch  of  the  ancient  Montanists,  who 
first  appeared  in  the  second  century  in  Galatia. 
They  used  bread  and  cheese  in  the  Eucharist,  or 
perhaps  bread  baked  with  cheese.  TTieir  reason 
was,  that  the  first  men  offered  to  God  not  only 
the  fruits  of  the  earth,  but  of  their  flocks  too. 
The  artotyrites  admitted  women  to  the.  priestF- 
hood,  and  even  to  be  bishops ;  'and  Epiphanius 
informs  us,  that  it  was  a  common  tiling  to  see 
seven  girls  at  once  enter  into  their  church  robed 
in  white,  and  holding  torches  in  their  hands; 
where  they  wept  and  bewailed  the  wretchedness 
of  human  nature,  and  the  miseries  of  this  life. 

ARTZEN,  a  market-town  and  bailiwic  of 
Calenberg,  in  the  principality  of  Hanover,  be- 
tween the  Homme  and  VVeser.  To  the  bailiwic 
belong  twenty-two  Tillages  and  the  castle  of 
Furstenberg,  fonnerly  the  property  of  the  count 
of  Oberstein.  This  town  is  the  seat  of  an  eccle- 
siastical superintendant. 

ARVAD,  or  Aradus,  an  ancient  city  of  Phce- 
nicia,  built  on  a  small  island,  south  of  Tyre, 
about  three  miles  from  the  continent.  It  was 
formerly  famous  for  commerce  and  riches,  and 
shared  the  fate  of  Tyre.  It  is  now  called  Ru-' 
wadde,  and  belongs  to  the  Turks.  It  is  quite 
ruinous,  having  only  an  old  fort  and  a  few  can- 


ARU 

non  to  defend  it;  but  the  height  of  the  island 
gives  it  a  fine  appeamace  (inom  a  distance. 

ARVAL,  a  town  of  Hindost«a,  in  the  district  and 
province  of  Bahar,  forty  miles  south-wQst  of  Patna. 

ARV  ALES  Fratrbs,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
college  of  twelve  priests,  instituted  by  Homplusy 
and  chosen  out  ot  the  most  noble  families,  him- 
self being  one  of  the  body :  they  assisted  in  the 
sacrifices  of  the  ambervaliat  annually  ofiered  to 
Ceres  and  Bacchus  for  the  prosperity  of  the 
fruits  of  the  earth,  wh6n  they  wore  on  their 
heads  crowns  made  of  ears  of  coni<  The  origin 
of  this  institution  was  as  follows :  Acca  Lauii^n- 
tia,  Romulus'  nurse,  was  accustomed  once  a 
year  to  make  a  solemn  sacrifice  for  a  blessing  oq 
the  fields,  her  twelve  aona  always  assisting  her 
in  the  solemnity ;  but  at  last  losing  one  of  them, 
Romulus  offered  himself  to  supply  his  place, 
and  gave  this  small  society  the  name  of  Arvales 
fratres.  This  order  was  in  great  repute  at  Rome.; 
they  held  the  dignity  for  iSe,  and  never  lost  it 
on  account  of  imprbonment  or  banishment. 

ARU  AN  US,  in  conchology,  a  /species  of  mu- 
rex,  found  on  the  coast  of  New  Guinea.  The 
tail  is  patulous ;  the  spire  crowned  with  spines. 
Thid  is  the  buccinum  aruanum  of  Rumphius. 

ARVENSIS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  cur- 
culio;  gray,  with  three  lines  on  the  ^orax;  the 
wing-ca<ies  rufous,  and  tessalated.  Also  a  spe- 
cies of  cicada,  a  native  of  Denmark:  yellow; 
abdomen  and  sides  black.  A  species  of^pha- 
Itena;  the  phalaena  noctua  of  Linnaeus.  The 
wings  are  brown,  with  a  transverse  yellow  spot 
in  the  middle;  margin  brown.  This  is  the  noctua 
brunnea  of  Schmetterl.  Alfto  a  species  of  Vespa, 
found  in  Europe,  with  four  yellow  bands  on  the 
abdomen. 

ARVERNI,  a  brave  and  ancient  people ;  one 
of  the  roost  powerful  nations  of  Gaul  They 
claimed  affimty  with  the'  Romans,  as  descend- 
ants fcom  Antenor ;  and  after  their  subjugation 
by  the  latter,  their  ancient  liberty  was  preserved 
to  them  on  account  of  their  bravery. 

ARVICOLA9  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
scarabeus,  found  in  Russia:  the  shield  of  the 
head  reflected ;  the  body  black. 

ARVIRAGUS,  the  son  of  Cunobelin,  a  British 
king,  in  the  time  of  Claudius  and  Domitian. 

ARUM,  or  Wak£-robxn,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the  class  monoecia;  order,  poly- 
andria.  There  are  several  species,  of  whicti  the 
following  are  the  most  remarkable.  The  generic 
characters  are  c  al.  spathe,one-leaved :  cor.  none : 
STAM.  filaments,  none;  anthers,  sessile:  pist. 
germ,  obovate ;  style,  none ;  stigma,  bearded : 
PER.  berry,  globular ;  seeds,  seyeral.  A.  arbor- 
escens,  or  dumb  cane,  is  a  native  of  the  sugar 
islands  and  warm  parts  of  America,  where  it 
grows  chiefly  on  low  grounds.  A.  arisarium  as 
well  as  the  A.  proboscidium  and  A.  tenuifolium 
baye  usually  been  separated  from  this  genus, 
and  distinguished  by  the  general  name  of  ariU- 
nim,  or  friar*s  cowl :  the  flower  bears  in  April. 
A.  oolocasia,  as  well  as  the  A.  divaricatum,  es- 
culentum,  peregrinum,  and  sagittifolium,  have 
all  mild  roots,  which  <^are  eaten  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  hot  countries,  where  they  grow  naturally. 
A.  dracunculus,  or  the  common  dragon's  cane, 
grows  naturally  in  most  of  the  southern  pnrts  of 
Europe.    A.  Italicum,  a  native  of  Italy,  Spain, 


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ARUNDEL. 


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Mod  Poiti^jpU :  they  appear  in  the  end  of  April 
0r  begioning  of  May.  A.  niaculatiun,  or  com- 
mon  wake-Tobiiiy  grows  nalorally  in  woods  and 
on  ahady  banks  in  most  parts  of  Britain }  the 
flowers  appear  ii  April,  and  their  structure 
lias  given  rise  to  many  disputes  among  the 
botanists.  The  receptacle  is  loiig,  in  the  shape  of 
a  eluby  with  the  seed-buds  surrounding  its  base. 
The  diives  are  fixed  to  the  reoeptade  amongst 
the  seed-buds  fixed  to  Ihe  fruit-stalky  and  placed 
between  two  vows  of  tendrils^  the  use  of  wnich  is 
not  known.  A.  trilobatum^  or  arum  of  Ceylon, 
is  a  native  of  that  island  and  some  other  parts  of 
India,  All  the  species  of  this  plant  are  hardy, 
exoept  the  trilobatum  and  the  arboresoens.  The 
former  must  be  kept  constantly  in  a  stove^ 
aod  the  latter  in  a  moderate  hot-bed.  The 
arborescens  is  propagated  by  cutting  off  the 
stalks  into  lengthi  of  three  or  four  joints,  which 
must  be  left  to  dry  six  weeks  or  two  months; 
for  if  the  wounded  part  is  not  perfectly  healed 
over  before  the  cuttmgs  are  planted,  they  will 
rot  and  decay.  They  are  then  to  be  plaated  in 
small  pots  filled  with  light  sandy  earth,  and 
plunged  in  a  moderate  hot-bed  of  tan,  observing 
to  let  them  have  little  water  till  they  have  taken 
good  ropt.  The  roots  of  the  macolatum  and 
dracunculus  are  used  in  medicine,  and  differ  in 
nothing  but  that  the  latter  is  somewhat  stronger 
than  the  former.  All  the  parts  of  the  arum, 
particularly  the  root,  have  an  extremely  pungent 
acrimonioos  taste ;  but  if  4ried  and  kept  some 
time,  it  loses  much  of  its  acrimony^  and  becomes 
at  length  an  almoel  insipid, farinaceous  substance. 
This  root  is  a  powerful  stimulant  and  attenuant. 
It  is  reckoned  a  medicine  of  great  efficacy  in 
some  cachectic  aod  chlorotic  oases,  in  weakness 
of  the  stomach  oceasioned  by  a  load  of  viscid 
phlegm.  Great  benefit  has  been  obtained  from  it 
in  rheumatic  pains,  in  which  it  may  be  given 
from  ten  grains  to  a  scmple  of  the  fresh  root 
twice,  or  thrice  a-day,  made  into  a  bolus  or  emul- 
sion with  unotiious  and  mucilaginous  substances, 
which  cover  its  pungency,  and  prevent  its  making 
any  painful  impression  on  the  tongue.  It  gene- 
rally excites  a  slight  tingling  sensation  through 
the  whole  habit,  and  when  the  patient  is  kept 
warm  in  bed,  produces  a  copious  sweat  Tne 
arum  was  formerly  an  ingredient  in  an  oflScinal 
preparation,  tl)e  oompound  powder;  but  in  that 
Ibrm  iu  virtues  are  f  ery  precarious.  Some  re- 
commend a  tkictureof  it  draiwn  with  wine;  but 
neither  wine,  water  nor  spirits,  extract  its  virtues. 

ARUNCI,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  Ci- 
cada of  a  ferruginous  color  and  brown  eyes. 

AIIUNCO,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  rana,.or 
toad,  larger  than  tbe  common  frog,  but  of  the 
same  color.  It  is  foux^d  in  Chili.  All  the  feet 
are  palmated. 

ARUNCUS,  Greater  Meadow-sweet,  in 
botany,  a  genus  of  plants,  called  by  Toumefort 
and  others  barra  caprse,  aikd  by  Linnaeus  spirea. 
This  plant  has  been  supposed  to  be  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  fiiipendula,  but,  by  the  examina- 
tion of  the  flowers,  they  appear  to  be  extremely 
different. 

AIIU^DA,  a  town  of  Hispania  Bietica,  on  the 
Annas,  or  Guadiana,  now  said  to  be  Ronda  in 
Granada,  on  the  confines  of  Andalusia.  Long. 
5*'40'W.,lat.  36^26' N. 


f 
fo 


ARUNDEL,  an  ancient  borough  and  market 
town  of  Sussex,  seated  on  the  north-west  side  of 
the  Arun,  over  which  there  is  a  bridge.  It 
had  a  harbour  in  which  a  ship  of  100  tons  bur- 
den might  ride ;  but  the  sea  had  iruined  it  so 
&r,  that  in  1733  an  act  passed  for  repairing  it, 
and  for  erecting  new  piers,  locks,  &c.  The  river 
is  now  navigable  for  vessels  of  200  tons  and  up- 
wards, and  the  navigation  is  carried  on  to  the 
Thames  by  means  of  a  canal.  It  abounds  in 
mullet  of  a  very  fine  quality.  A  considerable 
trade  in  bark  is  carried  on  here.  Arundel  is  a 
borough  by  prescription,  and  has  sent  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament  from  the  time  of  Edward  I. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  will  of  Alfred,  who  left  the 
castle  to  his  brother's  son.    It  was  formerly  li 

glace  of  great  strength,  and  was  besieged  by 
[enry  I.  in  person,  by  whom  it  was  taken  after  a 
gallant  resistance  from  Bellesone  de  Montgomery 
earl  of  Arundel.  The  castle,  which  belonged  to 
the  fiunily  of  Howard,  was  until  lately  in  a 
mouldering  condition ;  but  completely  repaired 
by  the  late  Duke  of  Norfolk,  at  a  great  expense. 
A  weekly  market  ia  held  here  on  Tfaursday.  Po- 
pulation 2700.  Arundel  is  the  premier  earidom 
m  England,  belonging  to  the  iUustrious  family 
of  Norfolk ;  and  is  the  only  title  in  England 
that  goes  along  with  the  lands.  It  is  fifty-seven 
miles  south-west  by  south  of  London,  amd  ten 
east  of  Chichester. 

Arundel  Oil,  in  the  materia  medica.  At 
Bombay,  Gambroon,  and  Surat  in  the  East  In- 
dies, there  grows  a  tree  which  bears  a  nut  en- 
closed in  a  rough  husk,  resembling  the  horse 
diestnnt ;  and  the  kernel  of  the  ntft  yields  an  oil 
by  expression,  which  is  of  a  purgative  nature 
A  tea-spooTiful  of  it  is  reckoned  a  dose.  The 
tree  is  called,  the  Arundel  tree  at  Bombay  and  its 
oil  tlie  Arundel  oil.  Dr.  Monro  thinks  it  pro- 
bable that  this  is  the  oil  of  the  purging  nuts 
mentioned  in  Dale's  pharmacologia,  and  the 
palma  Christi  Indica  ot  Toumefort. 

Arundel  (Thomas),  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury in  the  reigns  of  Richard  II.  Henry  IV.  and 
Henry  V.,  the  second  son  of  Robert,  and  brother 
of  Richard  earl  of  Arundel,  who  was  beheaded. 
In  1375,  at  twenty-two  years  of  age,  from  being 
archdeacon  of  Taunton  he  vras  raised  to  the 
bishopric  of  Ely.  He  was  a  great  benefactor  to 
flie  chnrch  and  palace  of  this  see.  In  1386  he 
was  appointed  lord  chancellor  of  England,  and 
in  1388  translated  to  the  archiepisoopal  see  of 
York;  and  in  1396  to  that  of  Canterbury, 
when  he  resigned  the  chancellorship.  This  was 
&e  first  instance  of  the  translation  of  an  arch- 
bishop of  York  to  the  see  of  Canterbury. 
Scarcely  was  he  fixed  in  this  see,  when  he  had  a 
contest  with  the  university  of  Oxford  about  the 
right  of  visitation.  The  affair  was  referred  to 
king  Richard,  who  detennined  it  in  favor  of  the 
archbishop.  At  his  visitation  in  London  he  re- 
vived an  old  constitution,  by  which  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  respective  parishes  were  obliged  to 
pay  to  their  rector  one  naif-penny  in  the  pound 
out  of  the  rent  of  their  houses.  In  1398  the 
house  of  commons  impeached  him,  together  with 
his  brother  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  and  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  of  high  treason.  The  archbishop  was 
sentenced  to  be  banished,  and  within  forty  days 
to  depart  the  kingdom  on  pain  of  death,    lie 


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retired  first  to  France ;  and  then  to  tlie  court  of 
Rome,  where  Pope  Boniface  IX.  gate  him  a 
kind  reception.  About  this  time  the  duke  of 
Lancaster,  a^rwaids  Henry  IV.  was  in  France, 
having  also  been  banished  by  king  Richard. 
The  nobility  and  others,  tired  with  me  oppres- 
sions of  Richard,  solicited  the  duke  to  take  the 
crown ;  sending  over  their  request  in  a  letter  to 
archbishop  Arundel,  desiring  him  to  be  their  ad- 
vocate on  this  occasion  vnth  the  duke.  The 
archbishop  accordingly  accompanied  the  mes- 
sengers to  the  duke  at  Paris,  and  of  course  the 
inviting  ofier,  after  some  objections  easily  ob- 
viated, the  duke  accepted.  Arundel  returned 
with  turn  to  England,  and  was  restored  to  his  see. 
In  the  first  year  of  diis  prince's  reign,  the  arch- 
bishop summoned  a  synod  which  sat  at  St.  Paul's. 
The  next  year  we  find  him  again  in  dispute 
with  the  commons,  who  moved  Uiat  the  revenues 
of  the  church  miglit  be  applied  to  the  service  of 
the  public:  but  Arundel  opposed  the  motion 
with  such  visor  that  it  was  negatived.  In 
1408  Arundel  began  to  exert  himself  against  the 
Lollards,  or  Wicliffites,  particularly  against  the 
celebrated  Sir  John  Olacastle,  Lord  Cobham. 
He  also  procured  a  synodical  constitution,  which 
forbade  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the 
vulgar  tongue.  He  died  at  Canterbury  in  1413, 
of  an  inflammation  in  his  throat,  with  which  he 
was  first  seized,  it  is  said,  whilstpronouncing 
sentence  upon  Lord  Cobham.  Tne  Lollards 
asserted  this  to  be  a  judgment  from  God ;  and 
Bishop  Goodwin  speaks  in  the  same  manner. 
*  He  who  had  vnthheld,'  says  he,  *  from  the  peo- 
ple the  word  of  God,  the  food  of  the  soul,  by 
the  just  judgment  of  God  had  his  throat  so 
closed,  that  he  could  not  speak  a  single  word,  nor 
swallow  meat  or  drink,  and  was  so  starved  to 
death.'  He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  church 
of  Canterbury,  under  a  monument  erected  by 
himself.  To  this  church  he  was  a  considerable 
benefactor :  he  built  the  lantern,  tower,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  nave ;  gave  a  ring  of  five  bells, 
called  from  him  ArundeFs  ring,  several  rich 
vestments,  a  mitre  enchased  with  jewels,  a  silver 
gilt  crosier,  and  two  gold  chalices. 

Arundel  (Lady  Blanch),  daughter  of  the  earl 
of  Worcester,  and  wife  of  Lord  Arundel,  cele- 
brated for  her  brave  defence  of  Wardour  castle 
against  the  parliamentary  army,  which  consisted 
of  1300  men  ;  and  although  the  little  garrison 
mustered  only  forty-five,  yet  she  maintained  the 

Slace  for  six  days,  and  then  capitulated.  She 
ied  in  1649,  aged  sixty-six. 
The  ARUNDELIAN  Marbles,  are  ancient 
stones  or  marbles,  first  named  after  Thomas  earl 
of  Arundel,  who  procured  them  from  the  east,  or 
from  Henry  his  grandson,  who  presented  them 
to  the  uni verity  of  Oxford.  Tiiey  arrived  in 
£ngland  in  1627,  and  then  consisted  of  thirty- 
seven  statues,  128  busts,  and  250  inscriptions, 
together  with  a  large  number  of  altars,  sarcophagi, 
fragments  of  sculpture,  and  an  invaluable  assem- 
blage of  gems ;  the  inscriptions  being  principally 
sepulchral,  and  of  a  pri>ate  nature.  But  one, 
called  the  Parian  chronicle,  from  its  being  written 
at  Paros,  is  said  to  have  contained  a  dironolo- 
gical  detail  of  the  principal  events  of  Greece, 
during  a  period  of  1318  years,  beginning  with 


Cecfop,  before  Christ  1582  years,  and  ending 
with  the  arcbonship  of  Diognetus,  before  Christ 
264.  It  is  this  portion  of  these  marbles  which 
more  particularly  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
learned.  The  chronicliB  of  the  last  ninety  years 
is  lost ;  so  that  the  part  now  remaining  ends  at 
the  archonship  of  Diotimus,  354  years  before 
tlie  birth  of  Clirist ;  and  in  this  fragment  the  in- 
scription is  at  present  much  corroded  and  effaced. 

The  whole  of  these  relics  of  antiquity,  real  or 
pretended,  were  purchased  in  Asia  Minor,  or  in 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  by  Mr.  William 
Petty,  who  in  the  year  1624  was  sent  by  the  ead 
of  Arundel  for  the  purpose  of  making  such  col* 
lections  for  him  in  the  east;  and  when  brought 
to  England  were  placed  in  gardens  belonging 
to  Arundel  house.  Soon  after  their  arrival  they 
excited  general  curiosity,  and  were  inspected  by 
Sir  Robert  Cotton,  and  other  eminent  men,  who 
prevailed  upon  the  learned  Selden  to  employ 
nimself  in  explaining  the  inscriptions.  The  fol- 
lowing year  Selden  accordingly  published  a 
small  volume  in  quarto,  including  about  thircy- 
nine  of  them.  But  in  the  turbulent  reign  of 
Charles  I.  and  the  subsequent  usurpation, 
Arundel-house  was  often  deserted  by  the  illus- 
trious owners;  and  in  their  absence,  many  of 
these  m^bles  were  defaced  and  mutilated,  and 
others  either  stolen  or  used  for  the  ordinary  pur- 
poses of  architecture.  The  Parian  chronicle  in 
particular,  was  unfortunately  broken.  The  upper 
part  containing  thirty-one  epochas,  is  said  to  have 
been  worked  up  in  repairing  a  chimney  in  Arun- 
del-house. Selden's  work  becoming  very  scarce, 
bishop  |Fell  enga^  Mr.  Prideaux  to  publish  a 
new  edition  of  the  inscriptions,  which  was  printed 
at  Oxford  in  1676.  In  1732,  Mr.  Maittaire 
obliged  the  public  vrith  a  more  comprehensive 
view  of  the  marbles  than  either  of  his  predeces- 
sors. Lastly,  Dr.  Chandler  published  a  new  and 
splendid  description  of  them  in  1763,  in  which 
he  corrected  many  mistakes  of  the  former  editors ; 
and  in  some  of  the  inscriptions,  particularly  that 
of  the  Parian  chronicle,  supplied  the  lucuns  by 
many  ingenious  conjectures.  We  cannot  here 
enter  into  the  dispute  respecting  the  authenticity 
of  these  curious  stones.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and 
other  able  chronologists  and  historians  have  paid 
little  regard  to  their  claims;  and  in  1788,  a  Mr. 
Robertson,  in  an  essay,  entitled  the  Parian 
Chronicle,  boldly,  and  vrith  much  plausibility, 
asserts  them  to  be  a  fabrication  of  comparatively 
modem  date.  -  This  treatise  was  reviewed  by  the 
late  professor  Porson,  in  the  Monthly  Review, 
June  1789;  that  distinguished  Greek  scholar 
fuUv  and  very  ably  vindicating  the  authenticity 
of  the  Parian  marbles.  See  also  his  Tracts,  edited 
by  Mr.  Kidd.  p.  57.  The  reader  vrill  thus  be 
sufficiently  acquainted  with  both  sides  of  this 
subject 

ARUMDlNACEA,  in  conchology,  a  species 
of  sabelLa  found  in  some  rivers  of  £urope.  It  is 
subconic,  and  composed  of  fragmenu  ot  the  bark 
of  reeds  placed  on  each  other. 

ARUNDINACEUS,  in  ornithology,  a  species 
of  turdus  or  thrush,  that  inhabits  the  reedy 
marshes  of  Europe,  and  is  the  la  rousserolle  of 
BufTon  and  Brisson ;  tlie  junco  of  Ray  and  Wil- 
loughby  ;  and  the  reed  thrush  of  Dr.  Latham.  It 


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is  nther  larger  thui  the  oommon  lirk ;  of  a  fer- 
juginous  brown  color;  quill-fealhen  btown, 
reddish  at  the  end.  It  is  found  in  Russia  and 
Poland. 

ARUNDINETI,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
tipula;  color  whitish,  with  villose  antenne, 
and  black  eyes.  It  is  found  in  Europe,  in  reedy 
marshes. 

ARUNDINIS,  a  species  of  phalena,  living  on 
reeds ;  wings  cinereous  with  black  dote,  marked 
beneath  wiui  a  central  brown  spot.  Also  a  spe- 
cies of  aphis  that  liyes  on  the  leaves  of  the  wood- 
reed.  Tne  body  is  green;  thorax  and  head 
brown. 

ARUNDO,  in  botany,  the  reed :  a  genus  of 
the  digynia  order,  triandria  class  of  plants; 
ranking  in  the  natural  method  under  the  fourth 
order,  gramina.  The  calyx  consists  of  two  valves, 
and  the  floscules  are  thick  and  downy.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal  species,  viz.  1.  A.  ar- 
borea,  has  a  tree-like  stalk,  vnth  narrow  leaves, 
and  in  all  other  respects  resembles  the  barabos. 
2.  A.  ^mbos,  or  the  bamboo,  is  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies  and  some  parts  of  America ;  where 
it  frequently  attains  the  height  of  sixty  feet  See 
Bamboo.  3.  A«  debax,  or  manured  reed,  a  na- 
tive of  warm  countries,  but  will  bear  the  cold  of 
our  moderate  winters  in  the  open  air.  It  dies 
to  the  surface  in  autumn,  but  appears  again  in 
the  spring  ten  or  twelve  feet  high  m  one  summer. 
The  stalks  of  this  species  are  brough*  from  Spain 
and  Portugal ;  ana  used  by  weavers,  as  also  for 
making  fishing-rods.  4.  A.  orientalis  is  what  the 
Turks  use  for  writing  pens :  it  grows  in  a  valley 
near  mount  Athos,  as  also  on  the  banks  of  the 
'  river  Jordan.  None  of  these  plants  are  found  in 
Britain.  5.  A.  phragmitis,  or  the  common  marsh-* 
reed,  grows  by  the  sides  of  our  rivers,  and  in 
standing  waters.  6.  A.  versicolor,  the  Indian 
variegated  reed,  supposed  to  be  a  variety  of  the 
debax,  differing  from  it  only  in  having  variegated 
leaves. 

ARUNS  Tarquinius,  the  son  of  Tarquin  II. 
the  last  king  of  Rome,  who  meeting  Brutus  in 
the  first  battle,  after  the  banishment  of  the  royal 
family,  they  mutually  killed  each  other. 

ARURA,  in  the  middle-age  writers,  a  field 
ploughed  and  sowed.  Some  writers  also  use  the 
word  to  signify  the  work  of,  a  day  at  plough. 

ARUSINI  Campi,  or  Arusian  Fields,  plains 
in  Lucania,  famous  for  the  last  battle  between 
the  Romans  and  Pyrrhus.  That  prince  being  at 
Tarentum,and  hearing  that  tlie  two  new  consuls 
Curius  Dentatus  and  Cornelius  Lentulus  had 
divided  their  forces,  the  one  including  Lucania 
and  the  other  Samnium ;  he  divided  a  chosen  de- 
tachment of  his  army  into  two  bodies,  marching 
with  his  Epirots  against  Dentatus,  in  hopes  of 
surprising  nim  in  his  camp  near  Beneventum. 
But  the  consul  having  notice  of  his  approach, 
marched  out  of  his  entrenchments  with  a  strone 
detachment  of  legionaries  to  meet  him,  repulsed 
his  van  guard,  put  many  of  the  Epirots  to  the 
sword,  and  took  some  of  their  elephants.  Curius, 
encouraged  by  this  success,  marched  into  the 
Arusian  fields,  and  drew  up  bis  army  in  a  plain, 
which  was  wide  enough  for  his  troops,  but  too 
narrow  for  the  Epirot  phalanx  to  act.  But  the 
king's  eagerness  to  try  nis  strength  and  skill  with 


so  renowned  a  commander,  stimulated  him  to 
engage  at  that  great  disadvantage.  Upon  the 
first  signal  the  action  began ;  and  one  of  the 
king's  wings  giving  way,  victory  seemed  inclined 
to  ^e  Romans.  But  that  wing  where  the  king 
fought  in  person  repulsed  the  enemy,  and  drove 
them  to  their  entrenchments.  This  advantage 
was  in  great  part  owing  to  the  elephants ;  a  cir- 
cumstance which  Curius  perceiving,  commanded 
a  body  of  reserve,  which  he  had  posted  near  the 
camp,  to  advance  and  attack  those  animals  with 
burning  torches ;  which  frightened  and  annoyed 
them  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  wheeled  about, 
broke  into  the  phalanx,  and  put  that  body  into 
the  utmost  disorder.  The  Romans  taking  ad- 
vantage of  this  confusion,  charged  with  such  fuiy 
that  the  enemy  were  entirely  broken  and  defeated. 
Pyrrhus  retired  to  Tarentum,  attended  only  by 
a  small  body  of  horse,  leaving  the  Romans  m  full 
possession  of  his  camp;  which  they  so  much  ad- 
mired, that  they  ever  after  imitated  it  as  a  model. 

ARUS'PEX,^       Lat.  anapeXf  or  harutpw, 

Artts'pice,     >  from  arCf  an  altar,  and  ^kerCf 

Aeus'picy.    j  to  see,  to  regard. 

Adonu'd  with  bridal  pomp,  the  tits  in  state  ; 
The  public  notaries  and  artupex  wait. 

Jhyden't  Juoenal*$  SaHret,  10. 

They  [the  Romans]  had  colleges  for  auguis  and 
onupioei,  who  used  to  make  their  predictions,  some- 
times by  fire,  sometimes  by  flying  of  fowls,  &e. 

Howell's  Letten,  iii.  p.  23. 
A  flam  more  senseless  than  the  rogaery 
Of  old  anupicjf  and  angary. 

Bvtler^s  Hvdahm,  ii.  3. 

ARUSPICES,  or  Haruspices,  in  Roman  an- 
tiquity, an  order  of  priests  who  pretended  to 
foretel  future  events  by  inspecting  the  entrails  of 
victims  killed  in  sacrifice ;  they  were  also  con- 
sulted on  occasion  of  portents  and  prodigies. 
The  aruspices  were  always  chosen  from  the 
best  ^unifies ;  and  as  their  employment  was  of 
the  same  nature  as  that  of  the  augurs,  they  were 
as  much  honored.  Their  college,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  other  religious  orders,  had  its  parti- 
cular registers  and  records.  Cato,  who  was  an 
augur,  used  to  say,  he  wondered  how  one  arus- 
pex  could  look  at  another  without  laughing  in 
nis  face.  The  aruspici  libri,  were  a  kind  of  sa- 
cred writings  whcrem  the  laws  and  discipline  of 
the  aruspices  were  described. 

ARVUM,  in  ancient  apiculture,  properly  de- 
noted ground  ploughed  but  not  sowed.  The 
word  is  sometimes  extended  to  all  arable,  or  com 
land,  in  contradistinction  from  pasture. 

ARX,  in  the  ancient  military  art,  a  town,  fort, 
or  castle,  for  defence  of  a  place.  The  arx,  in 
ancient  Rome,  was  a  distinct  edifice  from  tHe 
capitol,  though  some  have  confounded  the  two. 
The  arx,  properly  speaking,  being  a  place  on  the 
higheit  part  of  the  Capitoline  Mount,  fortified 
with  towers  and  pinnated  walls,  in  which  was 
also  the  temple  of  Jupiter  CapitoUnus.  This 
was  also  the  name  of  a  consecrated  place  on  the 
Palatine  Mount,  where  the  augurs  publicly  per- 
formed their  office.  Off  this  arx  the  feciales,  or 
heralds,  gathered  the  grass  used  in  the  ceremony 
of  leagues  and  treaties. 

ARYT/ENOIDES,  in  anatomy,  two  cartila.- 
ges  which,  with  others,  constitute  the  head  of  the 


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lArynx.   It  is  also  applied  to  some  mudcles  ot  the 
larynx. 

ARYT/ENOIDEUS,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the 
muscles  serving  to  close  the  larynx. 

ARYTHMUS,  in  medicine,  the  want  of  a  just 
modulation  in  the  pulse.  It  is  opposed  to  ea- 
rythmus,  a  pulse  modulated  agreeably  to  nature. 

ARZBERG,  a  market  town  in  ^  circle  of 
the  Maine,  district  of  Wunsiedel,  Bavaria.  The 
neighbouring  hills  yield  iron,  lime,  and  ahnn. 
The  lime  burned  here  is  transported  as  manure 
to  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  Bohemia.  Seven 
teiles  east  of  Wunsiedel. 

ARZILLA,  an  ancient  maritime  town  of 
Africa,  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez,  S.  S.  W.  of  Ta». 
giers.  It  was  formerly  a  Roman  colony ;  after- 
wards fell  under  the  government  of  the  Goths, 
and  was  next  taken  by  the  Mahommedans.  Al- 
pbonso  of  Portugal,  sumamed  the  African,  took 
It  by  assault  in  1472,  and  brought  away  the  pre- 
sumptive heir  of  the  crown.  After  that  pnnce 
came  to  the  throne,  he  besieged  it,  in  1508,  with 
100,009  men.  The  Portuguese  at  length  forsook 
it  of  their  own  accord.  Long.  5®  40'  W.,  lat.  35° 
40' N. 

AS.  Usually  called  a  conjunction,  but  accord- 
ing to  some  the  Saxon  article.  Me,  this  or  thut, 
which  they  say  may  always  be  substituted 
for  it. 

Besidfts  that  law  which  concemeth  men  at  men  ; 
and  that  which  belongs  nnto  mon  om  they  are  men, 
linked  with  others  in  some  society :  there  is  a  third, 
which  touches  all  several  bodies  politick,  so  far  forth. 
Of  one  of  them  hath  pablick  concerns  with  another. 

Hooker**  Ecdet.  Polity, 

Prince  Hen.  Dar'st  thou  be  as  good  at  thy  wora 
now  ? 

Falst.  Why,  Ilal,  thoa  knowest,  at  thou  art  but  a 
man,  I  dare ;  but  at  thou  art  a  prince,  I  fear  thee,  at 
I  fear  the  roaring  of  the  lion'«  whelp. 

Sbakspearg,  Henry  IV, 

Whvn  thon  dost  hear  I  am  of  I  have  been  ; 
^  Approach  me,  and  thou  shalt  be  at  thou  wast.         Id» 

The  cunningest  marinefs  were  so  conquered  by  the 
storm,  at  they  thought  it  best,  with  stricken  sails,  to 
yield  to  be  governed  by  it.  Sidney, 

He  had  such  a  dexterous  proclivity,  at  his  teachers 
were  fain  to  restrain  his  forwardness.  Wotton. 

'l*he  relations  are  so  uncertain,  at  they  require  a 
great  deal  of  examination.  Baant, 

God  shall  by  grace  prevent  sin  so  soon,  at  to  keep 
the  soul  in  the  virginity  of  its  first  innocence.     South, 
Madam,  were  T  at  jtm,  I'd  take  her  counsel ; 
I'd  speak  my  own  distress. 

A,  Philip't  Dittrttt  Mother, 

Tho  objections  that  are  raised  against  it  as  a  tra- 
gedy, are  as  follow. 

Gag*t  Preface  to  What  d^ye  CeU  it, 

A  simple  idea  is  one  uniform  idea  ;  m  sweet,  bitter. 

fVattt, 

As,  among  the  ancient  Romans,  a  weight, 
consisting  of  twelve  ounces;  being  the  same  with 
libra,  or  the  Roman  pound.  The  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  atf,  which  in  the  poric 
dialect  is  used  for  eccione,  q.  d.  an  entire  thing ; 
though  others  will  have  it  named  as,  quasi  ajs, 
because  made  of  brass. 

As,  was  also  the  name  of  a  Roman  coin,  of  dif- 
ferent weight  and  different  matter  in  different 
ajjes  of  the  comraonwealtli.  Under  Nunia  Pom- 
pilius,  according  to  Eusebius,  the  Roman  money 


was  either  of  wood,  leather,  or  shdls*  In  the 
time  of  Tullas  Hostilius,  it  was  of  brass ;  and 
called  as,  libra,  libella,  or  pondo,  because  actu* 
ally  weighing  a  pound  or  twelve  ounces.  About 
420  years  afier,  the  first  Punic  war  having  ex* 
hausted  the  trciasury,  they  reduced  the  as  to  two 
ounces.  In  the  second  Punic  war,  Hannibal 
pressing  very  hard  upon  them,  they  reduced  the 
as  to  iuilf  iti»  weight,  viz.  to  one  ounce.  And 
lastly,  by  the  Papirian  law,  they  took  away  half 
an  ounce  more,  and  oonsequendy  redocecl  the 
as  to  the  diminntive  weight  of  half  an  otmce ; 
and  it  is  generally  thought  that  it  cotiti- 
nued  the  same  during  the  commonwealth,  and 
even  till  the  reign  of  Vespasian.  The  as, 
therefore,  was  of  four  different  wei^ts  in  the 
commonwealth;  Its  original  stamp  was  that  of 
a  sheep,  ox,  otr  sow ;  but  from  the  time  of  the 
emperors,  it  had  on  one  side  a  Janus  with  two 
faces,  and  on  the  reverse  the  rostrum  or  prow  of 
a  ship. 

As,  being  used  to  denote  any  mteger  or  whole, 
signified  in  old  English  law  the  whole  inberi'- 
tance;  whence  haeres  ex  asse,  the  heir  to  the 
whole  estate. 

ASA ;  ttott,  Ileb.  i.  e.  a  healer  of  sickness ; 
king  of  Judah,  succeeded  his  fether  Abijam> 
A.  M.  2988.  He  abolished  idolatry,  restored 
the  worship  of  the  true  God,  and,  with  the 
assistance  of  Benhadad  king  of  Syria,  took  seve- 
ral towns  from  the  king  of  Israel.  He  died 
A.  A.  C.  917,  and  was  succeeded  by  Jehosha- 
phat. 

Asa,  among  naturalists,  a  word  taken  by 
modern  authors  from  the  lasar  of  the  ancients,  is 
applied  to  a  gum  very  different  from  that  an- 
ciendy  known  by  the  name.  The  asa  of  the 
ancients  was  an  odoriferous  and  fragrant  gum  ; 
that  of  after  ages  had  so  little  title  to  this  epithet, 
that  they  distinguished  it  by  an  additional  one, 
expressing  its  being  of  an  offensive  smell,  as 
AsAFCETiDA,  which  see.  The  Arabian  writers 
describe  two  kinds  of  asa,  the  one  of  an  offensive, 
the  other  of  an  aromatic  smell. 

Asa,  or  Assa,  in  the  materia  medica,  a  name 
given  to  two  very  different  substances,  called 
asa  dulcis  and  asa  foetida. 

ASAFCETIDA,  in  chemistry,  the  common 
name  of  the  Ferula  asafoetida  of  Linnseus, 
which  see. 

ASAHEL;  S«rn^K,  Heb.  i.  e.  pod  has 
wrought;  one  of  the  sons  of  Zeniiah,  David's 
sister,  and  the  younger  brother  of  Joab.  He 
was  onfe  of  David's  thirty  heroes,  and  remarka- 
ble for  his  swiftness.  At  the  battle  of  Gibeon  he 
pursued  Abner  with  so  much  obstinacy,  that  he 
was  obliged  to  kill  him  in  self-defence,  though 
it  would  appear  with  reluctance;  2  Sam.  ii. 
19—23. 

ASAPH;  aOK,  Heb.  i.  e.  gathering ;  the  son 
of  Berachiah,  a  Gershomite,  and  a  femous 
musician  and  psalmist  under  David,  king  of 
Israel.  Twelve  of  the  Psalms  bear  his  name ; 
but  it  is  doubted  whether  he  was  the  author  of 
them  all,  as  some  relate  to  later  times. 

Asaph,  St.  a  city  pf  Flintshire,  in  North 
Wales,  situated  in  a  pleasant  valley  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Elwy  and  Clwyd,  twenty  miles 
west  of  Chester,  and  205  north~-west  of  JLondon. 


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As  a  bishopric,  St  Asaph  u  of  great  aotiquitj, 
being  founaed  about  A.  D.  560,  by  Kendgern, 
bishop  of  Glasgow.  He  began  the  church  on 
the  banks  of  the  riTfer  £lwy,  whence  it  is  called 
by  the  Welsb,  Land  Elwy,  and  in  Latin,  Elwen- 
sis.  Kentigern  retarning  into  Scotland  left 
St.  Asaph  his  successor.  The  country  was  fre- 
quently in  after  times  the  seat  of  war  between 
the  English  and  the  Welsh ;  and  the  records  of 
the  see  are  therefore  very  defective.  This  dio- 
cese does  not  contain  any  one  whole  county, 
but  consists  of  part  of  Denbigh,  Flint,  Mont- 
gomeiy,  and  Merioneth  shires,  and  a  small  part 
of  Shropshire;  wherein  are  121  parishes,  and  131 
churches  and  chapels,  most  of  which  are  in  the 
immediate  patronage  of  the  bishop.  It  has  but 
one  archdeaconry,  viz.  that  of  St.  Asaph,  which 
is  united  to  the  bishopric,  for  the  better  mainte- 
nance thereof.  The  tovni,  although  situated  in  a 
rich  valley,  is  a pbor  ill-biiilt  place;  and  the  ca- 
thedral a  plain  building,  170  feet  long,  106 
broad,  and  90  high;  near  it  are  the  vestiges  of  a 
large  Roman  camp*  Here  is  a  bridge  over  the 
two  rivers.  Market  on  Saturday.  Tke  deanery 
of  St.  Asaph  is  valued  at  £45  lis.  5d.  and  ii 
united  to  the  vicarage  of  Henllan  in  the  deanery 
of  Ross. 

Asaph,  St.  a  native  of  North  /^ales,  was  de- 
scended of  an  ancient  femily,  and  flourished  un- 
der Carentius  king  6f  the  Batons,  about  A.  D. 
590.  Being  a  monk  in  the  convent  of  Uan 
Elwy,  and  the  successor  of  its  founder  Kenti- 
gern, that  establishment  received  bis  name  ever 
afteiu  He  wrote  the  Ordinances  of  his  church, 
and  the  Life  of  St.  Kentigern.  Bayle  says  he 
was. the  first  who  received  unction  from  the 
pope.  • 

ASAPHEIS,  atra^ic;  from  a  negative,  and 
(To^irCy  clear;  persons  who  do  not  utter  their 
words  in  a  clear  manner.  The  defect  is  occa- 
sioned, says  Qalen,  *  either  by  some  hurt  which 
the  organs  of  speedi  have  contracted  fix)m  a 
disorder  of  the  nerves,  or  ebe  by  delirium*' 

ASAPPES,  or  Azapbs,  an  order  of  soldiers 
in  the  Turkish  army,  whom  they  expose  to  the 
first  shock  of  the  enemy*  The  word  is  derived 
from  the  Turkish  saph,  which  signifies  rank, 
from  whence  they  have  formed  asphaph,  to  range 
in  battle.  They  travel  on  foot,  and  have  no  pay 
but  the  plunder  they  can  get  from  the  enemy. 

ASAJv,  a  gold  coin  current  at  Orrous  in  the 
Persian  Gul(  worth  6s.  Bd, 

ASAROTA,  atrapiara;  from  a  and  ffatpvj  I 
sweep ;  a  kiud  t>f  painted  pavement  in  use  be- 
fore the  invention  of  Mosaic  work.  The  roost 
celebrated  was  that  at  Pergaroos,  painted  by 
Sesus,  and  exhibiting  the  appearance  of  crumbs, 
as  if  the  floor  had  not  been  swept  after  dinner ; 
whence,  according  to  Pliny,  the  deno^iination. 
Perrault  supposes  it  to  have  been  a  black  kind 
of  pavement  of  a  spongy  matter. 

ASARUM,  AsARABACCA,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  and  dodecandria  class 
of  plants.  The  calyx  is  trifid  or  quadrifid,  and 
rests  on  the  germen ;  there  is  no  corolla ;  the 
capsule  is  leathery  and  crowned.  There  are 
three  species,  viz.  1.  A.  Canadense,  a  native  of 
Canada.  2.  A.  Europium,  growing  naturally 
in  some  parts  of  England  ;  and  3.  A.  Virgini- 


oum,  a  native  of  America.  loe  dried  roots  of 
this  plant  have  been  generally  brought  firom  the 
Levant;  those  of  our  own  growth  bemg  sufv-- 
posed  weaker.  Both  the  roots  and  leaves  have 
a  nauseous,  bitter,  acrimonious,  hot  taste ;  their 
smell  is  strong,  and  not  very  disagDeeabie.  The 
principal  use  of  this  plant  among  us  is  as  a  ster- 
nutatory ;  and  the  root  of  asarum  is  perhaps  thp 
strongest  of  all  the  vegetable  errhmes,  white 
hellebore  itself  not  excepted.  The  leaves  are  the 
principal  ingredient  in  the  pulvis  stemutatorius, 
or  pulvis  asari  compositua,  of  the  shops. 

ASASI,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Guinea  to  a  tree,  the  leaves  of  whidi 
being  boiled  in  water,  and  held  to  the  mouth, 
cure  the  tooth^ache.  In  its  form  ahd  manner  of 
growing  it  resembles  the  laurel ;  the  leaves  are 
very  hard  and  stifl^  and.  grow  alternately  on  the 
stalks;  they  have  short  pedides,  ahd  the 
branches  are  blackish  and  nigged,  but  varie- 
gated with  small*  reddish  spangles,  or  scaly  pro- 
tuberances. 

ASBAMEA,  in  ancient  geographv,  a  fountain 
of  Cappadocia,  near  Tyana,  sacred  to  Japiter 
and  to  an  oath.  Though  this  fountain  babbled 
up  as  in  a  state  of  boilincf,  yet  its  wtter  was 
cold ;  and  never  ran  over,  but  fell  back  again. 

ASBECK,  a  town  of  the  bishopric  of  Mun- 
ster,  Westphalia,  annexed  to  the  possessions 
of  the  house  of  Salm  in  1803.  Here  is  a  con- 
vent for  noblemen's  daughters.  It  is  four  miles 
south-east  of  Ahaus. 

ASBEN,  a  considerable  kingdom  in  the  in- 
terior of  Africa,  between  Feztan  and  Cashaa. 
The  sultan  is  said  by  Homemann  to  rank  next 
to  that  of  Bomou  among  the  sovereigna  of  in^ 
tenor  Africa.  Zanfara  and  Guberare  tributaries 
to  him ;  he  resides  at  Agades,  and  himself,  with 
the  greater  part  of'  his  subjects,  are  Tuaridcs  of 
the  tribe  Kolluvi. 

ASBESTOS,  or  Asbestos,  in  chemistiy,  from 
•  privative,  and  apevyvfu,  I  extinguish;  a  mine- 
ral consisting  principally  of  silex  and  magn^ia, 
with  a  small  proportion  of  alumina,  lime,  and 
iron.  It  is  a  greenish  brittle  substance,  unctu- 
ous to  the  touch,  and  somewhat  elastic.  Its 
fibres  exposed  to  the  violent  beat  of  the  blow- 
pipe, exhibit  slight  indications  of  fusion ;  though 
the  parts,  instead  of  running  together,  moulder 
away,  and  part  fall  down,  while  the  rest  seem  to 
disappear  before  the  current  of  the  air.  Igni- 
tion impairs  the  flexibility  of  asbestos  in  a  slight 
degree.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  Ep^ptians 
made  a  cloth  of  this  substance,  which  they  used 
for  the  purpose  of  wrapping  up  the  bodies  of 
the  dead.  Pliny  says,  he  had  seen  napkins 
made  of  it,  which,  beiufi^  taken  foul  from  the 
table  after  a  feast,  were  thrown  into  the  fire,  and 
by  tliat  means  were  better  scoured  than  if  they 
had  been  washed  in  v^ter,  &c.  But  he  men- 
tions its  principal  use  being  for  the  making  of 
shrouds  for  royal  funerals,  so  that  the  ashes 
might  be  preserved  distinct  from  those  of  the 
wood,  &c.  whereof  the  funeral  pile  was  com- 
posed. He  calls  the  asbestos,  inventu  rarum, 
textu  difficillimum.  Bapt.  Porta  assures  us,  that 
in  his  time  the  spinning  of  asbestos  was  a  thing 
known  to  every  body  at  Venice ;  and  Sig.  Castaf^* 
natta,  a  superintendant  of  mines  in  Italy,  is  said 


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to  have  carried  the  manu&cture  to  sucn  per- 
fection, that  his  asbestos  was  soft  and  tractable, 
much  resembling  lamb-skin  dressed  white:  he 
could  thicken  and  thin  it  at  pleasure,  and  thus 
either  make  it  into  a  very  white  skin  or  into  paper. 
His  method  of  preparing  it  is  thus  described : 
the  stone  is  laid  to  soak  in  warm  water ;  then 
opened  anddiTided  by  the  hands,  that  the  earthy- 
matter  may  be  washed  out.  The  ablution  being 
several  times  repeated,  the  flax-like  filaments 
ai'e  collected  and  dried;  being  most  conveniently 
spun  with  an  addition  of  flax.  Two  or  three 
filaments  of  the  asbestos  are  easily  twisted  along 
with  the  flaxen  thread,  if  the  operator's  fingers 
are  kept  oiled.  The  cloth  also,  when  woven,  is 
best  preserved  by  oil  from  breaking  or  wasting. 
On  exposure  to  the  fire  the  flax  and  the  oil  bum 
out,  and  the  cloth  remains  pure  and  white.  The 
shorter  filaments  which  separate  in  washing  the 
stone,  may  be  made  into  paper  in  the  common 
manner.  Five  varieties  are  described  :  1 .  Com- 
mon asbestos,  which  occurs  in  masses  of  fibres 
of  a  dull  greenish  color,  and  of  a  pearly  lustre. 
It  is  scarcely  flexible,  and  greatly  denser  than 
amianthus.  Specific  gravity,  2*7.  Fuses  with 
difficulty  into  a  grayish-black  scoria.  It  is  com- 
posed of  63*9  silica,  16  magnesia,  12*8  lime,  6 
oxide  of  iron,  and  1*1  alumina,  and  is  more 
abundant  than  amianthus,  being  usually  found  in 
serpentine,  at  Portsoy,  the  Isle  of  Anglesea,  the 
Lizard  in  Cornwall,  &c.  It  was  found  in  the 
limestone  of  Glentilt,  by  Dr.  M'CulIoch  in  a 
pasty  state,  but  it  soon  hardened  by  exposure  to 
the  air.  2.  Amianthus,  which  occurs  in  very  long, 
fine,  flexible,  elastic  fibres,  is  of  a  white,  greenish, 
or  reddish  color.  It  has  a  silky  or  pearly  lustre, 
and  is  slightly  translucent;  sectile;  tough;  speci- 
fic gravity,  fix>m  1  to  2*3;  it  melts  with  difficulty 
before  the  blow-pipe  into  s  white  enamel,  and 
consists  of  59  silex,  25  magnesia,  9*5  lime,  3 
alumina,  and  2*25  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  usually 
found  in  serpentine,  in  Savoy ;  m  long  and  beau- 
tiful fibres,  in  Corsica;  near  Bareges  in  the 
Pyrenees ;  in  Dauphiny  and  St.  Gothard  ;  at  St. 
Keverae,  Cornwall ;  and  at  Portsoy,  Scotland ;  in 
mica  slate  at  Glenelg,  Invemesssbire,  and  near 
Durham.  3.  Mountain  leather,  consisting  not 
of  parallel  fibres,  but  interwoven  and  interlaced 
so  as  to  become  tough.  When  in  very  thin 
pieces  it  is  called  mountain  paper.  Its  color 
IS  yellowish-white,  and  its  touch  meagre.  It  is 
found  at  Wanlockhead,  in  Lanarkshire.  Its  specific 
gravity  uncertain.  4.  Mountain  cork,  or  elas- 
tic asbestos,  is,  like  the  preceding,  of  an  inter- 
laced fibrous  texture ;  is  opaque,  has  a  meagre 
feel  and  appearance,  not  unlike  common  cork, 
and  like  it  too,  is  somewhat  elastic.  It  swims 
on  water.  Its  colors  are  white,  gray,  and  yel- 
lowish-brown. Receives  an  impression  from  the 
nail;  very  tough;  cracks  when  handled,  and 
melts  with  difficulty  before  the  blow-pipe.  Spe- 
cific gravity,  from  0*68  to  0*99.  It  is  composed 
of  silica  62,  carbonate  of  lime  12,  carbonate  of 
magnesia  23,  alumina  2*8,  oxide  of  iron  3. 
5.  Mountain  wood,  or  ligniform  asbestos,  is 
usually  massive,  of  a  brown  color,  and  having 
the  aspect  of  wood.  Internal  lustre,  glimmer- 
ing. Soft,  sectile,  and  tough;  opaque;  feels 
meagre;  fusible  into  a  black  slag.     Specific 


gravity  2*0.  It  is'  found  in  the  Tyrol ;  Dau- 
phiny ;  and  in  Scotland,  at  Glentilt,  Portsoy,  and 
kildmmie. 

ASCALON,  an  ancient  city,-  one  of  the  five 
satrapies  or  principalities  of  the  Philistines ;  situ- 
ated on  the  Mediterranean,  forty-three  miles 
south-west  of  Jenisalem,  between  Azotus  on  the 
north,  and  Gaza  on  the  south.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Herod  the  Great,  thence  sumamed  As^ 
calonites,  and  was  famous  for  its  escallions,  which 
take  their  name  from  this  town.  It  is  now  called 
Scalona. 

ASCANII,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  curcu- 
lio,  of  shape  cylindrical,  color  black,  and  bluish 
on  the  sides. 

ASCANIUS,  the  son  of  £neas  and  Creusa, 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Latins, 
and  defeated  Mezentius  king  of  the  Tuscans,  who 
had  refiised  to  conclude  a  peace  with  him.  He 
founded  Alba  Longa ;  and  died  about  A.  A.  C. 
1 1 39,  after  reigning  thirty-eight  years. 

AscANius,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  papilio. 
Color  black,  above  and  beneath,  with  a  white 
band ;  posterior  wings  reddish ;  it  is  a  native  of 
sil. 

ASCARIS,  €uncapiQ  ;  from  atntiaf  to  move 
about ;  in  zoology,  an  intestinal  worm  so  called 
from  its  troublesome  motion.  In  the  Linnsean 
system  it  is  a  genus  of  the  class  vermes,  order 
intestina ;  thus  generically  characterised.  Body 
round,  elastic,  and  tapering  towards  each  extre- 
mity ;  head  vrith  three  vesicles ;  tail  obtuse  or 
subulate ;  intestines  spiral,  milk-white,  and  pel- 
lucid. Upwards  of  eighty  species  have  been 
enumerated,  generally  deriving  their  name  from 
the  animal  they  chiefly  infest :  for  the  intestinal 
canal  of  most  animals  is  afi'dbted  by  some  spe- 
cies. 

The  species  of  Ascaris  described  by  Gmelin 
are  arranged  in  the  following  order : 

Infesting  man,  and  the  mammalia. — Veimi- 
cularii,  lumbricoides  ;-y-vespertiUonb,  in  the  long- 
eared  bat : — ^Phoce,  bifida,  canis,  visceralis,  lupi, 
vulpis,  leonis,  tigridis,  felis,  cati,  martis,  bron- 
chialis,  renalis,  mephitidis,  gulonis,  talps,  muris, 
hirci,  vituli,  equi,  suis,  apri. 

Infesting  birds. — ^Aquilx,  albicille,  buteonis, 
milvi,  subbuteonis,  hermaphrodita,  comicis,  co- 
racie,  cygni,  anatis,  fvligulse,  lari,  ciconie  tar- 
ds,  papillosa,  gallopavonis,  galli,  gallina,  pha- 
siani,  tetraonis,  columbse,  alauds,  stumi,  turdi. 

Infesting  reptiles. — Testudinis,  lacerts,  bu- 
fonis,  pulmonaiis,  rubetrc,  trachealis,  ranse,  in- 
testinalis,  dyspnoos,  insons. 

Infesting  fishes. — Anguills,  marina,  blennii, 
rhombi,  percs,  globicola,  lacustris,  siluri,  &ri- 
onis,  trutts,  maraense,  acus,  halecis,  argentine, 
gobionis,  rajae,  squali,  lophii. 
Infesting  worms. — Lumbrici. 
We  can  osly  describe  the  two  principally  in- 
festing man. 

1.  A.  lumbricoides,  is  about  the  same  length 
with  the  lumbricus  terrestris,  or  common  earth- 
worm ;  but  it  wants  the  protuberant  ring  towards 
the  middle  of  the  body,  the  only  mark  by  which 
they  can  be  properly  distinguished.  The  body 
is  cylindrical,  and  subulated  at  each  extremity ; 
but  the  tail  is  somewhat  triangular.  The  lum- 
bricoides is  the  worm  which  is  most  commonly 


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fouild  in  the  numan  intestines.  It  is  viTipaRms, 
and  produces  vast  numbers.  2.  A.  vermicularisy 
with  iaint  annular  rugae  and  the  mouth  trans- 
verse, is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  long,  and 
thicker  at  one  end  than  the  other.  It  is  found 
in  boggy  places,  in  the  roots  of  putrid  plants^ 
and  very  frequently  in  the  rectum  of  children 
and  horses.  It  emaciates  children  greatly,  and 
is  sometimes  vomited  up.  See  Medicine  and 
Worms. 

ASCAROID£S»  a  species  of  cucuUanus  found 
in  the  stomach  of  the  silurus  glanus :  the  head  is 
orbicular;  tail  round,  short,  and  pointed  with 
two  spicules. 

ASCEN'D,  AMcendo,  from  ad, 

Ascen'damt,  n.  &  odj?k  and  tcendoy  to  climb. 
Ascen'dancy,  f  To  mount  upwards, 

Ascen'sion*,  r  to  mount,  to  rise,  to 

Ascek'sive,  j  acquire  an  elevation, 

Ascev't.  a  superiority. 

Ene«s  and  viuilly  Dido  baith  taay. 
To  forest  grathis  in  hunting  forth  he  wend 
To  marrow  als  fast  aa  Titan  dois  tueemd, 
And  oner  the  warld  gan  hia  bemea  apred. 

Dmiglat  EmaaOu,  bk.  iv.  p.  104. 
Nofthnmberland,  thou  ladder  wherewithal 
Tlie  nuranting  Bolinribivtke  OMoemd$  the  throne. 

Skalupean.  JUtAaird  IL  act  y.  ac.  2. 
Over  head  up  grew 
Insuperable  height  of  loftiest  shade. 
Cedar  and  pine  and  fir  and  branehing  palm, 
A  sylvan  scene ;  and  as  the  ranks  tuomi. 
Shade  above  shade,  a  woody  theatre 
Of  stateliest  view. 

MUimC$  Paradm  loti,  book  iv.  line  131. 
Then,  rising  from  his  grave. 
Spoiled  principalities  and  powers;  trinmph'd^ 
In  open  shew ;  and,  with  aaoenakm  bright. 
Captivity  led  captive  through  the  air.  Id, 

Thus  look'd  Rlisha,  when  to  mount  on  high. 
His  master  took  the  chariot  of  the  sky  ; 
The  fiery  pomp,  tucendmg,  left  the  view  ; 
The  prophet  gased,  and  wished  to  follow  too. 

PameU. 
In  his  blest  life 
I  see  the  path,  and  in  his  death  the  price, 
jknd  in  his  great  aaeemi,  the  proof  supreme 
Of  immortality.  Young. 

Themistodes  now  entered.     At  his  look. 
Which  carried  strange  euoeitdtmcy,  a  spell 
Controlling  nature,  was  the  youth  aba^'d. 

Cfbner'M  Athenaid,  book  xiv. 

Thus,  having  passed  the  rocks  in  safety,  we  found 

the  rest  of  the  coast  rise  from  the  sea  with  a  smooth 

and  easy  atoent ;  and,  floating  at  ease  upon  a  gentle 

tide,  we  toon  reached  the  sands  with  our  feet. 

Hawkeiworth's  Telemaehiu, 
Their  tribes  adjusted,  dean'd  their  vig'xous  wings. 
And  many  a  drde,  many  a  short  essay, 
Whed'd  round  and  round :  in  congr^ation  full. 
The  figur'd  flight  aseemU.  Thommm. 

Fire  fillM  his  eyes  ; 
-  Turning,  he  bade  the  multitude  without 
Ateend  the  rampart ;  they  his  voice  obeyed. 
Part  climb'd  the  wall,  part  ponr'd  into  the  gate. 

Cowper's  lUad,  book  xii. 

Ascendant,  in  astrology,  denotes  the  horo- 

•cope,  or  the  degree  of  the  ecliptic  which  rises 

upon  the  horizon  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  any 

one.    This  is  supposed  to  have  an  influence  on 


the  person's  life  and  fortune,  by  giving  him  a  bent 
and  propensity  to  one  thing  more  £an  another. 
In  the  jargon  of  Astrologers,  it  is  also  called  the 
first  house,  the  angle  of  the  east,  or  oriental  an- 
gle, and  the  significator  of  life.--Such  a  planet 
ruled  in  his  ascendant ;  Jupiter  was  in  his  as- 
cendant, &c.  Hence  the  word  is  also  used  in  a 
moral  sense,  for  a  certain  superiority  which  one 
man  has  over  another  from  some  unknown  cause. 

Ascendants,  in  law,  are  opposed  to  descend- 
ants in  succession ;  i.  e.  when  a  &ther  succeeds 
his  son,  or  an  unde  his  nephew,  &c.  heritage  is 
said  to  ascend,  or  go  to  ascendants. 

ASCENDING,  in  astronomy,  is  said  of  such 
stars  as  are  rising  above  the  horizon  in  any  pa- 
rallel of  the  equator.    And  thus  likewise, 

Ascending  Latitude,  is  the  Utitude  of  a 
planet,  when  going  towards  the  north  pole. 

Ascending  Node,  is  that  point  of  a  planet's 
orbit,  wherein  it  passes  the  CK^iptic,  to  proceed 
northward.  This  is  otherwise  called  the  northern 
node,  and  represented  by  this  character  Si* 

Ascending  Signs,  among  astrologers,  are 
those  which  are  upon  their  ascent,  or  rise,  from 
the  nadir,  or  lowest  part  of  the  heavens,  to  the 
zenith,  or  highest. 

Ascending  Vessels,  in  anatomy,  those  which 
carry  the  blood  upwards ;  as  the  aorta  ascendens. 
See  Anatomy. 

Ascension,  an  island  of  the  Atlantic,  in  S.lat. 
8^  8',  and  W.  long.  14''  28',  lately  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  Great  Britain,  with  a  Tiew  to  the  better 
defence  of  St.  Helena.  Prior  to  this  it  was  wholly 
uninhabited.  The  island,  which  has  an  excellent 
harbour,  is  ten  miles  in  length  from  north-west 
to  south-east,  and  from  five  to  six  in  breadth.  A 
flag  officer  resides  here,  on  the  single  spot  which 
presents  a  vegetable  mould,  in  the  south-east 
comer  of  the  island:  and  homewatd  bound  ves- 
sels from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  East 
Indies  call  here,  under  certain  regulations. 
Plenty  of  fish  and  searfowl  are  found  on  the 
shores,  and  some  fine  turUe.  Ascension  is  evi- 
dently a  volcanic  production ;  at  a  dbtance  it  has 
the  appearance  of  an  immense  sugar-loaf  arising 
out  of  the  sea,  but  on  approaching  it  the  top  is 
broken  into  various  barren  peaks. 

Ascension,  in  astronoipy,  is  either  right  or 
oblique.  Right  ascension  of  the  sun,  or  a  star,  is 
that  degree  of  the  equinoctial,  counted  from 
Aries,  which  rises  with  the  sun  or  star  in  a  right 
sphere.  Oblique  ascension  is  an  arch  of  the  equa- 
tor intercepted  between  the  first  point  of  ^es 
and  that  point  of  the  equator  which  rises  together 
vrith  a  star  in  an  oblique  sphere. 

To  find  the  right  ascension  of  the  sun,  stars, 
&c.  by  trigonometry,  say,  as  the  radius  is  to  the 
cosine  of  the  sun*s  greatest  declination,  or  obli- 
quity of  the  ecliptic ;  so  is  the  tangent  of  the 
sun's  or  star's  longitude  to  the  tangent  of  the 
right  ascension.  To  find  the  ascensional  diffei^ 
ence,  you  must  have  the  latitude  of  the  place, 
and.  the  sun's  declination  given :  then  say,  as  the 
radius  is  to  the  tangent  of  the  latitude ;  so  is  the 
tangent  of  the  sun's  declination  to  the  sine  of  the 
ascensional  difference  sought  This,  converted 
into  time,  shows  how  much  he  rises  before, 
or  sets  after,  six  o'clock;  by  subtracting 
which  fipom  the  right  ascension,  when  the  sun  it 


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in  the  nditeni  signs,  and  adding  it  when  he 
is  in  the  fonthem  ones,  you  will  find  the  oblique 
ascension. 

AscBvsiON  Day  ;  the  day  on  which  the  asoen- 
sioa  of  our  Saviour  is  commemoratedy  commonly 
called  Holy  Thursday;  the  Thursday  but  one 
before  Whitsuntide. 

Abcemsioiial  Dxffbrbvce,  is  the  difference 
between  tlie  right  and  oblique  ascension  of  the 
same  point  to  &e  surface  of  the  sphere.  The  as- 
censional difference  of  the  sun,  converted  into 
time,  is  just  so  much  as  he  rises  before  or  after 
six  o*clock. 

ASCENSIONIS,  in  ichtnyology,  a  species  of 
perca,  found  about  Ascension  island ;  color 
reddish  abore,  whitish  beneath,  the  tail  bifiircated. 

AscEMT,  in  logic,  denotes  a  kind  of  argu- 
ment, wherein  we  rise  from  particulafs  to  univer- 
saU :  as,  when  we  say,  this  man  is  an  animal, 
and  that  man  is  an  animal,  and  the  other  man, 
%cc.  therefbra  every  man  is  an  animal. 

AscEKT,  in  physics,  implies  the  motion  of  a 
body  upwards,  or  the  continual  recess  of  a  body 
from  the  earth.  The  Peripatetics  attributed  the 
spontaneous  ascent  of  bodies  to  a  principle  of 
levity  inherent  in  them.  The  modems  deny  spoi>- 
taneous  levity ;  and  show,  that  whatever  ascends, 
does  it  in  virtue  of  some  external  impulse  or  ex- 
trusion. Thus  smoke  and  other  rare  bodies  ascend 
in  the  atmosphere ;  and  oil,  light  woods,  &c.  in 
water ;  not  by  any  internal  principle  of  levity,  but 
by  the  superior  gravity  or  tendency  downwards 
of  the  parts  of  the  medium  where  thejr  are.  The 
ascent  of  light  bodies  in  heavy  mediums  is  pro- 
div^ed  after  the  same  roamtor  as  the  ascent  or  the 
lighter  scale  of  a  balance,  it  is  not  that  such  scale 
has  an  internal  principle  whefebv  it  iimoediateiy 
tends  upwards ;  but  it  is  impelled  upwards  by  the 
preponderancy  of  the  other  scale  ;  the  excess  c^ 
tl^e  weight  of  the  one  having  the  same  effect,  by 
ai]^menting  its  impetus  downwards,  as  so  much 
real  levity  in  the  other;  because  the  tendencies 
m^utually  expose  each  other,  and  that  action  and 
re-action  are  always  equal. 

ASC^TAIN',     )     Old  Fr.  oceriener,  from 

Asceataim'mbmt.  i  ad  and  certumy  temo;  gr. 
ffpcv«tf, to  distinguish,  to  separate.  To  be  sure  or 
certain,  to  discover  the  truth,  to  bring  inquiries 
to  a  satisfactory  result. 

The  divine  Uw  both  ^Mitriaintth  the  tmtb,  and  sup- 
plieth  onto  ua  the  ysvot  oi  other  l&wi.  Hoober. 

Money  differs  firom  uncomed  silver  in  this,  that  the 
quantity  of  silver  in  each  piece  b  aacertamed  by  the 
•tamp.  Locke. 

Right  judgment  of  mvfielf  may  give  me  *he  other 
certainty;  that  it,  tuoertam  me,  Uiat  I  am  in  the 
vunber  of  God's  children. 

Hammomi'9  Pn^tieai  CateeMm, 

l%im  makes  vs  act  wilh  a  repose  of  raiind,  and  won- 
derft^  tzasqaiUity  •,  becaose  it  aac«r<«ias  us  <yf  the 
goeditess  of  oqv  work.  Ihgtkm'^  Omfnmtisf, 

He  tidls  OS  thaft  the  poskivo  oMcmimn/mM  of  io 
limiU,  and  its  security  &om  invasion,  were  among 
the  causes  for  vrhich  civil  society  itself  has  been 
instituted.  * 

Burhe  on  the  Rewlution  in  France. 

The  characters  of  great  men,  vrUich  are  always 
m3r8teriuus  while  they  live,  arc  auertained  by  the 
faithful  historian,  and  sooner  or  later  receive  their 
wages  of  fame  or  infamy,  according  to  their  tnie  de- 

Ctwper't  letten. 


ASCESIS,  from  the  verb  oMoatr  used  by  the 
ancients  in  speaking  of  the  sports  and  combats  of 
Ao  athlete,  properly  denotes  exercise  of  the 
body.  It  >s  also  used  by  philosophers,  to  denote 
an  exercise  conducive  to  virtue,  or  to  the  aoquir- 
inff  a  greater  degree  of  virtue.  This  is  particn- 
lariy  denominated  the  philosophical  ascesis, 
because  practised  diiefly  by  philosophers,  who 
make  a  more  peculiar  profession  of  improving 
themselves  in  virtue ;  on  the  model  of  which  the 
ancient  Christians  introduced  a  religious  asoesis. 

ASC^TERIUM,  in  ecclesiastical  writers,  a 
monastery,  or  place  set  apart  for  the  exercises  of 
religion.  The  word  is  formed  from  ascesis,  ex- 
ercise ;  or  ascetra,  one  who  performs  exercise. 
Originally  it  signified  a  place  where  the  athlets 
or  gladiators  performed  tneir  exercise. 

ASCETICK,  n.  &  adj.  >      Amncoc,  amctm 

AscBT'icrsH.  J  to  exercise.  Applied 

primarily  to  those  who  exercised  themselves  in 
religious  contemplations  and  for  this  purpose 
separated  themselves  from  the  world. 

None  lived  such  long  lives  as  monks  and  hermits  ; 
sequestered  from  plenty,  to  a  constant  ettuHek  cotuse 
of  the  severest  abstinence  sad  devotion.  Somth. 

I  am  far  from  eompieading  those  asosl^db,  that  out 
of  a  pretence  of  keeping  themselves  unspotted  from 
the  world,  take  up  their  quarters  in  deserts.      Nonu. 

He  that  preaches  to  vutn,  should  understand  what 
is  in  man }  and  that  skill  can  scarce  bs  attained  by  an 
Mcetiek  in  his  solitudes.  AtUrhmy. 

The  troth  is  we  have  seen,  and  yet  do  ae«p  religious 
societies  whoeo  seUgipos  doctrines  are  saltctla  ser- 
viceable to  civil  government  that  th^  can  proq>er 
only  on  the  ruin  and  destruction  of  it.  such  are  those 
which  teach  the  sanctity  of  celibacy  and  wcs^icum. 

Warbmttm's  AUkmce,  book  ii. 

Ascetics,  persons  in  the  primitive  times 
who  devoted  themselves  to  die  exercises  of  piety, 
in  a  retired  life,  and  particularly  to  prayer,  absti- 
nence, and  mortification.  Afterwards  this  title 
was  bestowed  upon  the  monks,  especially  such  of 
them  as  lived  in  solitude.  This  is  also  a  title  of 
several  books  of  spiritual  exercises,  as  the  Asce- 
tics, or  devout  exercises  of  St.  Basil,  archbishop 
of  Caesarea  in  Capoadocia,  &c. 

ASCHAFFENBURG,  a  town  and  district  of 
Germany,  on  the  Maine,  formerly,  belonging  to 
the  elector  of  Menu,  who  had  a  palace  there, 
but  now  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria. 
It  is  memorable  for  being  the  place  where  king 
George  II.  took  up  his  quarters  the  ni^l  before 
the  battle  of  Dettingen.  It  stands  on  an  emi- 
nence, in  a  delightfal  country,  and  is  of  a  quad- 
rangular form.  The  nun^er  of  inhabitants  in 
the  town  is  about  6400 ;  they  received  a  consider- 
able augmentation  by  the  emigrations  from 
Mentz,  on  the  oecupancy  of  that  city  by  the 
French  in  1798.  It  has  four  churches,  and  a 
foundation  called  Insignis  Collegiata,  the  capu- 
chin monastery ;  the  ancient  Jesuits'  college  is 
now  a  lyceum  or  public  school.  Aschaffenbiftg 
was  taken  by  the  French  in  July  1796,  and  again 
in  1800.  The  rivulet  of  this  name  here  dis- 
charges itself  into  the  Maine.  This  town  is 
eig»*teen  miles  south-east  of  Frankfort,  and  forty 
east  of  Mentz.  ^^.  ,     „,.  ^ 

ASCH AM  (Roger),  was  bom  at  Kirby-Wiske, 
m»r  Worth  Allerton,  in  Yorkshire,  in  the  year 


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1516.    Hb  father  wa«  steward  to  the  noble  fa- 
mily of  Scroop.    Eoger  was  educated  in  the 
family  of  Sit  Anthony  Wingfield,  who,  about  the 
year  1530,  sent  him  to  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge,  where  he  was  soon  distinguished  for  his 
application  and  abilities.    He  took  his  degree  of 
A.  B.  at  the  age  of  eighteen ;  was  soon  after 
elected  fellow  of  his  college ;  and  in  1536  pro- 
ceeded A.  M.    In  1544  he  was  chosen  university 
orator;  and,  in  1548,  was  sent  for  to  court  to  inr 
struct  the  lady  Elizabeth  (aAerwards  queen)  in 
the  learned  languages.     In  1550  he  attended  Sir 
Richard  Morysine,  as  secretary,  on  his  embassy 
to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  at  whose  court  he 
continued  tnree  years,  and  in  the  mean  time  was 
appointed  Latin  secretary  tp  Bdward  VI,     But 
upga  the  death  of  ihat  prince,  he  lost  his  pre- 
ferment and  all  his  hopes,  being  professedly  of 
the  reformed  religion  ;  yet,  contrary  to  his  expec- 
tations, he  was  soon  after,  by  the  interest  ot  his 
friend  lord  Paget,  made  Latin  secretary  to  the 
king  and  queen.     In  June  1554  he  married 
Mrs.  Matgaiet  How,  with  whom  he  had  a  con- 
siderable fortune.    It  b  yery  remarkable,  that, 
though  Mr.  Asduun  was  known  to  be  a  protes- 
lant,  he  continued  in  &Yor,  not  only  with  the 
ministry  of  those  times,  but  with  ciueen  Mary 
herself.    Upon  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  he 
was  confirmed  in  hb  post  of  Latin  secretary, 
and    resumed    hb    employment  as    preceptor 
to  her  majesty  in  the  learned  langui^s.    He 
died  in  1568,  not  rich,  but  mudb  regretted, 
especially  by  the  queen.    He  wrote,  1.  Toxophi- 
Ins.     The  schole  or  partitions  of  shooting,  oon- 
tayned  in  two  bookes,  written  by  Roger  Ascharo, 
1544,  and  now  newly  perused.    Pleasaunt  for 
all  gentlemen  and    yeomen  of  England,  £(c. 
Lond.  1571.     Tbb  treatise  was  dedicated  to 
Henry  VIII.  who  settled  a  pension  of  £lO  pe? 
annum  upon  the  author.    It  »  said  .to  have  been 
written  principally  to  promote  the  improvement 
of  Englbh  prose.    2.  A  Report  of  the  affairs  and 
state  of  Germany,  and  the  emperor  Charles  hb 
court,  &c.  4to.      3.  The  Schoolmaster:    first 
printed  in  1573, 4to.     Mr.  Upton  publbhed  an 
edition  with  notes,  in  1711.    It  has  uncommon 
merit.    4.  Latin  epistles;  first  published  by  Mr. 
Grant  in  1576  :  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Ox- 
ford in  1703.    These  are  much  admired  on  ac- 
count of  the  style,  and  esteemed  almost  the  only 
classical  work  of  the  kind  written  by  an  English- 
man.   5.  Apologia  contra  Missam,  1577,  8vo. 
Hb  works  were  collected    and  published  by 
Beimel,  in  one  Tolume,  4to.  1769,  with  a  life,  by 
Dr.  Johnson. 

ASCHERSLEBEN,  the  chief  town  of  a  dis- 
trict in  the  principaMty  of  Halberstadt,  Prussia, 
b  seatBd  between  the  Eine  and  Wipper,  sixteen 
miles  south-east  of  Halberstadt  It  was  formerly 
a  Hanae  town,  and  the  capital  of  the  principality 
of  Ascania,  but  was  annexed  to  Halberstadt  i|i 
the  year  1320.  Here  are  manufactures  of  frieze 
and  flannel ;  and  the  suburbs,  one  of  which  is 
called  the  New  Town,  are  well  built.  Inhabi- 
tanu  about  8000 ;  and  here  are  a  Lutheran  and 
Calrinist  school;  four  churches,  one  of  which, 
called  the  Market  church,  b  possessed  by  Uie 
twQ  sects  in  comntoR.  The  castle  is  in  ruins. 
ASCHILLIUS,  king  of  the  Dacians,  one  of 


ASC 


those  monarchs,  who  b  said  to  have  assbted  king 
Arthur  in  bb  wars. 

ASCIA,  in  antiquity,  an  instrument  supposed 
to  be  of  the  axe  kind,  used  in  the  fabric  of  the 
Roman  tombs,  and  frequently  represented  on 
them. 

AsciA,  in  surgery,  is  a  kind  of  bandage,  some- 
what oblique  or  crooked ;  whose  ibna  and  use 
are  described  by  Sculteus,  in  hb  Armam.  Chimg. 
ASCIBURGIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  sup- 
posed to  be  one  of  Uie  fifty  citadels  ouilt  on  the 
Rhine,  is  mentioned  by  Tacitus,  who  adds,  that 
some  imagine  it  was  built  by  Ulysses.  Here  was 
a  Roman  camp  and  a  garrison.  To  its  situation 
on  the  banks  of  the  Rliine  answers  a  small  ham- 
let, now  called  Asburg. 

ASCIDIA,  a  genus  of  animab  belonging  to 
the  order  of  vermes  moUusca.  The  body  is  cy- 
lindrical, and  fixed  to  a  shell,  rock,  &c.  It  has 
two  apertures,  one  on  the  summit,  the  other 
lower,  forming  a  sheath.  These  creatures 
have  the  power  of  contracting  or  dilating  tliem- 
selves ;  most  of  them  are  sessile.  Gmelin  enu- 
merates the  following  species :  papillosa,  gelatin- 
osa,  intestinalisx  qua^ridentata,  rustica,  ediinata, 
mentula,  venosa,  prunum,  conchilega,  parallel- 
ogramma,  virginea,  canina,  patula,  aspersa, 
scabra,  orbicularis,  corrugata,  lepadiformis,  com 
planata,  tuberculum,  villosa,  clavata,pedunculata, 
mammillaris,  globularis,  phusca,  gelatina,  cry- 
stallina,  octodeatata,  patelliformis,  pyura,  auran- 
tium,  globularis. 

ASCINDOE,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by  the 
people  of  Guinea  to  a  shrub,  which  they  use  in 
meaicine,  boiling  it  in  water,  and  giving  the  de- 
coction in  gonorrhoeas,  and  the  like  complaints. 
Petiver  has  named  it  the  prickly  Guinea  shrub. 
The  thorns  on  the  large  branches  are  veiy 
strong. 

ASCIT^;  from  a<rsoc,  a  bag  or  bottle;  in 
antiquity,  a  sect  of  Montanists,  who  appeared  in 
the  second  century ;  so  named,  because  they  in- 
troduced a  kind  of  Bacchanals  into  their  assem-- 
blies,  who  danced  round  a  bag  or  skin  blowed 
up ;  saying,  they  were  those  new  bottles  filled 
with  new  win.e,  whereof  our  Saviour  makes  men- 
tion, Matth.  ix.  17. — ^They  are  sometimes  also 
called  Ascodrogits. 

ASCITES;  from  a»oc,  a  water  bottle;  in 
medidne^  dropsy  of  the  belly ;  so  called  from 
the  protuberance  of  the  belly  in  that  dbease  re- 
sembling a  bottle.  It  is  divided  into  two  spe- 
cies, ascites  abdominalis,  in  which  there  is  a  re- 
gular and  equal  intumescence  of  the  abdomen ; 
and  ascites  saccatus,  when  the  ovaries,  &c.  are 
the  seat  of  the  disease,  and  the  swelling,  at  least 
in  the  beginning,  is  partial.  The  cure  b  diffi- 
cttlt>  since  the  disease  b  often  only  the  symptom 
of  a  decaying  constitution ;  evacuations  are  the 
chief  palliatives,  and  paracentesis  {va^cuuvriu, 
to  perforate),  or  tapping,  relieves  for  a  time,  and, 
in  some  cases,  permanently.    See  Medicine. 

ASCLEPIA,  a  festival  of  ^.sculapius  the  god 
of  physic,  observed  particularly  at  .Epidaurus, 
where  it  was  attended  with  a  contest  between  the 
poets  and  musicians,  whence  it  was  likewise 
called  Upoc  aywvy  the  sacred  contention. 

ASCLEPIAD,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  verse  com- 
posed of  four  feet,  the  first  of  which  is  a  spondee, 


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the  second  and  third  choriambuies,  and  the  last 
a  pyrrhichius :  or  of  four  feet  and  a  cssura,  the 
first  a  spondee,  the  second  a  dactyl ,  after  which 
comes  the  cesnra,  then  the  two  dactyls ;  as 

MacelnSs  fttftvit  |  €d1tej  rSglbikt. 

O  et  I  pnBtldllam  |  dalce  di$|cila  m^&m. 

ASCLEPIADES,  a  celebrated  physician 
among  the  ancients,  was  a  native  of  Prusa,  in  Bi- 
thynia,  and  practised  physic  at  Rome,  about 
A.  C.  96.  lie  was  the  head  of  a  new  sect ; 
and,  by  prescribing  wine  and  cold  water  in  the 
cure  of  the  sick,  acquired  a  very  great  reputa- 
tion. He  wrote  several  books^  frequently  men- 
tioned by  Galen,  Celsus,  and  Pliny;  but  they 
are  now  lost. 

AscLEPiADES,  a  tamous  physician  under 
Adrian,  of  the  same  city  with  the  former.  He 
wrote  on  the  composition  of  medicines,  both  in- 
ternal and  external. 

ASCLEPIAS,  SwALLOw-WoBT,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  digynia  order,  and  pentandria  class 
of  plants ;  ranking  in  the  natural  method  under 
the  thirtieth  order,  contortse.  The  generic  cha- 
racter is  taken  from  five  oval,  concave,  hornlike 
nectaria,  which  are  found  in  the  flower.  There 
lire  nineteen  species,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  remarkable,  viz.  1.  A.  alba,  or  com- 
mon swallow-wort.  2.  A.  curassavica,  or  bas- 
tard ipecacuanha,  a  native  of  the  warm  parts  of 
Amenca.  3.  A.  Syriaca,  or  greater  Syrian  dogs- 
bane.  The  root  of  the  first  species  is  used  in 
medicine.  Though  reckoned  by  botanists  a  spe- 
cies of  dogsbane,  it  may  be  distinguished  fix>m 
all  the  poisonous  sorts,  by  its  yielding  a  limpid 
juice.  The  root  has  a  strong  smell,  especially 
when  fresh,  approaching  to  that  of  valerian,  or 
nard ;  the  taste  is  at  first  sweetish  and  aromatic, 
but  soon  becomes  bitterish,  subacnd  and  nause- 
ous. It  is  esteemed  sudorific,  diuretic,  and  em- 
menagogue.  It  is  also  frequently  employed  by 
the  French  and  German  physicians  as  an  alexi- 
pharmic,  and  sometimes  as  a  succedaneum  to 
contrayerva,  whence  it  has  received  the  name  of 
contrayerva  Germanonim. 

ASCLEPIODORUS,  a  British  prince  who 
flourished  in  the  third  century.  He  killed  Alec- 
tus  the  Roman  general,  who  had  slain  the 
celebrated  Carausius ;  and  was  elected  king  of 
the  Britons,  A.  D.  232.  He  besieged  and  took 
London  from  the  Romans,  and  threw  livius  Gal- 
lus  the  Roman  general  into  a  brook,  which  thence 
received  the  name  of  Gallbrook,  since  changed 
into  Wallbrook.  He  was  at  last  slain  by  Coilus 
II.  king  of  the  Britons,  A.I):  260. 

ASCOBOLUS,  in  botany;  from  anoc,  a  skin, 
and  /3o\oc»  a  cast ;  so  called  because  the  seeds 
are  thrown  out  wiUi  elasticity ;  class,  cryptoga- 
mia  fungi.  Its  essential  characters  are,  recepta- 
cle, fleshy,  hemispherical;  seed-cases  oblong, 
discharged  elastically ;  seeds  moist,  about  eight. 
1.  A«  furfuraceous,  powdery  ascobolus.  Common 
on  cow-dung  late  in  autumn.  2.  A.  cameus, 
flesh-colored  ascobolus  ;  found  on  dung  in 
woods,  rare.  3.  A.  glaber,  smooth  brown  asco- 
bolus, on  cow-dung  in  autumn.  4.  A.  immersus, 
sunk  ascobolus ;  in  the  same  situations,  almost 
entirely  sunk  in  the  dung,  so  that  the  seed-cases 
only  are  prominent. 


ASCODUT£,  in  church  history,  a  sect  of 
Christians,  in  the  second  century^  who  rejected 
all  use  of  symbols  and  sacraments,  on  this  prin- 
ciple, that  incorporeal  things  cannot  be  commu- 
nicated by  things  corporeal,  nor  divine  mysteries 
by  any  thing  visible. 

ASCOGEPHYRUS,  in  writers  of  the  middle 
age,  a  bridge  supported  on  bi^  made  of  leather, 
or  bullocks'  hides.  Such  bridges  appear  to  have 
been  in  use  among  the  ancients,  and  to  have  given 
the  denomination  to  a  tribe  of  Arabs,  hence  odled 
Ascitae. 

ASCOLI,  anciently  called  Asculum  Picenum, 
a  prettf  large  and  populous  town  of  Italy,  in  the 
marquisate  of  Ancona,  and  territory  of  the  church. 
It  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  seated  on  a  mountain 
between  the  rivers  Tronto  and  Castellano,  forty- 
eight  miles  south  of  Ancona. 

AscoLi  Dx  Satriano,  formerly  called  Ascu- 
lum Apulum,  and  Asculum  Pioenum,  a  dty  of 
Naples,  in  the  Capitanata,  with  a  bishop's  see 
under  the  archbisnop  of  Benevento,  seventy 
miles  east  of  Naples,  and  thirty  west  of  Man&e- 
donia. 

ASCOLIA,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  a  festival 
celebrated  by  the  Athenian  husbandmen  in  honor 
of  Bacchus,  to  whom  th^  sacrificed  a  he-goat, 
and  made  a  foot>baU  of  his  skin,  because  that 
animal  destroys  the  vines.  See  Virgil,  Georg. 
ii.  380. 

ASCONIUS  Pedianus,  an  ancient  gramma- 
rian of  Padua;  and,  according  to  Servius,  an 
acquaintance  of  Virgirs.  He  wrote  commenta- 
ries on  Cicero's  Orations,  fragments  of  which 
are  published  in  Cicero's  works. 

aScOPHORA,  in  botany;  firomAncoc,  bladder, 
and  ^€fm,  to  bear ;  class  cryptogamia  fringi.  Its 
essential  characters  are,  threaa-sluiped,  terminating 
in  a  slightly  inflated  head.  There  is  but  one 
species,  viz.  A.  perennis,  perennial  bhidder- 
mould. 

ASCORCA,  a  town  and  valley  of  Majorca, 
six  leagues  from  Palma,  principally  known  by 
its  fiunous  sanctuary,  Nuestra  Senora  de  Uuch. 
This  is  a  large  and  beautifril  edifice,  containing 
an  image  of  the  virgin,  said  to  have  been  mira- 
culously discovered  on  the  spot  in  1238.  The 
number  of  persons  connected  with  this  establish- 
ment is  400.  The  canons  are  proprietors  of  the 
valley,  which  abounds  in  wine  and  olives. 

ASCOUGH  (WilUam),  L.  L.  D.  appointed 
bishop  of  Salisbury  in  1438,  and  soon  after  con- 
fessor to  king  Henrv  VI.  He  was  seized  by  the 
fiunous  rebel  Jack  Cade  on  the  28th  June,  1450, 
who,  after  plundering  his  carriage,  fell  upon  him 
the  next  aay,  while  he  was  ofliciating  at  the 
altar,  in  Edington,  Lincolnshire,  and  dragging 
him  to  a  neighbouring  hill  dashed  out  his 
brains. 

ASCRA,  a  village  of  ancient  Greece  near 
Mount  Helicon,  the  birth  place  of  the  poet 
Hesiod. 

ASCRI'BE,       ^     Lat.  ad  scribo,  to  write  to. 

Ascri'bable,     I  Primarily  to  practice  the  art 

AscriP'tion.      I  of  writing  on  any  substance 

AscRiPTi'Tious.Jand  with  any  instrument 
Subsequently  to  charge,  attribute,  or  place  to  the 
account  of  any  one,  whether  in  writing  or  other- 


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Oh!  ye  traitonrt  und  mainuincrs  of  madnen. 
Unto  yoar  folj  I  OBcrihe  all  my  paine  ;  « 

Ye  haae  me  deprined  of  ioy  and  gladnerae, 
80  dealing  witli  my  lord  and  Boueraine. 

C^iucer.  LammUaHm  of  Marie  Magdaieme, 
fol.  319.  ch.  iv. 

Trae  wisdom  teaches  to  distinguish  God's  actions, 
and  to  atcribe  them  to  the  right  caases. 

HaWt  Comai^platioHM. 

Ater^  thou  nation,  every  favoured  tribe. 
Excelling  greatness  to  the  Lord  a»cribe\ 
The  Loid,  the  rock  on  whom  we  safely  tmst. 
Whose  work  is  perfect,  and  whose  ways  are  just. 

PamsB.  Th$  Gift  of  Poetry. 

The  canse  of  his  banishment  is  unknown ;  because 
he  was  unwilling  to  provoke  the  emperor,  by  a$efibii»g 
it  to  any  other  reason  than  what  was  pretended. 

Drydem, 

To  this  we  may  justly  aaeribe  those  jealousies  and 
encroachments  which  render  mankind  uneasy  to  one 
another.  Rogen, 

Tliese  perfeetiokis  must  be  somewhere ;  and  there- 
fore may  much  better  be  Mcribed  to  God*  in  whom 
we  suppose  all  other  perfections  to  meet,  than  to  any 
thing  else..  TOietKm. 

The  greater  part  have  been  forward  to  reject  it 
upon  a  mistaken  persuasion ;  that  those  phenomena 
are  the  effects  of  nature's  abhorrency  of  a  vacuum, 
which  seem  to  be  more  fitly  cucribtMe  to  the  weight 
and  spring  of  the  air.  Bojfle. 

Sometimes  we  atcribe  to  ourselves  the  merit  of  good 
qualities,  which  if  justly  considered  should  cover  us 
with  shsjne.  Cmig. 

Holiness  is  ateribed  to  the  pope ;  majesty  to  kings  : 
■erenity  or  mildness  to  princes ;  excellence  or  perfect* 
tion  to  ambassadors;  grace  to  archbishops  y  honor  to 
peers.  Additom. 

The  innocent  gambols  of  a  few  otters,  have  been 
known  to  occasion  those  yelb  which  the  vulgar  of  this  . 
country  mistake  for  laughing  or  crying,  and  aaeribe  to 
a  certain  goblin,  who  u  supposed  to  dwell  in  the 
waters,  and  to  take  delight  in  drowning  the  bewildered 
traveller.  Beaitie, 

ASCRIPTI,  or  Adscripti,  in  antiquity,  those 
who  entered  their  names  in  the  colonies,  and  be- 
came coloni. 

ASCRIPTITII,  or  Adscbiptitii,  in  ancient 
barbarous  customs,  a  kind  of  villains,  who,  com- 
ing from  abroad,  settled  in.  the  lands  of  some 
new  lord,  and  became  so  annexed  to  the  lands 
diat  they  might  be  transferred  and  sold  with 
them.  Ascriptitii  is  sometimes  also  used  in 
speaking  of  uiens  or  foreigners  newLy  admitted 
to  the  freedom  of  a  city  or  country. 

Ascriptitii  was  used  in  the  military  laws  for 
the  recruits  to  supply  the  legions,  called  also 
AccEirsi,  which  see. 

ASCRIVIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  Dalmatia,  on  the  Sinus  Rhizicus,  now  called 
Cattaro,  in  Venetian  Dalmatia. 

ASCULUM  ApuLtJM,  and  Picenum.    See 

ASCOLI. 

ASCUS,  in  natural  history,  the  pouch  or  bag 
of  the  opossum,  for  receiving  its  young.  It  is 
a  skinny  oag,  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  body, 
but  adhering  by  a  membrane  to  the  bottom  of 
the  bellv. 

ASC YRUM,  Peter's  Wort,  in  botany,  a  ge- 
nus of  the  polyandria  order,  and  tiie  polyadelphia 
class  of  plants,  ranking  in  the  naturad  method 
under  the  twentieth  order,  rotaceae:  cal.  four 
l^tves:  cor.  four  petals;  the  filaments  are  nu- 

Vol.  Iir. 


merous,  and  divided  into  four  bundles.  There 
are  three  species:  1.  A.  crux  andrese;  2.  A. 
hypericoides;  3.  A.  villosum;  all  natives  o  tne 
West-Indies,  or  America. 

ASDRUBAL,the  name  of  several  Carthaginian 
generals.    See  Carthage. 

ASEKAI,  Aseki,  the  name  which  the  Turkish 
emperors  give  to  their  favorite  sultanas,  generally 
l^ose  who  have  brought  forth  sons.  These  are 
greatly  distinguished  above  others  in  tbe)^  apart- 
ments, attendants,  pensions,  and  honors.  They 
have  sometimes  shared  the  government.  The 
sultana  who  first  presents  £e  emperor  with  a 
male  child  is  reckoned  the  chief  favorite,  and 
is  called  buyuk  aseki. 

ASELE-LAPPMARK,  a  division  of  Swedish 
Lapland,  contains  the  large  parish  of  Asele,  sixty 
English  miles  in  length.  In  the  town  of  this 
name  there  is  a  church,  erected  in  1648.  Here 
is  also  a  school,  established  in  1730,  where  six 
children  of  Laplanders  are  educated  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  government.  This  place  is  moreover 
the  seat  of  a  court  of  justice,  and  has  a  yearly 
fiur.  The  inhabitants  trade  in  rein-deer 
skins,  flesh,  butter,  cheese,  fowls,  fish,  and  furs. 
Eighty-fiTe  miles  west  of  Umea.  Long.  17®  4 
E.,  lat.  64®  12'  N. 

ASELLA,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  pha- 
laena,  of  the  bombyx  family,  found  in  Germany, 
wings  brownish  without  spots. 

^ELLI,  in  astronomy,  two  fixed  stars  of  the 
fourth  magnitude,  in  the  constellation  Cancer. 

AsELLi  or  AssLUUs  (Caspar),  an  Italian 
anatomist  of  the  seventeenth  century,  who  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  discovering  the  lacteal 
vessels.  He  was  bom  at  Cremona,  and  studied 
medicine,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy  m 
the  university  of  Pavia.  .  Aselli  first  observed 
the  lacteals  in  dissecting  a  living  dog.  His 
investigations  were  published  after  his  death  at 
Milan  in  1627. 

ASELLINA,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  Lemaea, 
having  the  body  lunated,  and  tbe  thorax  hearts 
shaped.   Found  fixed  on  the  gills  of  some  fishes. 

ASELLUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  the 
oniscus  genus  ^  of  an  oval  shape,  with  an  obtuse 
tail,  furnished  with  two  styles.  It  delights  in 
moist  places,  under  stones,  in  damp  and  rotten  ' 
wood,  &c.  The  young  are  contained  in  a  four- 
valved  receptacle,  under  the  abdomen  of  the 
female.  This  is  commonly  known  by  the  name 
of  the  wood  louse. 

AsELLus,  in  conchologY,  a  species  of  chiton, 
most  firequently  found  adhering  to  the  mytilus 
modielus.  The  shell  consists  of  eight  valves,  very 
black,  with  a  yellow  spot  on  each  valve,  convex 
aboTC ;  also  a  species  of  cyprsa,  common  about 
the  Madeira  islands.  It  is  white,  with  three 
brovm  bands  bordered  with  yellow  or  red. 

ASEN  ATH,  the  daughter  of  Potipherah,  priest 
or  prince  of  On,  and  wife  of  Joseph,  prime  mi- 
nister to  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt.  See  Genesis 
xU.  45. 

ASEPTA ;  in  medicine,  from  a  negative,  and 
^irw,  to  putrefy ;  signifies  any  thing  unputrefied, 
or  unconcocted. 

ASGILL  (John),  a  humorous  writer,  bred  to 
the  law,  which  he  practised  in  Ireland  with  great 
success^    He  was  there  elected  a  member  of  the 

D 


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house  of  commons,  but  was  expelled  for  writing 

a  Treatise  on  the  Possibility  of  avoiding  Death. 

Being  afterwards  chosen  member  for  Bramber  in 

Sussex,  he  was  on  the  same  account  expelled  the 

parliament  of  England.  After  this,  he  continued 

thirty  years  a  prisoner  in  the  Mint,  Fleet,  and 

King's  Bench  ;  during  which  time  be  published 

a  i&ultitude  of  political  pamphlets.    He  died  in 

the  King's  Bench  in  1738,  aged  above  eighty. 

ASir,  n  .&  v,^     Ang.-Sax.  Asia,  asce ;  dust, 

A^ii'y,  f  ashes.     The  remains  of  any 

Asu'tub,         &  substance    which    has    been 

Asu'yPALE.     J  burnt. 

Ye  Troyan  athei,  and  last  flames  of  mine, 
I  cal  in  witnesse,  that  at  your  last  fall, 
I  fled  no  stroke  of  any  Grekish  sword.  Surr^, 

Poor  key-cold  figure  of  a  holy  king ! 
Pale  aahes  of  the  house  of  Lancaster ! 
Thou  bloodless  remnant  of  that  royal  blood ! 

Shak^peore, 
So  that  lone  bird  in  fruitful  Arabie, 
When  now  her  strength  and  waning  life  decays, 
Upon  some  aerie  rock  or  mountain  high. 
In  spiced  bed,  fired  by  near  Phoebus  rayes,  • 
Herself  and  all  her  crooked  i^e  consumes. 
Straight  from  the  adiea,  and  those  rich  perfumes, 
A  new-born  phoenix  flies,  and  widowed  place  resumes. 
Fletcher't  Purple  Idand. 
Pomeius  next  him  pac'd,  a  meagre  wight. 

Whose  leaden  eyes  sunk  deep  in  swimming  head. 
And  joyless  look,  like  some  pale  athy  sprite, 

Seem'd  as  he  were  dying,  or  now  dead.  Id, 

His  aiAy  coat  that  bore  a  gloss  so  fair. 
So  often  kiss'd  of  the  enamoor'd  air. 
Worn  all  to  rags,  and  fretted  so- with  rust. 
That  with  his  feet  he  trod  it  into  dust 

Dfaytcn'9  Poem.     The  Oud, 
Ah  1  leave  me  not  for  Grecian  dogs  to  tear  ^ 
The  common  rites  of  sepulture  bestow. 
To  soothe  a  father's  and  a  mother's  woe  ; 
Let  their  large  gifts  procure  an  urn  at  least. 
And  Hector's  oiheM  in  his  country  rest.  Pope. 

To  great  Laertes  I  bequeath 
A  task  of  grief,  his  ornaments  of  death  ; 
Lest,  when  the  fates  his  royal  athet  claim. 
The  Grecian  matrons  taint  my  spotless  name.  Id. 
Ash,      }      Of  doubtful  etymology.    Todd's 
Ash'em.  )  Johnson  gives  aej-e,  a  tree. 
There  sawe  I  eke  the  fresh  hauthome. 
In  white  motley  that  so  swote  doth  smeU, 


Asshe,  firre,  and  oke  with  many  a  youi^  acom. 
And  many  a  tree  mo  than  I  can  tell. 

Chattcer,     The  Complamt  of  the  Black  Knight^ 
f.  271.  c.  1. 
For  whan  we  may  not  don,  than  wol  we  speken. 
Yet  in  our  aahen  cold  is  fire  yreken. 

/(i.     The  Reoe*9  Prologue^,  i.  p.  153. 
As  from  some  far  seen  mountain's  airy  crown, 
Subdu'd  by  steel  a  tall  a»h  tumbles  down. 
And  soils  its  verdant  tresses  on  the  ground  ; 
So  falls  the  youth  \  his  arms  the  fall  resound. 

Pope.     Ikad. 
Then  exercise  thy  sturdy  steers  to  plough 
Betwixt  thy  vines,  and  teach  the  feeble  row 
To  mount  on  reeds,  and  wands,  and  upward  led 
On  OiAy  poles,  to  raise  their  forky  head. 

Dryden'e  Virgil,  Georg.  ii. 
Ash  (John),  L.L.D.  a  baptist  minister,  bom 
in  1724;  was  at  one  period  coadjutor  with  Dr. 
Caleb  Evans  in  the  management  of  the  Bristol 
academy,  and  subsequently  pastor  of  a  congrega- 
tion at  Pershore,  where  he  died  in  1779.  Besides 
several  religious  publications,  he  was  the  author 
of  a  Dictionary  of  the  English  language ;  and 
an  Introduction  to  Lowth's  Grammar,  which  has 
passed  through  a  great  number  of  editions. 
ASHA'MEji  Found  in  all  the  Northern 
Asha'med.  )  languages.  It  has  perhaus  a 
literal  affinity  to  cutrxvyo),  to  blush,  to  redaen ; 
although,  according  to  our  usage,  it  means  the 
feeling  that  occasions  the  blush ;  to  feel  shame. 
See  Shame. 

And  whanne  he  seide  these  thingis  alle  his  aduer- 
saries  weren  adiamed :  and  al  the  puple  joyede  in  alle 
thingis :  that  weren  gloriously  don  of  him. 

Wiaitf.  Ldk.  c.  13. 
Some  men  seem  to  be  tuhamed  of  those  thiug» 
which  would  be  their  glory,  whilst  others  glory  in 
their  ihame.  Maaon  on  Self-knowledge. 

Ye  only  can  engage  the  servile  brood 
Of  levity  and  lust,  who  all  their  days 
Aehamed  of  truth  and  liberty  have  woo'd. 
And  hug'd  the  chain  that  glittering  on  their  gaze. 
Seems  to  ouUhine  the  pomp  of  heaven's  empyreal 
blaze.  BeaUk^M  Mmttrd. 

The  modest  speaker  is  aaham^d  and  griev'd 
T'engTOBs  a  moment's  notice,  and  yet  begs. 
Begs  a  propitious  ear  for  his  poor  thooghu, 
However  trivial  all  that  he  conceives. 

Cowper*9  TaA. 


ASHANTEE. 


ASHANTEE,  a  native  kingdom  of  the  Gold 
Coast  of  Africa,  and  an  important  power  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  our  settlements  on  the  western 
coast.  It  appears  to  be  (ar  superior  in  civilisa- 
tion, commerce,  and  general  resources,  to  any 
known  African  state.  The  predominance  of 
this  power  indeed  has,  within  the  last  ten  years, 
entirely  altered  the  political  aspect  of  the  coast. 
It  is  well  known  that  our  late  excellent  and  in- 
trepid commander  on  this  coast,  and  at  Sierra 
Leone  (Sir  Charles  Macarthy),  lost  his  life  in  a 
fruitless  attempt  to  drive  back  a  considerable 
force  of  the  Ashantees  from  the  Gold  Coast.  A 
late  war  between  the  Fantees  and  the  king  of 
Ashantee  first  brought  the  latter  country  to  the 
knowledge  of  Europeans.  The  Fantees  had  long 
plundered  the  Ashantee  merchants,  and  treated 


with  contempt  the  remonstrances  of  that  king- 
dom, till  at  last  the  Ashantees  over-ran  the 
country,  entirely  reduced  the  Fantees,  and  be- 
sieged the  British  settlement.  A  mission  was 
now  therefore  sent  to  the  king  of  Ashantee,  to 
conciliate  his  good-will  toward  this  country,  to 
obtain,  if  possible,  an  extension  of  commerce, 
and  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  that  kingdom,  and 
the  adjacent  countries. 

Ashantee,  according  to  the  elaborate  account 
of  Mr.  Bowdich,  employed  on  this  mission,  is 
situated  at  a  distance  from  the  coast,  on  the  west 
of  Dahomy,  and  nearly  in  the  longitude  of  the 
central  parts  of  England.  Its  extent  is  supposed 
to  be  great,  though  still  imperfectly  known  to 
Europeans,  and  must,  indeed,  be  so  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  inhabitants  themselves.    Where 


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A  S  H  A  N  T  E  E.  35 

no  reooids  are  kept,  aod  the  communicatioiis  are  erected  at  each  wicker-gate  where  a  slave  and 
only  received  from  those  who  levy  the  tribute,  no  his  family  generally  reside.  They  grow  two 
great  accuracy  can  be  expected,  either  as  it  re-  crops  of  com  a  year;  plant  their  yams  about 
lates  to  extent  of  country  or  number  of  inhabi-  Christmas,  and  dig  them  up  in  September.  They 
tants.  It  spreads  principally  over  a  wide  space  also  cultivate  rice,  sugar-canes,  a  mucilaginous 
westward  and  towards  the  interior.  Ashantee  vegetable,  called  encruma,  resembling  asparagus, 
Proper  does  not  border  on  the  coast  which  is  pepper,  vegetable  butter,  oranges,  papaws,  pine- 
occupied  by  the  tributary  countries.  The  sur^ce  apples,  and  bananas.  Fine  cotton  also  grows 
of  this  country  is  variegated,  but  the  cultivation  spontaneously  in  Ashantee.  The  cattle  seen  by 
is  partial,  and  much  of  it  is  over-run  with  forests  the  embassy  were  as  large  as  those  in  England, 
of  brush-wood,  and  the  luxuriance  of  a  tropical  The  horses  are  small,  and  the  Ashantees  bad 
vegetation.  A  river  called  the  Volta  is  formed  horsemen.  The  Moors  sometimes  ride  oxen 
of  two  streams  which  intersect  the  Ashantee  with  rings  through  their  noses.  The  sheep  are 
territory.  South-east  of  Coomassie,  the  capital,  covered  with  hair.  Among  the  wild  animals  are 
a  small  lake  is  laid  down  in  Mr.  Bowdich's  map.  lions,  panthers,  eleohants,  hysenas,  goats,  deer. 
No  means  of  ascertaining  the  population  pre-  and  antelopes ;  besiaes  abundance  of  the  monkey 
sented  itself  to  the  members  of  tne  mission,  but  species :  of  these,  the  simia  diana,  is  much 
by  that  of  the  military  force.  Of  this  they  give  admired  ibr  the  beauty  of  its  skin.  The  alligator, 
the  following,  as  the  most  moderate  estimate  re-  rhinoceros,  and  hippopotamus,  are  also  met 
eeived:  with;  among  the  birds  vultures  are  numerous, 
Coomassie  district,  extending  to  the  north-  *»?  ^^^^^  as  mgeons,  crows,  and  parrots.    Various 

em  frontier    ........  60,000  ^^T"?  ^''^  '^^'^  }'^^''^  ^l'  •  {^^ 

Dwabin  ditto 35  000  either  is  not  a  mmeral  country,  or  the  mhabitants 

Moroon  ditto  15  000  ^^*°'*®*  *^*^"  themselves  of  its  treasures,  as  the 

Soo^ditto        15*000  fi>ol<l*'^<lot^er  metals  are  imported.    Iron-stone, 

Kakoofoo ditto".    :    '.    *.  *.    '.isiooo  however,  is  found  m  several  places,  and  parti- 

Beequa  ditto  12  000  ^^^V  ™  *e  neighbourhood  of  Coomassie,  the 

AdS)in  ditto  (beiwei^n  Coiimkssie  and*      '  metropolis,  which  is  built  upon  the  side  of  a 

the  lake'i  12  000  ^^"^  rocky  hill,  and  »  insulated  by  a  marsh 

Aphwaewiasee  ditto lo'oOO  ^orth^a«i-    T^J*  ^^'^  contracts  into  a  narrow 

Dknias^  ditto  (southward  of  Ci)0iias'sie)    siooo  stream  on  the  south^  and  eastern  sides  and 

Koontarasie  ditto  (on  the  lake)    .    ...    8  000  ?«PP»i«  the  town  with  water.    Around  die  town 

Gomasie  ditto  .     ........    8000  "  a  l>€autiful  forest.    Cooinassie  is  an  oblong  of 

Ama&s  ditto 8  000  "®"^y  ^^^^  ™**®*  ^  circuit,  not  ineiudmg  the 

'  suburbsofAssaibo,  or  Bantama  (the  black  town), 

206  000  ^^  *  °^^^  distant,  and  formerly  connected  with 

*  ^  the  streets.     Four  of  the  principal  of  these 

streets  are  half  a  mile  long,  and  from  fifty  to  a 

The  Ashantees  being  a  nation  of  warriors,  this  hundred  yards  wide.    Mr.  Bowdich  observed 

statement  may  amount  to  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  them  building  one,  and  a  line  was  stretched  on 

vrhole  population,  which  will,  therefore, l)e  about  each  side  to  make  it  regular.    The  streets  are  all 

one  million.    The  area  of  Ashantee  Proper  is  named,  and  a  superior  captain  has  charge  of 

estimated  by  the  same  writer  at  14,000  square  each.   That  where  the  mission  resided  was  called 

miles,  which  is  consequently  about  seventy-one  Aperremsoo,    great-gun,   or  cannon-street,  be- 

persoDS  to  each;  a  population  rather  sreater  cause  the  guns  taken  when  Dankara  was  con- 

than  that  of  Scotland.    The  climate  of  Ashantee  quered,  were  placed  on  a  mound  at  the  top  o- 

is  colder  than  that  of  Cape  Coast.    During  May  it.    The  Ashantees  asserted  that  the  entire  poi 

and  June,  the  first  two  months  that  the  mission  pulation  of  Coomassie  exceeded  100,000;  anc 

was  at  Coomassie,  it  rained  about  one-third  of  Mr.  B.  says,  that  oh  festivals,  when  die  people 

the  time;  in  July  and  August,  it  rained  nearly  were  collected,  he  compared  the  crowds  to  those 

half,  and  violent  tornadoes,  ushered  in  by  strong  he  had  seen  in  the  secondary  cities  of  England, 

winds  from  the  south-west,  were  frequent  after  The  higher  classes  support  their  numerous  fol- 

sim-set.    The  heaviest  rains  fell  from  the  latter  lowers,  and  the  lower  their  large  families,  in 

end  of  September  to  the  beginning  of  November,  plantations  within  two  or  three   miles  of  the 

when  they  descended  in  more  impetuous  tor-  capital.    Mr.  B.  thinks  the  average  resident  po- 

rents  than  are  usual  on  the  coast.    On  the  second  pulation  of  Coomassie,  exclusive  of  those  of  the 

of  May  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  rose  to  91%  surrounding  crooms,  does  not  exceed  15,000. 

and  the  following  day,  at  twelve  o'clock,  it  was  There  are  two  markets  held  daily,  from  abow 

89°.    From  the  7th  to  the  14th  of  June,  it  va-  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning  till  sunset,  where 

lied  at  Coomassie  firom  80°  to  85°.    It  appears  the  articles    exhibited   for  sale,  are  beef  and 

that  the  general  temperatnre  of  Coomassie,  dur-  mutton,  hogs,  deer,  and  monkey's  flesh ;  fowls, 

ing  the  hottest  part  of  the  day,  is  between  70°  with  the  vegetable  products  of  the  country;  salt 

and  84°.  and  dried  fish  from  the  coast,  large  snaib  smoke- 

The  agricultnie  and  products  are  similar  to,  dried,  and  stuck  in  rows  on  small  sticks  in  the 

those  of  other  parts  of  south-west  Africa.    The  form  of  herring-bone ;  eggs  for  fetish,  palm-wine, 

soil  is  chiefly  alight  loam,' and  the  only  agricul-  rum,  pipes,  beads,  looking-glasses,  sandals,  silk 

toral  instrument. is  the  hoe.    Their  plantations  and   cotton   cloth,  gunpowder,   small   pillows, 

have  much  the  appearance  of  hop-grounds,  are  white  and  blue  cotton  thread,  calabashes,  &c. 

well  formed  and  regularly  planted;  a  hut  being  Provincial  capitals,  and  other  large  towns  of  the 

D2 

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16 


ASHANTEE. 


mteror .  were  spoken  of  to  the  gentlemen  of  the 
misstoci  but  were  little  known,  it  appeared,  at 
the  capital. 

The  king's  love  of  justice  is  esteemed  by  his 
courtiers  as  his  chief  virtue.  They  have  no  ideas 
of  extending  their  influence  by  civil  policy.  The 
cefoceers,  or  military  captains,  accordingly  form 
the  .'owest  grade  of  the  constitution,  over  whom 
are  placed  the  heads  of  but  four  femilies,  which 
form  a  sort  of  aristocracy,  and,  with  the  king, 
complete  the  three  estates  of  this  kingdom.  In 
exercising  his  judicial  authority,  or  in  laying  the 
basis  of  a  new  law  or  measure,  the  king  always 
retires  in  private  to  consult  these  four  chief  dig* 
nitaries;  but  every  law  is  announced  publicly  to 
them  as  well  as  to  the  assembly  of  captains,  as 
the  arbitrary  pleasure  of  the  king.  On  state 
emergencies  only,  are  the  latter  assembled  dis- 
tinctly, or  to  give  publicity  to  some  new  law. 
The  Ashantees  are  lully  capable  of  vindicating 
this  constitution  by  argument,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  our  officers  who  visited  the  court 
of  Coomassie;  indeed,  no  system  of  government 
would  seem  better  suited  to  their  habits  and 
propensities.  The  captains  are  made  respon- 
sible, in  a  great  degree,  for  tlie  issue  of  their 
own  advice  with  respect  to  war  or  peace;  we 
only  wish  we  could  add,  that  in  their  mode  of 
conducting  hostilities,  they  were  as  humane  as 
they  are  energetic  and  skilml.  * 

In  this  respect,  they  are  still  barbarous  in  the 
highest  degree.  They  rarely  give  quarter  in  a 
general  action,  and  a  distinct  body  of  recruits 
follows  the  army  to  despatch  with  knives  those 
who  are  wounded  with  a  musket,  and  return 
with  the  personal  spoil  of  the  enemy.  They 
even  make  a  practice  of  cutting  out  the  hearts 
of  some  of  the  slain,  which  they  mix  up  with 
consecrated  herbs,  and  after  much  ceremony  and 
incantation,  compel  those  who  have  never  before 
killed  an  enemy,  to  eat  part  of  the  horrible  por- 
tion. Of  the  heart  of  a  celebrated  enemy^  the 
king  and  his  dignitaries  are  said  to  partake ;  and 
their  most  warlike  generals  are  distinguish^  by 
names  descriptive  of 'their  peculiar  modes  of 
despatching  or  torturing  theu  enemies.  Thus, 
Apokon,  ikt  king,  is  called  AboAwessa,  be- 
cause he  has  been  in  the  habit  of  cuttii^  off 
their  arms;  Appia,  Sheaboo,  because  he  beats 
their  heads  in  pieces  with  a  stone ;  and  Amanqua, 
Abiniowa,  because  he  cuts  off  their  legs.  Sir 
Charles  McCarthy,  it  is  feared,  was  despatched 
by  these  barbarians  in  this  crud  manner. 

The  last  power  subdued,  or  the  revolters  re- 
cently quelled,  are  always  compelled  by  the 
Ashantees  to  form  the  van  of  their  army ;  the 
youngest  captain  marches  first,  and  all  Uie  au- 
thorities in  gradation  of  rank  and  seniority  up 
to  the  king.  The  superior  discipline  and  cou- 
rage of  their  soldiery  were  in  a  moment  percep- 
tible, when  they  appeared  in  conflict  with  toe 
people  of  the  coast  before  Annamaboe ;  but  the 
following  are  said  to  be  the  only  maxims  to 
which  this  is  to  be  attributed:  They  never 
pursue  an  enemy  at  or  near  sunset ;  the  general 
18  always  in  the  rear,  the  secondary  captains 
'ead  the  soldiers  on,  while  the  chiefs  of  divisions, 
Airrounded  by  a  few  select  followers,  urge  them 
^rward  with  neavy  swords,  and  cut  down  every 


man  who  retreats,  until  the  conflict  is  desperate. 
In  close  fight,  the  principal  effort  of  the  Ashantee 
is  to  fire,  and  then  spring  upon  the  throat  of 
his  enemy.    The  most  popular  song  of  the  ca- 

e],  has  a  sort  of  chorus  to  this  effect :  '  If  I. 
1 1  die,  if  I  run  away  I  die,  better  I  go  on 
and  die.' 

At  the  Yam  Custom,  an  annual  festival,  and  at 
the  death  of  their  great  men,  hundreds  of  human 
victims  are  said  to  be  regularly  sacrificed,  and 
the  sculls  and  other  bones  of  their  enemies  are 
exhibited  in  their  armoury,  and  as  the  ornaments 
of  their  state  apartments.  At  all  their  great  fes- 
tivals and  fimerals,  indeed,  the  slaughter  of  hu- 
man beings  is  horribly  frequent  Some  of  the 
former  occur  once  in  three  weeks,  when  100  are 
sometimes  immolated.  It  should  be  observed, 
however,  that  these  are  often  convicts.  The  king 
celebrated  the  deaA  of  his  mother  by  the  sacri- 
fice of  3000  victims ;  and  the  funeral  rites  of  a 
great  caboceer  were  repeated  at  intervals  for  three 
months,  during  which  2400  persons  were 
butchered. 

According  to  the  religious  belief  of  the  Ash- 
antees, there  are  two  distinct  orders  of  gods ; 
one  of  which,  the  higher  order,  takes  care  of  the 
whites,  the  oUier  of  the  blacks ;  they  are  believers 
in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  both  thi^ir 
princes  and  nobility  are  supposed  to  enjoy  the 

Sresence  of  the  higher  order  of  their  deities  after 
eath.  Here  they  regale  themselves  in  epicurean 
indulgence,  and  have  cooks  and  butlers  after  the 
^hion  of  iheiT  country.  Persons  of  this  descrip- 
tion are,  therefore,  buried  with  their  great  men, 
whose  reception  in  another  world  is  supposed 
to  be  greatly  regulated  by  the  number  of  at- 
tendants with  which  they  appear.  The  Ashan- 
tees have  also  two  sets  of  priests ;  one  class  being 
devoted  to  the  services  of  their  temples  and  to 
preserving  a  communication  with  tneir  deities, 
and  the  other  class  a  soit  of  conjurors,  and  de- 
tectors of  small  theft.  Every  housekeeper  also 
has  his  domestic  gods  and  charms,  bought  of 
these  cunning  men.  Polygamy  is  universally 
allowed,  and  the  king  claims  the  royal  number 
of  3333  wives,  which  is  regularly  kept  up ;  tlie 
ladies  living  in  round  enclosures, '  like  pheasants 
in  a  park.' 

A  peculiar  feature  in  the  law  of  succession 
obtains  in  this  country,  and  is  binding  from  the 
royal  family  downwards.  The  brothers'  chil- 
dren are  always  set  aside  in  favor  of  sisters' 
children,  on  the  ground  that  if  the  sons'  wives 
are  faithless,  the  blood  of  a  &mily  is  lost  in  the 
offspring ;  but  should  the  daughters  deceive  their 
husbands  the  father's  blood  is  still  preserved ; 
thus,  the  sisters  of  the  king  are  allowed  to  in- 
trigue or  marry  with  any  personable  man.  The 
king  b  heir  to  all  the  gQld  of  any  subject,  and 
contributes  to  the  funeral  rites  to  assert  his  claim ; 
the  successor  paying  the  debts  of  the  deceased. 
Slaves,  if  ill  treated,  may  transfer  themselves 
from  one  master  to  another.  They  are  a  great 
article  of  traffic  here,  and  the  domestic  drudges, 
of  course,  of  the  country.  No  topic  appeared 
so  inexplicable  to  the  king  as  that  of  the  British 
motives  for  abolishing  the  slave-trade.  The 
slaves  of  an  ally  or  tributary  are  scrupulously 
restored;   those  of  an  indifferent  or  enemy's 


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37 


country  may  become  free  nibjects  of  the  state. 
An  appeal  lies  for  the  subjects  of  any  tributary 
power  to  the  laws,  and  ultimately  to  the  king  of 
Ashantee. 

Cowardice,  treason,  the  murder  of  an  equal, 
and  some  cases  of  adultery,  are  punishable  with 
death,  as  are  &lse  accusations  of  treason.  A 
great  man  killing  his  equal;  is  generally  after- 
wards allowed  to  kill  himself  as  a  punishment; 
but  the  death  of  an  inferior  is  compensated  by 
a  fine,  paid  to  the  family,  of  the  value  of  seven 
slaves.  Serious  thefts  are  punis|ied  with  a  com- 
pensation inflicted  on  the  nunilv  of  the  accused, 
who  alone  are  suffered  to  punish  him ;  but  this 
they  may  do  «ven  capitally,  if  he  be  incorrigible. 
Trifling  thef^  are  visited  on  the  offender  by:!iex- 
posing  him  at  various  parts  of  the  town,  and 
proclaiming  his  crime  before  him.  But  all 
vexatious  suits  and  accusations  are  discouraged 
and  punished.  Polygamy  is  allowed  to  all  ranks, 
but  the  wife's  property  is  distinct  from  that  of  her 
husband,  and  the  king  is  the  heir  of  it.  None  but 
a  captain  can  put  his  wife  to  death  for  infidelity, 
and  even  then  he  is  expected  to  accept  a  liberal 
offer  of  gold  for  her  redemption.  To  intrigue 
with  the  king^s  wives  is  deatn.  If  the  fiimily  of 
a  woman,  on  her  complaint  of  ill-treatment, 
choose  to  tender  to  a  man  his  marriage-fee,  he 
must  accept  it;  and  the  wife  returns  to  her  fa- 
ther's house,  but  can  no  more  marry.  'The 
most  entertaining  delassement  of  our  conversa- 
tion,' says  Mr.  Bowdich,  *  with  the  chie&,  was 
to  introduce  the  liberty  of  English  females ;  whom 
we  represented,  not  only  to  possess  the  advan- 
tage of  engaging  the  sole  affection  of  a  husband, 
but  the  more  enviable  privilege  of  choosing  that 
husband  for  herself.  The  effect  was  truly  comic ; 
the  women  sidled  up  to  wipe  the  dust  from  our 
shoes  with  their  clothes,  at  the  end  of  every  sen- 
tence brushed  off  an  insect,  or  picked  a  burr 
from  our  trowsers;  the  husbands  expressing 
their  dislike  by  a  laugh,  would  put  their  hands 
before  our  mouths,  declaring  that  they  did  not 
want  to  hear  that  palaver  any  more,  abruptly 
changed  the  subject  to  war,  and  ordered  the 
women  to  the  harem.' 

The  foreign  trade  of  Ashantee  is  regulated  by 
the  government,  so  far  as  to  interdict  commerce 
with  any  unfriendly  power.  It  is  in  every  other 
respect  left  free,  though  not  much  encouraged. 
The  slaves  of  the  capital  are  generally  a  part  of 
the  annual  tribute  ot  the  neighbouring  powers ; 
but  many  are  kidnapped  throughout  the  country. 
They  fetch  but  a  trifle;  but  it  is  the  most  lucra- 
tive branch  of  their  commerce  with  the  coast ; 
and  the  continuance  of  it  under  other  flags,  par- 
ticularly the  Spanish,  while  the  British  are  pro- 
hibited from  engaging  in  it,  is  represented  by  the 
intelligent  writer,  to  whom  we  have  been  already 
so  much  indebted,  as  the  most  stubborn  impc^ 


diiaent  to  the  negociations  which  he  had  to 
conduct  at  Ashantee.  '  It  not  only  injures  the 
British  commerce  here,*  says  Mr.  B. '  almost  to 
annihilation;  but,  slavery  being  the  natural 
trade  of  the  natives,  because  it  is  the  most  indo- 
lent and  the  most  lucrative,  the  oppositioij, 
which  is  insinuated  and  believed  to  proceed 
from  the  English  alone,  conve]^s  a  disagreeable 
impression  of  us  to  the  interior,  as  inauspicious 
to  our  intercourse  and  progress,  as  the  even  par- 
tial continuance  of  sucn  a  trade  is  to  legitimate 
commerce  and  ^  civilisation.  One  thousand 
slaves  left  Ashantee,  for  two  Spanish  schooners, 
or  Americans  under  that  flag,  to  our  knowledge, 
during  our  residence  there;  doubtless  the  whole 
number  was  much  greater.  Since  our  return  it 
must  have  been  very  considerable,  for  the  slave 
trade  was  never  more  brisk  than  it  is  at  this  mo- 
ment, under  the  cloak  of  the  Spanish  flag;  and 
great  risk  has  been  incurred,  in  consequence,  of 
offending  our  new  friend  and  formidable  neigh- 
bour, the  king  of  Ashantee,  from  the  firm  resist- 
ance of  his  strong  entreaties  to  the  govemor-in- 
chief  to  allow  the  return  of  a  powerful  mulatto 
slave-trader  to  Cape  Coast  Town,  whence  he  had 
been  expelled  under  the  present  goVemor,  as  the 
most  daring  promoter  of  that  commerce.'  How 
urgently  does  this  press  upon  government,  by  all 
legitimate  means,  to  urge  the  universal  abolition 
of  this  accursed  trafiic  1  It  is  but  'crippled,'  as 
this  writer  well  remarks,  at  present,  '  at  the  ex- 
pense of  our  own  interests  and  views  in  the  in- 
terior; and,  which  is  worse,  of  the  happiness 
and  improvement  of  the  natives.' 

Gold  was  seen  everywhere  in  great  abundance 
by  the  British  emissaries ;  and  the  court  of  Coo- 
massie,  in  silks,  stuffs,  cloths,  and  cottons,  of 
every  hue,  was  most  imposing.  Some  of  the 
captains  wore  ornaments  of  solid  gold  on  their 
wrists,  so  large  as  to  tire  the  hand,  which  rested 
on  the  head  of  a  young  slave.  The  tops  of  im- 
mense umbrellas  were  decorated  vrith  golden 
heads  of  pelicans,  panthers,  baboons,  &c.  as 
large  as  life. 

Guns  and  gunpowder  are  never  allowed  to  be 
exported  from  Ashantee;  and  the  people  in  ge- 
neral have  no  idea  of  buying  any  thing  but  for 
the  purpose  of  consumption,  except  a  small 
number  of  articles  of  which  they  can  make  a 
profitable  barter  for  tobacco,  cloth,  and  silk,  in 
the  Inta  and  Dagwumba  markets.  Their  situa- 
tion bids  fair,  however,  for  their  becoming  the 
complete  brokers  between  the  interior  and  the 
European  nations. 

We  subjoin  a  table  of  the  most  material  arti- 
cles of  commerce  between  our  settlement  at  Cape 
Coast  Castle  and  the  Coomassie  market,  and  the 
profit  they  will  yield,  according  to  Mr.  Bow- 
dich, at  the  latter : 


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ASHANTEE. 

f 


CAPE  COAST. 


Articles. 


1  Cushions      .     .     .     .     . 

2  Dagwumba  white  cotton 

3  Flints 

4  Glasgow  Dane       .     .     . 

5  Guinea  stuflf      .     .     .     . 

6  Gunpowder       .     .     .     . 

7  Iron 

8  Lead 

9  Locks  (Marrowa)  .     .     . 

10  Romal 

11  Rum 

12  Sandals 

13  Sarstracunda 

14  Silesia 

15  Silk,  India 

16  Fezzan      .     .     .     . 

17  Spanish  dollars      .    .     . 

18  Tobacco,  Portuguese  .    . 

19  Inta    .     .     .     . 


Quantity. 


100 
per  piece. 

i  barrel, 
bar.  ' 


per  piece, 
gallon. 

piece, 
do. 
do. 


Roll. 


COOMASSIE. 


Quantity. 


Pro6tpei 
cent 


each. 

square  yard. 

each. 

per  handkerchief. 

per  charge. 

bar. 

I  inch. 

each. 

piece. 

dram. 

pair. 

per  span.* 

piece. 

per  span. 

.  per  iathom. 

roll, 
lb. 


100 

100 

600 

75 

50 

400 

75 

75 

100 

20 

400 

100 

400 

50 

175 

100 

75 
150 


*  The  ipan  is  about  nine  inches  long  ;  the  ^hom  eight  spans. 


Gold  dust  is  the  currency  of  Ashantee,  worth 
about  £4  English  an  ounce.  That  of  the  neigh- 
bouring kingdoms  of  Inta,  Dagwumba,  Gaman, 
and  Kong,  is  reckoned  in  cowries,  of  which  five 
strings,  or  200,  make  a  tokoo ;  eight  tokoos  an 
ackie ;  and  sixteen  ackies  an  ounce. 

Mr.  Bowdich  recommends  that  a  British  set- 
tlement should  be  attempted  up  the  Volta,  which 
is  navigable  within  four  days' journey  of  Sallagha, 
the  capital  of  Inta,  east  of  which,  and  on  the 
banks  of  Laka  river,  connected  with  the  Volta,  is 
the  kingdom  of  Dagwumba.  These  tributary 
nations  to  Ashantee  are  far  more  commercial  in 
their  policy  than  that  state ;  and,  as  far. as  they 
have  become  known  to  us,  more  civilised.  They 
give  exorbitant  prices  to  the  Ashantees  for  mm, 
iron,  &c.  Silks,  Manchester  cloths,  and  cot- 
tons, would  find  a  market  in  the  same  direction. 

In  their  architecture  the  Ashantees  have  claims 
to  surprising  neatness,  and  even  elegance.  Al- 
though the  walls  are  of  mud,  every  house  in 
Coomassie  has  its  regular  gable  ends,  from  which 
three  poles  are  projected,  i.  e.  from  end  to  end, 
forming  the  point  and  bottom  of  the  roof  on  each 
side ;  in  which  a  frame  of  bamboo  work  supports 
an  interwoven  thatch  of  palm  leaves,  tiea  with 
the  runners  of  tree§.  Within,  the  bamboo  work 
is  painted  black  and  polished,  so  as  to  form  a 
sort  of  chequered  and  tasty  ceiling.  The  pillars 
that  assist  to  support  the  roof,  and  form  the  open 
front  of  the  superior  houses,  are  squared  pieces 
of  timber,  covered  with  plastering,  and  ofien  or- 


namented with  fluting,  quarter-foil,  and  the 
lozenge  and  gable  ornaments  of  the  Normans. 
The  steps  and  raised  floors  of  these  houses  are 
clay  and  stone,  covered  with  a  layer  of  red  earth 
which  has  the  appearance  of  ochre.  Arcades 
and  piazzas  abouna  everywhere  in  the  capital. 
The  doors  are  generally  an  entire  piece  ot  the 
cotton  wood;  the  windows  open  wood  work, 
carved  in  fantastic  shapes,  and  painted  red ;  the 
frames  being  frequently  cased  m  gold  as  thick 
as  cartridge  paper.  Mr.  Bowdich  was  agreeably 
surprised  to  find  every  house  have  its  cloaca  in 
some  retired  and  arched  comer,  besides  the  com- 
mon ones  about  the  town  for  the  lower  orders. 
The  holes,  he  says,  are  dug  to  a  surprising  depth, 
and  boiling  water  is  poured  down  them  every 
day.  The  mbbish  and  offal  of  the  houses  is 
burnt  every  morning  in  the  back  of  the  street. 
In  their  persons^  and  in  all  their  domestic  eco- 
nomy, the  Ashantees  are  also  patterns  of  cleanli- 
ness. 

They  manu&cture  cloths  of  exquisite  fineness 
and  brilliancy  of  color,  sometimes  unravelling 
the  finest  silks,  to  weave  them  into  them.    They 

Eaint  on  white  cloths ;  and  dye  with  considerar- 
le  skill,  particularly  leather;  in  pottery,  black- 
smith's work,  tanning  and  dressing  leather,  they 
also  excel.  They  will  buy  British  cottons  for  the 
sake  of  a  favorite  stripe  (generally  the  red),  and 
cutting  away  the  other  parts,  weave  it  up  into 
their  own  cloths,  which  alone  are  worn  as  arti- 
cles of  dress. 


ASH  BORN,  or  Ashbourne,  a  town  in  Derby-  It  has  a  stone  bridge  over  the  Dove ;  an  ancient 

shire,  on  the  borders  of  Staffordshire,  between  church   with  a  fine  spire;  and  a  free  school^ 

the  rivers  Dove  and  Compton,  thirteen   miles  founded  by  citizens  of  London,  natives  of  the 

from  Derby,  and  139  N.N.  W.  from  London  place.    Its  trade  in  malt  and  cheese  is  consider- 


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able.    A  weekly  market  is  held  here,  and  several 
annual  fairs.    Population  2112. 

ASHBURNHAM,  a  post  town  of  the  United 
States,  in  Worcester  county,  Massachusetts,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  river  Sowhegan,  forty-five 
miles  north-west  of  Boston. 

ASHBURTON,  a  town  in  Devonshire,  seated 
on  the  river  Dart,  ten  miles  from  Totness,  nine- 
teen sooth-west  of  Exeter,  and  192  west  by  south 
of  London.  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade, 
in  wo<5l,  yarn,  and  serges ;  has  markets  on  Tues- 
day and  Saturday,  and  fairs  on  the  first  Thursday 
of  March  and  June,  and  on  the  10th  August  and 
11th  November.  It  sends  two  members  to  par- 
liament, and  is  one  of  the  four  stannary  towns. 
It  is  seated  among  the  hills,  which  abound  in  tin 
and  copper ;  and  has  a  very  handsome  charch, 
with  a  chapel,  which  is  used  as  a  school.  Po- 
pulation about  3000. 

ASHBY  OS  LA  ZoucH,  a  market  town  of  Lei- 
cestershire, so  called  from  the  touches,  its  an- 
cient lords,  13  miles  south  of  Derby,  15  finom 
Leicester,  and  115  from  London.  It  has  seven 
annual  ftirs.  It  long  had  a  castle,  which  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  family  de  la  Zouch.  It 
afterwards  fell  into  the  hands  of  Edward  IV. 
who  granted  it  to  Sir  Edward  Hastings,  with  the 
title  of  a  baron,  and  license  to  make  a  castle  of 
the  manor-house,  to  which  he  adjoined  a  veiy 
high  tower.    James  I.  and  his  whole  court  were 


excellent  manure  for  cold  and  wet  grounds.    Se« 
Husbandry. 

Ashes  were  anciently  used  in  several  religious 
ceremonies.  St.  Jerome  relates  that  the  Jews  in 
his  time  rolled  themselves  jn  ashes,  as  a  sign  ot 
mourning.  To  repent  in  sackloth  and  ashes  is 
a  frequent  expression  in  Scripture  for  mourning 
and  being  afflicted  for  our  sins.  There  was  a 
sort  of  ly6  and  lustral  water  made  with  the  ashes 
of  an  heifer  sacrificed  upon  the  great  day  of  ex- 
piation; the  ashes  whereof  were  distributed  to 
the  people,  and  this  water  was  used  in  purifica- 
tions as  often  as  any  touched  a  dead  body,  or 
was  present  at  funerals,  Num.  xix.  17. 

AsH-FiRiT,  among  chemists,  a  fire  wherein  the 
vessel  to  be  heated  is  covered  with  ashes  or  sand. 

ASHI,  a  prince  of  Norway,  said  to  have  been 
slain  by  Fingal,  the  father  of  Ossian,  at  a  place 
of  Invemesshire,  ever  since  named  Drumashi, 
or  Ashi's  HiU. 

ASHIMA,  an  idol  of  the  Samaritans,  2  Kings 
xvii.  30,  said  to  have  been  formed  like  a  lion  or 
a  goat,  and  to  have  represented  the  sun. 

ASHING-Key,  a  low  island  on  the  Spanish 
main,  onthe  Mosquito  shore. 

ASHIPOO,  a  river  of  North  America,  in 
South  Carolina,  which  runs  into  the  Atlantic. 
Long.  80**  30*  W.,  lat  32«»  25'  N .  Also  a  town  of 
the  same  name  situated  on  the  banks  of  this  river. 

ASHLAR,  in  masonry,  free-stones  as  they 


once  entertained  here  by  the  Earl  of  Hunting-    come  out  of  the  quarry,  of  different  lengths,  ge- 


don.  It  was  demolished  in  1648.  Malting,  and 
the  manufacture  of  hats  and  cotton,  flourish  here. 
Population  upwards  of  3000.  In  the  neighT 
bourhood  is  a  mineral  water  called  Grifiydam. 

ASHDOWN,  a  town  of  Essex,  anciently 
called  Assandun,  or  the  hill  of  asses,  famous 
for  the  defeat  of  Edmund  Ironside,  by  Canute 
the  Dane. 

ASHER ;  *>Vlt,  Heb.  i.  e.  blessedness ;  one  of 
Jacob's  sons  by  Zilpah,  and  the  progenitor  of  the 
tribe  so  called. 

ASHEREF,  or  Ash  raff,  a  town  of  Persia, 
in  the  Mazanderan  province,  half  a  mile  from  a 


nerally  applied  to  slabs  of  stone,  from  six  to 
nine  inches  in  thickness,  used  for  facing  brick 
buildings,  worked  in  imitation  of  regular  courses 
of  solid  masonry. 

ASHLER,  or  Ashlering,  quartering  of  tim- 
ber about  three  feet  high,  placed  perpendicularly 
from  the  floor  of  the  attic  story,  to  the  roof  to 
obviate  the  useless  angle  formM  by  the  junction 
of  the  roof  and  the  floor. 

ASHLEY,  a  river  of  South  Carolina,  rising 
in  Cypress  swamp,  and  emptying  itself  into  the 
Cooper  just  below  Charleston.  Its  breadth 
opposite  Charleston  is  about  2100  yards,  and  its 


large  bay,  the  best  narbour  on  the  south  side  of    stream  narrows  but  little  for  several  miles.    On 
the  Caspian.    Shah  Abbas  built  a  superb  palace    '^         "       ^~^   ''  ^^'~  ~       "*""  ^**''  -«-— * 
here,  surrounded  by  fine  gardens,  remarkable  for 
the  number  of  their  orange  trees.    This  psdace  is 
now  falling  to  ruins.    Distant  fifteen  mues  from 
Fehrabad,  and  sixteen  from  Sari. 

Ashes,  among  the  ancient  Persians,  were  used 
as  an  instrument  of  punishment  for  some  great 
criminals.  The  criminal  was  thrown  head-long 
from  a  tower  fifty  cubits  high,  which  was  filled 
with  ashes  to  a  particular  height,  2  Mac.  xiii. 
5,  6.  The  motion  which  the  criminal  used  to 
disengage  himself  from  this  place,  plunged  him 
«mi  deeper  into  it,  and  this  agitation  was  farther 
increased  by  a  wheel  which  stirred  the  ashes 
continuall;^  about  him,  till  at  last  he  was  stifled. 

Ashes,  in  chemistry,  are  the  earthy  particles 
of  combustible  substances  after  they  have  been 
bbmt.  If  the  ashes  are  produced  firom  vegetable 
bodies,  they  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of 
fixed  salt,  blended  with  the  terrene  particles: 
and  from  these  the  fixed  alkaline  salts  called  pot- 
ash, pearl-ash,  &c.  are  extracted.  See  Potash, 
&c.  The  ashes  of  all  vegetables  are  vitrifiable, 
and  found  to  contain  iron.    They  are  also  an 


the  western  bank  of  this  river  the  first  efficient 
settlement  of  the  state  was  made  at  a  place  now 
called  Old  Town,  or  Old  Charleston,  in  1671. 
Also  a  river  of  West  Florida,  which  runs  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

ASHMOLE  (Elias),  a  celebrated  antiquary 
and  herald,  founder  ot  the  Ashmolean  Museum 
at  Oxford,  was  bom  at  Litchfield,  in  Stafford- 
shire, 1617.  He  first  practised  in  the  law:  in 
the  civil  war  he  had  a  captain's  commission,  and 
was  also  comptroller  of  the  ordnance  under 
Charles  I.  In  1649  he  settled  at  London; 
where  his  house  was  frequented  by  most  of  the 
learned  men  of  the  age,  and  a  depository  of 
many  literary  treasures.  In  1650  he  published 
a  treatise  written  by  Dr.  Arthur  Dee,  relating  to 
the  philosopher's  stone ;  with  another  tract  on 
the  same  subject  by  an  unknown  author.  About 
the  same  time  he  was  busied  in  preparingfor  the 
press  a  complete  collection  of  the  works  of  such 
English  chemists,  or  'alchemists  rather,  as  had 
till  then  remained  in  manuscript.  This  under- 
taking cost  him  great  labor  ana  expense ;  but  at 
length  the  work  appeared  towards  the  close  of 


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the  year  1652,  under  the  title  of  Theatricum 
Chymicum  BritaDnicum.  He  proposed  at  first 
to  have  carried  it  on  to  sereral  volumes ;  but 
afterwards  dropped  this  design,  and  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  antiquity  and  records. 
He  was  at  great  pains  to  trace  the  Roman  road, 
which  in  A^toninus's  Itinerary  is  called  Benne« 
vanna,  from  Weedon  to  Litchfield.  In  1658  he 
began  to  collect  materials  for  his  celebrated  his- 
tory of  the  Order  of  the  Garter.  In  September 
following  he  made  a  journey  to  Oxford,  where  he 
commenced  his  full  and  particular  description  of 
the  coins  presented  to  the  public  library  by  arch- 
bishop Laud.  Upon  the  restoration,  Mr.  Ash- 
mole  was  introduced  to  king  Charles  II.  who 
bestowed  on  him  the  place  of  Windsor  Herald. 
Soon  after  he  appointed  him  to  give  a  descrip- 
tion of  his  medals,  which  were  accordingly  de- 
livered into  his  possession,  and  king  Henry 
Vlllth's  closet  was  assigned  for  his  use.  Mr. 
Ashmole  was  afterwards  admitted  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society^  and  the  king  appointed  him 
secretary  of  Surinam,  in  the  West  todies.  On 
the  19di  July  1669,  the  University  of  Oxford,  in 
consideration  of  the  many  favors  they*had  re- 
ceived from  Mr.  Ashmole,  created  him  M.  D.  by 
diploma.  In  May  1672  he  presented  his  Insti- 
tution, Laws,  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Order  of 
the  Garter,  to  the  king,  who,  as  a  mark  of  his 
approbation  granted  him  £400  out  of  the  custom 
on  paper.  On  the  26th  January,  1679,  a  fire 
broke  out  in  the  Middle  Temple,  in  the  next 
chamber  to  Mr.^Ashmole's,  by  which  he  lost  a 
noble  library,  with  a  collection  of  9000  coins, 
ancient  and  modem,  and  a  vast  repository  of 
seals,  charters,  and  other  antiquities  and  curio- 
sities ;  but  his  manuscripts,  and  his  most  valua- 
ble gold  medals,  were  luckily  at  his  house  at 
Lambeth.  In  1683,  the  University  of  Oxford 
having  finished  a  magnificent  repository  near  the 
theatre,  Mr.  Ashmole  sent  thither  his  collection 
of  rarities ;  which  bene&ction  was  augmented  by 
the  addition  of  bis  manuscripts  and  library  at  hu 
death,  which  happened  at  Lambeth,  May  18, 
1692,  in  the  76th  year  of  his  age.  Besides  the 
works  above  mentioned,  Mr.  A^unole  left  seve- 
ral which  were  published  since  his  death,  and 
some  which  still  remain  in  manuscript. 

ASHMOT,  the  principal  part  of  the  Isle 
Madame,  dependent  on  the  island  of  Cape 
Breton. 

ASHORE.  On  shore.  Ang.-Sax.  sciran,  to 
shear,  cut,  divide,  separate.    See  Shore. 

Sweace  then  how  thou  escap'dat. 
Swum  oAore  man  like  a  ducke!  ShakKpeate, 
•  For  now  the  flowing  tide. 


Had  hnmght  the  body  nearer  to  the  side  ; 

The  moTe  she  looks,  the  more  her  feais  increase, 
-     At  nearer  sight ;  and  she's  herself  the  less : 

Now  driv'n  tuhore,  and  at  her  feet  it  lies. 

She  knows  too  much  in  knowing  whom  she  sees. 

Her  husband's  corpse.  Dryden'a  Fabia, 

[He]  Then  with  bis  dire  associates  through  the  deep. 
For  spoil  and  slaughter  guides  the  sayage  prow. 
Him  d<^  wiU  rend  athore, 

Glover't  Leomdag,  book  xil.  p.  77. 
Thus  while  their  cordage  stretch  *d  tukore  may  guide. 
Our  brave  companions  thro'  the  swelling  tide ; 
This  floating  lumber  shall  sustain  them  o'er 
The  rocky  ^Ives,  in  safety  to  the  shore. 

FtUcorur*t  Shipwitek. 


Storms  rise  t'  o'erwhelm  him :  or  if  stormy  winds 
Rise  not,  the  waters  of  the  deep  shall  rise 
And  needing  no  assistance  of  the  storm. 
Shall  roll  themselves  ashore  and  reach  him  there. 
Cowper'a  Poems. 

ASHTAROTH,  Ashtoeeth;  ni-inttTK,  Heb- 
i.  e.  flocks,  or  riches;  or  Astarte,  the  chief  god- 
dess of  the  Sidonians  and  Phcsnicians,  called 
also  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  and  reckoned  the  same 
with  the  Juno  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Cicero,  however,  calls  her  the  Venus  of  Syria,, 
wherein  he  is  certainly  justified  by  her  mode  of 
worship ;  which,  like  tfiat  of  the  Grecian  Venus,, 
abounded  in  all  manner  of  debauchery.  The 
Israelites  in  all  their  relapses  to  idolatry  showed 
a  great  fondness  for  her  worship.  Solomon  him- 
self in  his  dotage  sacrificed  to  her.  She  was  re- 
presented in  various  habits,  encircled  with  rays, 
&c.  We  find  a  place  named  after  her  in  the 
days  of  Abraham ;  Gen.  xiv.  5. 

ASHTON  (Charles),  an  antiquarian  and  one 
of  the  roost  learned  critics  of  his  age,  was 
elected  master  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge, 
July  5th  1701,  and  installed  prebend  of  Ely,  on 
the  14th.  His  skill  in  ecclesiastical  antiquities 
was  equalled  by  few. 

AsHTON  (Dr.  Thomas),  a  native  of  Eton, 
studied  at  Cambridge,  in  1733,  was  successively 
rector  of  Aldingham,  Starminster,  and  St.  Bo- 
tolph,  Bishopsgate.  In  1759  he  took  hb  degree 
of  D.  D. ;  and  in  May  1762  viras  elected  preacher 
at  Lincoln's  Inn,  which  he  resigned  in  1764. 
He  died  in  1775,  aged  fifty-nine.    He  published, 

I.  A  volume  of  Sermons.    2.  A  Dissertation  on 

II.  Peter,  i.  19.  3.  A  letter  to  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Jones.  4  &  5.  Two  Letters  to  Dr.  Morell,  on 
Electing  Aliens  into  places  in  Eton  College; 
and  6.  An  Extract  from  the  case  of  tlie  Obliga- 
tion of  Electors,  &c. 

AsHTON-UKDER-LiNE,  a  towu  and  parish  of 
England,  on  the  river  Tame,  in  the  county  of 
Lancaster,  in  which  considerable  manufactures 
are  carried  on.  Several  villages  are  contained 
in  this  parish,  the  whole  population  of  which 
amounts  to  19,052.  It  is  distant  about  195 
miles  firom  London. 

ASHUR,  -IIVK,  Heb.  i.  e.  blessed,  the  son  of 
Shem,  and  progenitor  of  the  Assyrians. 

ASH-WEDNESDAY,  the  first  day  of  Lent, 
so  called  firom  the  ancient  custom  of  sprinkling 
ashes  on  the  head. 

ASHWELL  (George),  rector  of  Hanwell,  son 
of  Robert  Ashwell  of  Harrow,  was  bom  at 
London  in  1612,  and  admitted  in  Wadham 
College,  Oxford,  in  1627,  where  he  took  his  de- 
grees of  A.  M.  and  B.  D.  and  was  elected  a 
fellow  and  tutor.  During  the  rebellion  he 
pi:eached  several  times  before  the  king  and 
parliament.  He  died  at  Hanwell,  in  1693,  with 
the  character  of  a  religious,  learned,  and 
peaceable  divine.  He  wrote,  1.  A  discourse, 
asserting  the  received  authors,  and>  authority  of 
the  Apostle's  Creed.  Oxon.1653.  2.  A  double 
Appendix,  touching  the  Atbanasian  and  Nicene 
Creeds.  3.  On  the  Gesture  at  receivmg  the  Sa- 
crament, 1663.  4.  A  Treatise  concerning  So- 
cinus,  and  tlie  Sociuian  Heresy.  5.  A  Disserta- 
tion'on  the  Church  of  Rome.  Ox.  1618.  Ana 
an  answer  to  Plato  Redivivos;  besides  transla- 
tions. 


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ASIA. 


ASIA,  in  geography,  one  of  the  great  divi- 
sions of  the  earth,  lies  to  the  east  and  south-east 
of  Europe.  North  and  south  it  stretches  from 
about  2^  to  77^  of  north  latitude.  East  and 
west  it  extends  from  about  26°  east,  to  170° 
west  longitude.  Its  northern  capes  penetrate 
the  ice  of  the  polar  regions,  while  its  southern 
promontories  approach  nearly  to  the  centre  of 
the  torrid  zone.  Its  greatest  length  in  this  di- 
rection is  taken  at  something  more  than  5200 
English  miles  from  east  to  west  The  extent  of 
this  continent  from  the  western  shores  of  Natolia, 
to  East  Cape  in  Siberia,  has  been  calculated  in 
a  late  popular  work  at  7580  miles 

Boundaries. — ^It  is  bounded  on  ihe  north, 
and  south  by  the  Arctic  and  Indian  Oceans ;  on 
the  east  by  die  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Chinese 
Sea;  and  on  the  west  by  the  ^bian  gulf,  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  the  Mediterranean,  the  Archipe- 
lago^ the  straiU  of.  Gallipoli,  the  sea  of  Mar- 
mora, the  Bosphorus,  and  the  Black  Sea,  whence 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean  the  boundary  which  sepa^ 
*  rates  Asia  from  the  east  of  Europe  is  not  dis- 
tinctly ascertained.  It  is,  however,  supposed  to 
be  constituted  by  the  rivers  Don  and  the  lUrposca, 
one  of  its  tributary  streams  rising  near  Sarepta, 
the  course  of  which  is  to  be  continued  by  an 
imaginary  line  between  the  40°th  and  50*th  of 
east  longitude. 

Islands. — ^The  Islands  belonging  to  Asia  are 
the  Prince's  Islands  near  Constantinople,  Mity- 
lene,  Scio,  Samos,  Cos,  Rhodes,  Cyprus,  &c.  in 
the  Archipelago.  Bahrein  on  the  Arabian  side 
of  the  Persian  gulf  noted  for  its  pearl  fisherjr. 
The  Laccadive,  Maldive  islands,  and  Ceylon  m 
the  Indian  Ocean,  contiguous  to  the  peninsula 
of  Hindostan  East  of  the  Bay«of  Bengal  lies 
the  Indian  Archipelago^  consisting  of  numerous 
different  groups  of  islands  including  the  Anda- 
man and  Nioobar  islands,  the  Sunda  bles,  Su- 
matra, Java,  and  Borneo ;  the  Moluccas  or  Spice 
ishmds,  Papua  or  New  Guinea,  Solomon's  isles, 
Queen  Charlotte's  isles,  and  the  New  Hebrides ; 
which  bending  in  a  circular  direction  to  the 
8outh-«ast  lead  us  to  the  two  islands  of  New 
Zealand.  New  Holland,  to  the  south  of  New 
Guinea,  is  the  largest  island  in  the  world,  and 
contains  an  area  larger  than  all  Europe.  East 
of  the  New  Hebrides  lie  the  South  S^  islands. 
North  of  New  Guinea  are  the  New  Carolinas 
and  the  Marianne  or  Ladrone  islands.  West  of 
them  are  the  Manillas  or  Philippine  islands,  and 
the  Mindanas  or  Magindanas  north  of  the  Mo- 
luccas. Immediately  above  Luzon  is  the  Isle  of 
Formosa.  East  of  r  ormosa  in  the  Chinese  sea 
lie  the  Lied-Kieii,  or  Liitchji  islands.  Still  fer- 
ther  northward  we  have  Nison  and  other  islands 
which  together  form  the  kingdom  of  Japan; 
from  which  proceed  the  Kunles,  consisting  of 
numerous  groups  of  little  islands,  extending  in 
a  chain  from  the  isles  of  Japan  to  Cape  Lo- 
patka,  the  southern  extremity  of  Kamtschatka. 
West  of  these  on  the  coast  of  Tartary  lie  Sagha- 
lien  and  other  islands.  A  little  distant  from 
Kamtschatka  are  the  Aleutian  or  Fox  islands, 


proceeding  in  a  curved  line  to  the  opposite  ex- 
tremity of  America.  Nova  Zembla  is  also  by 
some  geo»graphers  considered  as  an  Asiatic  island, 
and  lies  to  the  north-west  of  Siberia.  The 
islands  of  Ramisseram  and  Manar  are  curiously 
connected  by  a  singular  ridge  of  rocks  called 
Adam's  Bridge.  It  is  nevertheless  proper  to  ob- 
serve that  the  best  of  later  geographers,  con- 
curring in  the  opinion  of  the  learned  president 
des  Brosses,  have  separated  a  vast  number  of 
the  islands,  formerly  considered  as  Asiatic  islands, 
from  that  continent,  and  arranged  them  with  a 
number  of  other  countries  and  islands  to  the 
south  of  Asia,  and  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  under 
the  two  divisions  of  Australasia  and  Polynesia. 
The  grounds  of  the  new  arrangement  are  ex- 
plained with  sufficient  clearness  by  Mr.  Pinker- 
ton  in  his  introductory  observations  on  the 
Asiatic  islands. 

S£AS  and  Waters. — Besides  the  great  oceans 
which  wash  three  sides  of  this  celebrated  quarter 
of  the  globe,  there  are  numerous  gulfs,  bays,  and 
inland  seas  which  have  greatly  contributed  to  its 
fertility  and  civilisation.  The  Red  sea  or  Arabian 
gulf,  called  the  Weedy  sea  by  the  Hebrews,  forms 
the  grand  natural  division  between  Asia  and 
Africa.  Its  length  calculated  from  the  straits  of 
Babelmandel  to  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  is  about  1470 
English  miles,  and  its  medial  breadth  140  miles. 
It  terminates  at  the  upper  extremity,  in  two  great 
branches,  of  which  the  western,  by  several  miles 
the  longer,  is  celebrated  for  the  passage  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  month  Nisan,  B.  C.  1497,  sup- 
posed to  have  taken  place  in  about  29°  40^  north 
latitude.  The  eastern  branch  extends  a  little 
above  the  parallel  of  Mount  Sinai.  The  Arabian 
sea  is  an  appellation  applied  to  the  vast  bay,  in- 
cluded between  Arabia  and  Hindostan,  termina- 
ting in  the  Persian  gulf,  to  which  it  is  united  bv 
a  strait  twenty-four  miles  wide.  This  guff 
stretches  to  the  north-west  between  Arabia  and 
Persia,  containing  several  blands,  and  terminates 
under  the  same  meridian  as  the  Caspian.  The 
deep  and  extensive  Bay  of  Bengal,  spreading 
from  the  eastern  coast  of  Hindostan  to  ihe  op- 
posite shores  of  the  Burm^  Empire,  is  separated 
from  the  last  mentioned  sea  by  the  great  pro 
montory  of  the  Deccan.  This  bay  forms  a  mag- 
nificent inlet  to  the  central  part  of  southern 
Asia.  At  its  entrance,  which  is  in  the  eighth  de- 
gree of  latitude,  it  exceeds  1300  miles  in  width, 
and  is  1000  miles  from  that  parallel  to  its  nor- 
thern extremity,  beyond  the  mouth  of  the 
Ganges.  The  gulf  of  Siam,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca^  separates  the  terri- 
torial projection  from  the  broad  rectangular 
Siuinsula  included  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
urman  empire.  The  gulf  of  Tonquiu  lies  on 
the  south  of  China;  the  Yellow  sea  between 
China  Proper  and  the  gulf  of  Corea.  The 
straits  of  Uorea  eastward  lead  to  the  sea  of 
Japan ;  which  stretches  through  about  fifteen  de- 
gre«»s  of  latitude,  and  divides  the  Japanese  islands 
from  the  shores  of  the  continent.  This  sea  de- 
creasing to  the  north  terminates  in  a  channel 


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ASIA. 


leading  to  the  sea  of  Okotsk  which  forms  a  spa- 
cious inlet  to  the  soutli-eastern  shores  of  Siberia, 
dividing  Chinese  Tartary  from  the  peninsula  of 
Kamtschatka.  From  the  top  of  this  sea  pro- 
jects a  large  forked  gulf  through  nearly  three  de- 
grees of  latitude  between  two  chains  of  magnifi- 
cent mountains ;  one  on  the  peninsula  and  the 
other  on  the  continent.  This  gulf,  and  a  bay  on 
the  opposite  shore,  render  the  conformation  of  the 
north-eastern  part  of  Asia,  peninsular.  The  sea 
of  Anadir  a  few  degrees  south  of  Behring's 
strait  forms  another  inlet  to  the  north-eastern 
extremity  of  this  continent.  A  few  deep  inlets 
are  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Passing  from  the  White  sea  through  the  strait  of 
Waygat,  between  Nova  Zembia  and  the  con- 
tinent, we  enter  the  gulf  of  Cara,  which  is  di- 
vided from  the  deep  gulf  of  Oby,  by  a  long 
peninsula.  This  forms  a  large  opening  reaching 
nearly  to  the  sixty-fifth  parallel.  The  river 
Yenisei  eastward  forms  itself  into  a  wide  estuary 
before  it  falls  into  the  sea.  The  Bay  of  Tai- 
nourskaia,  which  from  its  situation  is  sometimes 
called  the  North  Gulf,  is  placed  about  the 
seventy-fifth  degree  of  latitude  near  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Old  World.  Numerous  other 
inlets  are  found  along  the  coast  firom  this  point 
to  Behring's  strait.  The  Levant  and  the  Archi- 
pelago lie  on  the  western  side  of  Asia,  north  of 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  The  Euxine,  or  Black 
sea,  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  Anatolia, 
and  is  considered  for  the  most  part  as  a  detached 
sea,  being  united  to  the  Mediterranean  only  by 
a  small  strait,  the  Bosphorus  of  the  ancients,  so 
narrow  as  to  be  called  the  Canal  of  Constanti- 
nople. 

The  sea  of  Marmora,  or  Propontis,  is  consider- 
ed by  some  an  inland  sea,  and  is  connected  with 
the  ibgean  Sea,  or  Mediterranean  Archipelago, 
by  a  similar  strait  called  the  Dardanelles,  or  an- 
cient Hellespont.  This  sea,  as  well  as  the  Black 
Sea  and  Mediterranean,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
anciently  detached.  The  Caspian,  celebrated 
for  its  fisheries,  forms  the  separating  boundary, 
which  divides  Russia  frt)m  Persia  and  indepen- 
dent Tartary.  It  is  of  elliptical  figure ;  the  major 
axis  extending  nearly  700  miles  from  north  to 
south,  and  occupying  a  breadth  of  nearly  200 
geographical  miles.  It  appears  to  have  extended 
much  farther  north  than  it  does  at  present;  espe- 
cially as  the  deserts  in  that  direction  are  saline, 
and  sandy,  presenting  the  same  kind  of  shells 
and  marine  productions  as  are  found  in  the 
waters  of  the  Caspian.  Pliny  and  Strabo  sup- 
posed this  sea  to  b^  a  gulf  of  the  northern  ocean; 
out  it  must  always  have  been  restricted  by  the 
western  branch  of  the  Uralian  mountains,  which 
passes  to  the  north  of  Orenburg,  reaching  to  the 
Volga.  Its  former  union  with  ^e  Lake  Aral  is 
highly  probable  from  the  marine  deposits  found 
in  the  intervening  steppes,  and  from  the  Salt 
Lake  still  remaining  between  them ;  the  midway 
eminence  having  been  occasioned  perhaps  by  the 
alluvion  from  the  great  rivers  whicn  flow  into  the 
latter.  The  Caspian  is  remarkable  for  its  having  no 
visible  outlet  for  the  discharge  of  its  waters,  not- 
withstanding the  large  rivers  that  flow  into  it,  and 
also  from  Sie  evidences  of  a  former  superior 
elevation  being  visible  in  the  flanks  of  the  moun- 


tains forming  its  western  coasts.  M.  Pallas 
imagined  he  recognised  its  ancient  shores  on  the 
steppe,  considerably  higher  than  its  present 
level ;  and  has  given  some  particulars  on  the 
subject.  M  M.  Engelhardt  and  Parrot,  natural- 
ists from  Prussia,  who  visited  this  sea  in  1815, 
place  the  former  shores  of  the  Caspian  about  350 
feet  higher  than  its  present  surface ;  where  they 
found  gulfs  and  bays  clearly  defined.  Its  islands 
are  mostly  uninhabited;  its  bed  is  uneven, 
abounding  with  shoals,  betweei)  some  of  which 
a  line  of  450  fathoms  has  been  unsuccessfully 
employed  to  reach  the  bottom.  Its  waters  are 
less  salt  thaa  those  of  the  ocean ;  but  have  a  pe- 
culiar bitter  taste.  It  has  no  tides ;  but  is  subject 
to  violent  storms.  The  striking  peculiarity  of 
this  sea  is  the  difference  between  its  level  and 
that  of  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea.  From  baro- 
metical  observations  made  at  Astracan,  and  at 
St.  Petersburgh,  during  a  period  of  nine  years, 
the  Caspian  appeared  to  be  306  feet  below  that 
of  the  Baltic  :  ami  from  other  barometical  obser- 
vations, made  between  the  mouth  of  the  Kuban 
and  that  of  the  Terek,  the  surface  of  the  Black 
Sea  was  found  to  be  105  metres,  or  344.5  feet 
above  the  Caspian. 

Lake  Aral  is  about  200  miles  in  length,  and 
seventy  in  breadth,  and  about  an  hundred  miles  ' 
distant  firom  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Caspian ; 
which,  in  some  respects,  it  may  be  said  to  resem- 
ble :  it  extends  in  the  same  direction,  and  receives 
the  waters  of  several  rivers,  but  discharges  none. 
The  principal  rivers  that  run  into  it  are  the  Gi- 
hon,  or  Jihon ;  the  Oxus,  of  a^ntiquity,  which 
enters  the  southern  extremity ;  the  ancient  Jax- 
artes,  which  reaches  it  from  the  east ;  as  also  the 
Aujany,  or  Rizil  Daria.  The  southern  extremity 
of  this  lake  is  sprinkled  with  numerous  islands ; 
and  its  supplies  of  water  flowing  from  the  south 
and  the  east,  while  those  of  the  Caspian  flow 
firom  the  nordi  and  west,  evince  that  they  occupy 
part  of  the  same  natural  basin.  Baikal,  another 
of  the  great  lakes,  or  inland  seas,  of  Asia,  is  situ- 
ated near  the  southern  borders  of  Siberia,  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  great  chain  of  mountains 
which  divides  that  country  from  Mongolia. 
This  lake,  like  the  former^  stretches  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  Caspian :  is  350  miles  in  length, 
and  nearly  forty  in  breadth.  Its  waters  are  fresh 
and  pellucid,  presenting  however  the  general 
appearance  of  a  slight  green  tinge,  and  are  usu- 
ally frozen  from  the  beginning  of  December  to 
the  end  of  April.  The  depth  of  this  lake  varies 
from  twenty  to  ninety  fathoms ;  but  so  clear  ar6 
the  waters,  that  the  bottom  becomes  distinctly 
visible  to  the  depth  of  fifty  feet.  It  is  subject  to 
violent  storms,  and  is  often  agitated  without  any 
visible  cause ;  whence  it  has  received  fix>m  the 
Russians  the  superstitious  name  of  Svetoie  Mar^, 
Holy  Sea.  This  lake,  although  it  receives  the 
waters  of  several  copious  rivers,  has  no  visible 
outlet  except  the  lower  Angara,  the  discharge 
from  which  is  considerably  inferior  to  tlie  ac- 
cessions which  it  receives.  It  is  almost  sur- 
rounded by  mountains,  in  which  the  existence 
of  subterraneous  fire  is  evident,  from  frequent 
shocks  of  earthquakes ;  and  the  surrounding 
shores  are  distinguished  by  some  remarkable 
phenomena. 


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It  has  been  imagined  by  many  geographers 
duit  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  communicate 
with  the  condnent  of  America.  This  however  is 
a  topic  on  which  we  have  not  sufficient  data  to 
gronnd  an  opinion.  Captain  Cook  certainly 
traced  the  se|)aration  of  these  co.ntinents,  par- 
tially :  The  best  information  yet  obtained  on  this 
particular  is,  that  Behring's  Strait  divides  them 
to  about  forty  miles  in  breadth,  having  East  Cape 
on  the  Asiatic  side,  and  Prince  of  Wales  Cape  on 
the  American.  The  depth  of  water  is  about 
thirty  fathoms.  Pursuing  this  strait  northward, 
the  Asiatic  shore  tends  rapidly  to  the  west,  while 
the  American  proceeds  nearly  4ue  north ;  till,  at 
the  distance  of  four  or  five  degrees,  the  two  con- 
tinents are  joined  by  one  solid  and  impenetrable 
mass  of  ice. 

Mountains. — The  mountains  of  Asia  have 
always  been  thought  remarkable ;  and,  arrayed  in 
all  the  horrors  of  perpetual  winter,  seem  to  irown 
in  awful  silence  over  the  profusion  of  the  vale. 

A  celebrated  writer  (M.  Walckenaer,  in  his 
Cosmologie,  p.  105,)  observes,  *  that  the  chain  of 
mountains  in  which  the  culminating  points  of 
the  highest  level  are  found,  always  follows  the 
direction  of  the  greatest  dimensions  of  the  conti- 
nent ;  and  the  inferior  chains  or  heights,  where 
we  find  the  culminating  points  of  the  second  or 
third-rate  levels,  also  follow  the  direction  of  the 
greatest  dilatations  of  the  land,  terminating  that 
continent.'  In  Asia  we  have  an  illustration  of 
these  observations.  The  greatest  dimensions  of  the 
continent  are  from  east  to  west :  and  the  country  * 
from  ^e  seventieth  to  the  100th  degree  of  east 
longitude,  and  from  the  thirtieth  to  the  fiftieth 
of  south  latitude,  presents  nearly  a  level  area, 
from  the  different  sides  of  which  all  the  largest 
rivers  flow  into  the  sea.  The  culminating  points 
of  this  extensive  level,  there  is  reason  to  believe, 
are  the  most  elevated  spots  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  The  included  area  has  been  termed  the 
table-land  of  Asia;  although,  since  the  revival 
of  science,  it  has  been  inaccessible  to  European 
travellers,  and  therefore  litde  known.  The  west- 
em  part  of  It  is,  however,  mountainous ;  and  the 
eastern  is  a  vast  desert ;  the  Shamo  of  the  Chi- 
nese, and  the  Kobi  of  the  Tartars,  exhibiting  an 
extent  of  several  thousand  miles  not  watered  by 
a  single  stream. 

The  Altaian  mountains  are  the  northern  boun- 
daries of  this  area ;  the  Himalaya,  on  the  south, 
divide  it  from  Hindostan.  On  the  east  is  that  loflty  * 
range  in  which  originates  the  great  rivers  of 
China ;  and  the  west  is  bordered  by  the  moun- 
tains which  contain  the  sources  of  the  Indus  and 
Jaxartes.  The  inferior  chains,  diverging  as  radii 
from  this  centre,  are  MCiz-dagh  or  Muz-zkrt, 
'  snowy  mountains,'  on  the  north.  The  Tibetian 
mountains  on  the  east,  the  Vind'hya  hills  and 
Chats  on  the  soutli,  and  the  Alburg  or  Alborg 
on  the  west.  The  different  ranges  that  traverse 
the  territories  of  Persia,  and  unite  its  north-west 
provinces  to  Caucasus  on  the  north,  to  Taurus 
and  Libanus  on  the  west  and  south,  are  connected 
with  the  Alburgian  chain.  Libanus  is  also  con- 
nected  by  the  hilly  country  on  the  west  of  Jordan 
with  the  mountains  of  Arabia.  The  greater 
number  of  these  inferior  chains  run  from  east  to 
west,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  central  range. 


The  extensive  Altai,  oi  KhattaT  chain,  stretches 
across  the  continent,  under  different  names,  for 
more  than  5000  miles,  terminating,  to  the  east,  in 
Tchutskoi  Ness  and  cape  Lopatka.  Of  the  highest 
points  of  this  celebrated  chain  south  of  Russia,  we 
na.ve  no  accurate  information;  but  the  inferior 
ranges  reach  far  above  the  point  of  perpetual  con- 
gelation, and  are  supposed  to  be  equal  to  the 
Alps.  The  Himalaya  chain  of  mountains  south  of 
the  great  central  level,  rears  its  loftiest  summits 
26,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  some  of  our  best  geographers,  upwards 
of  6000  feet  above  the  celebrated  Chimborazo  of 
America,  which  towers  over  the  entire  Cordillera 
of  the  Andes.  This  southern  chain  is  supposed 
to  be  of  superior  elevation  to  the  northern. 
Mount  Kailas,  ihe  Olympus  of  the  Hindus,  is 
supposed  to  exceed  even  the  D'h6l^-giri  in»Ni- 
pal,  which  has  been  proved  by  admeasuremen 
to  reach  26,400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Mount  Caucasus,  the  next  in  point  of  altitude, 
is  a  vast  range  extending  between  the  Euxine 
and  Caspian  seas.  Mount  Ararat  rises  south- 
west of  the  Caucasus;  libanus,  Amanus,  and 
Taurus,  are  all  connected  with  this  great  chain ; 
and  the  latter  mount  diverging  with  various 
branches,  occupies  almost  the  whole  area  from 
the  Euphrates  to  the  sea  of  Marmora.  The 
Uralian  mountains,  runaing  from  south  to  north, 
nearly  as  far  as  Nova  Zembla,  and  called  by  the 
Tartars  the  girdle  of  the  earth,  are  much  colder, 
in  consequence  of  a  higher  latitude ;  but  are  in- 
ferior to  the  above  in  point  of  elevation. 

Many  volcanoes  are  in  a  constant  state  of  ac- 
tivity throughout  Asia ;  and  many  which  were 
volcanic  in  former  times,  are  now  extinct,  al- 
though smoke  iti\i  issues,  and  hot  streams  are 
frequently  discharged  from  crevices  in  their  sides 
The  insular  regions  of  Asia  are  likewbe  moun- 
tainous, and  Adam's  Peak,  in  Ceylon,  has  been 
a  remarkable  subject  of  tradition  and  fable. 
Volcanoes  are  also  found  in  most  of  the  Asiatic 
islands ;  G(inong-&pi  is  one  of  the  most  active 
now  known ;  of  that  near  Brambanan,  in  Java, 
a  violent  eruption  is  recorded  in  1586.  Ter- 
nate,  the  chiet  of  the  Moluccas,  is  nothing  more 
than  a  volcanic  cone,  occasionally  emitting  flames 
from  its  summit ;  and  on  its  sides  are  large  pits 
of  melting  sulphur.  The  isles  of  France  and 
Bourbon  are  entirely  of  volcanic  origin ;  and  the 
crater  of  the  latter,  while  in  a  state  of  eruption, 
was  visited  by  M.  Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  who  de- 
scribes, with  great  interest,  ^the  phenomena  ob- 
served on  that  occasion. 

Rivers. — From  the  mountains  of  Asia  nu- 
merous rivers  descend,  which  serve  greatly  to  re- 
fresh the  surrounding  country .  The  river  Lena  rises 
east  of  Siberia,  near  the  lake  Qajkel,  and  flowing 
first  north-east,  then  north,  enters  the  Frozen 
Ocean,  opposite  the  Borkhaya  isles,  after  a  course 
of  1900  miles.  The  river  Enisei,  rising  in  the 
Altaian,  mountains,  flows  into  the  same  sea  after 
a  course  of  at  least  1400  miles.  The  Oby,  per- 
haps the  widest  river  in  the  Russian  empire,  rises 
about  51°  norA  latitude,  and  87°  east  longitude 
from  the  AltCimor  of  the  Kalmaks,  and  Ozero 
Teletzkoi  of  the  Russians ;  and  after  a  course  of 
not  less  than  2000  miles,  falls  into  the  Obskaya 
Juba,  or  sea  of  Oby,  within  the  arctic  circle.  The 


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viver  Irtish  takes  its  rise  in  46®  north  latitude, 
and  92®  east  longitude,  iu  the  northern  barrier  of 
the  central  plateau ;  aud  after  rolling  its  rapid 
stream  as  far  as  the  62d  degree  of  latitude,  and 
gathering  numerous  tributary  waters  in  its  course, 
rails  into  the  river  Obe,  norUi  of  Samarou.  The 
Amour,  or  Saghaliil,  which  rises  in  the  Kalcas 
country,  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  two 
rivers,  Kherton  and  Argun;  and  after  traversing 
Chinese  Tartaiy,  and  receiving  several  large  rivers 
in  its  course,  disembogues  itself  in  the  sea  of  Ok- 
hotsk, neartiie  northern  extremity  of  the  channel 
of  Tartary,  completing  a  course  of  1800  miles. 
The  rivers  of  China  chiefly  rise  in  the  eastern  de- 
clivity of  the  Table  Land.  The  M^kang,  or 
Kamboja,  and  the  Irawadi,  or  Ava  River,  after 
descending  from  the  plateau  into  the  lower  coun- 
try by  long  and  winding  courses,  flows  in  a  di- 
rect line  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  three  most 
celebrated  rivers  that  spring  from  this  region  are 
the  Indus,  Ganges,  ai^d  Burrampooter.  The 
Ganges  river  is  held  sacred  by  the  inhabitants, 
and  is  the  only  one  of  the  three  of  whose  source 
we  have  any  satis&ctory  information ;  although 
Moorcroft  tells  us  he  found  that  of  the  Indus  in 
31®  3'  north  latitude,  and  80®  35'  east  longitude. 
The  two  others  rise  in  Thibet ;  the  Burrampooter 
waters  the  eastern  parts  of  Bengal;  and  the 
course  of  the  Indus,  to  the  south,  has  been  known 
ever  since  the  time  of  Alexander.  The  Oxus  and 
the  Jaxartes  are  two  large  streams,  well  known 
to  the  ancients,  which  rise  from  the  western  de- 
clivity of  the  central  range ;  the  former  emanating 
from  the  glaciers  of  Pushti-khur,  is  supposed  an- 
ciently to  have  taken  a  north-westerly  course ;  at 
present  it  proceeds  almost  due  north,  and  falls  into 
the  lake  Aral.  The  latter  rises  in  the  Bel(ird&gb 
or  Icy  mountains,  west  of  Afgh&unist^un,  and  en- 
ters the  eastern  side  of  the  same  lake.  The  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  flow  to  the  south,  and  the  Araxes  to 
the  east,  watering  a  considerable  extent  of  coun- 
try. The  Jordan  and  Orontes  fertilize  and  beau- 
tify the  vales  of  Syria  and  Palestine.  Anatolia, 
though  it  has  neither  broad  nor  rapid  rivers, 
is  reifipeshed  by  the  division  of  innumerable 
smaller  streams,  which  thrornr  an  enchanting  ap- 
pearance over  the  surftice  of  the  landscape. 
The  Halys,  or  Kizil  Irm^,  arising  from  mount 
Taurus,  after  a  course  of  350  miles,  ftills  into 
the  Black  Sea.  But  the  Howang-h6,  or  Yellow 
River,  which  waters  die  northern  provinces  of 
China,  is  perhaps  the  deepest  and  most  rapid 
river  of  Asia.  This  river  rises  on  the  eastern  de- 
clivity of  the  plateau,  and  rolls  its  vast  stream 
with  unabated  rapidity,  to  nearly  2000  miles. 
The  Yang-tse-kiang,  or  son  of  the  sea,  is  another 
noble  stream  of  China. 

Climate.— The  climate  of  Asia  is  exceedingly 
various,  owing  to  the  different  degrees  of  elevar 
tion.  In  the  south-east  the  heat  is  excessive,  and 
in  the  northern  parts  the  cold  is  almost  insup- 
portable. In  Anatolia  the  central  parts  are 
colder  than  the  provinces  of  France,  although  the 
latter  are  ten  degrees  farther  north.  The  cause 
of  this  is  explained  by  Mr.  Brown,  who  calcu- 
lates that  the  city  of  Erz-riim  is  7000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  This  extraordinary  altitude 
of  level,  together  with  the  great  body  of  snow  on 
the  neighbouring  mountains,  i^^counts  for  the 


extremes  of  cold  in  Persia  and  Tartary ;  Arabia 
is  considerably  tempered,  though  within  the 
tropics.  China  being  mountainous  has  an  agree- 
able climate ;  while  in  India  and  the  Burman 
empire,  are  sensibly  experienced  the  full  effects 
of  a  torrid  zone.  ' 

Vegetables. — ^The  stupendous  mountains,  im- 
mense plains,  immeasurable  forests,  noble  rivers, 
and  wide  spreading  marshes  of  this  quarter  of  the 
earth,  togetner  with  the  variety  of  the  soils,  and  an 
extreme  difference  of  climate,  from  the  intense 
cold  of  Siberia,  where  mercury  freezes,  to  the 
almost  insupportable  heat  of  the  sandy  deserts : 
from  the  eternal  frost  that  reigns  around  the  pole, 
to  the  sterility  of  the  arid  waste,  including  di- 
versified intermediate  regions,  always  adorned 
with  the  blossoms  of  spring,  enriched  with  the 
fullness  of  summer,  or  laden  with  the  produce 
tions  of  autumn,  produce  an  unparalleled  variety 
of  vegetation,  from  the  almost  imperceptible 
moss  £at  creeps  along  the  Arctic  shores  to  the 
hundred-stemmed  banian  that  spreads  its  beauti- 
ful luxuriance  beneath  a  tropical  clime.  Some 
parts  of  Asia  are  very  sterile,  and  the  inhabitants 
look  for  support  to  the  surrounding  sea,  in 
which  fishes  and  mollusca  abound.  Vegetable 
productidns  however,  generally  speaking,  are  nu- 
merous, and  differ  according  to  tlie  climate,  under 
equal  circumstances  of  soil  and  irrigation.  The 
central  and  western  parts  produce  all  sorts  of 
^rrain  which  are  common  in  Europe,  and  culi- 
nary vegetables  in  the  highest  perfection.  The 
'tropical  and  southern  regions  afford  gums,  spices, 
medicinal  roots,  and  extracts  unknown  in  colder 
climates.  Several  genera  of  plants  are  peculiar 
to  New  Holland  and  the  adjacent  islands.  The 
tea-tree  is  found  chiefly  in  the  central  regions ; 
and  the  bread  firuit  and  bamboo,  which  are  natives 
of  Asia,  are  useful  in  every  part  of  domestic 
economy. 

Minerals. — ^This  division  of  the  globe  con- 
tains the  precious  metals  in  great  abundance: 
gold  is  wasfaeSd  down  the  rivers  of  Asia  Minor. 
Arabia  still  supplies  it  in  its  utmost  purity ;  and 
in  Assam,  Celebes,  and  Borneo,  the  gold  is  said 
to  be  native.  Mount  Sipylui  has  been  celebrated 
for  the  production  of  silver,  and  the  mines  of 
Tokat  supply  both  silver  and  copper.  Great 
quantities  of  tin  are  found  in  the  island  of  Ban- 
ca;  lead  and  iron  in  various  parts  of  the 
continent;  precious  stones  are  found  in  great 
variety  throughout  the  whole  of  Asia;  fine 
diamonds  in  Golconda;  rubies  in  Ceyloi^ 
topazes  in  Siberia;  and  the  most  beautiful 
pearls  in  the  straits  of  Manaar  and  the  Bah- 
rein islands;  the  oorundeum  and  other  va- 
luable stones  are  peculiar  to  these  countries. 
Singular  remains  or  antiquity  are  also  dug  out 
of  the  earth;  huge  tusks  of  a  species  of  animal 
now  unknown,  and  even  the  entire  animal 
itself,  is  found  in  the  islands  of  the  Frozen 
Ocean. 

Animals. — ^Asia  contains  a  great  variety  of 
land  and  marine  animals,  from  the  minute  insect 
that  flutters  in  the  solar  beam,  to  the  stupend- 
ous elephant,  the  ferocious  tiger  and  the  majestic 
lion.  The  most  valuable  are  indigenous  to  this 
quarter  of  the  globe.  The  horse  is  found  on  the 
northern  confines  of  Penia  in  his  native  states 


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but  exhibits  none  of  the  symmetry,  powers,  or  pro- 
portions, to  which  be  arriyes  through  a  course  of 
domestic  training.  The  camel  is  found  here  in 
his  most  perfect  growth,  and  performs  journeys 
.  which  to  the  horse  would  be  &tal.  Tlie  ele- 
.phant  is  trained  to  all  sorts  of  service.    The  sea- 

-  otter,  so  valuable  for  his  for,  and  the  whale  are 
common,  and  supply  a  considerable  source  of 
wealth  to  the  inhabitants. 

*  The  population  of  Asia,'  it  has  been  observed, 
''by  no  means  equals  those  expectations  which 
its  history  would  naturally  inspire,'  owing  to  the 
ravages  of  war,  and  the  influence  of  despotic 
governments,'  which  always  impose  an  efiiBctual 
check  upon  the  increase  of  population.*  Ne?er- 
theless,  where  the  governments  are  mild  and 
beneficial,  as  in  British  India,  the  reverse  is  the 
fact.  China  in  particular,  owing  to  a  long  free- 
dom from  foreign  and  domestic  war,  is  said  to 
exhibit  the  amazing  population  of  five  hun- 
dred milKons ;  and  even  this,  according  to  some 
geographers,  is  below  the  real  amount. 

^Asia,  however,  being  the  scene  of  human 
origination,  is  still  peopled  by  numerous  indige- 
nous tribes,  and  presents  an  ample  field  for 
the  study  of  man,  in  all  the  stages  ot  his  progress 
irom  barbarism  to  civilisation.  The  variety  ob- 
served in  the  appearance  of  the  natives  is  proba- 
bly the  effector  difierence of  climate,  aliment,  and 
religion.  The  Samoied  tribes,  New  Hollanders, 
and  inhabitants,  of  Andaman,  are  of  diminutive 
size.  The  people  of  Jesso  and  the  Kurile 
islands,  have  uncommonly  large  beards,  and  an 
unnatural  profusion  of  hair  all  over  their  bodies. 
The  Tartars  and  Chinese  are  knovm  by  the  pe- 
culiar figure  of  their  faces ;  the  latter  particu- 
larly by  their  oUique  contracted  eyes.  There  is, 
however,  reason  to  believe  they  were  andentfy 
derived  from  one  common  origin,  and  bore  a 
great  resemblance  to  each  other. 

HiSTORT. — ^No^  is  said  to  have  settled  in 
Asia,  immediately  after  the  delnge,  near  the  bor- 
ders of  the  £upl^tes,  and  to  have  peopled  the 
whole  continent.  The  posterity  of  Shem  occu- 
pying the  central  regions ;  Japhet  the  northern ; 
and  Ham  the  southern.  Javan  and  his  descen- 
dants, Ashkenaz,  Dodanim,  Tarshish,  EUsha, 
Togermah,  and  Riphath,  are  supposed  to  have 
been  the  ancient  iniiabitants  of  Asia  Minor.  The 

.  Canaanites  and  Amalekites  were  the  people  of 
Syria  and  Arabia  Petrsa.  Modem  wnters  have 
rderred  the  present  natives  of  Asia  to  those  dif- 
ferent stocks  the  Hebrews,  Indians,  and  Tartars, 
the  propriety  of  which  will  appear  from  their 
make,  features,  and  languages.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  large  tribes,  as  the  Malays  and  abori- 
ginal negroes,  which  cannot  be  referred  to  either  of 
these  classes,  as  also  the  mountaineers  of  Cauca- 
sus, and  the  inhabitants  of  northern  Siberia.  Mr. 
Pinkerton  observes,  that  the  population  of  Asia 
is  allowed  by  all  authors  to  be  wholly  primitive 
and  original ;  with  the  exception  of  Uie  Tshukt- 
shis,  whom  the  Russian  historians  suppose  to 
have  passed  firam  the  opposite  coast  of  America, 
the  colonies  that  have  migrated  from  Russia  to 
the  northern  parts  as  far  as  the  sea  of  Kamtschatka, 
the  well-known  European  settlements,  and  a  few 
others.  Asia  certainl'^  presents  an  amazing  origi- 
i^al  population.    We  aidd  the  following  table  of 


the  nations  and  languages  in  Asia,  as  calculated 
to  give  the  reader  a  tolerably  accurate  idea  of 
this  interesting  subject  of  enquiry. 

Tabic  of  the  Nations  and  Languages  in  Asia. 

1.  Assyrians. — ^Assyrians,  Arabians,  Egyp- 
tians.— Chaldee,  Hebrew,  &c. 

2.  Scythians. — Persians,  Scythians  intra  et 
extra  Imaum,  &c\  Armenians.— (The  Parsi  and 
Zend  are  cognate  with  the  Gothic,  Greek,  Latin, 
according  to  Sir  William  Jones.  Indian  Dissert, 
vol.  i.  p.  206.  The  Pehlavi  b  Assyrian  or  Chal- 
daic.    Id.  187, 188.  206.) 

3.  SarmatSd — Medes  and  Parthians.— Geor- 
gians and  Circassians. 

4.  Seres  and  Indi. — Hindoos,  northern  et 
southern,  &c. 

5.  Sinse.— -Chinese  and  Japanese.— These  have 
a  Tartaric  form  and  face;  they  are  probably 
highly-civilised  Tartars,  Mongoles,  or  Mand- 
shurs. 

Barharic  Nations  firom  north  to  south,  and  aS" 
cording  to  tne  degrees  of  barbarism. 

6.  Samoyedes,  Ostiaks,  Yurals,  &c. 

7.  Yakutes.— Yukagirs.  (Expelled  Tartars, 
according  to  Tooke  and  Lesseps.) 

8.  Koriaks. — ^Tshuktshis.  (From  the  opposite 
coast  of  America.  Tooke's  Russia.  The  Yuka- 
girs are  a  tribe  of  the  Yakutes,  around  Yakutsk, 
and  both  are  expelled  Tartars.  Tooke's  View, 
ii.  80.    Lesseps,  ii.  312.) 

9.  Kamtskatdales. — Kurillans. — (These  resem- 
ble the  Japanese.) 

10.  Mandshures  or  Tunguses. — ^Lamutes. — 
(Ruling  people  in  China.) 

11.  Mongoles. — ^Talmuks. — Soongares,  Tun- 
gutes.  Bursts,  &c. 

12.  Tartars  or  Huns. — ^Turks,  Khasares,  Uzes, 
and  Siberians. — ^Nogays,  Bashkirs,  Kirgfaisikai- 
zaki  or  Kirghise  Kaizaks,  Teleutes. 

After  the  destruction  of  Attila's  swarms,  and 
the  effects  of  unfortunate  inroads,  the  Huns  be* 
came  subject  to  the  Mongoles,  who  under  Zingis, 
or  Chingis  khan,  Timur,  &c.  oonsituted  die  su- 
preme nation  in  Asia. 

The  great  share  of  population  which  Europe 
has  received  from  Asia  will  appear  from  the  fol- 
lowing brief  statement. 

Primitive  Inhabitants. 

1.  Celts. — Irish,  Welsh,  Armorican. — Erse, 
Manks,  Cornish. 

2.  Fins  (chief  god  Yummala). — Finlanders, 
Esthonians,  Laplanders,  Hungarians,  Permians 
or  Biarmians,  livonians,  Votiaks  and  Chere* 
misses,  Vogules  and  Ostiaks. 

Colonies  from  Asia. 

3.  Scythians  or-  Goths  (Odin). — ^Icelanders, 
Norwegians,  Swedes,  Danes,  Germans,  English. 
— Swiss,  Frisic,  Flemish,  Dutch. 

4.  Sarmats  or  Slavons  (Perune). — Poles,  Rus- 
sians, Kaizaks. — Heruli,  Vendi,  Lettes. 

The  inhabitants  of  France,  Italy,  a^  Spain, 
are  also  of  Asiatic  origin ;  and  speak  corrupted 
Roman,  which,  like  the  Greek,  is  a  polished 
dialect  of  the  Gothic,  according  to  Sir  William 
Jones,  and  other  able  antiquaries.    The  Heruli 


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Vendes,  and  Lette$,  used  mixed  and  imperfect 
dialects  of  the  Sclavonic. 

Besides  these  numerous  original  nations,  the 
Malays  and  Asiatic  islanders  constitute  another 
larp:e  and  distinct  class  of  mankind,  with  a  pe- 
culiar speech,  in  the  south  of  the  extensive  con- 
tinent of  Asia. 

Governments. — ^The  people^  of  Asia  in  their 
civil  state  consist  of  families  o9Cupyin^  the  same 
territory,  but  acknowledging  no  chief  or  governor; 
of  independent  tribes  associated  under  one  com- 
mon potentate  as  the  Arabs  and  Tartars,  and 
therefore  called  equestrian  natious ;  or  of  king- 
doms ranged  under  established  monarchies,  of 
which  the  chief  are  Independent  Tartary,  China, 
Thibet,  with  its  subsidiary  provinces,  the  Japa- 
nese empire,  &g.  The  Asiatic  governments  are 
mostly  despotic,  and  those  established  by  Euro- 
peans are  nearly  of  the  same  description.  In 
some  of  the  political  institutions  of  Asia  there  is, 
however,  the  rude  image  of  a  popular  administra- 
tion; in  others  the. influence  of  women  is  ad- 
mitted ;  whilst  in  some  few  the  prince  is  guided 
in  all  public  measures  by  the  advice  of  his 
nobles.  Were  the  principal  governments  in 
Asia  to  be  arranged  according  to  their  natural 
and  political  importance,  they  would  probably 
succeed  each  other  in  the  following  order :  China 
in  the  first  place,  and  after  this  successively 
Persia,  Turkey,  and  Russia ;  the  precedency  of 
the  numerous  other  states  can  hardly  be  ascei^ 
tained. 

Religion. — ^The  most  common  religion  of 
Asia 'is  idolatry.  The  doctrines  of  Mahomet 
prevail  to  a  great  extent ;  but  their  influence  is 
upon  the  decline,  owing  in  a  great  measure  to  the 
popularity  of  the  Wahabees.  Christianity  is  now 
generally  rejected  in  Asia,  and  in  many  countries 
even  where  it  was  formerly  tolerated,  as  in  China 
and  Japan.  The  sacrifice  of  animals,  and  even 
of  human  victims,  is  very  frequent ;  and  a  spirit 
of  the  most  degrading  superstition  seems  to  reign 
throughout  the  vast  regions  of  this  division  of  £e 
globe.  Penance  is  carried  beyond  even  the 
bounds  of  probability.  Imposing  upon  himself 
perpetual  silence,  gazing  on  the  sun  till  his  eyes 
oecome  fixed  in  their  sockets,  lacerating  his  body 
with  sharp  weapons,  and  other  practices  still  more 
shocking  to  humanity  are,  through  vast  regions, 
considered  among  the  most  acceptable  services 
which  a  man  can  ofier  to  the  deity.  Polygamy  is 
generally  practised,  and  sometimes  even  a  plurality 
of  husbands  are  allowed  to  a  single  woman :  fcr 
males  of  rank  also,  betrothed  at  an  early  age, 
cohabit  not  with  their  husbands  but  with  other 
men  without  reproach.  Infanticide  is  common  ; 
and  burning  the  living  wife  with  the  body  of  her 
dead  husband,  though  now  rendered  a  voluntary 
act  on  the  part  of  the  woman,  has  by  no  means  sub- 
sided. Many  of  the  tribes  are  complete  canni- 
bals, and  others  are  little  better. 

Character  op  Inhabitants. — ^The  inhabi- 
tants of  Asia,  violent  in  their  dispositions,  are 
generally  ferocious,  vindictive,  ana  cruel.  The 
tender  Um  of  nature  are  little  felt.  Children  are 
openly  ^Id  by  their  parents  without  even  the 
apology  of  necessity.  Wives  are  sacrificed  by 
their  husbands  even  on  the  bare  suspicion  of  in- 
fidelity ;  and  in  the  most  civilised  state  after  an 


unfortunate  contest  for  the  crown,  the  unsuccess- 
ful prince,  if  not  executed,  invariably  has  his 
eyes  put  out,  though  the  rival  should  be  his  own 
brother. 

The  ancient  geography  of  Asia  cannot  be  con- 
templated without  feelings  of  excitement,  which 
the  deep  gloom  of  her  present  degraded  and 
idolatrous  condition  are  unable  to  suppress; 
feelings  unknown  in  the  contemplation  of  any 
other  portion  of  the  globe.  Asia  was  the  parent 
of  nations,  the  cradle  of  civilisation  and  science— 
here  occurred  most  of  those  remarkable  transac- 
tions recorded  in  the  scripture  history — ^here  arose 
successively  the  Babylonian,  Assyrian,  and  Per- 
sian empires — and  here  the  Christian  religion 
was  first  planted  for  the  salvation  of  man.  Much 
of  the  celebrity  of  this  quarter  of  the  globe  is  un- 
doubtedly owing  to  its  climate,  and  the  numer- 
ous gulfs,  bays,  and  navigable  rivers  with  which 
it  abounds  opening  early  facilities  for  commerce, 
&c.;  but  still  more  perhaps  is  to  be  attributed  to 
the  native  genius  and  sanguine  temperament  of 
its  inhabitants. 

The  origin  of  the  name  of  Asia  has  given  rise 
to  some  curious  speculations  and  disquisitions. 
The  Greeks  deduced  it  from  Asia,  the  fiibulous 
daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Thetis.  Odiers  have 
derived  it  from  Asius,  king  of  Lydia.  Bochart 
traces  it  to  the  Hebrew  or  Phcenician  word  Asi, 
signifying  middle,  which  is,  however,  unsupported 
by  historical  evidence.  According  to  Homer, 
Herodotus  and  Euripides,  it  early  designated  a 
country  of  Lydia,  where  ancient  geography  men- 
tions a  tribe  of  Asiones  and  a  city  of  Asia;  The 
name,  however,  was  gradually  extended  by  the 
Greeks  from  a  single  province  to  the  whole  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  suterwards  to  other  regions  as 
they  were  discovered  successively ;  in  the  same 
manner  as  Allemagne  is  applied  by  the  French 
to  the  whole  of  Germany;  and  as  Italia,  an 
ancient  canton  in  Calabria,  is  now  denominated 
the  peninsula  of  Italy.  Since,  however,  much 
perplexity  has  arisen  among  authors  by  the  di- 
verse acceptations  of  the  term  Asia,  so  as  to  ren- 
der it  extremely  difficult  for  their  readers  to  know 
what  region  wa;i  distinctly  understood  by  that 
appellation  ;  and  since  it  is  not  easy  to  reconcile 
the  apparent  inconsistency  between  sacred  and 
profane  history,  as  to  the  provinces  which  it 
comprised,  we  present  the  following  observations 
for  the  satisfaction  of  the  reader : — ^The  ancient 
geographers  divided  the  vast  continent  that  was 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  under  the 
word  Asia,  first  into  Greater  and  Lesser  Asia. 
The  latter,  also  called  Asia  Minor,  was  thought 
to  be  a  peninsula  terminated  by  a  line  drawn 
from  Sinope  to  the  line  of  separation  between 
highland  and  lowland  Cilicia  (Aspera  and  Cam- 
pestris).  It  comprehended  a  great  number  of 
provinces;  but  that  which  included  Phrygia, 
Mysia,  Caria,  and  Lydia,  was  denominated  Asia 
Proper,  or  Asia  properly  so  called.  Cicero, 
enumerating  the  regions  contained  in  Asia  Pro- 
per, makes  no  mention  of  iEolis  or  lolia,  though 
undoubtedly  a  district  of  it,  as  being  compre- 
hended partly  in  Lydia  and  partly  in  Mysia. 
Lydia,  beside  the  inland  country  commonly 
known  by  that  name,  contained  also  Ionia,  lying 
on  the  sea-side,  between  the  rivers  Hermus  and 


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Msander;  and  iEolis,  extending  from  Ilermus 
to  the  river  CaicuSy  or  to  the  promontory  Lec- 
tum,  the  ancient  boundary  between  Troas  and 
the  sea-coast  of  the  Greater  Mysia.  Accordingly, 
Asia  Proper  comprehended  Phrygia,  Mysia,  Ly- 
dia,  Caria,  .£olia,  and  Ionia.  Hiis  tract  was 
bounded,  according  to  Ptolemy,  on  the  north  by 
Bithynia  and  Pontus,  extending  from  Galatia  to 
Propontis;  on  the  east  by  Galatia,  Pamphylia, 
and  Lycia ;  on  the  south  by  part  of  Lycia  and 
the  Rhodian  sea ;  on  the  west  by  the  ^Hellespont, 
by  the  ^gean,  Scarian,  and  Myrtoan  seas,  occu- 

gying  the  space  between  the  thirty-fifUi  and 
(rty-first  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  extending 
from  55®  to  62°  of  longitude. 

As  Asia  Proper  is  but  a  part  of  Asia  Minor, 
so  the  Lydian  Asia  is  only  a  part  of  Asia  Proper. 
Asia,  in  this  acceptation,  comprehends  Lydia, 
>£olia,  and  Ionia ;  and  is  that  Asia  whereof  men- 
tion is  made  in  the  Acts  and  the  Apocalypse. 
Aristotle  tells  us  that  Smyrna  was  at  first  pos- 
sessed by  the  Lydians ;  and  Scylax  Coryandensis 
reckons  it  among  the  cities  of  Lydia,  as  also 
Ephesus,  Sardis,  Philadelphia,  and  Thyatira,  are 
reckoned  by  Ptolemy  among  Uie  cities  of  Lydia, 
as  is  Laodicea  by  Stephanus.  Steph.  de  Urbid. 
That  in  ancient  times  Lydia  was  called  Meeonia, 
and  the  Lydians,  Maeonians,  is  manifest  from 
Hesodotus,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Dionysius  Afer, 
Strabo,  Pliny,  Stephanus,  and  others ;  and  that 
Meonia  was  called  Asia  is  no  less  plain  from 
Caliinicus,  who  flourished  before  Archilochus, 
from  Demetrius  Soepsius,  contemporary  with 
Crates,  and  Aristarchus  the  grammarian,  from 
Euripides,  Suidas  the  great  etymologist^  &c.; 
besides  which  it  is  expressly  affirmed  by  the 
ancient  scholiast  of  Apollonius  Rliodius,  that 
Lydia  was  formerly  called  Asia,  and  hence  Lydia 
has  been  said  to  have  a  better  claim  to  the  name 
of  Asia  than  any  other  part  of  that  continent 
Ulterior  (or  Greater)  Asia  comprehended  the 
remaining  part  of  tluit  continent.  Its  great  di- 
visions were  Iberia,  Colchis,  and  Albania,  be- 
tween the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas ;  Mingrelia, 
Georgia,  and  E^histfln  Ajmenia,  which  retains 
its  ancient  name.  Media  and  Persia  included 
in  modem  Persia.  Bactriana  and  Margiana ;  the 
Merri,  Balkh,  and  Bokh^  of  the  Turks  and 
Tartars ;  Syria,  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria,  the 
Biliidu'sh  ishkn,  Dlyar  bekr,  and  Abjonirah  of 
the  modems.  H3rrcania,  Persia,  and  Susiana, 
the  Irilk  and  F&rs  of  the  present  day.  Judea, 
Babylonia,  and  Chaldea;  the  southern  part  of 
Syria  and  Pachalic  of  Bagdad.  India  the 
country  between  the  Indus  and  Ganges^  and 
Syria  the  remoter  regions  to  the  north-east. 

Ancient  Geography. — ^The  earliest  accounts 
of  this  vast  portion  of  the  globe  are  those  con- 
tained in  the  Scripture,  which  are,  however,  ex- 
tremely imperfect.  Moses  has  enumerated  the 
different  parts  of  the  earth  with  which  the  He- 
brews were  fruniliar ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the 
names  by  which  he  designates  the  places  differ- 
ing from  other  authors,  great  obscurity  hangs 
over  the  whole  of  his  geography,  except  that 
which  relates  to  the  land  of  Canaan  itself,  and 
the  states  immediately  contiguous.  He  appears 
to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  Asia  Minor, 
Annenia,  Media,  Persia,  and  Arabia.    The  Gog 


and  Magog  of  Scripture  seem  to  have  been  the 
inhabitants  of  Caucasus.  Riphath  seems  to  re- 
fer to  the  Riphsan  mountains ;  and  Rosh  refers 
to  the  ancient  Rossi,  from  whom  were  descended 
the  Russians  of  the  present  day.  The. more 
northerly  parts  of  Asia  were  evidently  unknown 
to  the  Greeks.  Herodotus  considered  the  Pha- 
sis  in  Colchis  as  the  lin»  of  separation  between 
Europe  and  Asia,  whilst  others  believed  the 
Don,  or  Tanais,  as  the  proper  limit.  The 
mountains  north  of  India  were  the  utmost  boun- 
dary of  their  knowledge  with  respect  to  that  part 
of  Asia.  The  Ganges  and  the  Indian  Ocean 
they  considered  the  eastern  and  southern  limits ; 
and  the  Red  Sea,  with  the  isthmus  between  it 
and  the  Mediterranean,  brought  them  back  to 
the  western  or  nearest  side.  Many  geographers 
included  Egypt  in  Asia,  making  the  Catabathnus, 
or  western  side  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  the 
separation  between  Asia  and  Africa ;  whilst  others 
considered  the  Nile  itself  as  the  line  of  separar 
tion.  Strabo  and  Pliny  supposed  the  northern 
end  of  the  Caspian  sea  communicated  with  the 
ocean. 

PaoGRESSiyE  Geogkapht. — ^At  the  time  when 
Asia  was  first  mentioned  in  history  it  probably 
contained  more  powerful  empires  than  it  does 
at  present,  the  Chinese  excepted.  Alexander 
the  Great  carried  his  arms  beyond  the  Indus. 
The  Sine,  or  eastern  Indians,  were  known 
to  Ptolemy  in  the  second  century,  and  abo 
Taprobane  or  Ceylon,  with  Jabadia,  the  Javia 
dwipa  of  the  Indians,  and  the  Java  of  our 
maps.  Alfred,  king  of  England,  deputed  a  mis- 
sion to  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  on  the  .coast  of 
Babelmandel;  and  the  crusades  of  Syria  and 
Palestine,  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries^ 
led  to  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  that  part  of 
Asia.  Shortly  after  the  passion  for  crusades  had 
subsided,  a  spirit  of  commercial  enterprise  was 
excited,  and  merchants,  from  several  parts  of 
Europe,  penetrated  into  the  interior.  The  monks, 
animat^  with  a  desire  to  convert  the  heretics, 
departed  in  great  numbers  for  Asia;  amission 
deputed  from  the  pope  to  the  court  of  the  Moguls, 
and  another  from  Louis  of  France  to  the  same 

Srinces  contributed  on  their  return,  by  the  pub- 
cation  of  their  travels,  to  enlarge  the  ideas  of 
Europeans  with  respect  to  that  part  of  the  world. 
Marco  Polo,  a  Venetian  merchant,  with  his  com- 
panions, spent  twenty-six  years  in  travelling 
either  as  merchants,  or  as  agents  of  the  Great 
Khan  of  the  Tartars,  during  which  period  they 
for  the  first  time  disclosed  the  great  desert  of 
Cobi,  and  made  great  additions  to  our  knowledge 
of  oriental  geography,  particularly  in  the  north 
of  Asia.  Such  indeed  was  the  ignorance  of  the 
age  in  which  he  lived,  that  his  description^  of 
the  magnificence  and  wealth  of  the  Asiatics  were 
regard^  by  his  contemporaries  as  the  effusions  of 
romance.  Subsequent  information  has  neverthe- 
less raised  him  to  distinguished  credit,  and  his 
work  is  now  considered  one  of  the  most  curious 
monuments  we  possess  of  the  state  of  Europe 
and  Asia  in  the  middle  ages.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  improvements  in  navigation,  and  the 
spirit  of  commercial  enterprise,  fru^ilitated  the 
progress  of  discovery.  A  passage  was  discovered 
to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the 


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EngUshy  Dutch,  Spttnisfa,  and  Portuguese  settled 
peveral  establishments  on  the  Asiatic  coast,  from 
which  they  undertook  still  more  distant  expeditions 
into  die  interior,  and  opened  an  intercourse  with 
China,  Japan*  and  Hindostan. '  The  British  go- 
Temment  sent  out  repeated  expeditions  under 
the  conduct  of  Cook,  Byron,  and  others,  to  make 
discoveries  in  the  Southern  Ocean ;  and  the  em- 
press Catharine  about  the  same  time  directed 
scientific  travellers  to  explore  some  of  the  central 
parts  of  her  Asiatic  dominions.  Geography  by 
these  means  received  many  splendid  additions, 
and  our  knowledge  of  different  and  distant  parts 
of  tbe  globe  illustrated  many  important  and  in- 
teresting points  in  the  physical  and  natural  his- 
tory of  southern  Asia.  Van  Diemen's  Land 
and  New  Holland  were  explored  by  captain 
Flinders.  The  same  voyager  also  observed  that 
there  is  no  river  deeply  penetrating  into  the 
latter  island ;  and  that  the  gulf  of  Carpentaria 
is  a  basin  of  vast  extent  studded  with  islands. 
The  expulsion  of  the  Dutch  from  their  insular 
settlements  has  also  led  to  an  intimate  acauaint- 
ance  with  those  territories,  all  knowledge  of 
which  they  endeavoured  to  conceal.  Travellers 
firom  British  India  have  greatly  increased  our  in- 
formation with  respect  to  the  neighbouring  re- 
gions. A  mission  to  the  court  of  Persia  has 
'dirown  a  light  on  the  geography  and  policy  of 
that  distinguished  empire,  and  shown  how  de- 
fective our  information  was  with  regard  to  Ori- 
ental nations.  A  field  of  discovery,  however, 
yet  remains  to  complete  the  geography  of  this 
part  of  the  world.  The  origin,  course,  and  pro- 
gressive mcrease  of  some  of  its  greatest  rivers  are 
unknown;  scarce  any  of  its  internal  seas,  except 
the  Caspian,  have  been  the  subjects  of  actual 
survey;  and  its  mountains,  perhaps  the  most 
stupendous  masses  on  the  globe,  present  a  wholly 
unexplored  field  of  enquiry.  Siberia  is  but  little 
known ;  and  even  of  the  coasts  no  perfect  sui^ 
vey  has  ever  been  taken.  The  whole  extent  of 
country  from  the  Caspian  to  the  sea  of  Okhosts, 
includmg  a  superficial  area  of  many  thousands  of 
miles,  is  occupied  by  nations  and  people  whose 
names  are  scarcely  known.  Little  more  than  the 
borders  of  Arabia  is  known  to  Europeans.  The 
interior  regions  of  Tartary  and  the  northern  part 
of  China  require  much  illustration.  The  same 
remark  may  be  applied  to  India  and  the  interior 
of  Asia  generally.  With  regard  to  the  probable 
population  of  this  continent  so  defective  is  our 
knowledge  that  differences  of  between  one  and 
two  hundred  millions  exist  in  regard  to  that  of 
China  alone.  Our  knowledge  of  the  islands  is 
almost  equally  imperfect.  Not  a  tenth  part 
of  New  Holland  has  been  attempted,  and  tliat 
only  in  a  single  line,  although  every  journey  un- 
folds novelties  and  wonders  in  nature  which 
seem  to  distinguish  this  extensive  island  irom 
every  other  region  in  the  world.  Borneo,  Su- 
matra, Celebes,  and  Papua  greatly  demand  the 
attention  of  travellers.  The  north-eastern  angle 
of  territorial  Asia  has  been  repeatedly  visited  by 
navigators  and  travellers  since  the  civilization  of 
Russia  by  the  genius  of  Peter  the  Great;  but 
the  geography  and  natural  history  of  that  r^on 
have  been  hitherto  described  in  a  manner  which 
i:>  exceedingly  imperfect    On  the  whole  we  are 


looking  fbr  superior  lights.  The  morning  which 
dawned  so  nuiny  centuries  ago  has  hitherto  ad- 
vanced but  slowly ;  and  we  hail  the  approach  of 
a  brighter  period,  which  is  not  very  remote, 
when  the  sun  of  discovery  shall  burst  the  clouds 
in  which  he  has  been  enveloped,  and  irradiate 
the  geography  of  this  interesting  section  of  the 
globe. 

The  propagation  of  Mahommedanisn\,  and  the 
extermmating  wars  by  which  it  was  attended, 
effected  a  complete  revolution  by  the  states  of  this 
continent.  The  Greek  empire  sunk  in  the  arms 
of  the  victorious  Moslems.  The  caliphs  for  a 
time  prevailed  to  a  considerable  dc^ee  over 
their  Uonstantinopolitan  predecessors,  and  were 
in  their  turn  humbled  by  the  Tatarian  Jenger^ 
and  T^m6r.  The  latter  were  finally  absorbed 
in  the  overwhelming  power  of  the  Turks  who 
now,  having  no  formidable  enemy  to  oppose, 
overran  the  west  of  Asia,  and  in  the  miaale  of 
the  fifteenth  century  extinguished  the  Eastern 
Empire,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  those  great 
divisions  of  this  continent  which  subsist  at  the 
present  day. 

With  respect  to  the  modern  divisions  of  Asia, 
we  observe  that  the  Russian  empire  extends 
from  the  Uralian  mountains  to  the  sea  of  Kam- 
schatka,  and  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  pa- 
rallel of  fifty  degrees  north  latitude.  It  is  inna- 
habited  by  Tartars,  Mongols,  Mantchirs,  &c., 
under  the  general  name  of  Siberia.  The  Asiatic 
part  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  consisting  of  Ana- 
tolia, Syria,  and  Diyar-Bekr,  the  ancient  Meso- 
potamia, lies  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean ;  the  canal  of  Constantinople  and 
the  Tigris ;  Arabia  lies  to  the  south  of  the  latter 
country;  and  Persia  lies  east  of  the  Tigris,  as 
hr  as.  the  Indus,  between  the  Caspian  ^a  and 
the  Persian  Gulf.  East  of  the  Caspian,  as  fiu-  as 
east  longitude  100  degrees,  between  Russia  and 
Persia,  are  the  independent  Tartais.  From  the 
above  meridian,  to  the  Sea  of  Japan,  lies  eastern 
or  Chinese  Tartary,  inhabited  by  the  Mantchirs 
who  subdued  China  in  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  whose  original  country  forms 
,  at  present  the  northern  part  of  that  empire.  Tliibet 
is  on  the  north  side  of  the  Himalaya  mountains, 
the  Alps  of  Hindostan.  South  and  east  of  China 
lies  the  peninsula  of  India,  beyond  the  Ganges. 
West  of  the  Burman  empire  is  India  on  this 
side  the  Ganges,  comprehending  Kashmir,  Hin- 
dostan, and  the  Deccan.  The  islands  are  under 
various  governments,  and  have  been  made  the 
seat  of  various  commercial  establishments  by 
the  different  powers  of  Europe,  of  which  an 
account  will  be  given  under  tneir  names  sepa- 
rately. 

Asia  Minor  is  the  western  portion  of  Asia, 
having  the  Black  Sea  on  the  north,  the  Eu- 
phrates on  the  east,  and  the  seas  Mediterranean 
and  Marmora,  with  the  Hellespont  and  Bos- 

{>horus,  on  the  west.  It  is  of  an  irregularly  ob- 
ong  figure,  1000  miles  from  east  to  west,  and 
400  or  500  from  north  to  south,  variously  in- 
dented by  bays  and  inlets,  and  having  a  few 
peninsulas  and  promontories.  Its  streams  and 
rivers  are  numerous  but  not  large ;  the  interior 
abounding  with  saline  lakes,  crystal  fountains, 
and  hot-springs,  whose  waters  have  been  oele- 


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bnted  for  their  medicinal  qualities.  The  cli- 
nuite  is  fine,  and  its  yalleys  warm,  washed  in 
some  places  by  mountain  torrents,  shaded  by  the 
mountains,  and  tempered  by  cool  and  refreshing 
breezes  from  the  sea.  Long  ranges  of  hills, 
from  which  branches  diverge  in  all  directions, 
isolated  rocks  and  mountains  crowned  with 
trees  and  verdure,  delightfully  change  the>  pros- 
pect; while  the  luxuriance  of  the  soil  and  sa)un- 
dance  of  grain,  fruits,  and  every  species  of 
vegetation,  render  subsistence  comfortable  and 
happy.  Earthquakes  are,  however,  frequent, 
.overwhelming  entire  cities  and  their  inhabitants ; 
and  the  plague  sweeps  away  its  thousands. 
The  whole  country  is  subject  to  the  Turkish 
government,  and  inhabited  chiefly  by  Mahom- 
medans  and  Christians.  It  is  divided  into  se- 
veral laige  provinces,  of  which  Natolia  and 
Caramania  are  the  most  important    It  contains 


the  cities  of  Angora,  Bursa,  Smyrna,  and  Tocat, 
besides  the  ruins  of  manv  others  which  have 
been  highly  celebrated  in  history.  The  southern 
shore  of  Caramania  is  overspread  witli  remains 
of  Grecian  antiquities;  and  Natolia  abounds 
with  ancient  curiosities  and  columns,  having 
been  the  theatre  of  important  events  from  the 
earliest  history.  The  several  islands  in  the 
Archipelago,  belonging  to  this  country,  are  also 
highly  classical  and  important. 

This  part  of  Asia  is  the  most  interesting  re- 
gion of  the  earth,  the  parent  of  education,  arts, 
and  arms—the  cradle  of  mythology,  poetry,  and 
eloquence — the  favorite  abode  of  the  muses — the 
soil  in  which  lay  the  ancient  roots  of  genius, 
which  have  since  struck  round  the  world,  beau-^ 
tified  the  moral  wastes,  and  still  luxuriantly  ex- 
pand their  blossoms  in  almost  every  clime  of  the 
civilised  globe. 


ASIAGO,  one  of  the  seven  Venetian  com- 
munes in  Upper  Italy,  in  the  midst  of  mountains, 
in  the  north  of  the  circle  of  Vicenza,  and  now  be- 
longing toAustria.  The  inhabitants  are  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  Germans,  and  lead  a  purely 
pastoral  life.  They  enjoyed  great  privileges 
under  the  Venetian  government,  and  luive  more 
than  once  defended  the  passes  of  their  country 
against  the  inroads  of  a  foreign  foe.  The  large 
town  of  Asiago  is  the  seat  gI  the  court  of  jus- 
tice for  all  the  communes;  has  a  castle,  and 
11,000  inhabitants.  It  is  twenty  miles  north  of 
Vicenza. 
ASIDE.  On  side.  See  Side. 
And  he  took  him  atidii  fr5  the  people  and  pattedo 
hiM  fingris  into  hise  eero  and  he  tpette  and  toQchide 
hit  tonge.  W^f.    Mark  ch,  vii. 

Frak.  Sir,  he  may  live. 
I  Mw  him  beat  the  snrgee  under  him. 
And  ride  npon  their  backs ;  he  trod  the  water. 
Whose  enmity  he  flung  aiide,  and  breasted 
The  surgb  most  swoln  that  met  him ;  his  bold  head 
'Bovethe  contentious  waves  he  kept,  and  oar'd 
Himself  with  his  good  arms  in  lus^  strokes 
To  the  shore  j  that  o'er  his  wave-worn  basis  bowed. 
Shakipeare'i  Tempett, 
Thus  (she  purtuM)  I  discipline  a  son. 
Whose  undieckM  fiixy  to  revenge  would  run  ; 
He  champs  the  bit,  impatient  of  his  loss. 
And  starts  aside,  and  flounders  at  the  cross. 

Dryim't  Hind  amd  Pamther, 
It  is  the  custom  of  the  Mahometans,  if  they  see 
any  printed  or  written  paper  upon  the  ground,  to  take 
it  up  and  lay  it  ande  carefully,  as  not  knowing  but 
it  m^  contain  some  piece  of  the  Alcoran.  Addimm. 
ASILUS,  in  entomology,  the  hornet-fly,  a 
genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  order  of  in* 
secta  diptera.  It  has  two  wings;  and  a  horny, 
strait,  two-valved,  beak.  There  are  seventeen 
species  of  this  insect.  Many  of  them  wound 
in  a  very  painful  manner,  and  are  particularly 
troublesome  to  cattle  in  low  meadows;  others  of 
them  are  quite  harmless. 

AsiLiTs,  in  ornithology,  the  name  used  by 
many  for  the  luteola,  or'  regulus  non  cristatus, 
an  extremely  small  bird,  common  among  wil- 
lows. 
ASINARII,  an  appellation  given,  by  wa>'  of 
Vol.  III. 


reproadi,  to  the  ancient  Christians,  as  well  as 
Jews,  from  a  mistaken  opinion,  among  heathens, 
that  they  worshipped  an  ass. 

ASINESIA,  in  medicine,  an  immovableness 
of  the  body,  or  in  any  part  of  it,  as  in  apoplexy, 
palsy,  &c. 

ASINIUS  Lapis,  a  name  given  by  some 
writers  of  the  middle  ages,  to  a  stone,  said  to  be 
found  in  those  places  frequented  by  the  wild  ass. 
See  BczoAR. 

ASINUS  Piscis,  in  ichthyology,  a  name  given 
by  some  to  the  eglefinus,  or  common  haddock, 
called  also  onos. 

ASIO,  in  ornithology,  a  name  given  by  Al- 
drovandus  and  others,  to  the  otus,  or  lesser  horn 
owl. 

ASISIA,  or  AssisiA,  a  town  of  libumia, 
now  in  ruins,  but  exhibiting  many  monuments 
of  antiquity.  It  is  the  Asseria  or  Assesia  of 
Pliny,  and  is  now  called  Podgraje.  See  Asse- 
ria. 

ASISIO,  or  AsiTio,  a  city  of  the  Pope's  ter- 
ritories in  Italy,  situated  about  sixteen  miles 
east  of  Perugia,  and  eighty  north  of  Rome.  It  is 
seated  on  a  mountain,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  birth-place  of  St,  Francis. 

ASK,     >     Ang.-Sax.  secan,ascecan,  toseek, 

Ask'eb.  $  to  ask ;  ascean,  to  seek,  to  ask.  To 
seek,  enquire,  demand,  require,  petition,  beg. 

As  it  is  a  great  point  of  art,  when  our  matter  re- 
quires it,  to  ^axge  and  veer  out  all  sail ;  so  to  take 
it  in  and  contract  it,  is  no  less  praise,  when  the  argu- 
ment doth  oikiU  Ben  Jonstm, 

A  lump  of  ore,  in  the  bottom  of  a  mine,  will  be 
stirred  by  two  men's  strength ;  which,  if  you  bring  it 
to  the  top  of  the  earth,  will  oMk  six  men  to  stir  it. 

Bacon. 

When  thou  dost  a$k  me  blessing.  111  kneel  down. 
And  atk  of  thee  fozgiveness.  Shahpeare. 

We  have  notldng  else  to  atk;  but  that. 
Which  you  deny  already :  yet  will  ash; 
That,  if  we  fail  in  our  request,  the  blame 
May  hang  upon  your  hardness.  Id, 

In  long  journeys,  oih  your  master  leave  to  give  ale 
to  the  horses  Swifi. 

Let  him  pursue  the  promis'd  Latian  shore, 
A  short  delay  is  all  I  oiA  him  now ; 
A  pause  of  grief,  an  interval  of  woe.       Dryden. 


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Atk  of  the  leunM  the  way ;  the  leam'd  are  blind  ; 
This  bids  to  serve,  and  that  to  shan  mankind ', 
Some  place  the  bliss  in  action,  some  in  ease. 
Those  call  it  pLeasaxe,  and  contentment  these. 

Pope.     Sfu^  oit  Man. 
Upon  my  atkir^  her  who  it  was,  she  told  me  it 
was  a  vciy  grave  elderly  gentleman,  but  that  she  did 
not  know  his  name.  Ad^uon. 

ASKAH,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the  nor- 
thern circar,  Cicacole,  thirty-six  miles  north  by 
west  of  Ganjam.    It  stands  in  N.  lat.  19°  44', 
E.  long.  84°  55'. 
ASKANCE^-x     Supposed  to  be   from  as- 
Askacnce',    t  chined,  participle  of  the  Dutch 
Askaumt',     iverh  schidnen,    to  cut   awry. 
AsQumt'.      JjFrom    whence    probably   are 
squint  and  asquint ;  sideways,  oblique. 
And  wrote  alway  the  names,  as  he  stood. 
Of  alle  folk  that  gave  hem  any  good, 
AOamce  that  he  wolde  for  hem  preye. 

Chaueer.     The  Smpnoitr't  Tale. 
Some  say,  he  bid  his  angels  tun  a^ance 
The  poles  of  earth,  twice  ten  degrees 'and  more. 
From  the  son's  axle :  they  with  labour  pnsh'd 
Oblique  the  centric  globe.  Ifitoii. 

Zelmane,  keeping  a  ooontenance  adumoe,  as  she 
understood  him  not,  told  him,  it  became  her  evil. 

Sidnesf. 
His  wannish  eyes  upon  them  bent  OMkance;, 
And  when  he  saw  their  labours  well  succeed. 
He  wept  for  nge,  and  threatened  din  mischance. 

Pahfas. 
While  thus  their  worke  went  on  with  lucky  speed. 
And  reared  rammes  their  horned  fronts  aduance. 
The  ancient  foe  to  man,  and  mortall  seed. 
His  wannish  eyes  vpon  them  bent  oAanoe. 

Pakfas's  Tom,  book  iv. 
At  this  Achilles  roUM  his  furious  eyes, 
Fix'd  on  the  king  atkamt;  and  thus  replies, 

O,  impudent Drjfden. 

Since  the  space,  that  lies  on  either  side 
The  solar  orb,  is  without  limits  wide ; 
Grant,  that  the  sun  had  happened  to  prefer 
A  seat  atkaui^,  but  one  diameter : 
Lost  to  the  light  by  that  unhappy  place. 
This  globe  had  lain  a  frozen  loansome  mass. 

Blachmore. 

Through  his  bright  disk  the  stormy  weapon  flew, 
TranspiercM  his  twisted  mail,  and  from  his  side 
Drove  all  the  skin,  but  to  his  nobler  parts 
Found  entrance  none  by  Pallas  turn'd  askance. 

Cowper^t  Hiad,  book  xi.  p.  195. 
PaniC'fixed  he  stood. 
His  seven-fold  shield  behind  his  shoulder  cast. 
And  hemm'd  by  numbers  with  his  eyes  athant, 
Watchful  retreated.  /d.  bookxi. 

ASKERON,  a  place  five  miles  from  Don- 
caster,  noted  for  a  medicinal  spring.  It  is  a  strong 
sulphureous  water,  slightly  impregnated  with  a 
purging  salt.  It  is  recommenaed  internally  and 
extemsdly  m  strumous  and  other  ulcers,  scabs, 
leprosy,  and  similar  complaints.  It  is  good  in 
chronic  obstructions,  in  cases  of  worms,  &c. 

ASKEW,  Dan.  gkutvt,  crooked;  from  ikia- 
ver,  to  twist. 

For,  when  ye  mildly  look  with  lovely  hue, 
Then  is  my  soul  with  life  and  love  inspired  : 
But,  when  ye  lowre,  or  look  on  me  askew. 
Then  do  I  die.  Spenser. 

Then  take  it.  Sir,  as  it  was  writ  ^ 
Nor  look  askew,  at  what  it  saith  : 
There's  no  petition  in  it  Prior, 


This  sttd,  her  spear  she  posh'd  against  the  ground « 
And,  mounting  from  it  with  an  active  bound. 
Flew  off  to  heaven  ;  the  hag  with  eyes  askew 
LookM  up,  and  mutter'd  curses  as  she  flew. 

Addism.     OMs  Met.  book  ii . 

Askew  (Anne),  an  English  lady,  the 
daughter  of  Sir  William  A^^ew,  of  Kelsay,  in 
Lincolnshire.  She  was  bom  at  her  Eather^s 
seat  about  1520;  and  received  a  liberal  educa- 
tion. Early  in  life  she  was  married  to  a  Mr. 
Kyme,  contrary  to  her  own  inclination;  and, 
being  harshly  treated  by  her  husband,  she  went 
to  Ae  court  of  Henry  VlII.  to  sue  for  a  sepa- 
ration. Here  she  attracted  the  particular  notice 
of  such  ladies  as  were  attached  to  the  reforma- 
tion: on  this  account  she  was  arrested;  and, 
acknowledging  her  rel^ous  principles,  was  sent 
prisoner  to  Newgate.  After  naving  been  put  to 
the  rack  with  savage  cruelty  in  the  Tower,  she 
was  burnt  in  Smithfield,  sdong  with  her  tutor, 
and  two  other  persons  of  the  same  faith,  in  1546. 
Her  letters  in*  rox  and  Stiypje  show  her  to  have 
been  an  accomplished  and  pious  woman. 

ASKEYTON,  a  market  town  of  Limerick, 
seated  on  the  river  Deel,  110  miles  from  Dub- 
lin; noted  for  its  castle,  built  by  the  eail  of 
Desmond,  and  for  its  beautiful  abliey. 

ASLA'KE.  Ang.-Sax.  aslacian,  to  abate; 
to  resolve,  to  unbend,  to  reduce  to  its  compo- 
nent parts,  to  slake,  or  slacken. 

But  this  continual,  cruel,  civil  war 
No  skill  can  stint,  nor  reason  can  adahe. 


Whilst,  seeking  to  adake  thy  raging  fire. 
Thou  in  me  kindlest  mvfih  more  great  desire.      Id, 
But  tnche  as  of  ther  golde  ther  only  idoU  make, 
Noe  treasure  may  the  ranyn  of  their  hungry  ha^ds 


ASLAN,  or  Aslani,  in  conunerce,  a  name 
given  to  the  Dutch  dollar  in  most  parts  of  the 
Levant  The  word  is  also  written  corruptly, 
asselani.  It  is  originally  Turkish,  and  signifies 
a  lion,  which  is  the  figure  stamped  on  it  The 
Arabs,  taking  the  figure  of  a  lion  for  a  dog, 
called  it  abusketh.  It  is-  silver,  but  much  al- 
loyed, and  is  current  for  115  or  120  aspers.  See 

,  ASLANT.    On  slant    See  Slant. 
There  is  a  willow  grows  admU  a  brook. 
That  shews  his  hoar  leaves  in  the  glassy  stream. 

Shakspeare.   Haadet. 
He  fell ;  the  shaft 
Drove  thro'  his  neck^  adatU :  he  spurns  the  ground  ; 
And  the  soul  issues    through  the  weapon's  wound. 

Drjfden. 
Lot  now  apparent  all 
Adani  the  dew-bright  earth  and  coloured  air. 
He  looks  in  boundless  majesty  abroad. 
And  sheds  the  shining  day  that  burnished  plays 
On  rocks,  and  hills,  and    towers,  and  wandering 

streams. 
High  gleaming  from  afar.  Thommm, 

ASLEET.    On  sleep.    See  Sleep. 
This  false  knight  vpon  'delaie . 
Hath  taried  till  thei  were  adeepe. 
As  he  that  woU  time  kepe 
His  deadly  workes  to  fnlfiUe. 

Govor.  Con.  Am.  book  ii. 
How  many  thousand  of  my  poorest  sul^ects 
Are  at  this  hour  adeep  /  O  gentle  sleep, 
feature's  soft  nurse,  how  have  I  fic^hted  thee ! 

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The  4iUgeiioe>Qf  trade,  and  &oi«cAil  gain. 
And  Ivxi^y,  nunre  iato  luhep  vue  laid : 
AU  was  the  night's ;  and,  in  her  tilont  rcig^k. 
No  sound  the  rest  of  nature  did  invade.      Dryden. 
For  gorgM  with  flesh,  and  drunk  with  human  wine^ 
While  fast  atieep  the  giant  lay  supine 
Snoring  aloud,  and  belching  from  his  maw 
His  indigested  foam  and  morsels  raw  : 
We  pray,  we  cast  the  lots,  and  then  surround 
The  monstrous  body,  stretch'd  along  the  ground. 

Id.  VkgU,Mue\dm,^ 
There  is  no  dUference,  between  a  person  udeep,' 
and  in  an  apoplexy ;  bat  that  the  one  can  be  awaked* 
and  the  other  cannot.     .  Arbuthmot  on  X>iet. 

ASLOPF.    Oit  alope»  or  9lip.    See  Slope. 
For  many  tim«s  I  have  it  seen. 
That  many  have  begyled  been. 
For  trust  that  they  have  set  in  hope. 
Which  fell  hem  afterward  mhpe. 
Chwcer.    Romauni  of  the  Rate,  fol.  137.  c.  I. 
Set  them  not  upright,  but  adope,  a  reasonable 
depth  under  the  ground.  Bacon, 

The  curse  adope 
GlancM  on  the  ground ;  with  labour  I  must  eara 
My  bread  I  what  harmt  Idleness  had  been  worse ; 
My  labour  will  sustain  me.  MUtoiu 

The  knight  di()  stoop. 
And  sate  on  further  side  adve,        HMdibnu, 
Where  porters'  hoc^^eads  roU  £ft>m  carts  adope. 
Of  brewers  down  steep  cellars  stretch  the  rope  i 
W^ere  counted  billeu  are  by  carmen  tost. 
Slay  thy  rash  step^  and  walk  without  the  post. 

Gay,  Trwia,  book  ii. 
ASMODAI9  the  name  given  by  the  Jenvs 
to  the  prince  of  daemons ;  and  according  to  R. 
Elias,  the  same  with  Sammael. 

ASMONEUS,  or  Assilmoneus,  the  father  of 
Simon,  and  chief  of  the  Asmoneans,  a  family  that 
reigned  over  the  Jews  126  years. 

.  ASNA,  or  EsNA,  a  town  in  Upper  Egypt, 
seated  upon  the  Nile,  believed  by  some  authors 
to  be  the  ancient  Syena,  though  others  say  the 
ruins  of  it  are  still  to  be  seen  near  Assuan.  It 
is  so  near  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile,  that  they 
may  be  heard  from  thence,  and  it  contains  se- 
veral monuments  of  antiquity ;  among  the  rest  an 
ancient  Egyptian  temple,  painted  throughout. 
The  columns  are  full  of  hieroglyphic  figures.  A 
little  way  from  hence  ^  the  rums  of  an  ancient 
nunnery,  said  to  be  built  by  St.  Helena,  and 
surrounded  with  tombs.  Asna  is  the  principal 
town  in  these  parts,  and  the  inhabitants  are  nch 
in  com  and  cattle. 

ASNAPPER,  an  Assyrian  prince,  mentioned 
in  Ezra  iv.  10,  who  settled  the  original  Samari- 
tans in  the  country  of  the  ten  tribes.  It  is  un- 
certain, whether  he  was  Salmaneser  or  Esar- 
haddon,  or  one  of  their  generals. 

ASOLA,  a  town  of  Upp«r  Italy,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Brescia,  on  the  Cbiese,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  4000.  It  is  twenty  miles  S.S.E.  of  Brescia. 
ASOLO,  a  Venetian  prefecture,in  the  March  of 
Treviso,  Italy;  belonging  to  Austria.    It  con- 
sists of  the  town  of  Asolo,  and  thirty-six  vil- 
lages, vrith  25,000  inhabitants.    They  cultivate 
grapes,  com,  fruit,  silk,  oil,  and  garden   ve- 
getables, trade  in  cattle,  and  manufacture  silk  and 
woollen  stufis.    The  town  of  Asolo  is  seated  on 
tome  ^eeable  rising  grounds,  skirted  on  the 
north  and  west  by  the  Musone. 
ASOPH,  or  AzoPH.    See  Azoph. 
ASOPUS,  a  town  of  Laconia,  on  the  Sinus 


Laconius,  witli  a  port  in  a  peninsula,  between 
Bo«  to  the  east,  and  the  mouth  of  the  Eurotas  to 
the  west.    The  citadel  only  remains  standii)^. 

Asorus,  in  ancient  geography,  the  name  ot 
several  rivers,  viz.  1.  In  Bceotia,  which,  mnning 
from  mount  Cith«ron,  and  watering  the  territory 
of  Thebes,  separates  it  from  the  territory  of  Pla- 
tca,  and  ^Is  with  an  east  course  into  the  Euri- 
pus,  at  Tanagra.  On  this  river,  Adrastus,  king 
of  Sicyon,  built  a  temple  to  Nemesis,  and  from  it 
Theb^  came  to  be  suroamed  Asopides.  It  is 
now  called  Asopo.  2.  In  Peloponnesus,  which 
rans  by  Sicyon,  and  with  a  north-west  course 
faUs  into  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  west  of  Corinth. 
3.  In  Phrygia  Major,  which  with  the  Lycus 
washes  Laodicea.  4.  On  the  borders  of  Thes- 
saly,  rising  in  Mouut  CEta,  and  felling  into  the 
Sinus  Maiiacus. 

ASOR,  or  Afoitus,  in  ancient  geography,  1. 
A  town  in  the  south-west  of  Judah,  near  Asca*- 
Ion,  called  also  Hazor,  and  Hasor-lladala,  trans- 
lated by  the  seventy  Affwpv  Taiyq.  2.  A  town  of 
Galilee ;  called .  w  capital  of  all  the  kingdoms 
north  of  Palestine.  It  was  taken  by  Joshua ;  the 
inhabitants  wen  put  to  the  sword,  and  their 
houses  bumt.  It  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  but 
remained  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Canaanites, 
though  in  the  tribe  of  Naphthali.  It  lay  north 
of  the  Lacus  Samachonites,  called  in  Scripture 
the  waters  of  Merom. 

AsoTvs,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of  the  silurus. 

ASP,     )     Gr.  atrwmpta,  to  tremble,  to  quiver. 

As'pEN.  ]  Shaking,  trembling ;  because  the 
leaves  of  the  aspen  tree  tremble  with  each  breath 
of  air. 

This  SompnottT  in  his  stirops  high  ha  stood 
Upon  this  frere  his  herte  was  so  wood 
That  like  an  aapen  leef  he  qnoke  £»r   ire. 
Chtnucer,     The  Sompnour't  Prologue,  vi.  p.  292. 
He  to  him  raught  a  dagger  sharp  and  keene. 

And  gave  it  him  in  hand  :  his  hand  did  quako 

And  tremble  like  a  leafe  of  oipm  greene. 

Spenter'$  Faerie  Queeme,  book  i.  c.  ix.  s.  51. 

The  agpen  or  oip  tree  hath  leaves  much  the  same 
with  the  poplar,  only  much  smaller,  and  not  so 
white.  Mortimer. 

Asp,        }     Gr.  affmc,  a  serpent,  said  to  be 

Asp^icK.  S  peculiar  to  Egypt  and  Lybia,  whose 
bite  is  mortal  and  its  effect  immediate.    Modem 
naturalists  have  not  yet  discovered  this  reptile. 
High-minded  Cleopatra,  that  with  stroke 

Of  atp't  sting  herself  did  kill.  Faerie  Queene, 

Scorpion,  and  aap,  and  amphisbsena  dire. 

And  dipsas.  Miiion, 

Asp,  Aspick,  thus  denondnated  from  the 
Greek,  atrircc,  shield;  on  account  of  its  lying 
convolved  in  a  circle,  in  the  centre  of  which  is 
the  head,  which  it  exerts,  or  raises,  like  the  umbo 
or  umbileus  of  a  buckler.  This  species  of  ser- 
pent is  very  ireqaently  mentioned  by  authors ; 
out  so  carelessly  described,  that  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine  which,  if  any,  of  the  species  known  at 

f  resent,  may  probably  be  called  by  this  name, 
t  is  said  to  be  common  in  Africa,  and  about  the 
banks  of  the  Nile ;  and  Bellonius  mentions  a 
small  serpent  which  he  had  m'et  with  in  Italy, 
and  whicn  had^a  sort  of  callous  excrescence  on 
the  forehead,  which  he  takes  to  have  been  the 
aspis  of  the  ancients.  It  is  vrith  the  asp  that 
Cleopatra  is  said  to  have  despatched  herself,  and 

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ASPARAGUS. 


prevented  the  designs  of  Augustus,  who  intended 
to  have  carried  her  captive  to  adoni  his  triuro- 

Shal  entry  into  Rome.  But  .the  fact  is  contested. 
Erown  places  it  among  the  vulgar  errors.  The 
indications  of  that  queen's  having  used  the 
ministry  of  the  asp,  were  only  two  almost  insen- 
sible pricks  found  in  her  arm ;  and  Plutarch  says 
it  is  unknown  of  what  she  died.  At  the  same 
time  it  must  be  observed,  that  the  slightness  of 
tde  pricks  found  in  her  arm  furnishes  no  presump- 
tion against  the  fact ;  for  no  more  than  the  prick 
of  a  needle-point  dipt  in  the  poison  was  necessary 
for  the  purpose.  See  the  article  Sehpent.  Lord 
Bacon  says,  the  asp  is  the  least  painliil  of  all  the 
instruments  of  death.  He* supposes  it  to  have 
an  affinity  to  opium,  but  to  be  less  disagreeable 
in  its  operation ;  and  his  opinion  seems  to  cor- 
respond with  the  accounts  or  most  writers,  as  well 
as  with  the  effects  described  to  have  been  pro- 
duced upon  Cleopatra.  The  4ncients  had  a 
plaister  called  ^i  Acrm^fiiv,  made  of  this  terrible 
animal,  of  great  efficacy  as  a  discutieut  of  strumse 
and  other  indurations,  and  used  likewise  against 
pains  of  the  gout.  The  flesh  and  skin,  or  exu- 
vite  of  the  creature,  had  also  their  share  in  the 
ancient  materia  medica. 

ASPA,  a  town  of  f'arthia,  now  called  Ispa- 
han. 

ASPALATHUS,  ApRiciiN  Broom,  a  genns  of 
the  decandria  order,  diadelphia  class  of  plants  ; 
ranking  in  the  natural  metnod  under  the  thirty- 
second  order,  papilionacee.  The  calyx  consists 
of  five  divisions ;  the  pod  is  oval,  and  contains 
two  seeds.  Of  this  genus  there  are  nineteen 
species;  all  of  which  are  natives  of  warm  cli- 
mates, and  must  be  preserved  in  stoves  by  those 
who  would  cultivate  them  here.  The  rosewood, 
whence  the  oleum  Rhodii  is  obtained,  is  one  of 
the  species,  but  of  which  we  have  no  particular 
description. 

AspALATHus,  in  pharmacy,  is  also  called  lig- 
num Rhodium,  or  rose  wood ;  and  by  some  Cy- 
prus wood :  the  former  on  account  of  its  sweet 
smell,  or  growth  in  the  island  of  Rhodes ;  the 
latter  from  its  being  also  found  in  the  island  of 
Cyprus.  It  was  anciently  in  much  repute,  as  an 
astringent  and  strengtliener,  but  is  now  little  used 
internally.  In  virtue,  taste,  smell,  and  weight,  it 
resembles  the  lignum  aloes ;  and  in  physic  they 
are  frequently  substituted  for  each  other.  Aspa- 
lathus  is  chiefly  used  in  scenting  pomatums,  and 
liniments. 

ASPARAGIN,  the  name  given  to  white  trans- 
parent crystals,  of  a  peculiar  vegetable  principle, 
which  form  in  asparagus  juice  after  it  nas  been 
evaporated  to  the  consistence  of  syrup.  They 
are  in  the  form  of  rhomboidal  prisms,  with  a 
slight  nauseous  taste.  Tliey  do  not  change  ve- 
getable blues ;  nor  are  they  afiected  by  hydro-sul- 
phuret  of  potash,  oxalate  of  ammonia,  or  acetate 
of  lead ;  but  lime  extracts  from  them  ammonia. 
Along  with  the  asparagin  crystals,  others  in 
needles  of  little  consistency  appear,  analogous 
to  mannite,  from  which  the  nrst  can  b%  easily 
picked  out. 

ASPARAGUS,  Spa  RAG  us,  Sperage,  or'SPAR- 
row-Grass,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and 
the  hexandria  class  of  plants ;  ranking  in  the  na- 
tural method  under  the  eleventh  order,  sannen- 


tacee:  cal.  quinqaepartite,  and  erect;  the 
three  inferior  petals  bent  outwards ;  the  berry 
has  three  cells,  and  contains  two  seeds.  There 
are  ten  species ;  but  the  only  one  cultivated  in 
the  gardens  is  the  common  asparagus,  with  an 
upright  herbaceous  stalk,  bristly  leaves,  and  equal 
itipula.  The  other  species  are  kept  only  in  the 
gardens  of  the  curious,  for  the  sake  of  variety. 
The  garden  asparagus  is  cultivated  with  great 
care  for  the  use  of  the  table.  The  propagatioQ 
of  this  useful  plant  is  firom  seed ;  and,  as  much 
of  the  success  depends  upon  the  goodness  of 
the  seed,  it  a  much  better  to  save  it  than  to  buy. 
The  manner  of  saving  it  is  this :  Mark  witli  a 
stick  some  of  the  fairest  buds ;  and  when  they 
are  run  to  berry,  and  the  stalks  begin  to  dry  and 
wither,  cut  them  up ;  rub  off  the  berries  into  a 
tub,  and,  pouring  vrater  upon  them,  rub  them 
about  widi  your  hands;  the  nusks  will  break  and 
let  out  the  seed,  and  will  swim  away  with  the 
water  in  pouring  it  ofi*;  so  that  in  repeating  this 
two  or  three  times,  the  seeds  will  be  clean  wash- 
ed, and  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  tub.  These 
must  be  spread  on  a  mat  to  dry,  and  in  the  be- 
giiming  ot  February,  must  be  sown  on  a  bed  of 
rich  evth.  Thev  must  not  be  sown  too  thick, 
and  must  be  trod  into  the  ground,  and  the  earth 
raked  over  them  smooth :  £e  bed  is  to  be  kept 
clear  of  weeds  all  the  summer ;  and  in  October, 
when  the  stalks  are  withered  and  dry,  a  little  rot- 
ten dung  must  be  spread  half  an  inch  thick  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  bed.  Next  spring,  the 
plants  will  be  fit  to  plant  out ;  the  ground  must 
therefore  be  prepared  for  them  by  trenching  it 
well,  and  burying  a  large  quantity  of  rotten  dung 
in  the  trenches,  so  that  it  may  lie  at  least  six  in- 
ches below  the  surface  of  the  ground :  when 
this  is  done,  level  the  whole  plot  exactly,  taking 
out  all  the  loose  stones.  This  is  to  be  done  just 
at  the  time  when  the  asparagus  is  to  be  planted 
out;  which  must  be  in  the  beginning  of  March, 
if  the  soil  is  dry,  and  the  sea.son  forward ;  but 
in  a  wet  soil,  it  is  better  to  wait  till  the  begiiming 
of  April,  which  is  about  the  season  that  the 
plants  are  beginning  to  shoot  The  season  being 
now  come,  the  roots  must^e  carefully  taken  up 
with  a  narrow-pronged  dung-fork,  shaking  them 
out  of  the  earth,  separating  them  from  each 
other,  and  observing  to  lay  all  their  heads  even, 
for  the  more  conveniently  planting  them ;  which 
must  be  done  in  this  manner : — Lines  must  be 
drawn,  at  a  foot  distance  each,  straight  across  the 
bed ;  these  must  be  dug  into  small  trenches  of 
six  inches  deep,  into  which  the  roots  must  be 
laid,  placing  them  agunst  the  sides  of  the  trench, 
with  their  buds  in  a  right  position  upwards,  and 
so  that,  when  the  earth  is  raked  over  them,  they 
may  be  two  inches  under  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Between  every  four  rows,  a  space  of 
two  feet  and  a  half  should  be  left  for  walking  in 
to  cut  the  asparagus.  When  the  asparagus  is 
thus  planted,  a  crop  of  onions  may  be  sown  on 
the  ground,  which  will  not  at  all  hurt,  it  A 
month  after  this,  the  asparagus  will  come  up, 
when  the  crop  of  onions  must  be  thinned,  and 
the  weeds  carefully  cleared  away.  About  August 
the  onions  will  be  fit  to  pull  up.  In  October 
following,  cut  off  the  shoots  of  the  asparagus, 
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weeds  away,  and  tlirow  up  the  earth  upon  the 
beds,  so  as  to  leave  them  five  inches  thore  the 
level  of  the  alleys.  A  row  of  coleworts  may  be 
planted  in  the  middle  of  the  alleys,  but  nothing 
must  now  be  sown  on  the  beds.  In  the  spring 
the  weeds  must'  be  hoed  up,  and  all  the  sum- 
mer the  beds  kept  clear  of  weeds.  In  October 
they  must  be  turned  up  and  earthed  again,  as 
the  preceding  season.  The  second  spring  after 
planting,  some  of  the  young  asparagus  may  be 
cut  for  the  uble.  The  larger  shoots  should  only 
be  taken,  and  these  should  be  cut  at  two  inches 
under  ground,  and  the  beds  every  year  managed 
as  in  the  second  year.  But  as  some  people  are 
very  fond  of  early  asparagus,  the  following  direc- 
tions are  given,  by  wnich  it  may  be  obtained  any 
time  in  winter: — Plant  some  good  roots  at  one 
year  old  in  a  moist  rich  soil,  about  eight  inches 
apart ;  the  second  and  third  year  after  planting, 
they  will  be  ready  to  take  up  for  the  hot-beds ; 
these  should  be  made  pretw  strung,  about  three 
feet  thick,  with  new  stake  dung  that  has  ferment- 
ed a  week  or  more ;  the  beds  must  be  covered 
with  earth  six  inches  thick ;  then,  against  a  ridge 
made  at  one  end,  begin  to  lay  in  your  plants, 
without  trimming  or  cutting  the  fibres ;  and  be- 
tween every  row  lay  a  little  ridge  of  fine  earth, 
and  proceed  thus  till  Uie  bed  is  planted ;  then 
cover  the  bed  two  inches  tliick  with  earth,-  and 
encompass  it  with  a  straw  band  ;  and  in  a  week, 
or  as  the  bed  is  in  the  temper,  put  on  the  frames 


persons  of  the  first  distinction,  male  and  female, 
resorted  to  her  house  as  to  an  academy ;  stw 
even  numbered  Socrates  among  her  bearers  and 
admirers.     She  captivated  Pericles  in  such  a 
manner,  that  he  dismissed  his  own  wife,  to  es- 
pouse her;  and,  by  her  universal  knowledge, 
irresistible  elocution,  and  intriguing  genius,  she 
in  a  great  measure  influenced  the  administration 
of  Athens.    She  was  accused  of  having  excited, 
from  motives  of  personal  resentment,  the  war  of 
Peloponnesus  ;  yet,  calamitous  as  that  long  and 
obstinate  conflict  proved  to  Greece,  and  particu- 
larly to  Athens,  Aspasia  occasioned  still  more 
incurable  evils  to  lioth.    Her  example  and  in- 
structions, formed  a  school  at  Athens,  by  which 
her  dangerous  profession  was  reduced  into  a  sys- 
tem.    The  companions  of  Aspasia  served  as 
models  for  painting  and  statuary,  and  themes  for 
poetry  and  panegyric.    Nor  were  tliey  merely 
the  objects  but  die  authors  of   many  literary 
works,  in  which  they  established  rules  for  the 
behaviour  of  their  lovers,  particularly  at  table;, 
and  explained  tlie  art  of  g^ning  tlie  heart  and 
captivating  the  affections.  The  dress,  behaviour, 
and  artifices  of  this  class  of  women,  became  con- 
tinually more  seductive  and   dangerous;    and 
Athens  thenceforth  remained  the  chief  school  of 
vice  and  pleasure,  as.  well  as  of  literature  and 
philosophy. 

ASPASTICUM,  or  Aspaticum,  i.  e.  a  greet- 
ing-house; from  atnraZofuu,  1  salute ;  in  ecclesias- 


and  glasses,  and   lay  on  three  inches  thick  of   ti(»l  writers,  an  apartment  adjoining  to  the  an- 


fresh  earth  over  the  beds,  and  give  them  air  and 
■  add  fresh  heat  to  them  as  it  requires.    These  beds 
may  be  made  from  November  till  March,  which 
will  last  till  the  natural  grass  comes  on. 

The  roots  have  a  bitterish  mucilaginous  taste, 
inclining  to  sweetness ;  the  fruit  has  much  the 
same  kind  of  taste ;  the  young  shoots  are  more 
agreeable  than  either.  Asparagus  promotes  ap- 
petite, but  affords  little  nourishment.  It  gives 
a  strong  ill  smell  to  the  urine  in  a  little  time  af- 
ter eating  it,  and  for  this  reason  chiefly  is  sup- 
posed to  be  diuretic ;  it  is  likewise  esteemed 
aperient  and  deobstnient ;  the  root  is  one  of  the 
five  called  opening  roots.  Some  suppose  the 
shoots  to  be  most  efficacious  ;  others,  the  root ; 
and  others,  the  bark  of  the  root.  Stahl  is  of  opi- 
nion, that  none  of  them  have  any  great  share  of 
the  virtues  usually  ascribed  to  them.  Asparagus 
appears  from  experience  to  contribute  very  little 
either  to  the  exciting  of  urine  when  suppressed, 
or  increasing  its  discharge :  and  in  cases  where 
aperient  medicines  generally  do  service,  this  has 
little  or  no  effect. 

ASPASIA,  among  ancient  physicians,  a  con- 
strictive medicine  for  the  pudenda  muliebra.  It 
consisted  of  wool,  moistened  with  an  infusion  of 
unripe  galls. 

Aspasia,  of  Miletus,  -a  courtezan,  who  settled 
at  Athens  under  the  administration  of  Pericles, 
and  one  of  the  most  noted  ladies  of  antiquity. 
She  was  of  admirable  beauty ;  yet  her  wit  and 
eloquence,  still  more  than  her  beauty,  gained  her 
extraordinaiy  reputation  among  all  ranks  in  the 
republic.  In  eloquence  she  surpassed  all  her 
contemporaries;  and  her  conversation  was  so 
entertaining,  and  instructive,  that  notwithstand- 
ing the  dishonorable  commerce  she  carried  on. 


cient  churches,  wherein  the  bishops  and  presby- 
ters sat  to  receive  the  salutations  of  those  who 
came  to  visit  them,  desire  their  blessing,  or  con- 
sult them. 
AS'PECT,  V,  &  n."\     Lat.  aspiciOf  agpectum^ 
Aspec'table,         f  (from  the  obsolete  word 
Aspec'ted,  lspicert\  to  fook  towards. 

Aspec'tion.  j  llie  appearance  any  thing 

presents  when  looked  at ;  the  point  of  view ;  the 
relation  or  influence  which  one  thing  has  or 
bears  with  respect  to  another. 

We  see  likewise  the  Scripture  cmllcth  Envy,  an 
evil  eye,  and  the  attrologers  call  the  evil  influences 
of  the  Stan,  evil  atpecU;  so  that  there  still  seemeth 
to  be  acknowledged  in   the  act  of  envy,  an  ejacula- 
tion or  irradiation  of  the  eye.      Lord  Bacon's  Eanyt. 
The  islands  prince,  of  frame  more  than  celestial. 
Is  rightly  called  the  all-seeing  Intellect; 
AH  glorious  bright  such  nothing  is  terrestrial ; 
Whose  sun-like  face,  and  most  divine  atped. 
No  human  sight  may  ever  hope  descrie  ; 
For  when  himself  on's  self  reflects  his  eye. 
Dull  and  amazed  he  stands,  at  such  bright  majesty. 
Fletcher's  Purple  Island. 
If  nature's  concord  broke 
Among  the  constellations  war  were  sprung. 
Two  planets,  rushing  from  aspect  malign 
Of  fiercest  opposition,  in  mid  sky 
Should  combat,  and  their  jarring  spheres  confound. 
Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  b(x>k  vi. 
Happy  in  their  mistake,  those  people,  whom 
The  northern  pole  aspects ;  whom  fear  of  death 
(The  greatest  of  all  human  fean)  ne'er  moves. 

Temple. 
To  this  use,  of  informing  us  what  is  in  this  aspect- 
able  world,  we  shall  find  the  eye  well  fitted. 

Bay  on  the  Creation. 
Her  motions  were  steady  and  composed,  and  het 
a^ct  serious  but  cheerful ;  her  name  was  Patienre. 

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Why  does  not  evcxy  single  tt«r  shtd  a  iiepante 
influence,  and  have  atpeOs  with  other  stars  of  their 
own  oonstellation  ?  B«nl%'«  Sermom. 

With  aaped  mild,  and  elevated  eye. 
Behold  him  seated  on  a  mount  serene, 
Above  the  fogs  of  sense  and  passion's  storm  : 
Wrong  he  sustains  with  temper,  looks  on  heaven. 
Nor  stoops  to  think  his  injurer  his  foe  ; 
Nought  but  what  wounds  his  virtue  wounds  his  peace. 

Youtig, 

Aspect,  in  astronomy  and  astrology,  denotes 
the  situation  of  the  planets  and  stars  with  re- 
spect to  each  other.  There  are  five  different 
aspects.  1.  Sextile  aspect  is  when  the  planets 
or  stars  are  60°  distant,  and  marked  thus  sfc .  2. 
The  quartilc,  or  quadrate,  when  they  are  90° 
distant,  marited  D-  3.  Trine,  when  120°  dis- 
tant, marked  A.  4.  Opposition,  when  180"  di^ 
tant,  marked  g.  And,  5.  Conjunction,  both  in 
the  same  degree,  marked  <$ .  Kepler,  who  added 
eight  new  ones,  defines  aspect  to  be  the  angle 
formed  by  the  rays  of  the  two  stars  meeting  on 
the  earth,  whereby  tlieir  good  or  bad  influence  is 
measurea;  for  it  is  to  be  observed  that  these 
aspects,  being  first  introduced  by  astrologers, 
were  distinguished  into  benign,  malignant,  and 
indifferent ;  the  quartile  and  maiigiiant  being  ao- 
coimted  malign ;  the  trine  and  sextile,  benign  or 
friendly ;  and  the  conjunction  indifferent. 

Aspect,  in  gardening,  signifies  exposure. 

Aspect,  Double,  is  used  in  painting,  where  a 
single  figure  is  so  contrived,  as  to  represent  tv^o 
or  more  different  objects,  either  by  changing  the 
eye,  or  by  means  of  angular  glasses.    See    Ol*- 

TICS. 

Aspect,  in  architecture.  The  aspect  of  the 
principal  rooms  of  a  house,  demands  the  greatest 
attention  fit)m  the  architect,  especially  in  an  ex- 
posed situation.  The  south-east  is  the  best  for 
Britain ;  and  the  south  and  due  east  the  next. 
The  south-west  is  the  worst,  because  from  that 
quarter  it  rains  oftener  than  from  any  other.  A 
north  aspect  is  gloomy,  because  deprived  of  sun- 
thibe ;  but  woods  look  best  when  viewed  from 
rooms  with  a  north  aspect,  because  all  plants 
and  trees  are  most  luxuriant  on  the  side  next  the 
sun.  An  aspect  due  east  is  nearly  as  bad  as  the 
norths  because  there  the  sun  shines  only  early  in 
the  morning ;  and  the  aspect  due  west  is  intole- 
rable, from  the  sun  dazzlmg  the  eye  through  the 
greatest  part  of  the  day.  Hence  we  may  conclude, 
a  square  house  placed  with  its  front,  opposite  to 
the  four  cardinal  points,  will  have  one  good  and 
three  bad  aspects. 

ASPEN,  or  Asp.  Sec  Poplar,  of  which  it  is 
a  species.  The  leaves  of  this  tree  always  tremble. 
The  aspen  or  asp  tree  has  leaves  much  the  same 
with  tlie  poplar. 

ASPER,  in  commerce,  or  aspre,  a  little 
Turkish  silver  coin,  wherein  most  of  the  Grand 
Seignior's  revenues  are  paid.  The  asper  is  worth 
something  more  than  an  English  halfpenny.  The 
only  impression  it  bears,  is  that  of  the  prince's 
name  under  whom  it  was  struck.  The  pay  of  the 
Janissaries  is  from  two  to  twelve  aspers  per  diem. 

AsPEB,  in  grammar,  an  accent  peculiar  to  the 
Greek  language,  marked  thus  (0 ;  &nd  importing, 
that  the  letter  over  which  it  is  placed  ought  to 
be  strongly  aspirated,  or  pronounced  as  if  an  A 
were  prefixed. 


ASP 

Asper,  in  ichthyology,  a  small  fisli  caught  in 
the  Rhone,  so  called  from  the  roughness  of  it» 
scales.  Its  head  is  large,  in  proportion  to  its 
body,  and  of  a  pointed  shape.  It  has  no  teeth, 
but  its  jaws  are  sharp  to  the  touch.  It  is  of  a 
dark  red  color,  with  large  black  spots.  It  is 
good  to  eat,  and  is  esteemed  aperitive. 

ASPERA  Arteria,  in  anatomy,  the  windpipe 
or  trachea.  .  See  Anatomy. 

ASP£RJ£LLOUS,in  botany,  the  name  given 
by  Michaeli  to  that  genus  of  mosses,  called  by 
DiUenius  and  others,  byssus. 

ASPERGILE,  or  Aspergilium,  in  antiquity, 
a  long  brush  made  of  horse-hair,  fixed  to  a  han- 
dle, wherewith  the  lustral  water  was  sprinkled 
on  the  people  in  lustrations  and  purifications. 
The  ancients,  instead  of  a  brush,  made  use  of 
branches  of  laurel  and  olive.  It  is  also  still  ap- 
plied to  the  instrument  in  Romish  churches  with 
which  holy  water  is  sprinkled 

ASPERIFOLIiE  Plaut^  rough-leaved 
plants.  The  name  of  a  class  in  Hermaunus, 
Boerhaave,  and  Ray's  methods,  consisting  of 
plants  which  havenaJced  seeds,  and  whose  leaves 
are  rough  to  the  touch.  In  Toumefort's  system, 
these  plants  constitute  the  third  section  or  order 
of  the  second  class  ;  and  in  Linnaeus's  sexual 
method,  they  make  a  part  of  the  pentandria  mo- 
nogynia. 

ASPERIFOLIATE,  or  Asperifolious,  a- 
mong  botanists,  such  plants  as  are  rough-leaved^ 
having  their  leaves  placed  alternately  on  their 
stalks,  and  a  monopetalons  flower  divided  intq 
five  parts.  They  constitute  the  forty-ninth  or- 
der of  plants  in  the  Fragmenta  Methodi  Naturalis 
of  Linnaeus,  in  which  are  these  genera :  toume- 
ortia,  cerinthe,  Symphytum,  pulmonaria,  an- 
chusa,  lithospermum,  myosotis,  heliotropium, 
cynoglossum,  asperugo,  lycopsis,  echium,  bar- 
rago:  magis  minusve,  oleracese,  mucilaginosse, 
et  glutinosae  sunt. 

Asperity,  the  inequality  of  the  surface  of  any 
body,  which  hinders  the  hand  from  passing  over 
it  freely.  From  the  testimony  of  some  blind 
pejTSonSy  it  has  been  supposed  that  every  color 
nath  its  particular  degree  of  asperity;  though 
this  has  been  denied  by  others.  See  the  article 
Blind. 

ASPERN,  a  market  town,  castle,  and  lordship 
of  Lower  Austria,  in  Uie  circle  of  lower  Mann- 
hartsberg,  belonging  to  the  count  of  Brenner, 
ten  miles  south  east  of  Laba. 

AsPERN,  a  market  town  of  Austria,  situated 
on  a  small  arm  of  the  Danube,  on  the  north  side 
of  the  river,  at  some  distance  below  Vienna,  the 
scene  of  a  battle  fought  on  the  twenty-first 
and  twenty-second  of  May,  1809,  between  Buo- 
naparte and  the  Austrians.  It  was  completely 
destroyed  at  the  time,  but  has  since  been  rebuilt. 

ASPER'SE,  )     Lat.  ad,  and  spargo,  to  scat- 

Asper'sion.  )ter.  To  sprinkle  or  scatter; 
metaphorically  to  censure,  to  calumniate. 

In  the  business  x>f  Ireland,  besides  the  oppoitnnity 
to  aiperm  the  king,  they  were  safe  enough. 

Ctarmdtni. 

Curb  that  impetuous  tongue ;  nor  rashly  vain. 
And  singly  mad,  oMperte  the  sovereign  reign.  Pope 
Unjustly  poets  wo  atperm ; 
Tnith  shines  the  brig)  cr  clad  in  verse.      Swifi. 


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ASPHALT  ITES. 


56   ' 


At  highMt  pitch,  and  Unit.o^tft'rf  the  kiiM. 

Coisper't  ITmuI,  £x>k  ▼!. 

Lesions  of  impon  ipirite  were  beliered  to  take 

often  poeseasion  oi  the  bodies  of  men,  from  whence 

nothing  could  drive  them  but  oMpeniom  of  holy  water. 

Bolingbroke'a  E$$ajf  on  Human  Knowledge, 

ASPERUGO,  small  wild  bugloss,  in  bo- 
tany,  a  genus  of  the  pentandria  moDOgynia  class; 
raokiog  in  the  natural  method  under  the  asperi- 
foliae.  l!he  calyx  of  the  fruit  is  compressed, 
with  folds  flatly  parallel,  and  sinuous.  There 
are  two  species,  viz.  1 .  A.  ^gyptiaca,  a  native 
of  Egypt.  2.  A.  procumbens,  or  wild  bugloss,  a 
native  of  Britain ;  which  is  eaten  by  horses,  goats, 
sheep,  and  swine ;  but  cows  are  not  fond  of  it. 

ASPERULA,  WooDBOOF,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  and  the  hex'andria  class 
.of  plants;  ranking  in  the  natural  method  under 
the  forty-seventh  order,  stellatse.  The  corolla  is 
infundibuliform ;  and  the  capsule  contains  two 
globular  seeds.  There  are  two  species ;  which 
both  grow  wild  in  Britain,  and  therefore  are  sel- 
dom admitted  into  gardens,  vii.  1.  A.  cynan- 
chica,  found  on  chalky  hills.  The  roots  are  used 
for  dyeing  red  in  Sweden.  2.  A.  odorata,  a  low 
umbelliferous  plant,  growing  wild  in  woods  and 
copses,  and  flowering  in  May.  It  has  an  ex- 
ceeding pleasant  smell,  which  is  improved  by 
moderate  exsiccation;  the  taste  is  subsaline, 
and  somewhat  austere.  It  imparts  its  flavour  to 
vinous  liquors.  .  Asperula  is  supposed  medici- 
nally to  attenuate  viscid  humors,  and  strengthen 
the  tone  of  the  bowels ;  modern  practice  has  ne- 
vertheless rejected  it. 

ASPEYTIA,  a  tovm  of  Spain,  in  Biscay, 
seated  on  the  Urola,  in  a  fine  valley,  near  the 
districts  of  Loyola  and  Onis. 

ASPHALITES,  in  anatomy,  the  fifth  vertebra 
of  the  loins. 

ASPIIALTITES,  a  lake  of  Judea,  so  called 
from  the  great  quantity  of  bitumen  it  produces ; 
called  also  the  Dead  Sea ;  and  from  its  situation 
the  East,  the  Salt  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Sodom,  the  Sea 
of  die  Desart,  and  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  in  the 
sacred  writings.  It  is  enclosed  on  the  east  and 
west  with  high  mountains ;  on  the  north  it  has 
the  plain  of  Jericho ;  or,  if  w6  take  in  both  sides 
of  the  Jordan,  it  has  the  Great  Plain,  properly  so 
called,  on  the  south,  which  is  open,  and  extends 
b^ond  the  reach  of  the  eye.  Josephus  makes 
this  lake  580  fiirlongs  in  length,  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Jordan  to  the  opposite  end,  that  is  about 
twenty-two  leagues ;  and  about  150  furlongs,  or 
fire  leagues,  in  its  greatest  breadtli;  but  our 
modem  accounts  commonly  give  it  twenty  leagues 
in  length,  and  six  or  seven  in  breadth.  On  the 
west  side  of  it  is  a  kind  of  promontory,  where 
the  remains  of  Lot's  metamorphosed  wife  were 
for  a  long  time  said  to  be  visible.  Josephus  aays 
this  pillar  was  standing  in  his  time ;  and  Mr. 
Manndrell  was  shown  a  block  or  stump  of  it. 

In  what  has  been  said  and  written  of  the  Lake 
Asphaltites,  &ble  is  much  blended  with  truth. 
VVe  are  told  that  it  arose  from  the  submersion  of 
the  vale  of  Siddim,  where  once  stoodj  as  is  com- 
monly reported,  the  three  cities  which  perished 
in  the  miraculous  conflagration,  with  Soaom  and 
Gomorrah ;  and  this  lake  has  been  regarded  as  a 
lasting  monument  of  the  just  judgment  of  God, 


on  the  abominations  Inr  which  they  perished.  It 
has  been  stated  that  its  waters  are  so  impreg-  ' 
nated  widi  salt^  sulphur,*  and  other  bituminous 
matter^  that  noibong  will  sink  or  live  in  them ; 
and  that  it  emits  8ac£  a  honid  smoke  that  the  very 
birds  die  in  attempting  tp  cross  over  it.  The 
description  likewise  of  the  apples  that  grew 
about  it,  feir  without,  and  only  ashes  and  bitter- 
ness within,  were  looked  upon  as  a  fbrdier  de- 
monstration of  God's  anger.  Travellers  have 
also  described  die  country  ronnd  about  as  sul- 
phureous, bituminous,  and  suffocating ;  and  it 
Das  even  been  affirmed  that  the  ruins  of  the  ^ye 
cities  are  still  to  be  seen  through  the  waters  in 
clear  weather. 

It  appears  to  be  true,  that  the  quantity  of  salt, 
alnm^  auid  sulphur,  with  which  they  are  impreg- 
nated, render  its  waters  so  much  specincally 
heavier  (Dr.  Pococke  says  one  fifth)  than  fresh 
water,  that  bodies  will  not  easily  sink  in  them : 
yet  that  author  and  others  assure  us  they  have 
swam  and  (fived  in  it.  Dr.  Pococke  also, though 
he  neither  saw  fish  nor  shells,  tells  us,  on  the 
authority  of  a  monk,  that  fish  had  been  caught 
in  it ;  and  M.  Volney  aflinns  that  it  is  very  com- 
mon to  see  swallows  skimming  its  surikce,  and 
dipping  for  the  water  necessary  to  build  their 
nests.  The  soil  around  it,  he  adds,  impregnated 
with  salt,  produces  no  plants ;  and  the  air  itself, 
which  becomes  loaded  with  it  from  evaporation, 
and  which  receives  also  the  sulphureous  and  bi- 
tuminous vapours,  cannot  be  favorable  to  ve« 
gelation :  hence  the  deadly  aspect  which  reigns 
around  this  lake.  In  other  respects  the  ground 
about  it,  however,  is  not  marshy,  and  its  waters 
are  limjiid  and  incorruptible,  as  must  be  the  case 
with  a  dissolution  of  salt.  On  the  south-west 
shore  are  mines  of  fossil  salt,  of  which  I  have 
brought  away  several  specimens.  They  are  situ- 
ated on  the  side  of  the  mountains  which  extend 
along  that  border;  and  from .  time  immemorial 
have  supplied  the  neighbouring  Arabs,  and  even 
the  city  of  Jerusalem.  We  find  also  on  this 
shore  firagments  of  sulphur  and  bitumen,  which 
the  Arabs  convert  into  a  trifling  article  of  com- 
merce :  as  also  hot  fountains  and  deep  crevices, 
which  are  discovered  at  a  distance  by  little  pyra- 
mids built  on  the  brink  of  them.  Likewise  a 
sort  of  stone,  which  on  rubbing  emits  a  noxious 
smell,  bums  like  bitumen,  receives  a  polish  like 
white  alabaster,  and  is  used  for  the  paving  of 
court-yards.  At  intervals  we  also  meet  with 
unshapen  blocks,  which  prejudiced  eyes  mistake 
for  mutilated  statues,  and  which  pass  with  ig- 
norant and  superstitious  pilgrims  for  monuments 
of  the  adventure  of  Lot's  wife ;  though  it  is  no 
where  said  she  was  metamorphosed  into  stone 
like  Niobe,  but  into  salt,  which  must  have  melted 
the  ensuing  winter.' 

This  lake  is  at  present  called  by  the  Arabs 
Almotanah  and  Banret  Lout,  and  Ula  Degu'is 
by  the  Turks.  It  is  remarkable  that  but  one 
European  has  hitherto  succeeded  in  making 
the  circuit  of  it;  and  Nau,  who  in  his  travels 
had  recorded  this  expedition  of  Daniel,  abbot  of 
St.  Saba,  states  on  his  authority,  that'  the  Dead 
Sea,  at  its  extremity,  is  separated  as  it  were  into 
two  parts,  and  that  there  is  a  way  by  which  you 
may  walk  across  it,  being  only  mid-leg  deep,  at 


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ASPHALTITES. 


least  in  summer ;  that  there  the  land  rises,  and 
bounds  another  small  lake  of  a  circular  or  rather 
oval  figure,  surrounded  with  plains  and  moun- 
tains of  sand,  and  that  the  neighbouring  country 
is  peopled  by  innumerable  Anhs.  Seetzen  in 
the  year  1805-6  passed  round  the  southern  ex- 
tremity, but  a  short  account  only  of  his  route, 
in  a  correspondence  with  M.  de  Zach,  printed  by 
the  Palestine  Association  in  1810,  has  yet  ap- 
peared^ Mr.  Burckhardt  was  unable  to  reach 
Its  borders.  He  was  informed  in  the  neighbour- 
hood that  there  were  spots  in  a  ford  about  three 
hours  north  of  Szaffye  (the  extreme  southern 
point  of  the  lake),  in  which  the  water  is  quite 
not,  and  the  bottom  of  red  earth.  This  ford  may 
be  crossed  in  three  hours  and  a  half:  the  water 
here  is  generally  not  more  than  two  feet  deep, 
and  it  is  probable  Acre  are  hot  springs  in  the 
bottom.  It  is  so  strongly  impregnated  with  salt 
that  the  skin  peels  off  me  legs  of  those  who  wade 
across  it. 

M.  de  Chateaubriand,  who  visited  this  coun- 
try in  1807,  has  given  the  first  decided  testimony 
that  the  Lake  Asphaltites  abounds  with  fish.  He 
reached  it  when  it  was  dark,  and  passed  the 
night  among  some  Arab  tents.  <  About  mid- 
night,' says  he,  *  I  heard  a  noise  upon  the  lake, 
and  was  told  by  the  Bethlehemites,  who  accom- 
panied me,  that  it  proceeded  from  legions  of 
srtiall  fish,  which  come  out  and  leap  about  the 
shore.^  He  speaks  in  the  following  terms  of 
its  saline  properties ;  *  The  first  thing  I  did  on 
alighting  was  to  walk  into  the  lake  up  to  my 
knees,  and  to  taste  the  water.  I  found  it  im- 
possible to  keep  it  in  my  mouth.  It  &r  exceeds 
that  of  the  sea  in  saltness,  and  produces  upon 
the  lips  die  effect  of  a  strong  solution  of  alum. 
Before  my  boots  were  completely  dry  they  were 
covered  with  salt:  our  clothes,  our  hats,  our 
hands,  were  in  less  than  three  hours  impregnated 
with  this  mineral.' 

A  modem  Scottish  traveller,  Mr.  Gordon  of 
Clunie,  who  bathed  in  it,  brought  home  a  phial 
of  its  water,  and  Dr.  Marcet  &und  its  specific 
gravity  to  be  1*211 ;  a  degree  of  density,  says  he, 
'  not  to  be  met  with  in  any  other  natural  water.' 
The  whole  process  vrith  its  results  is  detailed 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1807.  -  It 
was  found  that  100  grains  of  the  water  contain 
the  following  substances  in  the  undermentioned 
proportions : 

grains. 
Muriat  of  lime  .  .  3,920 
Muriat  of  magnesia  10,246 
Munat  of  soda  .  .  10,360 
Sulphat  of  lime  0,054 

24,580 

Another  celebrated  chemist,  M.  Klaproth,  who 
procured  a  specimen  brought  from  the  East  by 
the  abb^  Martin,  found  the  specific  gravity  to  be 
1-245  instead  of  1211 ;  agreeing  in  this  respect 
more  nearly  with  Macquer  and  Lavoisier,  who 
stated  it  at  1-240.  But  the  specific  gravity  of 
Dr.  Marcet's  specimen  may  have  been  less  firom 
its  having  been  taken  firom  the  lake  not  for- from 
ilje  influx  of  the  Jordan,  where  it  might  be 
somewhat  diluted. 


Dr.  Clarke  says  that  the  inhabitaots  of  the 
country  still  regard  the  Dead  Sea  with  feelings 
of  terror ;  owing  probably  to  the  tradition  tfaAt 
its  waters  cover  the  engulpbed  cities  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah,  or  to  the  ideas  entertained  of  the 
peculiar  insalubrity  of  its  exhalations.  But  it  19 
greatly  to  be  regretted  that  this  traveller  was 
prevented  by  the  Arabs  from  exploring  the  lake, 
which  he  only  saw  at  a  distance. 

Hasselquist  asserts  the  apples  of  Sodom  to  be  the 
production  of  the  solanum  melongena  of  Linnaeus. 
This  is  found,  he  says,  in  great  abundance  round 
Jericho  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
The  dust  with  which  it  is  sometimes  filled  is  the 
work  of  an  insect  (tenthredo)  which  pulverises 
the  whole  of  the  inside,  leaving  the  nnd  entire 
and  unchanged  in  color.  M.  Seetzen  saw  at 
Kerek  a  species  of  cotton  which  he  was  told  was 
produced  from  a  fruit  resembling  a  pomegranate, 
growing  on  the  borders  of  the  Deaa  Sea,  and  he 
thinks  it  is  this  pulpless  fruit  which  is  the  ma- 
lum sodomeum.  Viscount  Chateaubriand  saw 
a  third  fruit,  which  he  conjectures  to  be  the 
femous  apples  in  question,  grovring  on  a  thorny 
shrub  ;  ana  which,  before  it  is  ripe  is  filled  with 
a  corrosive  and  saline  juice ;  when  dried  it  yields 
a  blackish  seed,  which  may  be  compared  to 
ashes,  and  which  in  taste  resembles  bitter  pepper. 

AspHALTUM,  Bitumen  Judaicuh,  or  Jew's 
Pitch,  is  a  light  solid  bitumen  of  a  dusky  color 
on  the  outside,  and  a  deep  shining  black  within ; 
of  very  little  taste,  and  having  scarcely  any 
smell,  unless  heated,  when  it  emits  a  strong 
pitchy  one.  It  is  found  in  a  soft  or  liquid  state 
on  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  by  age 
grows  dry  and  hard.  The  same  kind  of  bitu* 
men  is  met  with  likewise  in  the  earth  in  China, 
America,  and  in  some  places  of  Europe,  as  the 
Carpathian  Hills,  France,  &c.  The  most  abun- 
dant deposits  of  this  substance,  in  modem  times, 
are  said  to  be  in  the  islands  of  Barbadoes  and 
Trinidad;  in  the  former  it  is  found  as  an  highly 
bituminous  earth,  but,  being  in  a  state  of  great 
impurity,  is  only  used  as  a  coal  for  fuel.  In  the 
latter  island  is  a  complete  lake  of  this  substance. 
A  specimen  from  Albania  of  the  specific  gravity 
of  1-205,  examined  by  M.  Klaproth,  was  found 
to  be  soluble  only  in  oils  and  in  sether.  Five 
parts  of  rectified  oil  of  petroleum  dissolved  one 
of  the  asphaltum  without  heat  in  twenty-four 
hours;  100  grains  of  asphaltum  afforded  32  of 
bituminous  oil,  6  of  water  faindy  ammoniacal, 
30  of  charcoal,  7|  of  silex,  7^  of  alumina,  f  of 
lime,  1^  oxide  of  iron,  ^  oxide  of  manganese, 
and  36  cubic  inches  of  hydrogen  gas.  The  true 
asphaltum  was  formerly  used  in  embalming  the 
bodies  of  the  dead.  At  present  the  thick  and 
solid  asphalta  are  employed  in  £gypt,  Arabia, 
and  Persia,  as  pitch  for  ships ;  the  fluid  ones  for 
burning  in  lamps  and  for  varnishes.  Some 
writers  relate  that  the  walls  of  Babylon  and  die 
temple  of  Jerusalem  were  cemented  with  bitu- 
men instead  of  mortar.  This  much  is  certain, 
that  a  true  natural  bitumen,  that  for  instance 
which  is  found  in  the  district  of  Neufchatel, 
proves  an  excellent  cement  for  walls,  pave- 
ments, and  other  purposes ;  uncoramouly  firm, 
very  durable  in  tlie  air,  and  not  penetrable  by 
water.    The  watch  and  clock-makers  use  a  com- 


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position  of  asphaltum,  fine  lamp  black,  and  oil 
of  spike  or  turpentine,  for  drawing  the  black 
figures  on  dial-plates ;  this  composition  is  pre- 
pared cbieflr  at  Augsburg  and  Nuremburg. 

ASPHOlJELy  AsPHODELUs,  or  King's  SpfiAB, 
in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mbnogynia  order,  and 
hexandna  clai»  of  plants.  The  calyx  is  divided 
*Qto  six  parts ;  ana  the  nectarium  consists  of  six 
valves  covering  the  nectarium.  There  are  five 
species,  viz.  1.  A.  albus,  the  white  asphodel, 
with  keel-shaped  leaves,  has  roots  composed  of 
small  fibres  and  knobs  at  bottom ;  the  leaves  are 
long,  almost  triangular,  and  hollow  like  the  keel 
of  a  boat ;  the  stalks  seldom  rise  above  two  ieet 
high,  and  divide  into  several  spreading  branches ; 
these  are  terminated  by  loose  spikes  of  white 
flowers.  2.  A.  luteus,  or  common  yellow  aspho- 
del, has  roots  composed  of  many  thick  fleshy 
fibres,  which  are  yeUow,  and  joined  to  a  head  at 
the  top ;  from  whence  arise  strong  round  single 
stalks  nearly  three  feet  high,  garnished  on  die 
upper  part  with  yellow  star-shaped  flowers, 
which  appear  in  June,  and  the  seeds  ripen  in 
autumn.  3.  A.  nonramosus,  or  the  unbranched 
asphodel,  roots  like  the  ramosus  (which  see),  but 
the  leaves  are  longer  and  narrower ;  the  stalks 
are  single;  the  flowers  appear  at  the  same  time 
with  the  former,  are  of  a  purer  white,  and  grow 
in  longer  spikes.  4.  A.  ramosus,  or  brandling 
asphodel,  has  roots  composed  of  fleshy  fibres,  to 
each  of  which  is  fastened  an  oblong  bulb  as 
large  as  a  small  potatoe;  the  leaves  are  long  and 
flexible,  having  sharp  edges;  between  these 
come  out  the  flower-stalks,  which  arise  more 
than  three  feet  high,  sending  forth  many  lateral 
branches.  They  come  out  in  the  beginning  of 
June,  and  the  seeds  ripen  in  autumn.  5.  A.  stu- 
losus,  or  annual  branching  spiderwort,  hath 
roots  composed  of  many  yellow  fleshy  fibres; 
the  leaves  are  spread  out  from  the  crown  of  the 
root,  close  to  the  ground,  in  a  large  cluster; 
these  are  convex  on  their  underside,  but  plain 
above.  The  flower-stalks  rise  immediately  from 
the  root,  and  grow  about  two  feet  high,  dividing 
into  three  or  four  brandies  upward,  which  are 
adorned  with  white  starry  flowers,  with  purple 
lines  on  the  outside.  These  flower  in  July  and 
August,  and  their  seeds  ripen  in  October. 

The  way  to  increase  these  plants  is  by  parting 
their  roots  in  August,  before  they  shoot  up  their 
fresh  green  leaves.  They  may  also  be  raised 
from  seeds  sown  in  August;  and  the. August 
following  the  plants  produced  from  these  may 
be  transplanted  into  b^s,  and  will  produce 
flowers  tne  second  year.  They  must  not  be 
planted  in  small  borders  among  tender  flowers, 
for  they  will  draw  away  all  Uie  nourishment 
and  starve  every  thing  else.  The  Lancashire 
asphodel  is  thought  to  be  very  noxious  to  sheep, 
whenever  through  pover^  of  pasture  they  are 
necessitated  to  eat  it;  although  they  are  said' to 
improve  miich  in  their  flesh  at  first,  they  after- 
wards die  with  symptoms  of  a  diseased  liver. 
This  is  the  plant  of  which  such  wonderful  tales 
have  been  told  by  Paoli  Bartholine,  and  others, 
of  its  softeninff  the  bones  of  such  animals  as 
swallow  it;  and  which  they  thence  called  gramen 
ossifragum.  Homed  cattle  eat  it  without  any  ill 
efiect 


ASP 

ASPHURELATA,  in  natural  history,  are 
serai-metallic  fossils,  fusible  by  fire,  and  not 
malleable  in  their  purest  state,  being  in  their 
native  state  intimately  mixea  with  sulphur  and 
other  adventitious  matter,  and  reduced  to  what 
are  called  ores.  Of  this  series  of  fossils  there 
are  five  bodies,  each  of  which  makes  a  dis- 
tinct genus;  viz,  antimony,  bismuth,  cobalt, 
zinc,  and  quicksilver. 

ASPHYXIA ;  from  a  privative,  and  vfvXtc,  a 
pulse ;  in  medicine,  the  state  during  life  in  which 
the  pulsation  of  the  heart  and  arteries  cannot  be 
perceived.  Medical  writers  usually  divide  this 
suspended  animation  into  lipothymia,  apoplexia, 
syncope,  submersio,  suspensio,  and  congelatio. 
Mr.  Sage  has  published  a  treatise  recommend- 
ing the  volatile  alkali  fluor  as  the  most  efiectual 
remedy  in  asphyxies.  Asphyxia  is  also  used  by 
some  ror  a  privation  of  pulse  in  a  part  of  the 
body,  e.  g.  in  the  arm,  &c. 

Tlie  following  extraordinary  case  of  asphyxia 
is  related  by  Dr.  Cheyne,  in  his  English  Malady, 

307.    <  Case  of  the  Hon,  Colonel  Totomhend.— 


!ol.  Townshend,  a  gendeman  of  excellent  natural 
parts,  and  of  great  honor  and  integrity,  had  for 
many  years  been  afflicted  with  a  nephritic  com- 
plaint, attended  with  constant  vomitings,  which 
had  made  his  life  painful  and  miserable.  During 
the  whole  time  ot  his  illness  he  had  observed  the 
strictest  regimen,  living  on  the  softest  vegetables, 
and  lightest  animal  foods,  drinking  asses  milk 
daily,  even  in  the  camp ;  and  for  common  drink, 
Bristol  water,  which  the  summer  before  his  death 
he  had  drank  on  the  spot.  But  his  illness  in- 
creasing, and  his  strengtli  decaying,  he  came  from 
Bristol  to  Bath  in  a  litter,  in  autumn,  and  lay  at 
the  Bell-inn.  Dr.  Baynard  (who  b  since  dead) 
and  I  were  called  to  him,  and  attended  him 
twice  a  day  for  about  the  space  of  a  week,  but 
his  vomitings  continuing  still  incessant  and  ob- 
stinate against  all  remedies,  we  despaired  of  his 
recovery.  While  he  was  in  this  condition  he 
sent  for  us  early  one  morning :  we  waited  on 
him  with  Mr.  Skrine,hi8  apothecary,  (since  dead 
also) ;  we  found  his  senses  dear  and  his  mind 
calm,  his  nurse  and  several  servants  were  about 
him.  He  had  made  his  will  and  settled  his  af- 
fairs. He  told  us  he  had  sent  for  us  to  give  him 
some  account  of  an  odd  sensation  he  had  for 
some  time  observed  and  felt  in  himself;  which 
was  that,  composing  himself,  he  could  die  or 
expire  when  he  pleased,  and  yet,  by  an  eflbrt  or 
some  how,  he  could  come  to  life  again ;  which  it 
seems  he  had  sometimes  tried  before  he  had  sent 
for  us. 

*  We  heard  this  with  surprise ;  but  as  it  was 
not  to  be  accounted  for  from  any  common  prin- 
ciples, we  could  hardly  believe  the  fact  as  he  re- 
lated it,  much  less  give  any  account  of  it,  unless 
he  should  please  to  make  the  experiment  before 
us,  which  we  were  unwilling  he  should  do,  lest 
in  his  weak  condition  be  might  carry  it  too  fiir. 
He  continued  to  talk  very  distinctly  and  sensibly 
above  a  quarter  of  an  hour  about  this  (to  him) 
surprising  sensation,  and  insisted  so  much  on  our 
seemg  the  trial  made,  that  we  were  at  last  forced 
to  comply.  We  all  three  felt  his  pulse  first ;  it 
was  distinct,  though  small  and  thready ;  and  his 
heart  had  its  usual  beating.    He  composed  him- 


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self  on  his  back,  and  lay  in  a  still  position  some 
time  ;  while  I  held  his  right  hand,  Dr.  Baynard 
laid  his  hand  on  his  heart,  and  Mr.  Skrine  held 
a  clear  looking-glass  to  his  mouth.  I  found  his 
pulse  sink  gradually,  till  at  last  I  could  not  feel 
any  by  the  most  exact  and  nice  touch.  Dr. 
Baynard  could  not  feel  the  least  motion  in  his 
heart,  nor  Mr.  Skrine  the  least  soil  of  breath  on 
the  bright  mirror  he  held  to  his  mouth;  then 
each  of  us  by  turns  examined  his  arm,  heart, 
and  breast;  but  could  not,  by  the  nicest  scrutiny, 
discover  the  least  symptom  of  life  in  him.  We 
reasoned  a  long  time  aoout  this  odd  aippearance 
as  wed  as  we  could,  and  all  of  us  judging  it 
inexplicable  and  unaccountable,  and  finding  he 
still  continued  in  that  condition,  we  began  to 
conclude  that  he  had  indeed  carried  the  experi- 
ment too  iar,  and  at  last  were  satisfied  he  was 
actually  dead,  and  were  just  ready  to  leave  Kim. 
This  continu^  about  half  an  hour,  by  nine  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  in  autumn.  As  we  were  going 
away  we  observed  some  motion  about  the  body, 
and,  upon  examination,  found  his  pulse  and  the 
motion  of  his  heart  gradually  retummg;  he  began 
to  breathe  gently,  and  speak  softly  ;  we  were  all 
astonished  to  the  last  degree  at  this  unexpected 
change,  and  after  some  further  conversation 
with  him,  and  among  ourselves,  went  away  tiiUy 
satisfied  as  to  all  the  particulars  of  this  fact,  but 
confounded  and  puzzled,  and  not  able  to  form 
»ny  rational  scheme  that  might  account  for  it. 
lie  afterwards  called  for  his  attorney,  added  a 
codicil  to  his  will,  settled  legacies  on  his  ser- 
vants, received  the  sacrament,  and  calmly  and 
composedly  expired  about  six  o'clock  that  evening. 
Next  day  he  was  opened  (as  he  had  ordered) ; 
his  body  was  the  soundest  and  best  made  I  had 
ever  seen ;  his  lungs  were  fair,  large,  and  sound, 
his  heart  big  and  strong,  and  his  intestines  sweet 
and  clean ;  his  stomach  was  of  a  due  proportion, 
the  coats  sound  and  thick,  and  the  villous  mem- 
brane quite  entire ;  but  when  we  came  to  examine 
the  kidneys,  though  the  left  was  perfectly  sound 
and  of  a  just  size,  the  right  was  about  four  times 
as  big,  distended  like  a  blown  bladder,  and 
yielding  as  if  full  of  pap ;  behaving  often  passed 
a  wheyish  liquor,  after  his  urine,  durine  nis  ill- 
ness. Upon  opening  this  kidney  we  found  it 
quite  full  of  a  white  chalky  matter,  like  plaster 
of  Paris,  and  all  the  fleshy  substance  dissolved 
and  worn  away  by  whgt  I  called  a  nephritic 
cancer.  This  had  been  the  source  of  all  his 
misery ;  and  the  symptomatic  vomitings,  from  the 
irritation  on  the  consentient  nerves,  had  quite 
starved  and  worn  him  down,  I  have  narrated 
the  facts  as  I  saw  and  observed  them,  deliberately 
and  distinctly,  and  shall  leave  the  philosophic 
reader  to  make  what  inferences  he  thinks  fit. 
The  truth  of  the  material  circumstances  £  will 
warrant.* 

Aspic,  in  botany,  a  plant  which  grows  in 
plenty  in  Languedoc,  in  Provence,  and  especially 
on  the  mountain  of  St.  Baume  in  France.  It  is 
a  kind  of  lavender,  nearly  like  what  grows  in 
our  gardens,  both  with  regard  to  the  figure  and 
color  of  its  leaves  and  flowers.  The  botanists 
4sl11  it  lavendula  mas,  or  spica  nardi,  pseudo 
nardus,  &c. 

ASPILATES,  or  Asplenites,  in  the  writings 


of  the  ancients,  the  name  of  a  stone,  famous  for 
its  virtues  against'  the  spleen,  and  many  other 
disorders ;  it  was  to  be  applied  externally,  and 
fasten^  to  the  part  with  camel's  hair. 

ASPINY,  or  ANGLfARY-THOBN,  a  drug  used 
in  medicine,  on  which  particular  duties  are  im- 
posed by  the  taritf  of  the  custom-house  at  Lyons. 


Aspiro ;  from  ad^ 
and  spirOy  to  breathe  ; 
to  search  after  dili- 
>  gently,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  the  ar- 
duous exertion  to 
breathe     frequently, 


ASPIRE', 

Aspir'ant, 

Aspir'ate,  v.  n.  &  adj. 
Aspira'tion, 
Aspire'ment, 
Aspir'er, 
Aspir'ing. 
and  with  apparent  difficulty;  to  pant  after;  to 
pursue  with  eageniess  an  object  deemed  worthy 
of  our  ambition ;  to  desire  with  eagerness.    To 
aspirate  is  to  breathe  strongly  upon  a  letter  io 
sounding  it. 

^ia  he ;  I  ken  the  maaner  of  his  gait : 
He  rises  on  his  toe  ;  that  spirit  of  his 
In  tupircUion  lifts  him  from  the  earth. 

8hahpetar0. 
Horace  did  ne'er  atpite  to  epic  bays  ; 
Nor  lofty  Haio  stoop  to  lyrick  lays. 


Till  then  a  helpless,  hopeless,  homely  swain ; 

I  sought  not  freedom,  nor  eupwed  tp  gain.     Ihyden. 

Atpirifig  to  be  go.ds,  if  angels  fell, 

Atpiring  to  be  angels,  men  rebel.         Pope.. 

H  is  only  a  guttural  a^rtUiom,  i.  e.  a  more  forcible 

impulse  of  the  breath  from  the  lungs.  HMer. 

A  soul  inspired  with  the  warmest  aspiration*  after 

celestial  bi^atitude,  keeps  its  powers  attentive.   WatU. 

Know  thine  own  worth,  and  reverence  the  lyre. 
Wilt  thou  debase  the  heart  which  Ck)d  refined? 
No !  let  thy  heaven-taught  ioul  to  bearen  OMpire, 
To  fancy,  freedom,  harmony,  resignM ; 
Ambition's  groveling  crew  for  ever  left  behind. 

Some  more.Mptrm^  catch  the  neighbooring  shrub. 
With  clasping  tendrils,  and  invest  her  branch. 

Ye  stars !  which  are  the  poetry  of  heaven ! 

If  in  your  bright  Ic^avcs  we  would  read  the  fate 

Of  men  and  empires, — 'tis  to  be  forgiv'n. 

That  in  our  Oipiratioru  to  be  great. 

Our  destinies  o'erleap  their  mortal  state. 

And  claim  a  kindred  with  you  •, 

Lord  ByrotiTt  CkSUe  IJoroU. 

ASPIUS,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of  the 
cyprinus,  belonging  to  the  abdominal  order.  It 
is  met  with  in  the  lakes  of  Sweden. 

ASPORTATION.  Lat.  ad,  and  porta,  to 
carry ;  a  carrying  to. 

A  bare  removal  from  the  place  in  which  he  found 
the  goods,  though  the  thief  does  not  quite  make  off 
with  them,  is  a  sufficient  asportation  or  cairyiiig 
away.  BJacJteon*. 

ASPOTAGOEN  Mount,  a  sea-mark  on  the 
coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  from  which  ships  bound 
from  Europe  to  Halifax  generally  look  out.  It 
rises  on  the  promontory,  between  Mahone  and 
Margaret's  bay,  to  about  500  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea. 
AS'PRE,     V 

As'pRELY,  i  Lat.  asper^  rough  in  its  na-» 
As'pRENESS,  f  ture:  applied  to  that  which  is 
As'PERATE,  ?'harsh,  rugged,  grating,  bitter, 
Aspe'rity,  I  morose. 

As'PEROUS.  J 


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'  "Bluk  and  white  «re  the  mott  mipehm  and  unequal 
of  coLoon ;  .ao  like,  that  it  is  hard  to  distinguish 
them:  black  is  the  most  rough.  BojfU. 

I  hope  it  is  no  very  cynical  atperiiy,  not  to  confess 
obligations  where  no  benefit  has  been  received,  or  to 
be  unwilling  that  the  public  should  consider  me  as 
owing  to  a  patron,  that  which  Providence  has  en- 
abled me  to  do  for  myself.  Dr,  S.  Johutom. 
The  patience  of  Job  is  proverbial.  After  some  of 
the  convulsive  struggles  of  our  irritable  nature,  he 
submitted  himself,  and  repented  in  dust  and  ashes. 
ISut  even  so,  I  do  not  find  him  blamed  for  reprehend- 
ing, and  with  a  considerable  degree  of  atperHy,  those 
ill-natured  neighbours  of  his  who  visited  his  dunghill 
to  read  moral,  political,  and  oeconomical  lectures  on 
his  misery.  Bwke. 
ASPy,  V.  &  n.    See  Espy. 

In  due  season,  as  she  alway  atpied 
Euery  thing  to  execute  conueniently. 
The  one  louer  first  frendly  she  eied. 
The  second  she  ofied  the  cuppe  curtesly. 

Chaucer,     The  Rein  ofLoue, 
For  Ion  seide  to  Eronde,  it  is  not  levefol  to  thee  to 
have  the  wyf  of  thi  brother,  and  Erodias  loide  aspiea 
to  him  and  wolde  sle  bim  and  myghte  not 

WiOif.     Jftfr*,ch.vi.. 
ASRAEL,  the  angel,  according  to  the  Ma- 
hommedan  system,  who  is  appropriated  to  take 
care  of  the  souls  of  those  who  die. 

ASS,         ■) 

As'iBiNE,  >  Lat.flsinitt,  a  well  known  animal. 

Ass'like.  j 

Yon  have  among  you  many  a  purchased  slave ; 
Which,  like  your  a8$et  and  your  dogs  and  mules. 
Yon  use  in  abject  and  in  slavish  part. 
Because  you  bought  them.  8hah$pean. 

You  shall  have  more  ado,  to  drive  our  dullest 
youth,  our  stocks  and  stubs,  from  such  nurture ;  than 
we  have  now,  to  hale  our  choicest  and  hopefullest 
wits,  to  thnt  othdne  feast  of  sow-thistles  and  brambles. 

MilUm. 

Ass,  in  zoology.  See  Equus. 
Ass,  CoaovATioN  op  the,  in  antiqnity,  was  a 
liart  of  the  ceremony  of  the  feast  of  Vesta,  wherein 
the  bakers  put  crowns  on  the  heads  of  these 
quadrupeds;  Ecce  coronatis  panis  dependet 
asellisl  Hence,  in  an  ancient  calendar,  die 
ides  of  June  are  thus  denoted:  Festum  est 
Vestse.  Asintis  coronatur  I  This  honor  it  seems 
was  done  the  beast,  because,  according  to  the 
mythology,  by  its  braying  it  had  saved  Vesta 
from  being  ravished  by  the  Laropsacan  god. 
Hence  the  formula,  Vesta  delicium  est  asinus. 

ASSAC,  or  AssAX,  in,  the  materia  medica  of 
the  ancients;  the  name  giv^n  by  the  Arabians  to 
the  gum  ammoniac  of  the  Greeks ;  but  l^  many 
of  the  qualities  attributed  to  this  drug  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  the  same  that  is  now  called  so. 

ASSACH,  or  Assath,  a  kind  of  purgation, 
anciently  used  in  Wales,  by  the  oaths  of  300  men. 

ASSAI,  in  music,  signifies  quick ;  or,  accord- 
ing to  others,  that  the  motion  of  the  piece  be  kept 
in  a  middle  degree  of  quickness  or  slowness :  as, 
assai  allegro,  assai  presto.  See  Allegro  and 
Presto. 

ASSAIL',  -\      Fr.    assaiUir,    Lat. 

Assai l'able,  I  adtalire,  to  leap  upon. 

Assail'akt,  v.  & adj,\To  assault;  to  make  a 

Assail'er,  i  sudden  and  vehement 

AssA  il'bcent,  J  attack  by  various  means 

of  annoyance. 


So,  when  he  saw  hw  flatt'riiig  arts  la  fisil^ 

With  greedy  force  he  'gan  the  fort  t'  osieu^. 

Faerie  Queene 
111  put  myself  in  poor  and  mean  atUre, 
And  with  a  kind  of  umbei  smirch  my  face ; 
The  like  do  you  :  so  shall  we  pass  along. 
And  never  stir  anaUemU.  Shakspeare, 

My  gracious  lord,  here  in  the  parliament 
Let  us  aetttH  the  family  of  York.  N. 

She  will  not  stay  the  siege  of  loving  terms. 
Nor  bide  th'  encounter  of  aaaiUng  eyes.  ItL 

How  have  I  fear'd  your  fate !  but  fear'd  it  most. 
When  love  tMoU'd  you  on  the  Libyan  coast. 

DrydAU 
Prompt  to  auail  and  careless  of  defence. 
Invulnerable  in  his  impudence ; 
He  dares  the  world  ;  and  eager  of  a  name. 
He  thrusts  about,  and  jostles  into^fame. 

Id,  Hind  and  Panther, 
All  books  he  reads,  and  all  he  reads  atuiU, 
Prom  Dryden's  Fables  down  to  D — y's  Talcs. 

Pope, 

Sensible  of  their  own  force,  and  allured  by  the 

prospect  of  so  rich  a  prise,  the  northern  baxbarians, 

in  the  reign  of  Arcadius  and  Hoixorius,  ateailed    at 

once  all  the  frontiers  of  the  Roman  empire.      Hume, 

When  winds  the  mountain  oak  amail, 

And  lay  its  glories  waste. 

Content  may  slumb^  in  the  vide, 
Uneonscidas  of  the  blast.  Beattie* 

ASSAM,  or  Asbabc,  a  country  between  Bengal 
and  Thibet,  700  miles  in  length,  by  about  70  in 
breadth.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Brahmapootra 
and  several  nrers.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded 
by  the  mountains  of  Bootan  and  Thibet,  on  tlie 
south  by  the  Garrow  mountains,  on  the  west  by 
Bengal  and  Bisnee,  and  on  the  east  by  the  tribu- 
taries of  Ava  and  China.  Assam  is  very  fertile, 
and  produces  a  considerable  quantity  of  gold, 
found  in  the  beds  of  the  rivers;  it  also  yields 
ivoiy,  lac,  pepper,  silk,  and  cotton,  and  exports 
a  considerable  Quantity  of  borax  aud  musk,  said 
to  be  procured  trom  Bootan  and  Thibet.  Its  im- 
ports from  Bengal  are  principally  salt,  various 
European  commodities,  and  a  few  fine  muslins. 
The  inhabitants  are  genuine  Hindoos,  and  are 
very  shy  of  permitting  foreigners  to  come  among 
them.  Dunng  the  period  that  the  Aighans  and 
Moguls  had  possession  of  Bengal  they  frequently 
invaded  this  country,  and  even  took  possession 
of  Ghergong  the  capital,  but  the  unhcalthiness 
of  the  climate  compelled  them  always  to  retire 
with  great  loss.  In  the  year  1793  a  detachment 
of  the  East  India  Company's  troops,  under  the 
command  of  Colonel  Welsh,  entered  Assam  for 
the  purpose  of  reinstating  the  rajah  Surjee  Deo ; 
and,  in  consequence  of  the  services  then  rendered 
him,  the  rajah  established  a  reciprocal  liberty  of 
commerce  between  himself  and  the  British ;  and 
it  was  finally  agreed  that  no  European  merchant 
or  adventurer,  of  any  description,  should  t>e  al- 
lowed to  fix  his  residence  in  Assam,  without 
having  previously  obtained  the  permission  of  the 
British  government,  and  of  Maha  Rajah  Suijee 
Deo,  of  Assam.  ' 

ASSANCALA,  or  Assavcale,  a  strong  town 
in  Armenia,  near  the  river  Arras,  in  the  road 
between  Erzerum  and  Erivan,  noted  for  its  hot 
.  baths.  It  stands  on  a  high  hill,  twenty-two 
miles  east  of  Erzerum ;  the  walls  are  built  in  a 
apiial  line  all  round  the  rock,  and  strengthened 


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with  square  towers.    The  ditches  ar^  al)OUt  two 
fathoms  over,  cnt  out  of  hard  rock. 

ASSAPOORY,  iu  natural  history,  a  name 
given  by  the  people  of  the  East  Indies  to  a  pe- 
culiar species  of  slate,  which  they  use  in  medi- 
cine, reducing  it  to  powdeir,  and  strewing  it  on 
burning  coals  that  the  sick  person  may  receive 
the  fumes  of  it  It  is  principally  used  for  children 
when  they  are  disordered  by  taking  cold.  The 
smell  of  it,  while  burning,  is  very  offensive. 

ASSARIUM,  a  small  copper  coin,  being  a 
part  of  the  as.  The  word  is  used  by  Suidas  in- 
differently with  opoKoct  and  vofuvfuiy  to  denote  a 
small  piece  of  money ;  in  which  he  is  followed 
by  Cujacius,  who  demies  afftrctptov,  by  minimus 
a>ris  nummus.  We  find  mention  of  the  assarion 
in  Matthew,  chap.  x.  yer.  29.,  translated  a 
farthing. 

ASSARON,  an  ancient  Jewish  measure  of 

capacity,  equal  to  the  tenth  part  of  an  ephah. 

The  assaron  is  the  same  witli  the  omer.    Jo- 

sephus  calls  it  tacapov;   in  the  Hebrew  it  is 

written  assarith.    It  was  the  measure  of  manna 

appointed  for  each  person. 

ASSAS'SIN,t;.&fi.  -j     The   etymology  of 

AssA^sivkCTy  f  this  word  has    given 

Assassinate,  v.&n.  ^  rise  to  much  learned 

Assassina'tion.         Jdiscussidn,    and    the 

question  is  still  undecided.    Applied  to  one  who 

attacks  and  kills  those  unprepa^  for  defence, 

by  treachery,  or  sudden  violence. 

It  were  done  quickly ;  if  th'  amammUhm 
Could  trunmel  up  the  conseqaenoe.       SkaMtpetHre, 

Such  nrage  ••  your  honourable  lords 
Afford  me,  a9$astinaUd  and  betray'd ; 
Who  durst  not,  with  your  whole  united  pow'rt. 
In  fight  withstand  one  tingle  and  nnarm'd. 

The  Syrian  king;  who,  to  surprise 
One  man,  amurin  like,  had  levy'd  war. 
War  unpTodaimM.  Id, 

The  duke  finished  his  course  by  a  wicked  oiafu- 
MinatUm.  Clarendon, 

In  the  very  moment,  as  the  knight  withdrew  from 
the  duke,  this  amutinaie  gave  him,  with  a  back  blow, 
a  deep  wound  into  his  left  side.  WoUon, 

The  old  king  is  just  murdered ;  and  the  penon 

that  did  it  is  unknown — Let  the  soldiers  seise  him, 

for  one  of  the  amutinatet;  and  let  me  alone,  to  accuse 

him  afterwards*  Drjfden, 

Here  hired  aitawim  for  their  gain  invade  \ 

And  treach'rous  pois'ners  urge  tibeir  fatal  trade. 

Creech, 

When  she  hears  of  a  murder,  she  enlarges  more 
on  the  guilt  of  the  suffering  person,  than  of  the  «- 
«"w».  Additon, 

Orestes  brandish'd  the  revenging  sword ; 

Slew  the  dire  pair ;  and  gave  to  fnn'ral  flame 

The  vile  ammin,  and  adult'rous  dame.  Pope. 

Useful,  we  grant;  it  serves  what  life  requires ; 
But,  dreadful  too,  the  dark  ocmmm  hires.  Id, 

Assassins,  a  tribe  or  clan  in  Syria,  called 
also  Ismaelians  and  Batanists,  or  Batenians. 
These  people  probably  owed  their  origin  to  the 
Karmatians,  a  &mous  heretical  sect  among  the 
Mahommedans,  who  settled  in  Persia  about  the 
year  1090;  wheuce,  in  process  of  time,  they 
sent  a  colony  into  Syria,  where  they  became 
possessed  of  a  considerable  tract  of  land  among 
the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  ^  extending  itself 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Antioch  to  Damas- 


cus. The  first  chief  and  legislator  of  this  extra- 
ordinary tribe  was  Hassan  Sabah,  a  subtle 
impostor ;  who,  by  his  artifices,  made  fanatical 
ana  implicit  slaves  of  his  subjects.  Their  reli- 
gion was  compounded  of  that  of  the  Magi,  the 
Jews,  the  Christians,  and  the  Mahomm^aos: 
but  the  capital  article  of  their  creed  was  to  be- 
lieve that  the  Holy  Spirit  resided  in  their  chief; 
that  his  orders  proceeded  from  God  himself,  and 
were  real  declarations  of  the  divine  pleasure. 
To  this  monarch  the  orientals  gave  the  name  of 
Scheik :  but  he  is  better  known  in  Europe  by 
the  name  of  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain. 
This  chief,  from  his  residence  on  mount  Lebanon, 
sent,  like  a  vindictive  deity,  inevitable  death  to 
all  quarters  of  the  world ;  and  many  sovereigns 
paid  secretly  a  pension  to  the  Scheik,  for  the 
safety  of  their  persons.  The  Knights  Templars 
alone  dared  to  defy  his  secret  machinations  and 
open  force.  Indeed,  they  were  a  permanent 
dispersed  body,  not  to  be  cut  ofi*  by  massacres 
or  assassinations.  In  1090,  Mftlek  Sh^,  third 
sultan  of  the  Seljukians,  of  Iran,  sent  a  mes- 
senger to  Hassan,  the  Old  Man  of  that  period, 
calling  on  him  for  obedience,  and  accompanying 
the  demand  with  threats  in  the  case  ot  his  re- 
fusal. Hassan  desired  the  ambassador  might  be 
admitted ;  and  having  assembled  around  him  his 
troops,  commanded  one  of  them  to  draw  his 
dagger,  and  plunge  it  into  his  own  breast;  the 
man,  without  the  slighest  hesitation,  stabbed 
himself  to  the  heart,  and  fell  dead  at  his  sove- 
reign's feet.  He  then  commanded  a  second  to 
precipitate  himself  from  the  nearest  tower ;  and 
was  instantaneously  obeyed.  *  Go,'  said  Hassan, 
*  to  the  sultan,  your  master,  and  inform  him,  that 
I  have  no  other  reply  to  make  him,  excepting 
that  I  have  seventy  thousand  troops  equally 
obedient  with  those  you  have  this  day  witnessed/ 
The  sultan  took  the  hint ;  and  havmg,  as  Ebn 
Amed  states,  other  matters  in  his  hands,  thought 
it  not  advisable  to  prosecute  a  war  against  this 
prince. 

In  1192,  the  assassins  penetrated  the  palace 
of  Conrade,  marqub  of  Montserrat,  who  had 
displeased  them,  and  put  him  to  death.  In 
1213,  thev  assassinated  Lewis  of  Bavaria.  Hu- 
lakn,  a  khan  of  the  Mogul  Tartars,  in  the  year 
655  of  tlie  Hegira,  or  1254  of  the  Christian  era, 
entered  their  country,  and  dispossessed  them  of 
several  places.  In  1257,  the  Tartars  conquered 
them  and  killed  their  prince;  but  it  was  not  till 
1272,  that  they  w^re  totally  extirpated;  an 
achievement  owing  principally  to  the  conduct  and 
intrepidity  of  the  Egyptian  forces  sent  against 
them  by  die  sultan  Bifaiaris. 

ASSAULT,  V.  &  n.^ 

AssAULfiNo,  fi.       f     Attilio,  auuUum,  See 

Assault'able,        ^a  Assail. 

AsSAVLt'fiR.  J 

Themselves  at  discord  fell. 
And  cniel  combat  joined  in  middle  space. 
With  horrible  ammit  and  faiy  fell. 

Foerie  Qmeent, 
It  hath  been  ever  a  dangerous  policy  of  Satan  to 
mbomU  the  best ;  he  knows  that  the  maltitnde,  as  we 
tay  of  bees,  will  follow  their  master. 

HaU*s  C 


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hf  tli«  pariiamenty  whicli  produced  iu  dinolation, 
tbei«  followed  a  compoenre.  Ciare$tdon. 

Theories  Imilt  upon  narrow  foundations,  are  Yery 
hard  to  be  snppoited  against  the  asaaidu  of  opposition. 

Loeke. 

The  king  granted  the  Jews,  to  gather  themselves 
together,  and  to  stand  for  their*  life,  to  destroy  all 
the  power,  that  would  atnuU  them.    Eiihtr,  yiii.  1 1. 

Before  the  gates,  the  cries  of  babes  new-bom. 
Whom  fate  had  from  theii  tender  motheis  torn, 
ArnmU  his  ears.  Ihydm, 

Now  cursed  steel,  and  more  aecnned  gold. 
Gave  mischief  birth,  and  made  that  mischiitf  bold ; 
And  double  death  did  wretched  man  invade^ 
B/  steel  Biswiftwf,  and  by  gold  betray'd.  Id. 

Neither  liking  their  eloquence,  nor  fearing  their 
might,  we  esteemed  few  swords,  in  a  just  defence, 
able  to  resist  many  unjust  auauUers,  Sidney . 

This  just  rebuke  inflamed  the  Lycian  crew. 

They  join,  they  thicken,  and  th'  oMUndi  renew ; 

fJnmov'd  th'embodied  Greeks  their  fury  dare. 

And  fixM,  support  the  weight  of  all  the  war. 

Pofpe.  Homer'f  Iliad,  3ui.  605. 

Assault,  in  law,  is  an  attempt  to  beat  another, 
and  may  be  committed  without  touching  him :  as 
if  one  lifts  up  his  cane  or  fist  in  a  threatening 
manner  at  another;  or  strikes  at  him,  but  misses 
him;  this  is  an  assault,  insultus,  which  Finch 
describes  to  be  'an  unlawful  settiQg  upon  one's 
person.'  This  also  is  an  inchoate  violence, 
amounting  considerably  higher  than  bare  threats ; 
and,  therefore,  though  no  actual  suffering  is 
proved,  yet  the  party  injured  may  have  redress 
oy  action  of  trespass  vi  et  armis,  wherein  he 
«hall  recover  damages  as  a  compensation  for  the 
injury. 

Assault,  in  the  military  art,  a  furious  effort 
made  to  carry  a  fortified  post,  camp,  or  fortress, 
wherein  the  assailants  do  not  screen  themselves 
by  any  works :  while  the  assault  continues,  the 
batteries  cease,  for  fear  of  killing  their  own  men. 
ASSAT,  V,  &  ft.  Fr.  etsmfer,  Ital.  asaagiarey 
to  try,  examine,  prove;  to  submit  to  experi- 
ment; to  test. 

One,  that  to  bounty  nevftr  cast  his  mind ; 
No  thought  of  honour  never  did  a$ujf 
His  baser  breast.  Spmuer, 

She  heard  with  patience  all,  iinto  the  end ; 
And  strove,  to  master  sorrowful  auag. 

Faerte  Queme. 
Gray  and  Bryan  obtained  leave  of  the  general,  a 
little  to  OMO^  them ;  and  so,  with  some  horsemen, 
charged  ihem  home.  Hojfward, 

What  unweighed  behaviour  hath  this  drunkard 
picked  out  of  my  conversation,  that  he  dares  in  this 
manner  assay  met  ShaMtpean, 

Be  sure  to  find. 
What  I  foretell  thee ;  many  a  hard  osMqr 
Of  dangers,  and  adversities,  and  pains. 
Ere  thou  of  Israel's  sceptre  get  fast  hold.  Mtiien, 

The  men  he  prest  but  Ute 
To  hard  ostoyi  unfit,'  unsure  y  need ; 
Yet  ann'd  to  point,  in  well  attempted  plate. 

Ftmfag, 
She  thrice  osssjf'd  to  speak ;  her  accents  hung. 
And  fslt'ring  dy'd  unfinished  on  her  tongue. 
Or  Taniah'd  into  sighs :  with  long  delay 
Her  voiee  vetum'd ;  and  found  the  wonted  way. 

Dryden'9  Fatiet. 

Assay ING,  or  Essaying,  in  metallurgy,  is 

a  method  of  ascertaining  the  actual  quantity  of 

pure  gold  or  silver  lu  a  given  metallic  mass. 


The  term  might,  with  equal  propriety,  be  ap- 
plied to  ascertaining  the  presence  and  quantity  of 
any  metal,  perfect  or  imperfect,  in  a  mass  of 
ore :  but  it  has,  finom  the  univeri^  value  of  the 
pure  or  precious  metals,  been  gradually  appro- 
priated to  the  best  modes  of  separating  tnem 
from  all  admixture,  the  baser  metals  being  con- 
sidered by  the  assayer  as  of  no  value  or  consi- 
deration. We  thus,  therefore,  apply  the  term  in 
this  paper;  referring  to  tiie  article  Metallurgy, 
and  the  names  of  odier  metallic  ores,  in  their  al- 
phabetical phices,  for  more  geneval  observations. 

Assaying  is  a  species  of  chemicat  analysis, 
owing  its  origin  probably,  like  the  rest  of  the 
modem  terms  of  chemistry,  to  the  alchemy  of 
darker  ages.  In  this  country  the  liber  Niger 
Scacarii,  cited  by  Du  Caoge,  attributes  the  first 
assay  of  money  to  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  a 
royal  treasurer,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  It 
states,  that  if  tiie  examined  money  was  found  to 
be  deficient  above  sixpence  in  the  pound,  it  was 
not  deemed  lawful  money  of  the  king,  Du  Cange, 
Gloss,  i.  p.  343.  And  thus  is  explained  the  first 
application  of  the  terms  anas  and  arsuram,  to 
money,  in  the  Exchequer-book.  But,  it  is 
clear,  that  some  species  of  assay  was  prac- 
tised by  our  ancestors  as  early  as  the  Norman 
conquest,  Doomsday-book  expressly  stating, 
vol.  i.  f.  15,  16,  that  £65  of  coined  money  was 
only  worth  £50  in  pure  silver, '  according  to  the 
assay  of  the  Mint.'  This  is  the  passage :  '  Totum 
manerium  T.  R.  £.  et  post  valuit  xl.  libras. 
Modo  similiter  xl.  lib.  Tamen  reddit  2  lib.  ad 
arsuram  et  pensum  quae  valent  Ixv.  lib.'  It 
also  appears,  b^  the  same  authority,  that  the 
king  had  this  nght  of  assay  in  several  places 
beside  the  capital.  It  is  remarkable,  as  Mr. 
Turner  has  observed,  that  we  have  no  Anglo- 
Saxon  gold  coins,  though  numerous  silver  coins 
of  that  period  have  come  down  to  us.  That 
learned  nistorian  thinks,  that  both  gold  and 
silver  uncoined,  were,  however,  in  circulation  at 
this  date.  According  to  Dr.  Henry's  account  of 
the  conduct  of  Henry  VIII.  in  respect  to  the 
coinage,  it  became  indeed,  most  important  that 
some  system  shoidd  be  adopted  for  regulating 
the  standard  value  of  our  corns. ' 

<  That  monarch,'  he  remarks,  ^  after  he  had 
squandered  all  his  father's  treasures,  the  srants 
he  had  received  from  parliament,  and  the 
great  sums  he  had  derived  from  the  dissolution 
of  the  religious  houses,  begaii  to  diminish  his 
coins  both  in  weight  and  fineness.  This  dimi- 
nution at  first  was  small,  in  hopes,  perhap,  that 
it  would  not  be  perceived;  but,  after  he  tiad  got 
into  this  fatal  career,  he  proceeded  by  rapid 
steps  to  the  most  pernicious  lengths.  In  the 
thirty-sixth  year  of  his  reign,  silver  money  of  all 
the  different  kinds. was  coined,  which  had  only 
one-half  silver  and  the  other  half  alloy.  He  did 
not  even  stop  here ;  in  the  last  year  of  hb  reign, 
he  coined  money  that  had  only  four  ounces  of  silver 
and  eight  ounces  of  alloy  iu  the  pound  weight; 
and  the  nominal  pound  of  this  base  money  was 
worth  only  9«.  3|i.  of  our  present  money.  He 
began  to  debase  his  gold  coins  at  the  same  tin^e, 
and  proceeded  by  the  same  degrees.  But  it 
would  be  tedious  to  follow  him  in  every  step. 
In  this  degraded  and  debased  condition  Henry 


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the  Eignth  left  the  money  of  his  kingdom  to  his 
son  and  successor  Edward  the  Sixth.  This 
shameful  debasement  of  the  money  of  his  king- 
dom, was,  one  of  the  most  imprudent,  dishonor- 
able, and  pernicious  measures  of  his  reign :  it 
was  productive  of  innumerable  inconTeniences 
and  great  perplexity  in  business  of  all  kinds ; 
and  the  restoration  of  it  to  its  standard  purity 
was  found  to  be  a  work  of  great  difficulty,' 
Henry's  History  of  Great  Britain,  vol.  xii.  p. 
336,  337.  It  is  worthy  of  observation,  that  since 
that  period,  we  have  had  no  such  capricious  and 
ne&rious  attempts ;  and  the  regulations  of  the 
royal  British  Mint  may  now  be  quoted  as  at 
once  most  scientific  and  effective. 

The  art,  to  which  this  paper  is  devoted,  con- 
sults of  two  dislinot  branches  or  operations,  the 
separation  of  alloy,  or  base  metals,  from  the 
precious  ores,  accomplished  by  what  is  tech- 
nically called  cnpellation;  and  the  separation 
of  the  precious  metals,  gold,  platina,  and  silver 
from  each  other,  called  quaxtation  and  parting. 

The  separation  of  gold,  silver,  and  platina, 
from  baser  metals,  is  conducted  by  exposing  the 
whole  metallic  mass,  in  which  they  are  su]^ 
posed  to  be  contained,  mixed  with  a  certain  por- 
tion of  lead,  to  a  strong  heat,  in  a  shallow  cru- 
cible, made  of  burned  bones,  called  a  cupel ; 
which  is  placed  in  a  mufRe  or  small  earthen 
oven,  fixed  in  the  midst  of  a  fiimace.  The  lead 
now  vitrifies,  or  becomes  converted  into  a  glassy 
calx,  which  dissolves  the  imperfect  metals :  and 
this  calx,  with  those  metals  which  it  absorbs, 
soaks  into  the  cupel,  and  leaves  the  precious 
metals  in  a  state  of  purity.  '  In  proportion  to 
the  violence  of  the  heat,'  says  Dr.  Aikro,  *  is  tlie 
density  of  the  fume,  the  violence  witli  which  it 
is  given  off,  the  convexity  of  the  surftce  of  the 
globule  of  melted  matter,  and  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  vitrified  oxide  circulates  (as  it  b 
termed),  or  fidls  down  the  sides  of  the  metal. 
As  the  cupelLation  advances,  the  melted  button 
becomes  rounder,  its  sur&ce  becomes  streaky 
with  large  bright  points  of  the  fbsed  oxide, 
which  moves  with  increased  rapidity,  till  at  last 
the  globule,  being  now  freed  from  all  the  lead 
and  other  alloy,  suddenly  lightens ;  the  last  por- 
tions of  lithaxge  on  the  surface  disappear  with 
great  rapidity ;  showing  the  melted  m^  bright 
with  imdescent  colors,  which  directly  after  be- 
comes opaque,  and  suddenly  appears  brilliant, 
clean,  and  white,  as  if  a  curtain  had  been  with- 
drawn from  it.  The  operation  being  now 
finished,  and  the  silver  left  pure,  the  cupel  is  al- 
lowed to  cool  gradually,  till  the  globule  of  silver 
u  fixed,  after  which  it  is  taken  out  of  the  cupel 
while  still  hot,  and  when  cold  weighed  with 
as  much  accuracy  as  at  first  The  difference 
between  the  globule  and  th&silver  at  first  put  in, 
shows  the  quantity  of  alloy,  the  globule  being 
now  perfectly  pure  silver,  if  the  operation  has 
been  well  performed.  The  reason  of  cooling 
the  globule  or  buttoa  gradually  is,  that  pure 


silver,  when  congealing,  assumes  a  crystalline 
texture,  and  if  the  outer  surfiice  is  too  suddenly 
fixed,  it  forcibly  contracts  on  the  still  fluid  part 
in  the  centre,  causing  it  to  spurt  out  in  arbor- 
escent shoots,  by  which  some  minute  portions 
are  often  thrown  out  of  the  cupel,  and  the  assay 
spoiled.' 

The  assay  of  gold  and  silver  is  alike,  it  will  be 
observed,  throughout  the  process  of  cupellation. 
As  lead  b  the  mediimi  required  for  the  absorp- 
tion of  other  metals,  both  the  quality  ind  quan- 
tity of  that  metal  employed  become  important  to 
ascertain.  If  it  contains  much  silver,  it  will  be 
easy  to  perceive  a  source  of  material  error  in  the 
operations  of  the  assayer.  Lead  revived  fi^m 
litharge  contains  only  about  half  a  grain  in  the 
pound  weight,  and  is  therefore  preferred  to  lead 
immediately  revived  from  the  ore,  which  usually 
contains  a  larger  quantity. 

As  to  the  proper  quantity  of  lead,  it  is  desir- 
able at  first  to  ascertain  the  comparative  state  of 
purity  of  the  ingot  to  be  assayed.  In  this  coun- 
try, such  a  judgment  is  generally  formed  fiom 
inspection  of  the  color,  hardness,  tenacity,  6cc. 
of  the  metal,  but  formerly  toueh-needles  were 
employed  for  this  purpose.  These,  which  are 
not  entirely  in  disuse,  consist  of  small  bars  of 
differently  proportioned  alloys,  of  known  com- 
position. If  a  streak  is  made  widi  the  ingot 
upon  the  surfiace  of  black  flint,  or  basalt,  a  spe- 
cies of  indurated  slate,  called  by  the  ancients 
Paoavost  and  still  known  by  the  name  of  basa- 
nite,  or  even  upon  a  fragment  of  black  pottery, 
by  comparing  the  streaks  with  those  made  on 
the  same  stone  from  needles  of  known  compo- 
sition, the  relative  purity  of  the  ingot  may  be  in- 
ferred. 'Copper'  says  Dr.  Aikin, '  the  usual  alloy 
of  the  fine  metals,  when  taken  singly,  is  found  to 
require  from  ten  to  fourteen  times  its  weight  of 
lead  for  complete  scorification  on  the  cupel. 
Now,  all  admixtures  of  fine  metal  tend  to  pro- 
tect die  copper  frohi  the  action  of  the  litharge 
and  the  more  obstinately,  the  greater  the  propor- 
tion of  fine  metal.  So  that  copper^  witn  tnree 
times  its  weight  of  silver  (or  9  oz.  fine),  requires 
forty  times  as  much  lead  as  copper ;  with  eleven 

1)arts  of  silver  it  requires  seventy-two  parts  of 
ead,  and  the  like  in  an  increasing  ratio,  l^e  fol- 
lowing is  the  table  of  the  proportions  of  lead  re- 
quired to  different  alloys  of  copper;  of  which  a 
raw  points  are  founded  on  the  above-mentioned 
experiments,  and  the  rest  filled  up  according  to 
the  estimated  ratio  of  increase,  being  multiples 
of  the  ass&y  integer  24  in  arithmetical  progres- 
sion. In  the  three  first  columns  is  shovni  the 
absolute  increase  of  the  (quantity  of  lead  in  alloys 
of  decreasing  fineness ;  in  the  three  last  columns 
will  be  seen  the  gradual  diminution  of  the  pro- 
tecting power  of  fine  metal  against  scorification, 
in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  alloy,  shown  by 
the  decreasing  quantity  of  lead  required  for  the 
same  weight  of  copper,  under  different  mixtures.' 


Digitized  by 


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ASSAYING. 

TABLE. 


63 


Silver 

Cop- 
per 

Lead 

Ratio  of 
i^creaee 

Cop. 
per 

Silver 

Lead 

23 

22 

20 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

with 

1 

2 

4. 

6 

8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 

requires 

96 
144 
192 
240 
288 
336 
384 
432 
480 
528 
576 
624 

=     4   X    24 
=     6   X   24 
=Z     8   X   24 
=  10   X   24 
=  12   X   24 
=  14   X   24 
=  16   X   24 
=  18   X   24 
=  20   X   24 
=  22   X   24 
=  24   X   24 
=  26   X   24 

and  hence 

with 

23 
11 

5 

3 

2 

n 
1 

i 
i 

requires 

96 
72 
48 
40 
36 
33 
32 
30 
30 
29 
28 
28 

+ 

+ 

• 

It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  many 
assayen  of  good  authority  use  proportions  of 
lead  considerably  different  from  the  aoove  table ; 
and  the  whole  of  the  numbers  here  given  may  be 
considered  as  rather  hi^h,  in  regard  to  the  quan- 
tity of  lead.  The  assaymg  of  gold,  if  that  noble 
metal  contained  copper  as  an  alloy,  woujid  be  as 
simple  and  expeditious  as  that  of  silver ;  but  all 
gola  contains  a  portion  of  silver,  which  cannot 
be  destroyed  by  cupellation :  it  may  also  con- 
tain platina;  but  this  is  not  commonly  found. 

After  it  has  passed  the  cupel,  quartation 
and  parting  become  necessary.  The  former 
consists  in  adding  (generally)  three  parts  of  silver 
to  the  mass  of  supposed  gold,  and  fusing  them 
together.  It  is  an  object  of  importance  to  pre- 
▼ent  the  comets  from  being  broken,  the  result 
being  less  likely  to  be  accurate  v^hen  the  gold  is 
in  fragments ;  and  to  prevent  this,  the  quantity 
of  silver  used  is  no  more  than  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary, it  being  found  that  the  less  the  quantity 
of  gold,  compared  to  the  silver,  used  in  the 
assay,  the  mo^e  likely  is  the  gold  to  be  br<Aen 
into  pieces.  ^  Suppose,  for  example,'  says  Mr. 
Mu^het,  ^  that  a  §^d  assay  is  ma4e  from  the  in- 
teger, or  poundy  weighing  twelve  grains  Troy, 
an  addition  of  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six 
grains  of  pure  silver  is  made  in  addition  to  the 
small  portion,  already  supposed  to  exist  in  the 
mass.  This  be^mes  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  gold  in  the  process  of  cupellation.  The 
globule,  or  botton,  as  soon  as  it  is  taken  from 
uie  furnace,  is  passed  between  a  pair  of  polished 
steel  rollers,  and  drawn  out  into  a  thin  lamina, 
or  plate,  of  the  thickness  of  a  sixpence,  and  re- 
turned into  the  fum^Mie  to  be  annealed.  After 
being  kept  m  a  red  heat  for  some  tinie,  it  is  taken 
out  and  suffered  to  cpol.  It  is  then  wound  up 
into  a  comet.  This  is  put  into  a  glass  matrass, 
of  the  shape  of  an  inveited  cone,  and  with  about 
twice  or  thrice  its  weight  of  very  pure  nitric 
acid.  M.  Vauquelin  recommends  it  to  be  1'25 
specific  gravity.' 

The  hot  acid  being  very  carefully  poured  from 
the  matrass,  warm  water  is  added  to  wash  any 
remains  of  silver  from  the  gold,  and  the  addition 
repeated  until  the  water  comes  off  perfectly  clear. 
The  comets  of  gold,  which  are  of  a  dull  brown 
color,  are  then  put  according  to  their  numbers 


into  small  clay  crucibles,  mto  which  they  are 
allowed  gently  to  fall  by  inverting  the  matrass, 
with  a  portion  of  water  m  it,  whidi  breaks  their 
fall,  and  also  collects  any  grains  of  gold  that  may 
be  in  the  matrass.  The  water  Ls  then  poured  off, 
and  they  are  put  into  the  furnace,  and  annealed 
under  a  bright  cherry  heat.  When  cooled,  the 
pieces  of  gold  exhibit  their  beautiftil  character- 
istic lustre,  and  possess  all  the  softness  and  flexi- 
bility of  that  metal.  The  weight  of  the  original 
metallic  mass  before  cupellation  and  in  the  subse- 
quent stages,  compared  with  the  final  weight  now 
ascertained,  indicates  the  degree  of  fineness  of 
the  ingot,  or  ore,  of  which  it  is  a  part.  In  esti- 
mating or  expressing  this  fineness  in  regard  to 
gold,  the  whole  mass  spoken  of  is  supposed  to 
weigh  twenty-four  carats  of  twelve  grains  each, 
either  real,  or  merely  proportional,  like  the 
assayer's  weights;  and  tlie  pure  gold  is  called 
fine.  Thus,  if  gold  be  said  to  be  twenty-three 
carats  fine,  it  is  to  be  understood,  thai  in  a  mass 
Weighing  twenty-four  carats,  the  quantity  of  pure 
gold  amounts  to  twenty-three  carats. 

The  assay  report  of  gold,  says  the  official  gen- 
tleman we  have  quoted  above,  is  made  a£C9rd- 
ing  as  it  is  better  or  worse  than  standard.  Tlie 
standard  of  our  gold  coin  is  twenty-two  carats 
fine,  and  two  carats  alloy.  If,  by  assay,  an  ingot 
of  gold  was  found  to  contain  twenty-one  carats 
of  fine  gold,  it  would  be  reported  worse  one 
carat,  thie  mass  containing  a  carat  of  alloy  more 
tlian  the  proportion  of  two  carats  to  iwenty-two 
carats  fine.  If  the  ingot  weighed  fifteen  pounds 
Troy,  there  would  be  deducted  from  the  gross 
weight  one  carat,  or  240  grains  Troy,  reducing 
the  standard  of  the  mass  to  1 4  lbs.  11  ozs.  10  dwts. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  mass  was  found  to  con- 
tain twenty-three  carats  fine  gold,  it  would  be 
reported  one  carat  better  than  standard;  and 
this  carat  would  be  added  to  the  gross  weight  of 
the  ingot,  which  we  have  supposed  to  weigh 
fifteen  pounds  Troy,  and  would  be  called  15  lbs. 
0  oz.  10  dwts.  of  standard  gold.  When  the  gold 
assay  pound  or  integer  is  only  twelve  grains,  the 
quarter  assay  grain  weighs  only  j^  part  of  a  Troy 
grain.  This  will  show  how  delicate  the  scales 
must  be  by  which  the  assayer  works  in  order  to 
obtain  accuracy.  In  the  royal  mint  the  scales  of 
the  assayers  will  be  sensibly  affected  even  with 


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64 


ASSAYING. 


the  ij^th  part  of  a  Troy  grain.  When  the  em- 
peror of  Russia  lately  yisited  the  mint,  he  was 
particularly  struck  with  the  extreme  delicacy  of 
the  assay  scales  of  Mr.  Bingley,  the  king's  assay- 
master.  That  gentleman  requested  the  favor  of 
his  imperial  majesty  to  put  one  of  the  hairs  of 
his  head  into  the  scale,  which  he  did,  and,  to  the 
great  satisfaction  of  his  majesty,  it  veiy  sensibly 
affected  the  equilibrium  of  the  beam/ 

It  is  necessary  to  be  careful  that  the  silver  used 
in  this  last  process  should  contain  no  gold,  other- 
wise a  source  of  material  error  would  arise  in 
the  operation ;  and,  as  silver  generally  contains  a 
small  portion  of  gold,  the  best  assayers  use  that 
which  is  revived  from  a  precipitation  of  the  ni- 
trate of  silver.  This  nitrate  St  silver  is  precipi- 
tated by  immersing  in  it  plates  of  copper :  it 
may  also  be  recovered  by  a  solution  of  common 
salt„  which  converts  the  silver  into  luna  cornea, 
of  which,  when  washed  and  well  dried,  100  parts 
contain  seventy-five  of  silver.  The  accuracy  of  the 
assay  may  also  be  proved  by  thb  process.  The 
luna  cornea,  however,  is  more  difficult  to  reduce 
to  tiie  metallic  state. 

Many  dealers  in  bullion  (the  bank  of  England 
we  believe  uniformly)  refuse  to  purchase  any 
foreign-  gold  bullion,  until  it  has  been  remelted 
by  refiners  or  melters  on  whose  integrity  they 
can  rely. 

Platina,  on  account  of  its  great  value,  is  not 
likely  to  be  used  in  debasing  silver;  but  it  may  be 
fraudulently  added  to  gold.  Like  gold  and  sil- 
ver, it  resists  the  action  of  lead  upon  the  cupel ; 
but  an  expert  assayer  will  recognise  its  presence 
by  the  very  different  appearance  which  it  gives 
to  the  button  of  metal  in  fusion.  This  is  less 
perfect;  a  much  greater  heat  is  required;  and 
the  color  less  bright;  and,  in  a  very  small  pro- 
portion, it  gives  to  the  gold  a  strong  tendency  to 
crystallisation.  Nothing  is  required  for  its  sepa- 
ration but  to  proceed  exactly  as  in  a  gold  assay ; 
and,  by  reducing  the  lamina  of  metal  very  thin, 
to  form  the  comet,  the  platina,  though  alone  in- 
sohible  in  nitric  acid,  may,  with  the  silver,  be 
totally  removed  from  the  gold. 

Some  idea  of  the  delicacy  required  through  the 
whole  of  the  foregoing  operations  may  be  formed 
from  an  authentic  statement,  that  in  our  national 
mint  an  assay  of  twenty  grains  is  relied  on  for 
giving  the  value  of  a  mass  of  gold  of  fif^n 
pounds,  or  of  silver  of  sixty  pounds  in  weight. 

Hie  Annales  de  Chimie,  vol.  vi.  p.  64,  contain 
some  very  interesting  detaib  of  recent  attempts 
of  the  French  government  to  establish  an  accurate 
assay  of  gold.  The  general  result  is  as  follows, 
nearly  in  the  terms  of  the  experimenters : — 

Six  principal  circumstances  appear  to  affect 
the  operation  of  parting :  namely,  the  quantity 
of  acid  used  in  parting,  or  in  the  first  boiling; 
the  concentration  of  this  acid ;  the  time  employed 
in  its  anplication ;  the  quantity  of  acid  made  use 
of  in  me  reprise,  or  second  operation;  its  con- 
centration; and  the  time  during  which  it  is 
applied.  From  the  experiments  it  has  been 
shown,  that  each  of  these  unfavorable  circum- 
nances  might  easily  occasion  a  loss  of  from  the 
naif  of  a  thirty-second  part  of  a  carat,  to  two 
thirty-second  parts.  The  writers  explain  their 
technical  language  by  observing,  that,  the  whole 


mass  consisting  of  twenty-four  carats,  this  thirty 
second  part  denotes  l-768th  part  of  the  mass* 
It  may  easily  be  conceived,  therefore,  that  if  the 
whole  six  circumstances  were  to  exist,  and  be 

E reductive  of  errors  falling  the  same  way,  the 
»ss  would  be  very  considerable. 
It  is  indispensably  necessary,  therefore,  that 
one  uniform  process  should  be  followed  in  the 
assays  of  gola ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  astonish- 
ment, that  such  an  accurate  procesa  iibould  not 
have  been  prescribed  by  government  for  assayers 
in  an  operation  of  such  great  commercial  im- 
portance, instead  of  every  one  being  left  to  follow 
his  own  judgment.  The  process  recommended 
in  the  report  before  us  is  as  follows : — 

Twelve  grains  of  the  gold  intended  to  be  as- 
sayed must  be  mixed  wi&  thirty  grains  of  fine 
silver,  and  cupelled  with  108  grains  of  lead. 
The  cupellation  must  be  carefully  attended  to, 
and  all  the  imperfect  buttons  rejected.  When 
the  cupellation  is  ended,  the  button  must  be  re- 
duced by  lamination  into  a  plate  of  one  inch  and 
a  half,  or  rather  more,  in  length,  and  four  or  five 
limes  in  breadth.  This  must  be  rolled  up  upon 
a  quill,  and  placed  in  a  matrass  capable  of  hold- 
ing about  three  ounces  of  liquid,  when  filled  up 
to  its  narrow  part.  Two  ounces  and  a  half  of 
very  pure  aqua-fortis,  of  the  strength  of  twenty 
degrees  of  banme*s  areometer,  must  then  be 
poured  upon  it;  and  the  matrass  being  placed 
upon  hot  ashes,  or  sand,  the  acid  must  be  kept 
gently  boiling  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  the  acid 
must  then  be  cautiously  decanted,  and  an  ad- 
ditional quantity  of  one  ounce  and  a  half  must 
be  poured  on  the  metal,  and  slightly  boiled  for 
twelve  minutes.  This  being  likewise  carefiilly 
decanted,  the  small  spiral  piece  of  metal  must 
be  washed  with  filterea  river  water,  or  distilled 
water,  by  filling  the  matrass  with  this  fluid.  The 
vessel  is  then  to  be  reversed,  by  applying  the 
extremity  of  its  neck  against  the  bottom  of  a 
crucible  of  fine  earth,  the  internal  surface  of 
which  is  verv  smooth.  The  annealing  must  then 
be  made,  after  having  separated  the  portion  of 
water  which  had  &llen  into  tlie  crucible ;  and, 
lastly,  the  annealed  gold  must  be  weighed.  For 
the  certainty  of  this  operation,  two  assays  must 
be  made  in  the  same  manner,  together  with  a 
third  assay  upon  gold  of  twenty-four  carats,  or 
upon  gold  the  fineness  of  which  is  perfectly  and 
generally  known. 

No  conclusion  must  be  drawn  from  this  assay, 
unless  the  latter  gold  should  prove  to  be  of  the 
fineness  of  twenty-four  carats  exactly,  or  of  its 
known  degree  of  fineness ;  for,  if  there  be  either 
loss  or  surplus,  it  may  be  inferred,  that  the  other 
two  assays,  having  undergone  the  same  operas 
tion,  must  be  subject  to  the  same  error.  The 
operation  being  made  according  to  this  process, 
by  several  assayers,  in  circumstances  of  import- 
ance, such  as  those  which  relate  to  large  ntbri- 
cations,  the  fineness  of  the  gold  must  not  be 
depended  on,  nor  considered  as  accurately  known, 
unless  all  the  assayers  have  obtained  a  uniform 
result  without  communication  with  each  other. 
The  authors  observe,  however,  that  this  identity 
must  be  considered  as  existing  to  the  accuracy  of 
half  of  the  thirty-second  part  of  a  carat.  For 
notwithstanding   every  possible  precaution  or 


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ASSAYING. 


65 


nnilbrmity,  it  very  seldom  happens  that  an  abso- 
lute agreement  is  obtained  between  the  different 
assays  of  one  and  the  same  ingot;  because  the 
ingot  itself  may  differ  in  its  fineness  in  different 
parts  of  its  mass. 

The  assaying  of  silver  does  not  differ  from  that 
of  gold,  excepting  that  the  parting  operation  is 
not  necessary.  A  certain  small  portion  of  the 
silver  is  absorbed  by  the  cupel  and  the  more 
when  a  larger  quantity  of  lead  is  used,  unless 
the  quantity  of  lead  be  excessive ;  in  which  case 
most  of  it  will  be  Korified  before  it  begins  to  act 
upon  the  silver.  Messrs.  Hellot,  Tillet,  and 
Macquer,  from  their  experiments  made  by  order 
of  the  French  government,  have  ascertained,  that 
four  parts  of  lead  are  requisite  for  silver  of  eleven 
pennyvreights  twelve  grains  fine,  or  containing 
this  weight  of  pure  silver,  and  twelve  grains  <rf 
alloy,  in  twelve  pennyweights ;  six  parts  of  lead 
for  silver  of  eleven  pennyweights ;  eight  parts 
lead  for  silver  of  ten  pennyweights ;  ten  parts 
lead  for  silver  of  nine  pennyweights :  and  so  on 
in  the  same  progression.  The  following  is  the 
assay  table  of  M.  D'Arcet: 


Quantitiee  of 
copper  in  the 
alloy. 

DoM*  of  lead 

Relation  be- 

Tides  of  the 

neceasary,  the 

tween    the 

Silver. 

weight  of  sil- 

lead and 

ver  being  1. 

copper. 

Silver  at  1000 

■ 
0 

3-10th8. 

950 

50 

3 

70tol 

900,       100 

7 

60—1 

800 

200 

10 

50—1 

700 

300 

12 

40—1 

600 

400 

14 

35—1 

500 

500 

from  16tol7 

32—1 

400 

600 

16—17 

26-66-1 

300 

700 

16—17 

22857—1 

200 

800 

16—17 

20—1 

'                    100 

900 

16—17 

17-77-1 

'Pure  copper. 

lOOOl           16—17 

16—1 

This  table  supposes,  that  the  title  of  the  silver 
to  be  assayed  is  known ;  but  when  it  is  not,  it 
may  be  determined  approximately,  bv  exposing 
m  the  cu  jKsl  01  part  of  this  silver  witt  1  of  lead. 
French  gold  and  silver  coin  contains  1-lOth  of 
copper  united  to  the  precious  metal.  British 
silver  coin  consists  of  12^  silver  and  1  copper; 
our  gold  coin  contains  ll-12ths  of  gold.  The 
remainder  is  either  copper,  or  a  mixture  of  silver 
and  copper. 

In  our  plate  entitled  Assaying  we  give  the 
assay  furnace  and  its  instruments,  as  used  at  the 
Royal  Mint,  and  Goldsmith's  Hall,  London. 

Fig.  1.  AAAA  is  a  front  elevation  of  the  assay 
famace ;  a  a  one  of  two  iron  rollers  on  which 
^e  famace  rests;  b  the  ash-pit;  cc  the  ash-pit 
dampers,  moving  in  a  horizontal  direction  to- 
ivards  each  other,  for  regulating  the  draught  of 
me  foraace ;  d  the  door,  or  opening  by  which 
the  cupels  are  introduced  into  the  muffle:  e  a 
movable  funnel  or  chimney,  by  which  the 
draught  of  the  furnace  is  increased. 

BBBB,  Fig.  2,  is  a  perpendicular  section  of 
%.  1 ;  a  a  ends  of  the  rollers;  b  the  ash-pit;  c 
one  of  the  ash-pit  dampen;  d  the  grate;  e  the 
VOL.  III. 


plate  upon  which  the  muffle  rests,  and  which  is 
coverea  with  loam  nearly  one  inch  thick; /a 
section  of  the  mufflle  representing  the  situation 
of  the  cupels;  g  the  mouth-plate,  and  upon  it 
are  laid  pieces  of  charcoal,  which  during  the  pro- 
cess are  ignited,  and  heat  the  air  that  is  to  pass 
over  the  surface  of  the  cupels;  h  the  interior  of 
the  famace,  exhibiting  the  fael. 

The  total  height  of  the  furnace  is  two  feet  six 
inches  and  a  half;  from  the  bottom  to  the  grate 
six  inches;  the  grate,  muffle,  plate,  and  bed 
of  loam  with  which  it  is  covered  three  inches ; 
irom  the  upper  surface  of  the  grate  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  fannel,  e,  is  siy  inches.  The 
square  of  the  famace  which  receives  the  muffle 
and  fuel  is  eleven  inches  and  three-quarters  by 
fifteen  inches.  The  external  sides  of  the  furnace 
are  made  of  plates  of  wrought  iron,  and  are  liued 
with  a  two-inch  fire  brick. 

Fig.  3  is  the  muffle,  a  sort  of  small  oven, 
made  of  cracible  clay,  and  open  at  one  end.  On 
the  floor  of  the  muffle  the  cupeb  are  ranged  in 
order,  so  that  b]r  a  corresponding  board  as  a  re- 
gister, the  position  of  each  may  be  preserved 
with  reference  to  their  respective  contents.  At 
the  sides  of  the  muffle  are  three  or  four  slits  to 
allow  of  the  circulation  of  the  air,  which  is  essen- 
tial to  the  process.  It  is  usual  to  spread  over  the 
floor  of  the  muffle  a  thin  kyer  of  sand,  or  pow- 
dered chalk,  to  prevent  the  fased  oxide  of  lead 
which  may  penetrate  the  cupel,  irom  cementing 
it  to  the  bottom  of  the  muffle. 

Fig.  4  is  the  muffle  plate  on  which  it  rests  in 
the  famace. 

Fig.  5  is  the  door  seen  at  <2  in  fig.  1,  with  n  its 
sliding  mouth-plate. 

a  6  represents  the  mode  of  closing  the  ' 
of  the  famace  with  cylinders  of  diarcoal, 
which  being  ignited,  heat  the  air,  before  it  arrives 
at  the  sur&ce  of  the  metal  in  the  cupels. 

Fig.  7  two  cupels ;  they  are  made  of  bones 
calcined  and  reduced  to  a  moderately  faie  pow- 
der, which  is  mixed  up  with  water  so.  as  to 
form  a  paste.  The  shape  is  produced  by  ram- 
ming this  paste  into  trancated  conical  moulds,  a 
cavity  is  then  fomied  at  the  upper  sur&ce  of  each 
by  means  of  a  round  ended  pestle  or  rammer. 
The  cupel  is  disengaged  from  the  mould,  and 
sufierea  to  become  thoroughly  dry  in  the  open 
air  before  it  can  be  made  use  of  for  an  assay. 
The  core  of  ox  homs  is  considered  the  best 
substance  for  producing  the  phosphate  of  lime 
for  cupels.  Those  commonly  employed  in  the 
mint  are  one  inch  in  diameter  by  seven-eighths 
in  depth. 

Fig.  8  the  teaser  for  cleaning  the  grate. 

Fig.  9  a  larger  teaser,  which  is  introduced  at 
the  top  of  the  furnace,  for  keeping  a  complete 
supply  of  charcoal  around  the  muffle. 

Fig.  10  the  tongs  used  for  charging  the  assays 
into  the  cupels. 

Fig.  11  represents  a  board  of  wood  used  as  a 
register,  and  is  divided  into  forty-five  equal  com- 
partments, upon  which  the  assays  are  placed 
previous  to  tneir  being  introduced  into  the  far- 
nace.  When  the  operation  is  performed,  the 
cupels  are  placed  in  the  famace  in  situations 
corresponding  to  these  assays  on  the  board ;  by 
these  means  all  confusion  is  avoided,  and  with- 

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out  this  regularity,  it  would  be  impoMble  to 
preserve  the  accuracy  which  the  delicate  opera- 
tion of  the  assayer  requires. 

Assay-Master,  an  officer,  under  certain  cor- 
porations, entrusted  with  the  care  of  making  true 
touc^,  or  assay,  of  gold  and  silver ;  and  giving  a 
just  report  of  the  goodness  or  badness  thereof. 
Such  is  the  assay-master  of  the  mint  in  the  Tower, 
called  also  assayer  of  the  king. 

The  assay-master  of  the  goldsmith's  company 
is  an  assistant- warden,  called  also  a  touch-war- 
den, appointed  to  survey,  assay,  and  mark  aU 
the  silver-work,  &c.  committed  to  him.  There 
are  also  assay-masters,  appointed  by  statute,  at 
York,  Exeter,  Bristol,  Chester,  Norwich,  New- 
castle, and  Birmingham,  for  assaying  wrought 
plate.  The  assay-master  is  to  retain  eight  grains 
of  every  pound  Troy  of  silver  brought  to  him ; 
four  whereof  are  to  be  put  in  &e  pix,  or  .box  of 
deal,  to  be  re-assayed  tlie  next  year ;  and  the 
other  four  to  be  allowed  him  for  his  waste  and 
spillings.  12  and  13  Will.  III.  c.4.  1  Ann.  c.  9. 
Note.  The  number  of  pennyweights  set 
down  in  the  assay-master's  report,  is  to  be  ac- 
counted as  per  pound,  or  so  much  in  every 
pound  of  twelve  ounces  Troy.  For  every  twenty 
pennyweights,  or  ounce  Troy,  the  silver  is  found 
by  the  assay  to  be  worse  tha^  standard,  or  ster- ' 
ling,  sixpence  is  to  be  deducted ;  because  every 
ounce  will  cost  so  much  to  reduce  it  to  standard 
goodness,  or  to  change  it  for  sterling.  In  gold, 
for  every  carat  it  is  set  down  to  be  worse  than 
standard,  you  are  to  account  that  in  the  ounce 
Troy  it  is  worse  by  so  many  times  3i.  M.  And 
for  every  grain  it  is  set  down  worse,  you  must 
account  it  worse  by  so  many  times  t\d.  in  the 
ounce  Troy.  And  for  every  half  grain,  5\d. ; 
for  so  much  it  will  cost  to  make  it  of  standard 
goodness,  &c. 

Assat-Balance,  a  balance  used  in  the  opera- 
tion of  assaying.    See  Balance. 

Assay  of  Weights  and  Measdrbs,  often 
signifies  the  trial  or  examination  of  common 
weights  and  measures  by  the  clerk  of  a  market. 

ASSECUltE,     -)     Barbarous   Lat.  aitecu- 

Assecu'rance,     yrttrCf  Lat.  tecuna,  to  give 

Assecura'tion.  3  assurance. 
Can  never  mischief  end  as  it  began  \ 

Bat  being  once  oat,  most  farther  oat  of  force? 

Think  yoa  that  any  means  imder  the  son 

Can  awpryre  so  indirect  a  ooarset 

Damei,  Cioil  War.  bk.  iii.  p.  473. 

Bat  how  far  then  reaches  this  anecwmtimt  So  far 
as  to  exclude  all  fears,  all  doubting  and  hesitation  ? 
Neither  of  these.  BiiAop  HaW*  Mtrmomt. 

ASSECUTION.  Lat.  attequor,  auecutut, 
from  ad  and  tequor,  the  act  of  following  up,  ob- 
taining. 

By  the  canon  law,  a  person  after  he  has  been  in 
foil  possession  of  a  second  benefice,  cannot  retnm  to 
his  first,  because  it  is  immediately  ^oid  by  his  amecu- 
titm  of  a  second. .  Ayliffe't  Paray(m. 

ASSELYN  (John),  a  famous  Dutch  painter, 
the  disciple  of  Isaiah  Vandevelde.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  historical  pieces,  battles,  land- 
scapes, with  ruins  and  animals,  particularly 
horses.  He  travelled  into  France  and  Italy; 
and  was  much  pleased  with  the  manner  of  Bam- 
boccio,  which  tie  always  followed,  except  in  the 


ASS 


pamting  landscapes,  in  which  Claude  Lorndne 
was  his  model.  Twenty-four  of  his  landscapes 
have  been  engraved  by  Perdle,  and  sold  al  faigjh 
prices.    He  died  at  .Ajnsterdam  in  1660. 

ASSEMANI,  I.  S.  and  S.  £.  two  learned 
librarians  of  the  Vatican,  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  Joseph  Simon  was  bora 
at  Rome  1687,  and  died  1768.  He  wrote  Bib- 
liotheca  Orientalis  Clementino  Vaticana,  Romas, 
1719-28, 4  vols,  folio,  affording  ample  proof  of  his 
learning  in  the  numerous  notices  it  contains  of  Sy- 
riac,  Arabic,  and  Persian  maxmscripts,  with  Uves 
of  their  authors.  S.  Ephnem,  Syri,  Opera  omnia, 
qus  extant,  Greece,  Syriace,  et  Latme,  Rome, 
1 732-34, 6  vols,  folio ;  Italics  Historix  Scriptores 
ex  Bibl.  Vat.,  Roms,  1751-53,4  vols.4to;  Ka- 
lendaria  Ecclesie  Universe,  &c.  Roms,  1755- 
57, 6  vols.  4to.  Assemani,  S.  £.  nephew  of  the 
foregoing,  wrote  Bibliothece  Medioeo  Lauren- 
tine  et  Palatine  Codd.  MSS.  Orientalium  Catft- 
logus,  Florentie,  1742, 2  vols,  folio ;  Acta  Sano^ 
tonim  Martyrum  Oriental  et  Occidental,  Romae, 
1748,  2  vols,  folio. 

ASSEM'BLANCE.  Fr.  sembUr,  a  mceness. 
See  Semblance. 

FALSt.  Will  yon  tell  me.  Master  Shallow,  how  to 
chnse  a  man  ?  Care  I  for  the  limbe,  the  thewes,  the 
stature,  bulke,  and  bigge  a$$emblatiee  of  a  man  f  Gire 
me  the  spirit.  Master  Shallow. 

Shakipeare.  Hemjf  IV.  part  ii. 


ASSEMBLE,  v.fcn. 

Asseu'blaoe, 

Assek'blance, 

Assem'bler, 

Assem'bling, 

Asseu'bly. 


Fr.  aaemblerf  from 
the  Latin  ad^  to,  and 
simul,  together.  To 
^bring  together,  or  in 
one  place;  to  collect; 
to  convene. 


A  root  of  people  there  auemhled  were. 
Of  every  sort  and  nation  under  sky, 
"Whieh,  with  great  nproar,  pressed  to  draw  near 
To  the  upper  part,  where  was  advanced  high 
A  stately  seat  of  sovereign  miQesty.  Spm$er. 

Mahomet  made  the  people  belietve  that  he  would 
call  a  hill  to  him ;  and  from  the  top  of  it  offer  up 
bis  prayers  for  the  observers  of  his  law.  The  people 
aumUed ;  Mahomet  called  the  hUl  to  come  to  him^ 
again  and  again ;  and,  when  the  hill  stood  still,  he 
was  never  a  whit  abashed,  but  said  ;  '  If  the  hill  will 
not  come  to  Mahomet,  Mahomet  wiD  go  to  the  hill/ 
Lord  Bacon's  JBnayi. 

These  men  amemHed,  and  found  Daniel  praying. 

Damiel. 

And  he  shall  set  up  an  ensign  for  the  nations,  and 
shall  attemUe  the  outcasts  of  Israel,  and  gather  toge- 
ther the  dispersed  of  Judah.  Imiak  si.  13. 
He  wonders  for  what  end  you  have  amtmhied 

Such  troops  of  citisens  to  come  to  him. 

A»»enMe  all  in  choirs,  and  with  their  notes 
Salute  and  welcome  up  the  rising  sun.  Ohoay. 

O  fiaftford  (fitted,  or  to  shine  in  courts 

With  unaffected  grace,  or  walk  the  plains. 

With  innocence  and  meditation  join'd 

In  soft  aatemUage)  listen  to  my  song !  Thonmn. 

71^  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster, 
was  an  association  of  ministers  and  others,  sum- 
moned by  ordinance  of  parliament,  in  the  year 
1643,  to  meet  at  Westminster,  'for  settling  the 
government  and  liturgy  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, and  for  vindicating  and  clearing  the  said 
church  from  felse  aspersions  and  interpretations.' 


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A8S 


It  also  met  expressly  according  to  the  words 
of  the  covenant,  '  for  the  extirpation  of  pre- 
lacies that  is  diurch-goyemment  by  arch-bi- 
shops, bishops,  their  chancellors,  and  com- 
missaries^ deans  and  chapters,  archdeacons  and 
all  other  ecclesiastical  officers.'  This  assem- 
bly consisted  of  121  divines  and  thirty  laymen, 

*  celebrated  *  in  their  party,'  says  Mr.  Hume, 

*  for  piety  and  learning.'  The  leadmg  parties 
were  the  Presbyterians,  Erastians,  and  Indepen- 
dents. The  works  of  the  assembly,  besides  some 
letters  to  foreign  churches,  and  occasional  admo- 
nitions were,  1.  Their  humble  Advice  to  Farlia- 
ment,  for  Ordination  of  Ministers,  and  settling 
the  Presbyterian  Government.  2.  A  Directory 
for  Public  Worship.  3.  A  Confession  of  Faith. 
4.  A  larger  and  a  snorter  Catechism.  5.  A  Review 
of  some  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles.  Both  the 
larger  and  shorter  Assembly's  catechism,  are 
largely  in  use  at  the  present  time  among  the 
English  Calvintstic  dissenters. 

Assemblies  of  the  clergy  are  otherwise  callei 
convocations,  synods,  councils.  The  annual 
meeting  of  the  church  of  Scotland  is  called  the 
General  Assembly ;  in  which  his  Majesty  is  re- 

g resented  by  his  commissioner,  generally  a 
cottish  nobleman,  but  who  has  no  voice  in  the 
deliberations :  his  duty  being  confined  to  the 
calling  and  dissolution  of  Sie  meeting,  which 
he  does  in  the  name  of  his  Majesty,  whilst  the 
Moderator  does  the  same  in  me  name  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  This  assembly  possesses  the 
highest  authority  in  the  chureh  of  Scotland ;  a 
presbytery,  composed  of  fewer  than  twelve  pa- 
rishes, sends  two  ministers  and  one  ruling  elder 
to  the  assembly ;  if  it  contains  between  twelve 
and  eighteen  ministers,  it  sends  three  of  these, 
and  one  ruling  elder;  if  it  contains  between 
eighteen  and  twenty-four  ministers,  it  sends  four 
ministers  and  two  ruling  elders ;  and  of  twenty- 
fbur  ministers,  it  sen£  five  with  two  ruling 
elders.  Every  royal  borough  deputes  one  ruling 
elder,  and  Edmburgh  tvro;  their  election  must 
be  attested  by  the  kirk-session  of  their  respective 

*  boroughs.  Every  university  sends  one  commis- 
sioner from  its  own  body.  The  commissioners 
are  chosen  annually  six  weeks  before  the  meet- 
ing of  the  assembly ;  and  the  ruling  elders  are 
o&n  men  of  the  first  eminence  for  rank  and 
talents. 

Assemblies  of  the  Roman  people  were  called 
comitia. 

Assemblies  of  the  States.  Under  the  Go- 
tbic  governments,  the  supreme  legislative  power 
mzs  lodged  in  an  assemoly  of  die  states  of  the 
kingdom  held  annually  for  the  like  purposes  as 
our  parliaments.  There  were  some  feeble  remains 
t>f  them  in  France  and  Poland  before  the  late  re- 
volutions and  counter-revolutions. 

AssEMBLT,  in  the  military  art,  the  second 
beating  of  a  drum  before  a  march ;  at  which  the 
soldiers  strike  their  tents,  roll  them  up,  and 
stand  to  arms.    See  Drum. 

ASSENS,  a  bailiwic  and  town  of  Denmark, 
<m  the  west  coast  of  the  island  of  Funen,  which 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  com.  It  is 
also  called  Asnes,  which  signifies  the  holy  pro- 
montcMy.  A  battle  was  fought  in  it,  in  1536, 
•b  Christian  III.  obtained  a  decisive  victory 


over  Christian  II.  Here  is  a  ferry  across  the 
little  Belt  to  Holstein.  Long.  9**  54'  E.,  lat  55* 
SCN. 
ASSENT,  t;.  &  n.-\  Lat.  assentior,  from  ad, 
Assenta'tion,  f  and  sentio,  to  think  to,  to 
Assewta'toe,  >be  of  the  same  opinion. 
Assent'er,  I  To  agree  to  what  is  pro- 

AssEin'MENT.  J  posed,  to  bring  one's 
mind  to  a  thing,  to  comply.  Assentation  is  sy- 
nonymous with  flattery ;  obsequiousness. 

And  the  Jewf  also  osteiited,  saying  that  these  things 
were  so.  Actt  xxiv.  9. 

Their  argaments  are  but  precarious,  and  sohsist 
upon  the  charity  of  our  aueiUmentt. 

Brown'9  Vutgar  Emn, 

To  urge  any  thing  upon  the  church;  requiring 
thereunto  that  religious  ament  of  Christian  belief, 
wherewith  the  words  of  the  holy  prophets  are  receiv- 
ed, and  not  to  show  it  in  scripture;  this  did  the 
Fs^rs  evennen  think  unlawful,  impioQs,  and  exe- 
crable. Hooker, 

The  evidence  of  God's  own  testimony,  added  unto 

the  natural  at$mt  of  reason  concerning  the  certainty 

of  them,  doth  not  a  little  comfort  and  confirm  the 

same.  Id. 

Without  the  king's  aaetU  or  knowledge. 

You  wrought  to  be  a  legate.  Shatupeare, 

Faith  is  the^wenf  to  any  proposition,  not  thus  made 
out  by  the  deductkm  of  reason,  but  upon  the  credit  of 
the  proposer.  Locke. 

All  the  aigoments  on  both  sides  must  be  laid  in 
balance ;  and,  upon  the  whole,  the  understanding  de- 
termine its  ffltwf;  XiL 

Han  is  the  world's  high-priest,  he  doth  piesent 
The  sacrifice  for  all,  while  they  below. 
Unto  the  service  mutter  an  ammi. 
Such  as  springs  use,  that  fall,  and  winds  that  blow. 

Meneft* 

One  would  think  that  hell  should  have  little  need 
of  the  fawning  osimtafion  of  others,  when  n)«n  carry 
so  dangerous  parasites  in  their  own  bosoms  ;  but  sure, 
both  together  must  needs  help  to  people  that  region  of 
darkness.  Bishop  HalTt  SolOojuiei. 

He  ceased  ;  th'  assembled  warriors  all  osssnl, 

All  but  Atrides.  Cumborkmd. 

Precept  gains  only  the  cold  approbation  of  reason, 
and  compels  an  attont  which  judgment  frequently 
yiflda  witib  reluctance,  even  when  delay  is  impossible. 

Hawkeiworth. 

The  Royal  Assent  is  the  approbation  given 
by  the  king  in  parliament,  to  a  bill  which  has 
passed  both  houses,  alter  which  it  becomes  a 
law. 

The  royal  assent  majr  be  given  in  two  ways.  1 
In  person ;  when  the  king  comes  to  the  house  of 
peers,  in  his  crown  and  royal  robes,  and  sending 
for  the  commons  to  the  bar,  the  titles  of  all  the 
bills  that  have  passed  both  houses  are  read ;  and 
the  king's  answer  is  declared  by  the  clerk  of  the 
parliament  in  Norman-French.  If  the  king  con- 
sents to  a  public  bill,  the  clerk  usually  declares, 
*  le  roy  le  veut ;  the  king  wills  it  so  to  be ; '  if 
to  a  private  bill,  ^  soit  fait  comme  il  est  desir^ ; 
be  it  as  it  is  desired.'  If  the  king  refuses  his 
assent,  it  is  in  the  gentle  language  of  *  le  roy 
s'avisera ;  the  king  will  advise  upon  it.'  When 
a  money-bill,  or  bill  of  supply,  is  passed,  it  is 
carried  up  and  presented  to  the  king  by  the 
speaker  or  the  house  of  commons ;  and  the  royal 
assent  is  thus  expressed  'leroyremercie  ses  loyal 
sujets,  accepte  leur  benevolence,  et  aussi  le  veut ; 


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the  kingr  thanks  his  loyal  subjects,  accepts  their 
benevolence,  and  wills  it  so  to  be/ 

In  case  of  an  act  of  grace,  which  originally 
proceeds  from  the  crown,  and  has  the  royal  as- 
sent in  the  first  stage  of  it,  the  clerk  of  the  par- 
liament thus  pronounces  the  gratitude  of  the 
subject ;  *  les  prelats,  seigneurs,  et  commons,  en 
ce  present  parlement  assemblies,  au  nom  de  touts 
Tous  autres  sujets,  remercient  tres  humblement 
▼otre  majeste,  et  prient  a  Dieu  vous  donner  en 
sante  bone  Tie  et  longue ;  the  prelates,  lords, 
and  commons,  in  this  present  parliament  assem- 
bled, in  the  name  of  all  your  other  subjects, 
most  humbly  thank  your  majesty,  and  pray 
to  God  to  grant  you  health  and  wealth  long  to 
live.' 

2.  By  the  statute  33  Hen.  VIII.  c.  21.,  the 
king  may  give  his  assent,  by  letters  patent,  under 
his  great  seal,  signed  with  his  hand,  and  notified 
in  his  absence  to  both  houses,  assembled  toge- 
ther in  the  high  house.  And  when  the  bill  has 
received  the  royal  assent  in  either  of  these  ways 
it  is  then,  and  not  before,  a  statute  or  act  of  par- 
liament :  a  copy  of  which  is  usuallyprinted  at  the 
king's  press,  for  the  information  of  tlie  whole 
land.  See  Blackst.  Com.  l^ook  i.  chap.  2. 

ASSER,  or  Asce,  a  Jewish  rab];)i  of  the  fifth 
century,  who,  with  other  learned  rabbins,  com- 
piled the  collection  of  Hebrew  traditions  called 
the  Babylonian  Talmud.  This  was  printed  at 
Leyden,  1630,  in  4to.;  but  the  most  complete 
edition  is  one  published  in  1744,  at  Amsterdam, 
twelve  volumes  folio,  with  an  ample  commen- 
tary.   Asser  died  in  427,  aged  seventy-four. 

AssER  (John),  or  Asserius  Menevensis,  (i.  e. 
Asser  of  St.  David's),  bishop  of  Sherborne  in  the 
reign  of  Alfred  the  Great.  He  was  bom  in  Pem- 
brokeshire, South  Wales ;  and  educated  in  the 
monastery  of  St.  David's.  By  his  assiduous  ap- 
plication he  soon  acquired  universal  fame  as  a 
person  of  profound  learning  and  great  abilities. 
Alfred  the  munificent  patron  of  genius,  about  the 
year  880,  sent  for  him  to  his  court,  then  held  at 
Dean  in  Wiltshire.  He  was  so  charmed  with 
Asser,  that  he  made  him  his  preceptor  and  com- 
panion ;  appointed  him  abbot  of  two  or  three 
different  monasteries ;  and  at  last  promoted  hiin 
to  the  see  of  Sherborne,  where  he  died  in  910. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  principally  instrumental 
in  persuading  the  king  to  restore  the  university 
of  Oxford  to  its  pristine  dignity ;  and  wrote  De 
Vit&  et  Rebus  Gestis  Alfredi,  &c.  Lond.  1574, 
published  by  archbishop  Parker,  in  the  old 
Saxon  character,  at  the  end  of  Walsinghami 
Hist— Francf.  1602,  fol.  Oxf.  1722, 8vo.  Many 
other  works  are  ascribed  to  this  author  by  Gale, 
Bale,  &c.  but  on  very  doubtful  authority. 

ASSERIA,  AssESiA,  or  Asisia,  an  ancient  town 
of  Libumia,  now  in  ruins.  Pliny,  having  speci- 
fied the  libumian  cities  that  were  obliged  to 
attend  the  congress  of  Scardonia,  adds  to  Sie  ca- 
talogue the  free  Asserians,  immunesque  Asse- 
riates ;  a  people  who  created  their  own  magistrates, 
and  were  governed  by  their  own  municipal 
laws. 

A&SERIDA,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by  the 
people  of  Guinea  to  a  kind  of  shrub,  the  leaves 
of  which  being  chewed,  are  a  cure  for  the 
colic. 


i  ASS 

ASSERT,       ^ 

Asserta'cion,  I  Aisero,  asiertum^  to  kc± 
Asser'tion,  to,  to  sew  to.  To  abide  by, 
Asser'tive,  >to  bear  the  consequence  of 
Asser'tively,  I  an  opinion,  to  hold,  to  main- 
Ass  er'tor,  I  tain,  to  affirm. 
Asser'tory.    J 

That  tongue 
Inspired  with  contradiction,  duivt  oppose 
A  third  part  of  the  gods,  in  synod  met. 
Their  deities  to  attert.  MiUom, 

Among  th'  auerten  of  free  reason's  daim. 
Our  nation's  not  the  least,  in  worth  or  fame. 
The  world  to  Bacon  does  not  only  owe 
It's  present  knowledge,  and  its  fatore  too. 

Drydm'a  EpitOeg. 
Faithful  a$$ertar  of  thy  country's  cause, 
Britain  with  tears  shall  bathe  thy  glorious  wound. 


It  is  an  usual  piece  of  art  to  undermine  the  autho- 
rity of  fundamental  truths,  by  pretending  to  shew 
how  weak  the  proofs  are  w^ch  their  tmerton  employ 
in  defence  of  them.  Atterbmy, 

He  was  not  so  fond  of  the  principles  he  undertooa 
to  illustrate,  as  to  hoast  their  certainty;  proposing 
them,  not  in  a  confident  and  eusertioe  form,  but  as  pro> 
babilities  and  hypotheses.  GUtmiUe, 

The  Epicureans  contented  themselves  with  the  de- 
nial of  a  Providence,  OMiertmg  at  the  same  time  the 
existence  of  gods  in  general,  because  they  would  noc 
shock  the  common  belief  of  mankind.  Addimm^ 

We,  as  it  were,  lean  forward  with  surprise  and 
trembling,  to  behold  the  human  soul  collecting  iu 
strength,  and  oMaerting  a  right  to  superior  fates. 

When  the  great  soul  buoys  up  to  this  high  point. 
Leaving  gross  nature's  sediments  below. 
Then,  and  then  only,  Adam's  o£fspring  quits 
The  sage  and  hero  of  the  fields  and  woods, 
Aatertt  his  rank  and  rises  into  man.  Yomng. 

It  is  an  erect  countenance ;  it  is  a  firm  adherence 
to  principle ;  it  is  a  power  of  resisting  false  shame 
and  frivolous  fear,  that  OMmt  our  good  faith  and  ho- 
nour, and  assure  us  of  the  confidence  of  mankind. 

Sophocles  also,  in  a  fragment  of  one  of  his  trage- 
dies, at$erU  the  unity  of  the  supreme  being. 

Cmnbeiiamd. 
But,  lo !  from  high  Hymettus  to  the  plain. 
The  queen  of  night  oMterU  her  silent  reign. 

ZtOrd  Byron  t  Conttr, 

ASSESS',  V.  &  n.^  Ital.  assessarcy  to  set  to, 
AssEs'siOMARY,  f  impose  a  tax.  Legally 
AsSEs'sHENT,  ^douc  bv  a  sitting  or  coun- 
AssEs'soR.  J  cil,  and  agreement  of  those 

authorised  to  impose  it.  Assessor  is  a  legal  ad- 
viser to  a  magistrate,  sitting  by  him  on  the 
bench. 

To  his  Son, 
Th'  (uasMor  of  his  throne,  he  thus  began.      MiUom, 

Twice  stronger  than  his  sire,  who  sat  above, 
Auesior  to  the  throne  of  thund'ring  Jove.  Dryden, 

Minos,  the  strict  inquisitor,  appears ; 
And  lives  and  crimes,  with  his  aueaton,  hean  : 
Round,  in  his  urn,  the  blended  balls  he  rolls  ; 
Absolves  the  just,  and  dooms  the  guilty  souls.    Id, 

What  greater  immunity  and  happiness  can  there 
be  to  a  people,  than  to  be  liable  to  no  laws,  but  what 
they  make  themselves?  To  be  subject  to  no  contri 
bution,  aaaeameat,  or  any  pecuniary  levy  whatsoever, 
but  what  they  vote,  and  voluntarily  yidd  unto  them- 
selves. Hawdl, 


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One  of  the  aatwexs  of  the  jtiry,  upon  their  oathi,  at 
the  MMMonory  conn,  I  have  inserted. 

Canw'9  Smvesf  of  CormvaU, 
Paiisanias  sat  the  judge  ; 
Callicrates  and  Aemnestus  wise. 
His  two  oMSflorr.  CNoesr'f  Athemtrid. 


ASSETS,  in  law,  are  either  real  or  personal. 
Where  a  roan  hath  lands  in  fee  simple,  and  dies 
seized  thereof,  the  lands  which  come  to  his  heir 
are  assets  real ;  and  where  he  dies  possessed  of 
any  personal  estate,  the  goods  which  come  to  the 
executors  are  assets  personal.  Assets  are  also 
divided  into  asisets  per  descent,  and  assets  inter 
maines. 

1.  Assets  by  Descent  are  where  a  person  is 
bound  in  an  obligation,  and  dies  seized  of  lands 
which  descend  to  the  heir,  the  land  shall  be 
assets,  and  the  heir  shall  be  charged  as  far  as  the 
land  to  him  descended  will  extend.  , 

2.  Assets  inter  Maines  are  when  a  man  in- 
debted makes  executors,  and  leaves  them  suffi- 
cient to  pay  his  debts  and  legacies ;  or  where 
some  commodity  or  profit  ariseth  to  them  in 
right  of  the  testator,  which  are  called  assets  in 
their  hands.  This  term  is  also  applied  com- 
mercially to  any  available  property  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  man's  debts. 

ASS£V'£R,       )     Lat.  assevero ;  ad^  and  te- 

Assever'ation.  S  vena.  To  say  or  affirm  se- 
verely or  solemnly;  to  assure;  to  maintain 
seriously.  , 

Guise.  Yon  must,  you  will,  and  smile  upon  my 
murder. 

M ARMUNTIER.  Therefore,  if  you  axe  oonsdous  of 
a  breach. 
Confess  it  to  me :  lead  me  to  the  king. 
He  has  promis'd  me  to  conquer  his  revenge. 
And  place  you  next  him ;  therefore,  if  you're  right. 
Make  me  not  fear  it  by  aueoeruHonif 
But  speak  your  heart,  and  O  resolve  me  truly. 

Drydm,     Duke  of  Quite. 

*  I  will  come  and  some  of  you  shall  see  me 
coming/  Can  it  be  supposed  that  in  such  an  aiw- 
evrafton,  the  word  to  *  come'  may  bear  two  different 
tenses.  Hordey't  Sermau, 

ASSIDEANS,  or  Chasidsans;  firom  the  Heb. 
D'TOn,  chasidim,  merciful,  pious ;  those  Jews 
who  resorted  to  Mattathias  to  nght  for  the  law  of 
God  and  the  liberties  of  their  country.  They 
were  men  of  great  valor  and  zeal,  having  volun- 
tarily devoted  themselves  to  a  more  strict  obser- 
vation of  the  law  than  other  men.  For  after  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
there  were  two  sorts  of  men  in  their  cnurch; 
those  who  contented  themselves  with  that  obe- 
dience only  which  was  prescribed  by  the  law  of 
Moses,  and  who  were  called  Zadikim,  i.  e.  the 
righteous ;  and  those  who,  over  and  above  the 
law,  superadded  the  constitutions  and  traditions 
of  Uie  elders,  and  other  rigorous  observances: 
these  latter  were  called  Chasidim,  i.  e.  the  pious. 
From  the  former  sprung  the  Samaritans,  Saddu- 
cees,  and  Caiaites;  from  the  latter,  the  Phaiisees 
and  the  Essenes. 

ASSIDENT  SIGNS,  in  medicine,  are  symptoms 
which  usually  attend  a  disease  but  not  always; 
hence  differing  from  pathognomic  signs,  which 
are  inseparable  from  the  disease :  e.  g.  in  the 
pleurisy,  a  pungent  pain  in  the  side ;  in  an  acute 
fever,  diifficulty  of  breathing,  &c    collectively 


)  ASS 

taken,  are  pathognomic  signs;  but  that  the  pain 
extends  to  the  nypochondrium  or  clavicle,  or 
that  the  patient  lies  with  more  ease  on  one  side 
than  on  tne  other,  are  assident  signs. 

ASSID'UATE,^  Lat.  attideo,  to  sit  down 
Assid'uity,  fat  any  thing  constantly  or 
Assid'uous,  i^ daily.  Constant  in  appli- 
Assid'uously.  J  cation,  unwearied,  diligent, 
sedulous. 

And  if  by  pny'r 
Incessant  I  could  hope  to  change  the  will 
Of  him  who  all  things  can,  I  would  not  cease 
To  weazy  him  with  my  muiduout  cries.  MiUon, 

The  most  amdmmt  tale-bearers,  and  bitterest  re- 
vilers,  axe  often  half-witted  people. 

CfooemmcHt  of  the  Tongue. 
In  summer,  you  see  the  hen  giving  herself  greater 
freedoms,  and  quitting  her  care  for  above  two  houi* 
together;  but  in  winter,  when  the  rigour  of  the  sea- 
son would  chill  the  principles  of  life,  and  destroy 
the  young  one,  she  grows  more  amduout  in  her  ati 
tendance,  and  stays  away  but  half  the  time. 

Addiaon, 

Each  still  renews  her  little  labour. 

Nor  justice  her  amduoui  neighbour.         Prior. 

We  observe  the  address  and  aatiduihf  they  will  use 

to  corrupt  us.  Rogen. 

The  habitable  earth  may  have  been  perpetually  the 

drier,  seeing  it  is  etrndumdy  drained  and  exhausted 

by  the  seas.  Benitiey. 

A  scholar  is  industrious,  who  doth  amduoudy  bend 

his  mind  to  study  for  getting  knowledge. 

BarToui^t  Bermom. 
Often  as  she  mounts 
Or  quits  -the  car,  his  arm  her  weight  sustains 
With  tremblmg  pleasure.     His  a$nduom  hand 
From  purest  fountains  wafts  the  living  flood. 

GUner.    Leonidae,  book  viii.  p.  57. 

ASSIDUI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  volunteers 
who  served  in  the  army  at  their  own  expense. 

ASSIDUUS,  or  Adsiduus,  from  as,  money, 
among  the  Romans,  denoted  a  rich  or  wealthy 
person.  Hence  we  meet  with  assiduous  sureties, 
assidui  fide-jussores.  When  Servius  TuUius  di- 
vided the  Roman  people  into  five  classes,  accord- 
ing as  they  were  assessed,  the  richer  sort  who 
contributed  asses  were  denominated  assidui ;  and 
as  these  were  the  chief  people  of  business  who 
attended  all  the  public  concerns,  those  who  were 
diligent  in  attendances  came  to  be  denominated 
assidui. 

ASSIEGE'.  Fr.  assteger,  to  sit  down  before. 
To  sit  down  before  a  town,  to  besiege. 

Swiche  wondring  was  ther  on  this  hors  of  brass. 
That  sin  the  gret  aetege  of  Troye  was, 
Ther  as  men  wondred  on  an  hors  also, 
Ne  was  ther  swiche  a  wondring,  as  was  tho. 

Chaucer.     The  Squier'e  Tale,  vol.  L  p.  431. 
On  th'  other  side  th'  aasieged  castles  ward 

Their  stedfast  aims  did  mightily  maintain. 

Speiuer, 
1  leave  what  glory  rirtne  did  attain. 

At  th'ever  memorable  Agincourt. 

I  leave  to  tell,  what  wit,  what  pow'r  did  gain 

The  aeneg'd  Roan,  Caen,  Dreux ;  or  in  what  sort 
'  Datud.     Cmi  War,  book  v. 

ASSIENTO,  Span,  a  contract.  The  first  of  this 
kind  was  made  by  the  French  Guinea  Company ; 
and,  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  transferred  to  the 
English,  who  were  to  furnish  4800  negroes  to 
Spanish  America  annually. 


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Lat.  M$igno;  ad,  and 
$igno,  to  mark  or  sign. 
To  mark  off,  to  appoint, 
to  set  apart,  to  appropriate 
to  a  particular  use,  to 
allot,  to  bring  forward  as 


ASSIGN',  V.  &  a.^ 

Assign'able, 

Assigna'tioit, 

Assignee', 

Assion'eb, 

Assiom'ment. 
a  cause  or  reason. 

At  last,  B8  forced  by  false  Ulyises  crye. 

Of  purpose  he  brake  fourtb,  as$igimg  me 

To  the  altar.  Bumjf. 

He  atsigned  Uriah  unto  a  place  where  he  knew  that 
yaliant  men  were.  2  Sam.  xi.  16. 

The  two  armies  were  atrigned  to  the  leading  of  two 

generals,  both  of  them  rather  couitiert  assured  to  the 

'  state,  than  martial  men.  Bacom, 

The  only  thizig  which  maketh  anyplace  publick, 
is  the  publick  oMsignment  thereof  unto  such  duties. 

Hooker. 

Thus  most  invectively  h«  (Jaques)  pierceth  through 
The  body  of  the  country,  city,  court. 
Yea,  and  of  this  our  life,  swearing  that  we 
Are  mere  usurpers,  tyrants,  and  what's  worse 
To  fright  the  animals,  and  to  kill  them  up 
In  their  awgned  and  native  dwelling-place. 

ShaJupeatB,    At  You  lAke  It, 
The  cause  of  love  can  never  be  atngned. 

Tin  in  no  face,  but  in  the  lover's  mind. 

Dryden.  Tgraimic  Looe, 
Both  joining. 
As  join'd  in  iiguries,  one  enmity 
Against  a  foe  by  doom  express  amgn'd  ns. 
That  cruel  serpent.  MHUon, 

This  institution,  which  atngm  it  to  a  person  whom 
we  have  no  rule  to  know,  is  just  as  good  as  an  atngnF- 
ment  to  nobody  at  all.  Xoefte. 

The  lovers  expected  the  return  of  this  stated  hour 
with  as  much  impatience  as  if  it  had  been  a  real  om- 
mffnalum,  SpeeMor, 

True  quality  is  neglected,  virtue  is  oppressed,  and 
vice  triumphant.  The  last  day  will  amgtk  Uf  every 
one  a  station  suitable  to  the  dignity  of  his  character. 

Additon^ 

The  go^>el  is  at  once  the  astigmer  of  our  tasks,  and 
the  magazine  of  our  strength.  Vectig  of  Pietg, 

Assign,  or  Assignee,  in  common  law,  a  person 
to  whom  a  thing  is  assigned  or  made  over.  The 
word  assign  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  in 
iavor  of  natural  children ;  who,  because  they  can- 
not pass  by  the  name  of  heirs,  are  included  under 
that  of  assigns.  For  Assignee,  in  brankruptcy, 
see  Bankbuptct. 

Assignable  Magnitude,  in  geometry,  any 
finite  magnitude. 

Assignable  Ratio,  the  ratio  of  finite  quanti- 
ties. 

ASSIGNATS,  a  species  of  paper  currency, 
issued  by  the  government  of  France^  for  sums  of 
different  values,  to  the  amount  of  many  thousand 
millions  of  livres,  to  support  the  credit  of  the  re- 
public during  the  course  of  the  revolution. 
.  Assignment,  may  be  more  accurately  de- 
fined the  act  of  trai»ferring  the  interest  or  pro- 
perty a  man  has  in  any  thing ;  or  of  appointing 
or  setting  over  a  right  to  another. 

Assignment  of  a  Dowry,  is  the  setting 
out  of  a  woman's  portion  by  the  heir. 

ASSIM'ILATE,  ^     Lat.  assimilo,  ammila- 

Assim'ilateness,  I  turn ;  from  ad,  and  gimilis, 

Assimila'tion,     Sto  brin^  to  the  like,'  to 

Assim'ilative,     I  make  like,    to  'liken,    to 

Assi mailable.  J  resemble,  to  convert  to  its 
own  substance  by  digestion,  and  the  process  car- 
ried on  in  animal  or  vegetable  bodies. 


The  spirits  of  many  will  find  but  naked  habita- 
tions ;  meeting  no  oMmUablet  wherein  to  re-act  their 
natures.  Brown's  Vvlgar  Brromt. 

How  little  must  the  ordinary  oocnpatioits  of  men 
seem  to  one  who  is  engaged  in  so  noble  a  pursuit  as 
the  atmulation  of  himself  to  the  Deity.         B^keleg, 
Fast  falls  a  fleecy  shower :  the  downy  flakes 

Descending,  and  with  never  oeasiAg  lapse 
.  Softly  alighting  upon  all  below, 

AmkmUaie  aU  objects.  Cpi^er't  JVmm. 

A  rain  is  a  sacred  lhing»    Rpaiod  lev  ages  im  the 

soil,  ornhmlaied  to  it,  and  beootte  as  it  wwe  a  part  of 

it,  we  consider  it  a  work  of  nature,  rather  than  of  art, 

Gi^*t  Tour  to  the  Zdket. 

Assimilation,  in  physics,  is  that  motion 
by  wbidi  bodies  convert  other  bodies  related  to 
them,  or  at  least  such  as  are  piepafed  to  be  con- 
verted, into  their  own  substaijce  and  nature. 
Thus  flame  multiplies  itself  upon  oily  bodies^ 
and  generates  new  flame ;  air  upon  water,  and 
produces  new  air;  and  all  the  parts,  as  weL 
similar  as  organical,  in  vegetables  and  animals^ 
first  attract  with  some  election  or  choice,  nearly 
the  same,  common  or  not  very  different  juices  for 
aliment,  and  afterwards  assimilate  or  convert 
them  to  their  own  nature. 

ASSINIBONS,  a  native  tribe  of  North  Ameri- 
cans, whose  name  has  been  given  to  the  western 
branch  of  the  Great  Red  River.  This  stream 
divides  itself  into  two  branches,  about  thirty 
miles  from  its  estuary  in  lake  Winnipeg,  the 
eastern  brandi  bearing  the  name  of  the  Red 
River  from  its  source,  the  western,  which  rises 
in  N.  lat  51°  15',  and  W.  long.  103©  2Xf,  that 
of  Assinibons.  Extensive  plains,  covered  with 
a  short  rank  grass,  and  crowded  with  buflaloes 
and  elks,  extend  between  these  streams,  but  tim- 
ber even  for  firewood  is  scarce.  The  soil  is 
gravelly,  and  beds  of  lime  and  stone  form  the 
rapids  of  these  rivers ;  which  are  both  navigable 
by  canoes  up  to  their  source. 

ASSINT,  a  parish  of  Scotland  in  the  county 
of  Sutheriand,  about  fifteen  miles  in  breadth^ 
and  twenty-five  in  length. 

ASSIRATUM,  in  antiquity,  a  bloody  draught, 
wherewith  treaties  were  ratified.  It  was  made  of 
wine  and  blood,  called  by  the  ancient  Romans 
assir. 

ASSlSy  in  physiology,  opium,  or  a  powder 
made  of  hemp-seed,  which  being  formed  into 
boluses  about  the  bigness  of  chestnuts,  is  swal- 
lowed by  the  Egyptians,  who  hereby  become 
intoxicated  and  ecstatic.  It  is  called  by  the 
Turks  asserac. 

ASSISA  Cadeeb,  in  law ;  from  assideo,  to  be 
nonsuited;  when  the  complainant,  from  defect  of 
legal  evidence  can  proceed  no  further.  Assisa 
cadit  in  juratum,  is  where  a  thing  in  controversy 
is  so  doubtfiil  that  it  must  necessarily  be  tried  by 
a  jury.  Assisa  continuanda,  a  writ  directed  to 
justices  of  assize  for  the  continuation  of  a  cause 
when  certain  records  alleged  cannot  be  produced 
in  time  by  the  party  that  has  occasion  to  use  them. 
Assisa  proroganda,  a  writ  for  the -stay  of  proceed- 
ings by  reason  of  the  parties  being  employed  in 
the  king's  business.  Assiza  panis  et  eerevisie^ 
assize  of  bread  and  beer,  a  statute  for  regulat- 
ing their  weight  and  quantity.  Assisa  No- 
cumenti,  see  Nuisance.  Assisa  capi  in  mo- 
dum  assisse,  when  the  defendant  pleads  di* 
rectly  to  the  assize. — ^Assisa  judicum,  a  judg- 


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ment  of  the  court  given  either  against  the  plain- 
tiff or  the  defendant. 

AS&lSl,  a  aniail  town  in  the  papal  dominions, 
in  the  duchy  of  Spoleto:  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
St.  Francis,  the  celebrated  ioonder  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan order,  was  bom  here ;  and  lies  buried  in  the 
Sacro  Convento.  Near  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which 
the  town  stands  is  a  rustic  chapel,  dedicated  to 
the  virgin  and  the  angeb,  in  which  St  Francis 
is  supposed  to  have  received  his  first  call  to 
'devotion.  Over  this  a  spacious  church  has  heea 
erected;  and,  on  the  second  of  August,  multi- 
tades  of  pilgrims  dock  to  it  from  the  adjoining 
pifovincea.  When  Mr.  Eustace  nassed  it  in  1802, 
one  of  the  fiedhera  informed  nim;  that  more 
than  10,000  persons  had  attended  the  last  an- 
niversary, ana  that  ten  had  been  suffocated  or 
trampled  to  deadi,  in  pre«in|^  forward  to  touch 
the  utar.  Here  are  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of 
Minerva,  built  about  the  time  of  Augustus.  The 
portico  consisted  of  six  fluted  CorinthKun  columns, 
each  having  a  distinct  pedestal.  It  is  now  used 
as  the  portico  of  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  di 
Minerva.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Assisi  are 
other  vestiges  of  Roman  magnificence;  ruins  of 
baths,  temples,  and  an  aqueduct.  The  bishopric 
was  dissolved  by  the  French  in  1810.  Twenty 
miles  N.N.W.  of  Spoleto.  Long.  12''  SO'  £., 
Ut  4a'  3**  N. 

ASSISII,  in  ecclesiastical  writers,  persons 
beneficed  in  a  cathedral  church,  not  in  a  rank 
below  that  of  canons;  thus  called,  either  because 
they  were  allowed  an  assisia  or  pension,  oi^  firom 
aasiduus,  diligent. 

ASSIST,      ^     Ankto;  from  od^  and  lifto, 

Assist'ANCB,/ to  stop  or  stay.     To  place 

AssisT^ANT,   |one'self  by  another  so  as  to 

Assisi^LESS.  J  give  him  our  strength ;  to  stand 
by,  not  in  the  sense  of  to  look  on,  but  to  give 
support— to  help. 

The  coundl  of  Treat  oommcnds  T«ooiine,  not  only 
to  the  pntyen  of  the  uintSy  bat  to  their  aid  and  at- 
mttmee:  what  doth  this  aid  and  aaritta$ie«  signify  ? 

StiUinsJleet. 

Yon  have  abandant  amttaneei  for  this  knowledge, 
in  excellent  books.  Wake'i  Prep,  for  Death. 

One  boll,  with  cnrl'd  black  head  beyond  the  rest. 
And  dew-laps  hanging  from  his  brawny  chest. 
With  nodding  front  awhile  did  daring  stand. 
And  with  his  jetty  hoof  spnmM  back  the  sand  : 
Then,  leaping  forth,  he  beliow'd  out  aloud  : 
Th'  amaaed  amulanti  back  each  other  crowd. 
While  ODonaxcholike  he  rang'd  the  listed  field ; 
Some  toss'd,  some  gor'd,  some  trampling  down,  he 
kiil'd.         Jkj^.    (kmqueH  of  Gnmada,  part  i. 

Let  OS  entreat  this  necessary  amttcmce,  that  by  his 
grace  he  would  lead  us.  Rogers. 

Loose  at  each  Joint ;  each  nenre  with  honor  shines. 

Stupid  he  stares,  and  all  amttieu  stands. 

Such  is  the  force  of  more  than  mortal  hands. 

Ptfps.  Homer^t  lUad,  book  xvi. 

God  otnate  us  in  the  vixtnoue  conflict,  and  will 
cvown  the  conqueror  with  eternal  rewards.        Blair, 

While  my  thoughts  were  thus  employed,  I  was  sent 
by  Metophis  towards  the  mountains  of  the  desert 
Oasis,  that  I  might  amsi  his  slaves  in  looking  after 
hie  flocks,  which  were  almost  without  number. 

Hawkenoorth's  Telemaeku$. 
Eternal  God, 

Gmde  thou  my  footsteps  in  the  way  of  truth. 

And  oh !  amti  me  so  to  live  on  earth. 

That  I  may  die  in  peace,  and  claim  a  place 

In  thy  high  dwelling.  Kirke  Whitest  Pocmi. 


Assistants,  in  various  trading  or  publie 
companies,  members  who  have  the  whole  power 
of  managing  the  company's  aflaiis;  and  com- 
monly called  the  court  of  assistants. 

ASSISUS,  in  ancient  law  writers,  a  thing 
farmed  out  for  a  certain  rent,  in  money  or  pro- 
visions. 

ASSITHMENT;  from  ad,  to,  Ut.  and  sithe. 
Sax.  instead  of;  a  wergild,  or  compensation 
by  a  pecuniarjr  mulct,  quod  vita  supplicii  ad 
expiandum  delictum  solvitur. 

ASSIZE^,  V.  &  n.  Fr.  om&i,  part,  past,  from 
the  verb  asteoir,  to  sit.  To  sit  judicially,  or  un- 
der the  sanction  or  appointment  of  the  law. 

There  nas  not  a  point  truely 
That  it  nas  in  his  right  am$e. 

Chtmeer.  The  Romamiofthe  Roee,  ch.  i. 
When  in  mid  air  the  golden  trump  shall  sound. 
To  raise  the  nations  under  ground ; 
When  in  the  valley  of  Jehosaphat 
The  judging  God  shall  close  the  book  of  fate ; 
And  there  the  last  amxet  keep. 
For  those  who  wake,  and  those  who  sleep. 
Dryden.    Ode  to  ih^ Memory  ofMre.  A.  KiUigrew. 

Assize,  in  old  English  law  books,  is  defined  to 
be  an  assembly  of  knights,  and  other  substantial 
men,  together  with  a  justice,  in  a  certain  place, 
and  at  a  certain  time;  but  the  word,  in  its  pre- 
sent acceptation,  implies  a  court,  place,  or 
time,  when  and  where  the  writs  and  processes, 
whether  civil  or  criminal,  are  decided  by  judge 
and  jury.  All  the  counties  of  England  were, 
very  anciently,  divided  into  six  circuits,  and  two 
judges  assigned  by  the  king's  commission,  to  hold 
their  assizes  twice  a-year  in  every  county,  excent 
London  and  Middlesex.  They  were  afterwards 
directed  by  magna  charta,  c.  12.  to  be  sent  into 
every  county  once  a-year  to  take  or  try  certain 
actions  tlien  called  recognitions  or  assizes;  the 
most  difficult  of  which  they  are  directed  to  ad- 
journ into  the  court  of  common  pleas  to  be  there 
determined.  But  the  present  justices  of  assize 
and  nisi  prius  are  more  immediately  derived  from 
the  stamte  Westm.  2. 13  Edw..  L  c.  30.  explained 
by  seveial  other  9Cts,  particulariy  the  statute  14 
Edw.  III.  c.  16.  and  must  be  two  of  the  king's 
justices  of  the  one  bench  or  the  other,  or  me 
chief  baron  of  the  exchequer,  or  the  king^s  ser- 
jeants^  sworn.  They  usually  make  their  circuits 
in  the  respective  vacations  after  Hilary  and  Tri- 
nity terms ;  assizes  being  allowed  to  be  taken  in 
the  holy  time  of  Lent  by  consent  of  the  bishops 
at  the  king's  request,  as  expressed  in  statute 
Westm.  1.  3  Edw.  I.  c.  51.  The  judges  upon 
the  circuits  now  sit  by  virtue  of  five  several 
authorities.  1.  The  commission  of  the  peace 
in  every  county  of  the  circuits;  and  all  Justices 
of  the  peace  of  the  county  are  bound  to  be  pre- 
sent at  the  assizes;  and  sheriffs  are  also  to  give 
their  attendance  on  the  judges,  or  they  shall  be 
fined.  2.  A  commission  of  oyer  and  terminer, 
directed  to  them  and  many  other  gentlemen  of 
the  county,  by  which  they  ire  empowered  to  tiy* 
treasons,  felonies,  &c  and  this  is  die  largest 
commission  they  have.  3.  A  commission  ot 
general  gaol-delivery,  directed  to  the  judges  and 
the  clerk  of  assize  associate,  which  gives  them 
power  to  tiy  every  prisoner  in  the  gaol  commit- 
ted for  any  offence  whatsoever,  but  none  except 


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prisODeis  in  the  gaol,  so  that  one  way  or  other 
they  rid  the  gaol  of  all  the  prisoners  in  it  4.  A 
commission  of  assize,  directed  to  the  judges  and 
clerk  of  assize,  to  take  assizes;  that  is  to  take  the 
yeidict  of  a  peculiar  species  of  jury  called 'an 
assize,  and  summoned  tor  the  trial  of  landed  dis- 
putes: the  other  authority  is,  5.  That  of  nisi 
prius,  ^hich  is  a  consequence  of  the  commission 
of  assize,  being  annexed  to  the  office  of  those 
justices  by  the  statute  of  Westm.  2. 13  £dw.  I. 
c.  30.  Ajid  it  empowers  them  to  try  all  ques- 
tions of  (act  issuing  out  of  the  courts  of  West- 
minster, that  are  then  ripe  for  trial  by  jury. 
Formerly,  the  judges  could  not  act  in  counties 
where  they  resided  or  were  bom;  but  this  cus- 
tom is  abrogated  by  49  Geo.  3.  c.  91. 

Assize,  or  jury,  in  Scots  law,  consists  of  fif- 
teen sworn  men,  (juratores,)  picked  out  by  the 
court  from  a  greater  number,  not  exce^ing 
forty-five,  who  have  been  summoned  for  that 

Surpose  by  the  sheriff,  and  given  in  a  list  to  the 
efender,  at  serving  him  wiUi  a  copy  of  his  libel. 
ASSIZER,  or  Assiser,  from  assize;  an  officer 
that  has  the  care  and  oversight  of  weights  and 
measures  in  various  parts  oT  England. 
ASS(yCIAT£,i;.n.&a(^'.S       Lat.  adsodo, 
Associa'tion,  Sfrom  ad,  and  to- 

Associa'tor.  j  do,  from  uquoTy 

to  follow.  To  meet  together  as  equals,  to  keep 
in  company,  to  be  partners,  confederates. 

Their  defender,  and  his  aaaociatei,  have  tithenoe 
proposed  to  the  world  aform^  such  as  themselves  like. 

Hooker. 

The  church,  being  a  society,  hath  the  'self-same 

original  grounds  which  other  politick  societies  have ; 

the   natural  inclination  which   all  men  have  unto 

sociable  life,  and  consent  to  some  certain  bond  of 

a$$ociatum;  which  bond  is  the  law  that  appointeth 

what  kind  of  order  they  should  be  auodaied  in.     Id, 

A  feaifiil  army,  led  by  Caius  Marcius, 

Amtdaied  with  Aufidius,  rages 

Upon  our  territories.  fiKdbpsars. 

Sole  Eve,  aatociaU  sole,  to  me  (beyond 
Compare)  above  all  living  creatures  dear. 

3flifM. 

Auodate  in  your  town  a  wand'ring  train  ; 
And  strangers  in  your  palace  enteitain.  Dryden. 

He  was  accompanied  with  a  noble  gentleman,  no 
unsuitable  aaoaate.  Wotton. 

They  persuade  the  king,  now  in  old  age,  to  make 
Plangus  his  oinciate  in  government  with  him. 


Self-denial  is  a  kind  of  holy  atnciaium  with  God ; 
and,  by  making  you  his  partner,  interests  you  in  all 
his  happiness.  Botfie, 

AuodaHon  of  ideas  is  of  great  importance,  and  may 
be  of  excellent  use.  Watts, 

But  my  OMtoeiatet  now  my  stay  deplore. 

Impatient.  Pope.  Odyuey. 

Associate  Presbytery,  the  title  first  assumed 
by  those  clergvmen  who  associated  together, 
after  seceding  m>m  the  church  of  Scotland,  in 
1733. 

Associate  Synod,  was  the  highest  ecclesias- 
tical court  among  the  Antiburgher  Segeder^  of 
Scotland.  Its  decisions  being  final,  like  those  of 
the  General  Assembly.  See  Antiburgher  and 
Seceders. 

Association,  in  law,  is  a  patent  by  the  king, 
either  of  his  own '  motion,  or  at  the  suit  of 
a  party  plaintiff,  to  the  justice*  of  assize ;  to 


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have  other  persons   attodated  with  them,  in 
order  to  take  the  assize. 

Association  of  Ideas,  is  indiere  ^o  or  more 
ideas  constantly  and  immediately  accompany 
or  succeed  one  another  in  the  mind,  so  that 
one  shall  almost  infallibly  produce  the  other, 
whether  there  be  any  natural  relation  between 
them  or  not.  See  Metaphysics.  Wrong  com- 
binations of  ideas,  Mr.  Locke  shows,  are  a  great 
cause  of  the  irreconcileable  opposition  between 
different  sects  of  philosophy  and  religion :  for  ' 
we  cannot  imagine,  that  all  who  hold  tenets  dif- 
ferent from,  and  sometimes  even  contradictory 
to  one  another,  should  wilfully  and  knowingly 
impose  upon  themselves,  or  refuse  truth  offered 
by  plain  reason :  but  some  loose  and  indepen- 
dent ideas  are  by  education,  custom,  and  the 
constant  din  of  party,  so  coupled  in  their  minds, 
that  they  always  appear  there  together:  these 
they  can  no  more  separate  in  their  thoughts, 
than  if  they  were  but  one  idea;  and  they  operate 
as  if  they  were  so.  This  gives  the  appearance 
of  sense  to  jargon,  of  demonstration  to  absurdi- 
ties, and  of  consistency  to  nonsense.  It  is  die 
foundation  of  the  greatest,  and  almost  of  all  the 
errors  in  the  world.  Association  forms  a  prin- 
cipal part  of  Dr.  Hartley's  mechanical  theoiy  of 
the  mmd.  He  distinguishes  it  into  synchronous 
and  successive ;  and  ascribes  our  simple  and 
complex  ideas  to  the  influence  of  this  principle 
or  habit.  Particular  sensations  result  from  pre- 
vious vibrations  conveyed  through  the  nerves  to 
the  medullary  substance  of  the  brain ;  and  these 
are  so  intimately  associated  together,  that  any 
one  of  them,  when  impressed  alone,  shall  be 
able  to  excite  in  the  mind  the  id^is  of  all  the 
rest.     Thus  we  derive  the  ideas  of  natural 


bodies  firom  the  association  of  the  several  \ 
sible  qualities  with  the  names  that  express  them, 
and  with  each  other.  The  sight  or  part  of  a 
large  building  suggests  the  idea  of  the  rest  in- 
stantaneously, by  a  synchronous  association  of 
the  parts ;  and  Uie  sound  of  the  words,  which 
begin  a  similar  sentence,  brings  to  remembrance 
the  remaining  parts,  in  order,  by  successive  as- 
sociation. Dr.  Hartley  maintains,  that  simple 
ideas  run  into  complex  ones  by  association; 
and  apprehends,  that,  by  pursuing  and  perfiecting 
this  doctrine,  we  may  some  time  or  other  be 
enabled  to  analyse  those  complex  ideas,  that  are 
commonly  called  the  ideas  of  reflection,  or  intel- 
lectual ideas,  into  their  several  component  parts^ 
i.  e.  into  the  simple  ideas  of  sensation  of  which 
they  consist;  and  that  this  piay  be  of  con- 
siderable use  in  the  art  of  logic,  and  in  ex- 
plaining the  various  phenomena  of  the  human 
mind. 

ASSODES,  in  medicine,  a  continued  fever, 
wherein  the  surface  is  moderately  warm,  but  the 
internal  heat  great. 

ASSOIL',       )      Supposed  to  be  from  the 

Assoil'ment.  i  Fr.  absoudre;  Lat.  abtolvcre^ 
to  loose  or  free  from.  To  absolve  from  guilt;  to 
liberate  from  punishment ;  to  pardon,  to  forgive. 

This  is  my  drede,  and  ye,  my  brethren  tweie, 

Auoileth  me  this  question  I  preie. 

Chaucer.  The  MarduaUet  Tale. 
But  secretly  at$oUmg  of  his  sin. 

No  other  med'cine  will  unto  him  lay. 

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I  also  wyll  aske  of  yoa  a  ceitayne  qnestiow,  whiche 
yf  ye  OMoyb  mc,  l  in  lykewyse  wyll  tell  you  by  what 
aoctorLe  >  id  these  thyngea. 

BtU«,  1551.  Matthew  ch.  xzi. 
But  with  such  gailefoil  appendices  of  oathea  im- 
posed on  him,  that  this  asaoSemetU  was  not  so  mach 
che  epilogue  of  his  olde,  as  the  prologue  of  his  new 
tragicall  vexations. 

Speed't  Hittory  of  Cheat  Britaine, 

To  AssoiLE,  in  our  ancient  law  books,  sig- 
nifies to  absolve  from  an  excommnnication. 

ASSONANCE,  in  rhetoric  and  poetry,  a  term 
used  where  the  words  of  a  phrase  or  verse  have 
the  same  sound  or  termination,  and  yet  make  no 
proper  rhyme.  These  are  usually  accounted 
▼icious  in  English ;  though  the  Romans  some- 
times used  them  with  elegance:  as,  Militem 
comparavit,  exercitum  ordinavat,  aciem  lus- 
tiavit 

ASSORT,       (     Fr.  attortir,  from  the  Lat. 
AssoRfuENT.  (sort,  lot.     To  sort,  to  put 
&ings  of  the  same  kind  or  class  together,  to 
match,  to  suit. 

Ye  ne  be  but  fools  of  good  disport ! 
I  wole  you  teachen  a  new  play  ; 
Sit  down  here  by  one  ateort. 

And  better  mirth  never  ye  seigh. 

Sir  Ferumbroi,  m  EUi»,  v.  ii.  p.  401. 
▲  taylor  sat  musically  at  it  in  a  shed  over  against 
the  convent,  in  atnrtmg  four  dosen  of  bells  for  the 
harness,  whistling  to  each  bell  as  he  tied  it  on  with  a 
thong.  Sternest  Trittram  Shamd/f. 

▲n  a4)ectxve  is  by  nature  a  general,  and  in  some 
measure  an  abstract  word,  and  necessarily  presupposes 
the  idea  of  a  certain  species  or  assortment  of  things^ 
to  aU  of  which  it  is  equally  applicable. 

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ASSOS,  a  sea-port  of  Natolia,  subject  to  the 
Turks,  on  a  bav  of  the  £gean  Sea,  twelve  miles 
south-east  of  Troas. 

ASSRUMINA,  in  botany,  the  name  given  by 

the  people  of  Guinea  to  the  shrub  whose  leaves 

they  use  as  a  cure  for  long  worms,  which  are 

found  in  their  flesh :  they  bruise  the  leaves,  and 

mpply  a  large  lump  of  the  mass  to  the  part. 

ASSUA'GE,     -J     Old  Fr.  assouager.    The 

Assuage'ment,  >  modem  Fr.  is  lovMger.    To 

Assua'sive.      3  soften,  to  alleviate  ptain  or 

grief,  to  lessen,  to  allay,  to  render  tranquil. 

Tell  me,  when  shall  these  weary  woes  have  end  y 
Or  ahall  their  ruthless  torment  never  cease. 
But  all  my  days  in  pining  languor  spend. 
Without  hope  of  aemuigemeiU  or  release  ? 

Spentor  t  oonttctt* 
Shall  I,  t*  atmage 
Their  brutal  rage. 
The  regal  stem  destroy? 

Dryden'9  Album, 
The  rest 
Was  broiled  and  roasted  for  the  future  feast. 
The  chief  invited  guests  were  sef  around ; 
And,  hunger  first  attwag'd,  the  bowls  were  crown'd. 
Which  in  deep  draughts  their  cares  and  labours 
drownM.  Id,  Fablet, 

If  in  the  breast  tumultuous  joys  arise, 
M usick  her  soft  amuukte  voice  supplies. 

Pope's  St.  CtedUa. 
Refreshing  winds  the  summer's  heats  asmage; 
And  kindly  warmth  disarms  the  winter's  rage. 


^atioclus  sat  contentedly  beside 
Enrjpylus,  with  many  a  pleasant  theme. 
Soothing  the  generous  warrior,  and  his  wound 
Sprinkling  with  drugs  iunuuhe  of  his  pains. 

Cou)per*s  Iliad,  bk.  xv.  p.  274. 

ASSUEFACTION,  J      Attuefado,  atsuefac- 
As'suETUDE.  y  ium,  to  accustom.  The 

state  of  being  accustomed. 

We  see  that  ateaetude  of  things  hurtful,  doth  make 
them  lose  the  force  to  hurt. 

Bacon's  Natttral  History, 
Right  and  left,  as  paits  inservient  unto  the  motive 
faculty,  are  differenced  by  degrees  from  use  and  amie- 
facHon,  or  according  whereto  the  one  grows  stronger. 
Brown's  Vvlgar  Errours, 
ASSUME',  "N     Assumo,  atsumptum^  ad 

Assu'mer,  #  and  tumo,  to  take  to  [one's 

Assv'uiNO,  >se]f.]    To  appropriate,  to 

AssuM pt',  v.  &  ft.  i  claim  more  &an  is  due,  to 
AssuM p'tiok.       J  arrogate,  to  suppose  some- 
thing granted  without  proof. 

Preserve  the  right  of  thy  place,  but  stir  not  ques- 
tions  of  jurisdiction;  and  rather  asneme  thyri^htin 
silence,  and  de  £acto,  than  voice  it  with  claims  and 
challenges.  Lord  Bacon's  Essaye, 

His  majesty  might  well  amene  the  complaint  and 
expression  of  king  David.  Claeendon, 

With  ravish'd  ears 
The  monarch  hears ; 
Asemnes  the  god. 
Affects  to  nod  *, 
And  seems  to  shake  the  spheres.  Drydem, 

His  haughty  looks,  and  his  assmning  air. 
The  son  of  Isis  could  no  longer  bear.  Id* 

This  makes  him  over-forward  in  business,  aenmiay 
in  conversation,  and  peremptory  in  answers.     CdUeir, 
VoT  spirits  freed  from  mortal  laws,  with  ease 
Assmte  what  sexes  and  what  shapes  they  please. 

Pope, 

This,  when  the  various  god  had  nzg'd  in  vain. 
He  strait  assmn'd  his  native  form  again.  Id, 

The  personal  descent  of  God  himself,  and  his  as- 
emtption  of  our  flesh  to  his  dlvlpity,  more  familiarly 
to  insinuate  his  pleasure  to  us,  was  an  enforcement 
beyond  all  methods  of  wisdom. 


In  every  hypothesis  something  is  allowed  to  be 
assmud,  Boyle, 

Upon  the  feast  of  the  astmiftion  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  the  pope  and  cardinals  keep  the  vespers. 


Adam,  after  a  certain  period  of  yean,  would  have 
been  rewarded  with  an  assmeption  to  eternal  felicity. 

Wake, 

It  is  scarce  possible  to  conceive  any  scene  so  truly 
agreeable,  as  an  assembly  of  people  elaborately  edu- 
cated, who  assume  a  character  superior  to  oixlinary 
life,  and  support  it  with  ease  and  familiarity.    U^er, 

It  very  seldom  happens  that  a  man  is  slow  enough 
in  assmning  the  character  of  a  husband,  or  a  woman 
quick  enough  in  condescending  to  that  of  a  wife. 

Habits  are  soon  assmied,  but  when  we  strive 
To  strip  them  ofif,  'tis  being  flayed  alive.  Cowper, 

ASSU'MENT.  A$9uo,  to  stitch  or  tack  on. 
A  tacking  on. 

This  assmmeni  or  addition.  Dr.  Marshall  says,  he 
never  could  find  any  where  but  in  this  Anglo-Saxon- 
ick  translation,  and  that  very  ancient  Greek  and  Latin 
MS  copy  of  Beza's. 

Lewis's  Bditilms  of  the  Eng,  Trans,  of  the  BiNs. 

ASSUMPSIT,  in  the  law  of  England,  or 
promise,  is  of  the  nature  of  a  verbal  covenant, 
and  wants  nothing  but  the  solemnity  of  writing 


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ASS 


and  sealing  to  make  it  abioluteljr  the  same.  If 
therefore,  H  be  to  do  any  explicit  act,  it  is  an 
express  contract,  as  mnch  as  any  coTenant :  and 
the  breach  of  it  is  an  eanal  injury.  The  remedy 
indeed  is  not  exactly  tne  same :  since,  instead 
of  an  action  of  covenant,  there  only  lies  an 
action  upon  the  case,  for  what  is  called  an  as- 
sumpsit or  undertaking  of  the  defendant;  the 
fitilure  of  performing  which,  is  the  wrong  or 
injuiy  done  to  the  pkintiff,  the  damages  whereof 
a  jufy  are  to  estimate  and  settle.  As,  if  a 
builder  promises  or  undertakes,  that  he  will  build 
and  cover  a  house  within  a  limited  time,  and 
fails  to  do  it,  an  action  on  the  case  arises  against 
the  builder,  and  the  party  injured  may  recover 
a  pecuniary  satisfaction.  But  some  aereements, 
though  ever  so  expressly  made,  are  deemed  of 
so  important  a  nature,  that  they  ought  not  to 
rest  on  a  verbal  promise  only,  which  cannot  be 
proved  but  by  the  memory  of  witnesses,  and 
which  oftentimes  leads  to  perjury  To  pre- 
vent this,  the  statute  of  frauds  and  perjuries, 
29  Car.  II.  c.  3.  enacts,  that  in  the  five  following 
cases,  no  verbal  promise  shall  be  sufficient  to 
ground  an  action  upon ;  but  at  the  least  some 
note  or  memorandum  of  it  shaH  be  made  in 
writing,  and  signed  by  the  party  to  be  charged 
therewith :  1.  Where  an  executor  or  adminis- 
trator promises  to  answer  damages  out  of  his  own 
estate.  2.  Where  a  man  undertakes  to  answer 
for  the  d^bt,  de&ult,  or  miscarriage,  of  another. 
3.  Where  any  agreement  is  made  upon  consi- 
deration of  marriage.  4.  Where  any  contract 
or  sale  is  made  of  lands,  tenements,  or  heredita^- 
ments,  or  any  interest  therein.  6.  And  lastly, 
where  there  id  any  agreement  that  is  not  to 
be  performed  within  a  year  from  the  making 
thereof.  In  all  these  cases,  a  mere  verbal  as- 
sumpsit is  void. 

Aasuhptioit,  a  festival  in  the  Romish 
church,  in  honor  of  the  miraculous  ascent  of 
the  Virgin  Mary  into  heaven:  the  Greek  church, 
who  also  observe  this  festival,  celebrate  it  on  the 
15th  of  August  with  great  ceremony. 

Aasuuptiok,  or  Assonoong,  one  of  the  La- 
drone  islands,  m  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Father 
Gobien  asserts  that  it  is  eighteen  miles  in  circum- 
ference ;  but  Perouse  diminishes  its  size  to  three. 
It  is  of  a  conical  figure,  rising  600  feet  in  height, 
of  dreary  aspect,  and  almost  covered  with  lava 
from  the  eruptions  of  a  volcano  in  the  centre. 
A  few  cocoa-nut  trees  are  found  on  the  island ; 
but  there  is  no  anchorage  near  the  shore.  Fifteen 
miles  south  of  St.  Lawrence.  Long.  140^  55'  £., 
lat.  19*^45' N. 

AssuM  mow,  the  capital  city  of  Panq^y,  in 
America.  It  is  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of 
the  river  Paraguay,  eighteen  miles  above  its 
junction  with  the  first  mouth  of  Uie  Pilcomayo. 
It  was  originally  a  small  fort,  built  in  1538,  and 
in  1547  was  erected  into  a  bishopric.  It  is  now 
inhabited  by  about  500  families  of  Spaniards, 
and  several  thousand  Indians  and  Meztizoes. 

ASSUMPTIVE  Arms,  in  heraldry,  are  such 
as  a  person  has  a  right  to  assume,  with  the  ap- 
probation of  his  sovereign,  and  of  the  heralds : 
thus,  if  a  person,  who  has  no  right  by  blood. 


and  has  no  coat  of  arms,  shall  captivate,  in  nay 
lawful  war,  any  gentleman,  nobleman,  or  prince, 
he  is,  in  that  case,  entitled  to  bear  the  shield  of 
that  prisoner,  and  enjoy  it  to  him  and  his  heirs 
for  ever. 

w^i-^n  '      ")     Fr.  asporr,  to  make  sure. 
■?"„./*"  Z*    rwamnt,  vouch,  certify,   in- 

What  man  is  he  that  boasts  of  flethly  might. 
And  vain  aatimutoe  of  mortality ; 
Which  an  so  soon»  as  it  doth  eome  to  fight 
Agaiast  spifitttal  foes,  yields  by  and  by. 

I  most  confess,  yomr  ofier  is  the  ftest ; 
And,  let  yew  lather  make  her  the  aumramee. 
She  is  your  own,  else  you  most  paidon  me ; 
If  yon  should  die  before  him,  where's  her  dowar  t 


I  hold  tho  entry  of  common-places  to  be  a  matter 
of  great  nse  and  essence  in  studying,  as  that  whkh 
atmre^  copiousness  of  invention,  and  oontncteth 
Judgment  to  a  stnngth.  Moom'm  Stm^ 

An  atnmmo§,  being  passed  through  for  a  competent 
fine,  hath  come  back  again  by  reason  of  some  orer- 
•ight.  id. 

I  iwiTe 

At  this  last  sight ;  •amr'd,  that  man  shaU  Uto 

With  aU  the  creamres^  and  their  seed  preserve. 

Miltm 

Well  is  that  part  of  us  lost  which  may  give 
owi^awsi  of  the  salvation  of  the  whole. 

UaU'i  Gmtmrnflatietm. 

AtmwUjf  he  will  stop  our  liberty,  till  we  nsstore 
him  his  worship.  SoutiL 

It  is  the  ennobling  office  of  the  understanding  to 
oMfeot  Che  faUadooa  and  mistaken  rspoita  of  the 
seaaea,  and  to  amme  ns  that  the  staif  in  the  water  ik 
straight  though  our  eye  would  tell  us  it  is  cioAed. 

Id. 

The  obedient,  and  the  man  of  practice,  shnll  out- 
grow all  their  doubts  and  ignorances ;  till  pexaoasioa. 
pass  into  knowledge,  and  knowledge  advance  iat* 
tuturance.  Id. 

Hath  he  found  in  an  evil  course  that  comfortable 
amMrance  of  God's  favour,  and  good  hopes  of  his  future 
condition,  which  a  religious  life  would  have  given 
him  ?  TiUotrnm. 

AlMANZ.  No;  there  is  a  necessity  in  fate ; 
Why  still  the  brave  bold  man  is  fortunate ; 
He  keeps  his  object  ever  full  in  sight. 
And  that  ammnmoe  holds  him  firm  and  right* 

Drjfdtm.    CMijMMf  of  Grmmim,  part  iw 

A  man  without  asnmmee  a  liable  to  be  made  un- 
easy  by  the  folly  or  iil*nature  of  every  one  he  con- 
venes with. 

MOmoth't  Tnmdatkm  of  Cieero't . 

How  happy  it  is  to  believe  with  a  stedfast  t 
that  our  petitions  are  heard  even  while  we  are  making 
them,  and  how  delightful  to  meet  with  a  proof  of  it 
in  the  effectual  and  actual  grant  of  them. 

\^otpptr  9  Xcttffvs* 
The  soul  reposing  on  ataured  relief, 
Feela  herself  happy  amidst  all  her  grief; 
Forgets  her  labour,  as  she  toils  along. 
Weeps  teara  of  joy,  and  bursts  into  a  song. 

CbHp.Y. 


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ASSURANCE. 


ASSURANCE,  or  Ihsukavcb,  in  oommerciil 
aikiis.  Under  the  latter  word,  every  thing  oon- 
nected  with  the  subjecCs,  both  of  life  and  of 
marine  insurance,  might  with  great  propriety  be 
arranged.  Bot  mercantile  usage,  and  the  titles 
of  Tarions  respectable  societies  in  this  countiy, 
have  appropriated  the  former  word  to  contracts 
for  paying  sums  of  money  upon  die  continu^ce 
of  hfe,  or  in  the  event  of  death;  and  the  latter, 
to  the  insurance  of  property,  against  the  contin- 
gencies of  the  sea.  We  propose,  under  Life 
Annuities,  to  enter  further  into  the  principles  on 
which  the  contingency  of  life  is  calculated ;  under 
Makins  Insvaance,  to  treat  of  all  that  is  usually 
comprised  under  that  head ;  confining  ourselves 
in  this  paper  to  the  practical  detail  of  the  methods 
adopted  by  the  most  respectable  Assurance  com- 
panies in  the  conduct  of  their  affairs,  and  the 
actual  calculations  on  which  they  proceed. 

Assurance  on  lives  is  the  guaranteeing  a  cer- 
tain sum  of  money  to  be  paid  in  the  event  of  a 
person  named  being  alive  at  a  certain  time,  or 
dying  within  a  certain  time,  or  to  be  paid  within 
a  certain  time  after  the  death  of  a  person  named. 
The  party  agreeing  to  pay  this  sum,  is  termed 
the  Assurer;  the  sum  he  receives  for  his  hazard, 
or  in  compensation  for  what  he  is  to  pay,  is 
called  the  Premium  of  assurance ;  and  the  in- 
strument by  which  the  parties  are  mutually  bound 
to  their  contract,  is  called  a  Policy  of  assurance. 
These  are  granted  sometimes  by  individuals; 
but  in  this  case  the  policies,  though  often  for 
larger  sums  than  the  companies  insure,  are 
usually  for  short  periods,  and  at  higher  rates- 
than  the  companies  charge.  It  must  be  obvious, 
that  as  they  are  particular  bargains  between  in- 
dividuals under  cireumstances  knovm,  par- 
ticularly, perhaps,  or  that  ought  to  be  known  by 
those  concemeo,  no  uniform  plan  of  proceeding 
can  be  expected. 

But  the  respectable  societies  who  conduct  this 
business  in  the  metropolis,  and  other  parts  of 
Great  Britain,  proceed  upon  settled  and  mathe- 
matical principles.  Tables  of  the  ordinary  dura- 
tion of  human  life,  formed  ftom  bills  of  mortality, 
are  the  basis  of  their  calculations.  The  register 
of  mortality  at  Northampton,  originally  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Price,  is  that  generally  adopted ; 
it  having  been  found  by  long  experience  that 
rather  fewer  dea^  happen,  according  to  the 
books  of  the  Equitable  Assurance  Society,  than 
are  upon  that  scale  to  be  expected.  The  most 
esteemed  tables  are  those  of  Aikin,  De  Pareieux, 
Kerseboom,  aud  Gorsuch.  M.  de  Moivre  as- 
sumes, that  if  eighty-six  persons  were  bom  at  the 
same  time,  one  would  die  in  each  year,  until  the 
whole  number  ceased  to  live.  Although  this 
hypothesis  has  not  been  found  accurate  enough 
for  extensive  business  in  this  way,  it  ftimishes  an 
easy  rate  for  estimating  the  expectation  of  life. 
Subtract  the  given  a^  of  a  peison  from  86; 
when,  dividing  the  quotient  by  two,  the  remain- 
der gives  the  expectation  nearly.    Thus,  let  the 

age  be  40^  then  ^^""^?  is  23,  which  differs  very 


little  from  the  Northampton  table.  At  the  age 
of  50  again,  the  error  is  trifling,  the  Northampton 
table  giving  17*99,  De  Moivre's,  18.  But,  in 
the  higlier  ages,  the  error  becomes  considerable. 
A  scale  of  life  having  been  adopted,  the  table 
of  premiums  to  be  paid  by  the  parties  insuring 
is  calculated  in  the  following  manner: — ^The 
premium  for  a  certain  age  being  supposed  to  be 
known,  then  the  premium  for  a  person  of  one 
year  younger,  being  compounded  of  the  premium 
for  one  year  and  the  present  value  of  the  above 

{>remium,  is  easily  qdculated  from  the  table  of 
ives,  thus  '.—Multiply  the  premium  on  the  old- 
est life  into  the  number  of  persons  alive  in  the 
tables  of  that  age,  and  divide  by  the  number  of 
persons  of  the  younger  age  alive  in  the  tables. 
This  sum,  discounted  for  a  year,  gives  the  pre* 
mium  for  assuring  the  desir^  sum  at  the  end  of 
the  year.  Then  multiply  the  sum  to  be  assured 
into  the  number  of  persons  of  the  younger  age, 
that  die  according  to  the  tables  in  a  year,  and 
divide  by  die  number  of  persons  alive  at  that 
age,  and  this  sum  discounted  for  a  year  is  the 
assurance  of  the  sum  for  the  first  year,  and  oon- 
sequently  the  two  sums,  added  together,  give  the 
desired  premium.  Now,  as  the  oldest  person  in 
the  scale  of  Ufo  dies  in  the  ensuing  year^the 

Sremium  on  him  is  evidently  the  sum  to  be  paid 
iscounled  for  one  year,  and  thence  the  premium 
for  the  age  below  is  ascertained  by  the  above 
rule;  and  so  of  every  age  in  succession.  Errors 
cannot  be  committed  on  this  plan  without  de- 
tection, as  every  step  is  checked  by  a  similar 
table  drawn  out  for  the  value  of  an  annuity  at 
each  age.  In  the  same  manner  are  tables  formed 
for  the  assurance  of  a  sum  payable  at  the  death 
of  one  out  of  two  persons,  or  at  the  death  of  Iho 
survivor  of  two  persons,  or  at  the  deadi  of  one  oa 
the  contingency  of  his  surviving  another,  and  so 
on.  The  tables  generally  adopted  by  ihe  com^ 
panics,  on  the  contingency  of  one  person  sui^ 
viving  another,  being  calculated  by  an  approxi- 
mation, founded  on  Si»  expectation  of  their  lives^ 
do  not  partake  of  the  mathematical  accuracy  of 
the  other  tables ;  but  the  companies,  in  this  case, 
grant  assurances  at  times  to  their  own  disadvan- 
tage ;  for  if  they  take  rather  too  much  upon  one 
life,  they  lose  that  sum  upon  the  other;  the  pre- 
mium pa^rable  on  the  deawi  of  one  of  two  parties, 
being  divided  by  the  above-mentioned  rule  of 
approximation  into  two  premiums,  to  be  paid  by 
the  two  parties  on  the  contingencv  of  one  sur- 
viving the  other.  These  rules  apply  to  tables  of 
rates  for  the  payment  of  a  gross  premium :  but  as 
it  is  generally  more  convenient  to  pay  an  equiva- 
lent annual  sum,  a  table  of  rates  is  made  for 
this  case,  which  is  formed  by  dividing  the  gross 
premium  by  the  value  of  an  annuity  ^pon  each 
age  added  to  unity.  If  the  annual  premium  ^ere 
paid  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  addition  of  unity 
would  be  unnecessary ;  but  a  policy  is  not 
granted  till  one  premium  is  paid,  and  hence  the 
necessity  of  the  addition  is  obvious. 

Premiums  being  thus  settled  ftom  a  fixed  table 
of  observations  on  life,  it  is  evident  that,  unless 


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ASSURANCE. 


the  deaths  happen  exactly  in  the  order  prescribed 
b^  the  tables,  there  will  be  a  surplus  or  defi- 
ciency of  capital  for  the  pavment  of  the  assured 
sums.  The  management  of  the  surplus,  or  ap- 
prehended surplus,  which  the  pruaence  of  rer 
spectable  companies  generally  insures,  is  dif- 
ferent in  different  companies.  Either  the  com- 
pany appropriates  the  whole  of  the  surplus  to 
Itself,  or  makes  a  compensation  to  the  assured  for 
it.  In  the  former  case,  the  company  pays  the 
.  sum  specified  in  the  policy,  and  no  more ;  con- 
sequently, a  party  may  pay  to  the  office  a  sum 
&r  greater  than  his  executors  or  assigns  receive 
in  return.  Thus,  if  an  assurance  is  effected  on 
a  person  between  sixteen  and  seventeen  for 
£100,  receivable  at  his  death,  the  annual  pre- 
mium is  £2.  Os.  Sd. ;  and  if  he  lives  forty-nine 
years,  he  will  have  paid  more  than  the  whole 
sum  to  be  received,  without  computing  interest 
on  these  payments.  The  surplus  of  the  accumu- 
lation of  premiums  above  tne  claims  may  be 
great  from  two  causes :  first,  the  increased  in- 
terest obtained  by  the  company  above  that  by ' 
which  the  table  of  rates  was  computed ;  and, 
second,  a  longer  duration  of  life  in  the  earlier 
years  than  is  assigned  by  the  table ;  and  here 
great  circumspection  on  tiie  part  of  the  company 
is  requisite  to  preserve  it  worn  imposition,  and 
to  secure  the  best  lives  that  circumstances  admit. 
In  the  companies  where  only  the  sum  specified 
in  the  policy  is  paid,  the  surplus  does  not  go 
entirely  to  tne  company ;  for  it  is  common  in 
these  offices  to  allow  a  per  centage  on  the  pre- 
mium to  the  party  who  brings  an  assurance  to 
them,  generally  a  solicitor,  who  thus  participat- 
ing in  the  gains  of  the  company,  has  an  interest 
in  increasing  its  concerns,  though  to  the  evident 
disadvantage  of  his  client. 

Where  me  surplus  is  made  advantageous  to 
the  assured,  two  methods  are  adopted ;  the  one 
is  to  add,  at  certain  periods,  a  sum  to  each  po- 
licy ;  the  other  to  diminish  the  premium.  In 
both  cases  a  valuation  is  made  of  all  the  annual 
premiums,  with  the  past  and  foture  expected  ac- 
cumulations, and  also  of  the  claims  upon  every 
policy.  If  the  former  exceed  the  latter  to  a 
sufficient  amount,  then  an  addition  is  made  to 
each  policy,  or  the  premium  is  diminished.  It 
is  necessary,  however,  that  the  utmost  care 
should  be  taken  to  secure  to  each  policy  the  sum 
named  in  it,  with  every  addition  made  to  it; 
and  hence  a  diird  part  of  the  surplus  is  constantly 
retained  to  guard  against  possible  contingencies. 
Tliis  reservation  has  occasioned  a  singular  ano- 
maly in  one  of  the  most  distinguished  companies 
for  life  assurance.  In  that  company  aOl  are 
partners,  being  mutually  guarantees  to  each 
other  for  the  payment  of  their  respective  claims. 
The  surplus  arising  from  the  excess  of  pre- 
miums, with  their  accumulations  above  the  claims, 
evid^tly  belongs  to  the  whole  company,  and 
consequently  each  partner  is  entitled  to  a  portion 
of  it.  But  of  this  surplus,  a  third  being  con- 
stantly reserved,  and  each  person  at  his  death 
ceasing  to  be  a  partner,  eve^  person  leaves  be- 
hind htm  a  portion  for  his  successors.  Such  has 
been  the  extreme  caution  of  the  Equitable  So- 
ciegr- 
This  led  to  the  fonnation  of  a  plan,  which  is 


adopted  by  the  Rock  Assurance  Society,  that 
vests  this  third  in  determinate  hands.  To  do 
this,  the  company  consists  of  a  number  of  pro- 
prietors, each  of  whom  is  bound  to  keep  up  an 
assurance  with  it,  and  whose  interest  in  these  as- 
surances is  greater  than  that  derived  from  the 
profit  of  assurances  granted  to  non-proprietors. 
The  company  takes  upon  itself  the  wnole  risk  of 
policies  made  with  it,  being  bound  to  pay  to 
each  par^  assured  the  sum  specified  in  hts  po- 
licy ;  and  additions  are  made  to  ^ach  policy  in 
the  manner  above-mentioned.  But  the  third 
reserved  is  joined  to,  and  makes  part  of  the  sub- 
scription capital  stock ;  and  the  interest  upon  it 
is  annually  divided  among  the  proprietors. 
Thus  the  third  reserved  belongs  to,  and  continues 
to  add  to,  the  security  of  the  company ;  and  the 
non-proprietor,  secured  fh>m  all  risk,  participates 
in  the  two-thiids  divisible  at  every  period. 

Other  modes  are  sometimes  adopted  to  dis- 
pose of  accumulating  property ;  such  as,  by  di- 
minishing, at  certain  periods,  the  premiums  paid 
on  assurance ;  in  this  case  the  sum  specified  in 
.  the  policy  is  paid,  though  the  party  assured  may 
have  paid  a  much  less  sum  than  in  the  com- 
panies above  mentioned.  The  diminution  of 
Eremium  depends  on  the  excess  of  capital  in 
and,  with  the  present  value  of  future  premiums, 
above  the  claims  that  are  or  may  be  made  upon 
it,  and  consequently  the  same  care  is  necessaiy 
to  reserve  a  port  of  the  surplus  for  fear  of  future 
contingencies.  The  public  have  thus  a  choice 
either  to  receive  a  fixed  or  tfn  increasing  sum ; 
the  fixed  sum  by  means  of  a  definite  or  a  pro- 
bably decreasing  premium,  and  an  increasing 
sum  by  means  of  a  definite  premium. 

Assurance  policies  are  g^erally  confined  to 
the  limits  of  Europe,  but  they  are  capable  of  be- 
ing extended  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  such 
cases  an  addition  is  made  to  the  premium,  ac- 
cording to  the  supposed  addition  to  the  risk 
from  unhealthiness  of  climate,  and  danger  of  the 
seas.  Additions  are  also  made  to  the  premium 
on  account  of  the  profession  (as  of  the  army) 
of  the  assured ;  on  account  of  disease,  as  of 
gout,  by  which  he  is  occasionally  afflicted ;  or  of 
diseases,  as  of  small-pox  and  measles,  to  which 
he  may  be  liable. 

The  oldest  of  the  societies  for  assurances  on 
lives  in  London,  is  the  Amicable  Society,  insti- 
tuted by  charter  in  the  year  1706.  The  same 
contribution  was  originally  required  from  every 
member,  whatever  his  age  might  be,  and  the 
sums  received  at  the  death  of  members  were 
variable,  depending  on  the  number  of  persons 
that  died  in  the  same  year.  Subsequent  altera- 
tions were  made  in  this  company  by  successive 
charters.  At  present  the  several  interests  of  the 
members  are  divide  into  shares,  each  share  being 
now  warranted  to  produce  £200  at  the  death  of 
the  insured,  together  with  such  additions  as  may 
arise  from  the  circumstances  of  the  year  in  which 
the  death  happens ;  and  any  number  of  shares 
and  half  shares,  not  exceeding  sixty-five  shares, 
may  be  granted  on  one  and  the  same  life,  by 
which  assurances  may  be  effected  from  £200  to 
£5000,  and  participate  in  tlie  benefits  of  the  so- 
ciety, 
llie  Royal  Exchange  Assurance  Company  re- 


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77 


ceired  its  charter  in  1720,  and  is  principally  en- 
gaged in  insuring  ships  and  goods  at  sea,  and  of 
houses  and  goods  from  fire ;  but  it  also  grants 
annuities  and  assurances  on  life.  In  the  latter, 
it  confines  itself  to  the  payment  of  the  sum  as- 
sured. 

The  Equitable  is  the  most  considerable  in 
point  of  numbers,  and,  on  the  whole,  peihaps 
the  most  respectable  of  the  societies  for  the  as- 
surance of  hyes,  to  which  it  is  chiefly  confined. 
In  this  society  all  are  partners,  and  mutually 
assurers  of  each  other.  It  arose  from  small  be- 
ginnings, and  has'  made  considerable  alterations 
from  the  rate  of  its  first  premiums,  till  it  settled 
in  the  table  annexed  to  this  article,  which  b  that 
generally  adopted  by  these  associations.  At  cer- 
tain periods  additions  have  been  made  to  the 
policies;  and,  in  this  manner,  its  a£birs  were 
<:onducted  till  December  f,  1809,  when  a  change 
took  place  respecting  the  members  then  assured, 
namely,  that  instead  of  waiting  till  the  end  of  the 
next  interval,  for  assigning  a  sum  out  of  the  ac- 
cumulations to  each  policy,  every  member  should 
have  two  per  cent,  annually  assigned  to  his  po- 
licy, during  the  years  of  this  period.  Conse- 
quently, all  holders  of  policies,  prior  to  the  year 
1810,  will  leave  to  their  heirs  the  sum  assured 
by  the  policy,  together  with  its  accumulations  up 
to  the  year  1810,  and  also  two  per  cent,  per  an- 
num for  his  life,  within  1810  ana  1820 ;  but  this 
benefit  does  not  accrue  to  members  entering  at 
the  close  of  the  year  1809.  Whether  this  plan 
can  be  continued  or  extended,  time  will  show. 
The  number  of  the  members  in  this  society 
made  it  necessary  to  change  some  of  theit 
regulations  respecting  votes ;  and  it  was  wisely 
resolved,  that  persons  becoming  members,  after 
the  l'9th  December  1809,  should  not  have  a  vote 
at  the  general  meetings,  unless  thev  had  been  as- 
sured for  five  years,  for  the  whole  continuance 
of  life,  in  the  sum  of  £2000 ;  and  to  be  a  direc- 
tor, the  qualification  is  an  assurance  of  £5000 
for  the  same  time,  which  must  have  been  held 
for  five  j^ears. 

The  history  of  this  society  is  veij  important, 
and  has  been  well  treated  by  Dr.  Price,  in  his 
Observations  on  Reversionary  Payments,  and  by 
Mr.  Morgan.  In  consequence  of  the  connexion 
of  Dr.  Price  with  this  institution,  he  drew  up 
his  remarks  on  the  various  societies  which  soon 
after  sprang  up,  and  whose  names,  but  for  his 
notice  of  them,  would  now  be  forgotten.  They 
'were  formed  chiefly  about  the  years  1770  and 
1771,  ofiering  very  fiillacious  terms  to  the  pub- 
lic, by  which  the  aged  were  benefited  at  the  ex- 
pense of  their  juniors ;  and  the  evil  is  not  yet 
cured. 

For  some  time  no  other  important  society 
arose;  but,  in  the  year  1792,  the  Westminster 
Life  Assurance  was  formed.  The  Pelican  in 
1797 ;  the  Globe  in  1799 ;  the  Albion  in  1805 ; 
the  Rock  and  the  Provident  in  1806 ;  the  Eagle, 
Hope,  London  Life  Association,  and  Atlas,  in 
1807.  The  Rock  and  Equitable  we  have  no- 
ticed. 

The  Provident  combines  with  life,  policies  on 
fire ;  but  it  assigns  also,  at  certain  times,  addi- 
tions to  its  policies.  The  Hope  is  also  a  fire  and 
life  office^  smd  both  are  proprietary  companies. 


The  rates  in  tliese  societies  are  the  tame  as  those 
in  the  Equitable  and  Rock. 

The  Albion  and  the  Globe  are  life  and  fire  as- 
surance companies ;  their  rates  are  also  the  same 
They  pay  also  the  sum  assured ;  but  a  liberal 
commission  is  allowed  to  solicitors,  and  to  otheis 
who  effect  assurances. 

The  London  Life  Association  is  confined  en- 
tirely to  life  assurances ;  but  it  differs  from  the 
others  in  this,  that  its  aim  is,  that  the  benefits  re- 
sulting from  its  transactions  shall  be  enjoyed  by 
the  members  during  life;  in  oUier  words,  the 
society  assures  to  a  person  the  sum  named  in  the 
policy,  and  no  more ;  but  at  certain  times  it  con- 
siders whether  the  surplus  of  the  accumulations 
above  the  claims  is  sufficient  to  admit  of  a  dimi- 
nution of  premium,  and  one  is  made  accordingly. 
In  this  society  all  are  members  and  assurers  one 
of  the  other,  and  conseauently  the  surviving 
members  at  any  time  are  bound  to  make  up  the 
deficiency,  if  any  should  arise  by  this  moae  of 
arrangement.  This  could  be  done  by  raising,  in 
the  fint  instance,  the  premiums  that  have  &en 
lowered ;  and  it  is  very  improbable,  that,  with 
good  management,  any  thing  &rther  would  be 
necessary.  In  imitation  of  these  London  Com- 
panies, several  have  been  formed  throughout  the 
country. 

The  practical  mode  of  effecting  an  assurance 
in  these  societies  b  as  follows :  The  party  de- 
sirous of  effecting  an  assurance,  receives  fit>m 
the  office  .of  the  company  a  printed  paper  called 
a  declaration,  which  he  fills  up  vrith  the  name 
of  the  party  to  be  assured,  his  ige,  the  place  and 
time  or  his  birth,  and  place  of  his  present  re- 
sidence, with  certain  particulars  as  to  his  health. 
This  declaration  is  then  duly  signed;  and  it 
contains  a  clause,  stating,  that  any  falsehood  in 
the  declaration  invalidates  the  policy.  To  cor- 
roborate the  statement,  references  are  given  to 
two  persons  well  acjquainted  with  the  party  on 
whom  the  assurance  is  made,  one  of  whom  is  to 
be  a  medical  person,  and  sometimes  more  re- 
ferences are  required.  The  reasons  for  these 
precautions  are  obvious. 

When  the  declaration  has  been  thus  com- 
pleted, the  person  by  whom  the  assurance  is 
made  makes  his  appearance  before  the  directors 
of  the  company,  wno  enquire  into  the  general 
state  of  his  health,  and  a  minute  is  entered  in 
their  books  accordingly.  The  letter  of  the  re- 
ferees, with  the  declaration,  are  subsequently 
laid  before  the  court,  which  fit>m  these  docu- 
ments, and  information  frequently  derived  from 
other  sources,  forms  its  decision;  and  this  is 
entered  on  the  minutes  of  the  court,  and  com- 
municated to  the  applicant.  A  certain  time  is 
allowed  for  the  payment  of  the  premium ;  and 
if  it  is  not  paid  within  that  time,  the  assurance 
cannot  be  effected,  but  by  a  fresh  application  to 
the  court,  according  to  the  forms  above  mentioned. 
On  the  payment  of  the  premium  a  receipt  is 
given,  containing  the  number  of  the  policy, 
which  is  then  made  out  according  to  the  decla- 
ration, inspected  by  the  court,  signed  by  a 
certain  number  of  directors,  and  delivered  to 
the  other  party  interested  in  it. 

If  the  person,  on  whose  life  the  assurance  is 
made  cannot  appear  before  the  directors^  or  any 


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ASSURANCE. 


one  appointed  by  them  for  that  purpose,  ao  ad- 
ditional sum  is  charged  for  non-appearance. 
There  is  also  a  duty  to  he  paid  to  government 
on  each  policy,  and  this,  with  a  smsdl  entrance 
fee,  makes  an  addition  to  the  first  year's  pre- 
mium. But  the  premium  itself  is  only  named 
in  the  policy,  as  on  the  future  payment  of  this 
sum  its  existence  depends. 

A  policy  is  assignable ;  and  it  often  forms  a  se- 
curity for  sums  adVanced,  and  not  unfrequently 
becomes  an  object  of  sale.  In  these  cases,  the 
holder  of  the  policy  pays  the  foture  premiums, 
and  the  advantage  of  a  purchaser  consists  in 
holding  a  policy  at  a  less  premium  than  he  must 
have  paid  at  the  present  age  of  the  psu^>  on 
whose  life  the  assurance  was  made.  Thus, 
supposing  a  policy  to  have  been  granted  for  the 
payment  of  a  thousand  pounds,  at  the  death  of 
a  party  aged  between  tnirty-seven  and  thirt^r- 
eighty  when  the  policy  was  made;  suppose  it  is 
sold  when  the  party  is  between  fifty  and  fifty- 
one  ;  the  purchaser  will  have  to  pay  £32.  5s, 
annually,  during  the  existence  of  the  policy : 
whereas,  if  he  had  taken  out  a  policy  at  the 
present  age  of  the  party,  his  premmm  would  be 
£46. 15c.  For  the  difierence  between  these  two 
sumsy  namely  £14.  lOf.,  a  price  is  fixed  on ;  but 
it  is  to  be  observed,  that,  in  the  sale  of  a  policy 
in  the  market,  this  disadvantage  attends  it, — ^diat 
the  bidders,  not  being  acquainted  with  the 
person  on  whose  life  the  policy  is  made,  and 
oeing  liable  to  trouble  and  expense,  to  ascertain 
that  he  is  alive  at  eadi  payment  of  Uie  premium, 
must  make  a  deduction  on  this  account,  from 
what  they  might  otherwise  presume  to  be  a 
compensation  for  the  difierence  between  the  two 
premiums. 

On  the  death  of  the  party  on  whom  the  claim 
depends,  certain  documents  are  required,  sadk 
as  the  register  of  the  burial  of  the  deceased ; 
and  Teferences  to  the  medical  persons  or  others 
who  attended  him  in  his  last  illness ;  and,  if  he 
effected  the  policy  himself,  the  probate  of  his 
will,  or,  if  it  has  been  assigned  to  another,  the 
copy  of  the  assignment.    The  grounds  of  these 

Srecautions  are,  with  respect  to  the  receivjer  of 
le  sum  assured,  obvious ;  and  the  nature  of  the 
death  must  be  ascertained ;  as,  in  case  of  suicide, 
or  dying  by  the  hands  of  justice,  or  on  a  voyage 
on  the  high  seas,  without  licence  fix>m  the  com- 
pany, (except,  in  general,  in  going  from  one  part 
m  the  united  kingdom  to  another,)  the  policy  is 
vitiated.  In  the  interval  between  the  notice  of 
the  party's  death,  and  the  time  assigned  for  the 
payment  of  the  claim,  due  investigation  is  made ; 
and,  every  thing  having  been  found  satisfactory, 
the  claimant  brings  with  him  the  policy  and  a 
receipt'for  the  sum  claimed,  whicn  is  imme- 
diate.y  paid  to  him ;  the  seals  are  torn  from  the 
policy,  and  the  contract  is  at  an  end.    In  the 


case  that  a  claim  is  payable,  in  the  event  of  a 
person  being  alive  at  a  certain  time,  his  ap- 
pearance before  the  court  is  requisite,  or  suf- 
ficient proof  must  be  given  that  he  was  alive  at 
the  time  defined  by  the  policy. 

Policies  dependmg  on  a  person  being  alive  at 
a  certain  time,  are  very  rare,  and  chiefly  confined 
to  endowments  for  children,  in  which  case  the 
payment  of  a  gross  sum  down,  or  of  an  annual 
payment  till  the  cbild  attains  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  secures  to  that  child,  at  that  age,  the  sum 
named  in  the  policy.  This  mode  of  assurance 
has  led  some  offices  to  compose  a  table  of  rates, 
according  to  which,  a  person  at  the  age  of  twenty 
is  required  to  pay  a  premium,  which  would  pro- 
duce at  legal  interest  more  than  he  would  receive 
at  the  expiration  of  the  year,  from  the  company; 
and  thus  a  person,  if  any  such  could  be  round, 
to  effect  an  assurance  of  this  kind,  would  run 
the  risk  of  losing  the  sum  assured,  and  receive, 
if  successful,  not  so  much  as  he  could  have  at- 
tained without  any  risk  at  all. 

On  the  whole,  the  doctrine  of  assurance  must 
always  be  considered  a  subject  of  the  first  im- 

g>rtance,  in  a  commercial  state  like  that  of 
reat  Britain,'  and  to  involve  an  immense  number 
of  interests.  When  we  consider  the  thousands 
of  fiunilies  in  this  country,  who  are  living  in  a 
state  of  comparative  affluence,  without  possessing 
any,  or  very  little,  disposable  proper^ ;  whose 
income,  in  tact,  depenos  almost  entirely  on  the 
exertions  of  the  head  of  the  fiunily,  and  with 
the  extinction  of  whose  life  every  source  of 
income  ceases;  when  we  contemplate  the  p^ 
verty  and  distress  in  which  many  widows,  witn 
their  helpless  children,  would  be  plunged  by 
such  an  event,  we  cannot  estimate  too  highly 
the  advantages  which  are  held  out  by  those  so- 
cieties, who,  on  honorable  principles,  furnish  the 
means  whereby  every  provident  fiither  and 
husband  may,  m  part,  avert  the  consequences  ot 
a  premature  death ;  to  which  every  one  is  liable, 
and  against  which  event  every  man  ought  to  be 
provided.  Perhaps,  no  part  of  the  civil  economy 
of  this  country  shows  more  decidedly  the  high 
moral  state  of  the  middling  classes  of  the  people, 
than  the  immense  amount  of  life  assurances  ef- 
fected in  the  different  offices  of  the  metropolis, 
and  in  those  of  like  local  companies  in  several 
of  the  counties  in  England ;  nor,  perhaps,  can 
we  have  a  stronger  instance  of  the  high  degree 
of  confidence  that  the  people  are  disposed  to 

Elace  in  the  moral  rectitude  of  the  government :' 
y  far  the  greater  part  of  the .  capital  of  the 
companies  to  which  we  have  alluded  being  in- 
vested under  government  securities. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  rates  generally 
acted  upon  by  the  life  Assurance  Offices  m  the 
capital. 


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70 


ASSURANCE  OP  SINGLE 
LIVPS, 

SURVIVORSHIP  OF  A  LIFE 

ASSURED. 
To  secure  a  Sum  to  the  Nominee 

ASSURANCE   ON  TWO  JOINT 
IJVES. 

TV>  secure  a  Sum  to  ihe  No- 

To secure  a 

Sum,   payable  when 

minee, 

or  to  the  lawful  Re- 

Assured,  in  case  a  Person  named 

either  of  Two  Persons  named  shall 

Age. 

presentatiTee  of  the  Anured. 

happen  to  die. 

Premium 
per  cent, 
ifastured 
from  year 

Premium 
per  cent, 
per  an.  if 
aasored 

Premium 
per  cent, 
per  an.  if 
aatured 
for  the 

Age  of 

the   life 
assured. 

Age  of  the  life 

against  which 

the  assured 

is  made. 

Premium 
per  cent 
per  an- 
num. 

1 

i 

Premium 
per  cent 
per  an- 
num 

i 

1 

Premium 

per  cent. 

per  annum. 

lor  seven 

whole 

£.  1.   d, 

1     8     6 

to  year. 

yean. 

term  of 
life. 

10 

10 

20 
30 

1     9     1 
1     8     3 

___^ 

_^ 

£.  1. 

d. 

£.  s,   d. 

£.  $,  d. 

£.  1. 

d. 

£.  1.  d. 

8  to  14 

0  17 

9 

1     1     5 

1  17    7 

40 

17    8 

10 

10 

2  17 

1 

30 

30 

4     8  11 

15 

0  17 

11 

1     2  11 

1  18     7 

50 

1     6  11 

15 

3     1 

1 

35 

4  14     1 

16 

0  19 

2 

14     7 

1   19    8 

60 

16     0 

20 

3     5 

7 

40 

5    0  11 

17 

1     1 

2 

1     6     1 

2    0    8 

70 

1     4  11 

25 

3     9 

3 

45 

5     9    6 

18 
19 

1     3 
1     5 

8 

0 

1     7    5 
1     8    6 

2     1     8 
2     2    8 

80 

13     4 

30 
35 

3  13 
3  19 

9 
6 

50 
55 

6     1     0 
6  15     5 

20 

10 

1  16    6 

20 

1     7 

3 

1     9    6 

2     3     7 

20 

1  17    0 

40 

4    6 

10 

60 

7  15    0 

2J 

1     8 

10 

1  10     1 

2    4     6 

30 
40 

1  15    9 
1  14    8 

45 
50 

4  15  111 

5  7  10| 

^7 

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Digitized  by 


Googl( 


80 


ASSYRIA. 


ASSURGENT  Leafes,  in  botany,  denote 
such  as  are  first  bent  down,  and  then  rise  erect 
towards  the  apex. 

ASSUS,  or  Assos,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
town  of  Troas,  though  by  others  supposed  to  be 
of  Mysia,  and  the  same  with  ApoUonia,  but  dif- 
ferent from  the  Apollonia  on  the  Rhyndacus. 
Ptolemy  places  it  on  the  sea  coast,  but  Strabo 
more  inland.  It  was  the  country  of  Cleanthes, 
the  stoic  philosopher,  who  succeeded  Zeno.  St. 
Luke  and  others  of  St.  Paul's  companions  in  his 
voyage.  Acts  xx.  13, 14,  went  by  sea  from  Troas 
to  Assos :  but  St^  Paul  went  thither  by  land ; 
and,  meeting  them  at  Assos,  they  all  went  to^ 
gether  to  Mitilene. 

ASSYRIA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia,  con- 
cerning the  extent,  commencement,  and  duration 
of  which,  historians  differ  greatly  in  their  ac- 
counts. Several  ancient  writers,  in  particular 
Ctesias  and  Diodorus  Siculus,  have  affirmed  that 
the  Assyrian  monarchy,  under  Ninus  and  Semira- 
mis,  comprehended  the  greater  part  of  the  known 
world.  Had  this  been  the  case,  it  is  not  likely 
that  Homer  and  Herodotus  would  have  omitted  a 
fact  so  remarkable.  The  sacred  records  intimate 
that  none  of  the  ancient  states  or  kingdoms  were 
of  considerable  extent ;  for  neither  Chedorlaomer 
nor  any  of  the  neighbouring  princes  were  tribu- 
tary or  subject  to  Assyria ;  and  we  find  nothing 
of  the  greatness  or  power  of  this  kingdom  in  the 
history  of  the  judges  and  succeeding  kings  of 
Israel,  though  the  hitter  kingdom  was  oppressed 
and  enslaved  by  many  different  powers  in  that 
period.  It  is  highly  probable,  therefore,  that ' 
Assyria  was  originally  of  small  extent.  Accord- 
ing to  Ptolemy,  it  was  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Armenia  major;  on  the  west  by  the  Tigris;  on 
the  south  by  Susiana;  and  on  the  east  by  Media. 

The  revolutions  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy  were 
numerous.  Its  founder  was  Ashur,  the  second 
son  of  Shem,  who  went  out  of  Shinar,  either  by 
the  appointment  of  Nimrod,  or  to  elude  the  fury 
of  that  tyrant ;  conducted  a  large  body  of  adven- 
turers into  Assyria,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Ni- 
neveh, Gen.  X.  11.  These  events  happened  not 
long  after  Nimrod  had  established  the  Chaldean 
monarchy,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Babylon. 
The  Persian  historians  suppose,  that  the  kings  of 
Persia  of  the  first  dynasty  were  the  same  with  the 
kings  of  Assyria,  of  whom  Zohath,  or  Nimrod, 
was  the  founder  of  Babel.  Herbelot  Orient.  Bib. 
V.  Bagdad.  It  does  not,  however,  appear,  that 
Nimrod  reigned  in  Assyria.  The  kmgdoms  of 
Babylon  and  Assyria  were  originally  distinct  and 
separate,  Micah  v.  6 ;  and  in  this  state  they  re- 
mained until  Ninus  conquered  Babylon,  and  made 
it  tributary  to  the  Assyrian  empire.  Ninus,  the 
successor  of  Ashur,  G^.  x.  11,  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  1, 
seized  on  Chaldea,  after  the  death  of  Nimrod, 
and  united  the  kingdoms  of  Assyria  and  Babylon. 
This  prince  is  said  to  have  subdued  Asia,  Persia, 
Media,  Egypt,  &c.  If  he  did  so,  the  effects  of 
his  conquests  were  of  short  duration ;  for  in  the 
days  of  Abraham  we  do  not  find  that  any  of  the 
neighbouring  kingdoms  were  subject  to  Assyria. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Semiramis,  a  princess  of 
an  heroic  mind;  bold,  enterprising,  fortunate;  but 
of  whom  many  ftibulous  things  have  been  record- 
ed.   It  appears,  however,  &at  there  were  two 


princesses  of  the  same  name,  who  flourished  at 
very  different  periods.  One  of  them  was  the 
consort  of  Ninus ;  and  the  other  lived  five  gener- 
ations before  Nitocris,  queen  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Euseb.  Chron.  p.  58.  Herod,  lib.  1,  cap.  184.  This 
fact  has  not  been  attended  to  by  many  writers. 
Whether  there  was  an  uninterrupted  series  of 
kings  from  Ninus  to  Sardanapalus,  or  not,  is  still 
a  question.  Some  suspicion  has  arisen,  that  the 
list  which  Ctesias  has  given  of  the  Assyrian  kings 
is  not  genuine ;  for  many  names  in  it  are  of  Per- 
sian, Egyptian,  and  Grecian  extraction.  Nothing 
memorable  has  been  recorded  concerning  the  suc- 
cessors of  Ninus  and  Semiramis.  Of  that  effemi- 
nate race  of  princes  it  is  barely  said,  that  they 
ascended  the  tiirone,  lived  in  indolence,  and  died 
in  their  i^dacestit  Nineveh .  Diodorus  relates,  diat 
in  the  reign  of  Teutames,  the  Assyrians  solicited 
by  Priam  their  vassal,  sent  to  the  Trojans  a  supply 
of  20,000  foot  and  200  chariots,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Memnon,  son  of  Tithonus,  president  of 
Persia.  But  this  is  not  confirmed  by  any  otiier 
author.  Sardanapalus  was  the  last,  and  by  all 
accounts  the  most  effeminate  of  the  ancient 
Assyrian  kings.  Historians  have  unanimously 
reprobated  his  character ;  and  Lord  Byron  has 
made  it  the  foundation  of  a  beautiful  poem.  We 
have  only  to  add,  that  Arbaces,  governor  of  Media, 
taking  advantage  of  Sardanapalus's  indolence, 
withdrew  his  allegiance  and  rebelled  against 
him.  He  was  encouraged  in  this  revolt  by  the  ad- 
vice and  assistance  of  Belesis,  a  Chaldean  priest, 
who  engaged  the  Babylonians  to  follow  tne  ex- 
ample of  Uie  Medes.  These  powerfiil  provinces, 
aided  by  the  Persians  and  other  allies,  who  de- 
spised the  effeminacy,  or  dreaded  the  ^pLnny  of 
their  Assvrian  lords,  attacked  the  empire  on  all 
sides.  Their  most  vigorous  efforts  were,  in  the 
beginning,  unsuccessful.  Firm  and  determined, 
however,  in  their  opposition,  they  at  length  pre- 
vailed; defeated  tne  Assyrian  army,  besieged 
Sardanapalus  in  his  capital,  which  they  demo- 
lished, and  became  masters  of  the  empire  A.  A.  C. 
821.  The  Assyrian  empire  was  now  divided 
into  three  kingdoms,  viz.  the  Median,  Assyrian, 
and  Babylonian.  Aurbaces  retained  the  supreme 
power  and  authority,  and  fixed  his  residence  at 
Ecbatana  in  Media.  He  nominated  governors  in 
Assyria  and  Babylon,  who  were  honored  with 
the  title  of  kings,  while  they  remained  subject  and 
tributary  to  the  Median  monarchs.  Belesis  re- 
ceived the  government  of  Babylon  as  the  reward 
of  his  services ;  and  Phul  was  entrusted  with  that 
of  Assyria.  The  Assyrian  governor  gradually  en- 
larged the  boundaries  of  his  kingdom,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Tiglath-pileser,  Sdmanasar,  and 
Sennacherib,  who  asserted  and  maintained  their 
independency.  After  the  death  of  Esar-haddon, 
the  brother  and  successor  of  Sennacherib,  the 
kingdomof  Assyria  was  split,  and  annexed  to  the 
kingdoms  of  Media  and  Babylon.  Several  tribu- 
tary princes  afterwards  reigned  in  Nineveh ;  but 
no  particular  account  of  them  is  found  in  the 
annals  of  ancient  nations.  We  hear  no  more  of 
the  kings  of  Assyria,  but  of  those  of  Babylon, 
Cyaxares,  king  of  Media,  assisted  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, king  of  Babylon,  in  the  siege  of  Nineveh, 
which  they  took  and  destroyed,  A.  A.C.  606. 
The  most  remarkable  provinces  of  Assyria 


Digitized  by 


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AST 


81 


AST 


were,  1.  Arapachitisy  bordering  on  Armenia.  2. 
Corduene,  a  mountainoos  territoiyy  the  ancient 
residence  of  the  Carduchi,  mentioned  by  Xeno- 
phon  in  his  Anabasis.  3.  Adiabene,  in  Strabo's 
time,  the  most  considerable  province  in  Assyria. 
4.  Calacheift,  lying  between  the  mountains  of 
Armenia  and  Zabns  Major.  5.  Apolloniatis, 
watered  by  the  river  Gorgus.  6.  Settacene,  by 
some  reckoned  a  portion  of  Babylonia.  7.  Cha- 
lonitis,  separated  from  Media  by  a  branch  of 
Mount  Taurus. 

Assyrian  Letters,  a  denomination  given  by 
several  Rabbins  and  Talmudists,  to  the  characters 
of  the  present  Hebrew  alphabet,  as  supposing 
them  to  have  been  borrowed  frOm  the  Ass3rrians 
during  the  Jewish  captivity  in  Babylon. 

ASTA,  an  inland  town  of  Liguria,  a  Roman 
colony,  on  the  river  Tanarus,  now  called  Asti. 

AsTA,  or  AsTA  Reoia,  a  town  of  Bcetica, 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bstis,  which  was 
choked  up  with  mud,  north  of  Cadiz,  and  sixteen 
miles  distant  from  its  port  Its  ruins  show  its 
former  greatness.  Its  name  is  Phoenician,  de- 
noting a  frith  or  arm  of  the  sea.  It  is  said  to  be 
the  same  with  the  present  Xeres. 

ASTABAT,  a  town  of  Armenia,  in  Asia,  three 
miles  from  the  river  Aras,  and  twelve  south  of 
Nakahivan.  The  land  about  it  is  excellent,  and 
produces  very  good  wine. 

ASTTEUS,  a  species  of  the  crab  insect. 

ASTAKILLOS,  a  denomination  given  by  Pa- 
racelsus to  a  malignant  gangrenous  ulcer  in  the 
legs,  occasioned  by  a  mercurial  salt  in  the  blood. 
It  is  also  called  by  him  araneus,  and  ulcus  ara- 
neum,  the  spider's  ulcer. 

ASTANDA,  in  antiquity,  a  royal  courtier  or 
messenger;  the  same  with  Ansarus.  Darius  king 
of  Persia,  is  said  by  Plutarch,  in  his  book  on 
the  fortunes  of  Alexander,  to  have  formerly  been 
an  astanda. 

ASTARIL/E,  AsTARiTiE,  or  Astarotrites,  a 
name  given  to  those  Jews  who  worshipped  Ash- 
taroth. 

ASTARTE,  in  ancient  geography,  a  city  on 
the  other  side  Jordan;  one  of  tibe  names  of  Rab- 
bah  Ammon,  in  Arabia  Petrsa. 

Astarte,  in  pagan  mythology 
BOTH.  On  a  medal  of  Cssar 
Tea  Palestina,  Astarte  is  repre- 
sented as  in  the  annexed  fi- 
gure, in  a  short  habit,  crown- 
ed widi  battlements,  holding 
the  head  of  Osiris  in  her  right 
liand,  and  a  staff  in  her  left, 
inscription  COLonia  Prima 
TcUx  AU  Gusto  Ylavia  Commodiana,  SfC. 

ASTATE'.    See  Estate. 


See  AsHTA- 


The  vorlde  stante  ever  upon  debate. 
So  male  be  siker  none  octote. 
Now  here^  now  thexe,  now  to,  now  fro. 
Now  up,  now  down,  the  world  goth  so. 
And  ever  hath  done,  and  ever  shall. 

Gower.  Can.  A.  Th§  Prologue. 

ASTATI,  in  Ae  ninth  century,  the  followers 
of  one  Sergius,  who  renewed  the  errors  of  the 
Manichees.  They  prevailed  much  under  the 
emperor  Nicephorus ;  but  his  successor,  Michael 
Curopalates,  curbed  them  with  very  severe  laws. 
.  Vol.  III. 


ASTEEPING.    In  steeping.    See  Steep. 
Where  Perah's  fiowern 
Perfume  proud  Babel's  bowers. 

And  paint  her  wall : 
There  we  la/d  asteeping 
Our  ejres  in  endless  weeping. 
For  Sion's  fall. 

P.  FUtcherU  Poem,  p.  163. 

ASTEISM,  in  rhetoric,  a  pleasant  kind  of 
irony,  or  handsome  way  of  deriding  another. 
Sucn,  e.  g.  is  that  of  Virgil : 
Qui  Bavium  non  odit,  amet  tua  cannina,  Mavi,  &c 

ASTELL  (Mary)  was  the  daughter  of  an  opu- 
lent merchant  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  where 
she  was  bom  about  1668.  She  was  educated  in 
a  manner  suitable  to  her  station ;  and  amongst 
other  accomplishments  was  mistress  of  tlie  French, 
and  had  some  knowledge  of  the  Latin  tongue. 
Her  uncle,  a  clergyman,  observing  in  her  marks 
of  a  promising  genius,  took  her  under  his  tuition,  ' 
and  taught  her  mathematics,  logic,  and  philo- 
sophy. She  left  the  place  of  her  nativity  when 
she  was  about  twenty  years  of  age,  and  spent  the 
remaining  part  of  her  life  in  London  and  at 
Chelsea.  Here  she  pursued  her  studies  with 
great  assiduity,  made  great  proficiency  in  the 
above-mentioned  sciences,  ana  acquired  a  more 
complete  knowledge  of  the  classics.  Among 
these  Seneca,  Epictetus,  Hierocles,Antoninus, 
Tully,  Plato,  and  Xenophon  were  her  favorites. 
She  wrote,  1.  A  Serious  Proposal  to  the  Ladies. 
2.  An  Essay  in  Defence  of  the  Female  Sex.  3. 
Letters  concerning  the  Love  of  God.  4.  Essays 
upon  Marriage,  Crosses  in  Love,  and  Friend- 
ship. 5.  Moderation  truly  stated.  6.  The  Chris- 
tian Religion,  as  professed  by  a  daughter  of  the 
Church  of  England.  7.  Bart'lemey  Fair,  or  an 
Enquiry  after  wit ;  and  other  works.  She  died  in 
1731,  aged  sixty-three,  and  was  buried  at  Chelsea. 

ASTENA,  a  genus  of  worms  of  the  mollusca 
order,  in  the  Linnsean  system. 

ASTER,  in  ancient  pharmacy,  a  kind  of  me- 
dicine, invented  by  Aiidromachus,  against  de- 
fluxions  and  divers  pains. 

Aster,  in  botany,  starwort,  a  genus  of  the 
polygamia  superflua  order,  and  syngenesia  class 
of  plants ;  ranking  in  the  natural  method  under 
the  forty-ninth  order,  composite  discoides.  The 
receptacle  is  naked;  the  pappus  simple;  the 
rays  of  the  corolla  ten ;  and  the  calyx  imbricated. 
There  are  above  thirty  species.  All  of  them 
may  be  raised  from  seed  sown  either  in  autumn 
or  spring:  but  the  greater  part  being  perennial 
plants,  iod  increasing  greatly  at  the  roots^  are 
generally  propagated  by  parting  their  roots  early 
in  the  spring.  They  will  grow  in  almost  any 
soil  or  situation ;  and  the  larger  sorts  ipcrease 
very  fast.  They  grow  best  in  the  shade:  the 
lower  kinds  do  not  run  so  much  at  the  root,  but 
should  be  taken  up  and  transplanted  every  .other 
year;  which  will  make  them  produce  much  fturer 
flowers.  Some  few  sorts  wnicb  are  natives  of 
warm  climates,  will  require  artificial  heat  to  raise 
them,  if  not  to  preserve  them. 

Aster,  in  mineralogy,  a  species  of  Samian 
earth. 

ASTERABAD,  a  small  province  of  Persia, 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Caspian  sea,  on  tiie 

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south  by  the  districts  of  Daragan  and  Bistan, 
and  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  river  Ashor. 
This  province  is  the  ancient  Hyrcania,  and  the 
paternal  estate  of  the  present  king  of  Persia,  as 
chief  of  the  tribe  Kajar,  or  Kujur,  which  has  en- 
tire possession  of  it.  The  capital  is  situated  on 
the  south-east  shore  of  the  Caspian  sea,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Aster,  or  Ester.  It  was  de- 
stroyed by  Tanierlane,  and  is  now  governed  by  a 
descendant  of  the  reigning  family  of  Persia.  300 
miles  N.  N.  £.  of  Ispahan.  Long.  54P  £.,  lat. 
36o44'-N. 

ASTERAC,  or  Esterac,  a  ci-devant  district 
of^  France,  in  Armagnac,  now  included  in  the 
department  of  Gers.    It  is  fertile  and  populous. 

ASTEBIAy  a  gem,  sometimes  cailea  the  cat's 
eye,  or  oculus  felis.  It  is  a  very  singular  and 
beaiittifitl  stone,  and  somewhat  approaches  to  the 
nature  of  the  opal,  in  having  a  bright  included 
color,  which  seems  to  be  lod^  deep  in  the  body 
of  the  stone,  and  shifts  about,  as  it  is  moved,  in 
various  directions:  but  it  differs  from  the  opat 
in  all  other  particulars,  especially  in  its  want  of 
the  great  variety  of  colors  seen  in  that  gem,  and 
in  its  superior  hardness.  It  is  usually  fouod  foe* 
tween  the  size  of  a  pea  and  the  breadth  of  a  six- 
pence ;  is  almost  always  of  a  semicircular  form, 
broad  and  flat  at  the  bottom,  and  rounded  and 
convex  at  the  top ;  and  is  naturally  smooth  and 
polished.  It  has  only  two  colors,  a  pale  brown 
and  a  white ;  the  brown  seeming  the  ground,  and 
the  white  playing  about  in  it,  as  the  fire  color  in 
the  opal.  It  is  considerably  hard,  and  will  take 
a  fine  polish,  but  is  usually  worn  with  its  native 
shape  and  smoothness.  It  is  found  in  the  East 
and  West  Indies,  and  in  Europe.  The  island  of 
Borneo  affords  some  very  fine  ones,  but  they  are 
usually  small;  they  are  very  common  in  the 
sands  of  rivers  in  New  Spain ;  and  in  Bohemia 
they  are  often  found  immersed  in  the  same 
masses  of  jasper  with  the  opal. 

AsTERiA,  an  extraneous  fossil,  called  in  Eng- 
lish the  star-stone.  These  fi)ssils  are  small, 
short,  angular,  or  sulcated  columns,  between  one 
and  two  inches  long,  and  seldom  above  a  third 
of  an  inch  in  diameter:  composed  of  several 
regular  joints ;  when  separated,  each  resembles 
a  radiated  stan.  They  axe,  not  without  reason, 
supposed  to  be  a  part  of  some  sea-fish  petrified, 
probably  the  astenas  or  sea-star.  The  asteria  is 
also  cadled  astrites,  astroites,  and  asteriscus. 
They  may  be  reduced  to  two  kinds :  those  whose 
whole  bodies  make  the  form  of  a  star ;  and  those 
which  in  the  whole  are  irreguku,  but  are  adorned 
as  i{  were  with  constellations  in  the  parts.  The 
asterias  spoken  of  by  the  ancients  appears  to  be 
of  this  latter  kind.  The  quality  ox  moving  in 
vinegar,  as  if  animated,  is  scarcely  perceivable 
in  the  astrites,  but  is  signal  in  the  asteria.  The 
fi>rmer  must  be  broken  in  small  pieces  before  it 
will  move ;  but  the  latter  will  move,  not  only  in 
a  whole  joint,  but  in  two  or  three  knit  together. 
The  curious  frequently  meet  with  these  stones  in 
many  parts  of  England. 

Asteria,  in  zoology,  a  name  by  which  some 
authors  have  called  the  falco  palumbarius,  or 
gos-hawk.    See  Falco. 

ASTERIAS,  star-fish,  or  sea-star,  in  zoology, 
a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  of  vermes  mol- 


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lusca,  It  has  a  depressed  body,  covered  with  a 
coriaceous  coat;  is  composed  of  five  or  more 
segments,  running  out  from  a  central  part^  and 
furnished  with  numerous  tentacula;  and  has  the 
mouth  in  the  centre.  The  tentacula  resemble 
the  horns  of  snails,  but  serve  the  animal  to  walk 
with.  They  are  capable  of  being  contracted  or 
shortened :.  and  it  is  only  at  the  creatures  moving 
that  they  are  seen  of  their  full  length;  at  other 
times,  no  part  of  them  is  seen  but  the  extremity 
of  each,  which  is  formed  like  a  sort  of  button, 
being  somewhat  larger  than  the  rest  of  the  horn. 
Aristotle  and  Pliny  called  this  genus  avii^  and 
Stella  marina,  from  their  resemblance  to  the  pic- 
tured form  of  the  stars  of  heaven ;  and  they  as- 
serted that  they  were  so  exceedingly  hot,  as 
instantly  to  consume  whatsoever  they  touched ! 
The  fossil  world  has  been  gready  enriched  by  the 
firagments  and  remains  of  the  several  pieces  of 
star-fish  which  have  been  converted  into  stones. 
See  Asteria.  There  are  many  species  of  this 
genus :  some  of  twelve,  thirteen,  and  even  four- 
teen rays.  Most  of  them  are  found  in  our  seas. 
We  enumerate  the  principal :  1 .  A.  caput  meducz, 
or  arborescent  searstar,  having  five  rays  issuing 
from  an  angular  body;  the  rays  divided  into 
innumerable  branches,  growing  slender  as  they 
recede  from  the  base.  These  the  animal,  in 
swimming,  spreads  like  a  net ;  and  when  he  per- 
ceives any  prey  within  them,  draws  them  in 
again.  It  is  called  by  some  the  Magellanic  star- 
fish, and  basket-fish.  2.  A.  clathatra,  or  cancel- 
lated sea-star,  with  five  short  thick  rays,  hirsute 
beneath,  cancellated  above,  is  found  on  our 
coasts,  but  is  rare.  3.  A.  decacnemos  having 
ten  very  slender  rays,  with  numbers  of  long 
beards  on  the  sides ;  the  body  small,  and  sur- 
rounded beneath  with  ten  filiform  rays.  It  in- 
habits the  western  coasts  of  Scodand.  4.  A.  gla- 
cialis,  with  five  rays,  depressed,  round  at  the 
base,  yellow,  and  having  a  round  striated  oper- 
culum on  the  back,  is  the  most  common ;  it  feeds 
on  oysters,  and  is  very  destructive  to  the  beds. 
5.  A.  hispida,  with  five  rays,  broad,  angulated  at 
top,  and  rough,  with  short  bristles,  is  of  a  brown 
color,  and  found  about  Anglesea.  6.  A.  oculata, 
with  five  smooth  rays^  dotted  or  punctured,  is  of 
a  fine  purple  color,  also  found  about  Anglesea. 
7.  A.  placenta,  with  five  very  broad  and  mem- 
braneous rays,  extremely  thin  and  flat,  found 
about  Weymouth.  8.  A.  spherulata,  with  a  pen- 
tagonal indented  body;  a  small  globular  bead 
between  the  base  of  each  ray ;  the  rays  slender, 
jointed,  taper,  and  hirsute  on  their  sides;  found 
off  Anglesea. 

Asterias,  in  ornithology,  the  ancient  name  of 
the  bittern.    See  Ardea. 

ASTERION,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the  canes 
venatici. 

ASTERISCUS,  in  botany,  asteriodes  buph- 
thalmum,  the  ox  eye. 
SK,)     ( 

t.     5of 

denote  a  number  of  stars,  a  constellation. 
Asterisk  is  a  character  of  reference  used  in  print- 
ing, resembling  a  small  star. 

Dwell  particularly  on  panares  with  an  atteritm,  for 
the  obtervatioas  which  follow  such  a  note»  will  give 
you  a  clear  light.  Drjfden**  Dujremujf, 


ASTERISK,)'   Gr.A9rff>uneoc,  a  diminutive 
As'terish.      5  of  avTfipf  a  star.     Asterisms 


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Poetiy  had  filled  the  ikies  with  oMteritmt,  and  his- 
tories belonging  to  them ;  and  then  astrology  devises 
the  feigned  virtues  and  inilaences  of  each. 

Bentiey's  Sermom. 
He  also  published  the  translation  uf  the  Sepiuagint 
bj  itself ;  having  first  compared  it  with  the  Hebrew^ 
and  noted  by  agteritlu  what  was  defective,  and  by 
obelisks  what  was  redundant.  Grew. 

ASTERIUS,  or  Asturxus,  a  Roman  consul, 
who  lived  about  A.  D.  449.  He  wrote  A  Con- 
ference on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  in  Latin 
verse,  which  is  extant,  and  in  which  each  strophe 
contains,  in  the  first  verse,  an  historical  hci  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  in  the  second  an  appli- 
cation of  that  fact  to  some  point  in  the  New. 
ASTERN.  On  the  stern.  See  Stern. 
Having  left  this  strait  oMtem,  we  seemed  to  be  come 
out  of  a  river  of  t«-o  leagues  broad,  unto  a  large  and 
main  sea. 

The  World  eneompcmd  bjf  Sir  F  Drake,  1578. 
The  galley  gives  her  side,  and  turns  her  prow. 
While  those  astern  descending  down  the  steep. 
Through  gaping  ways  behold  the  boiling  deep. 

Dryden, 
But  at  sev^n  in  the  evening,  finding  we  did  not  near 
the  chase,  and  that  the  Wager  was  very  far  aitem,  we 
shortened  sail,  and  made  a  signal  for  the  cruizers  to 
join  the  squadron.  Atuom^i  Voyage,  p.  50. 

Astern  is  used  to  signify  any  thing  at  some 
distance  behind  the  ship ;  being  the  opposite  of 
arbead,  which  signifies  the  space  before  her.  See 
Abead. 

ASTEROPjEUS,  a  Trojan  hero,  who  fought 
with  Achilles,  in  single  combat,  and  proved  him 
not  invulnerable,  by  wounding  him  m  the  right 
arm;  notwithstanding  which  Achilles  slew  him. 
ASTEROPH  YTON,  in  natural  history,  a  kind 
of  fish  composed  of  a  great  number  of  cylindric 
rays,  each  branching  out  into  several  others,  so  as 
to  represent  the  branched  stalks  of  a  very  intri- 
cate shrub. 

ASTEROPODIUM,  a  kind  of  extraneous 
fossil,  of  the  same  substance  with  the  asteriae  or 
star-stones,  to  which  they  serve  as  a  base.  See 
AsTERiA  and  Star-stone. 

ASTESAN,  the  ancient  county  of  Asti,  a  dis- 
trict of  Upper  Italy,  bounded  by  Chieri  and 
Ogumagnola  on  the  west,  by  the  Vercellois  on 
the  north  and  east,  and  by  the  marquisate  of 
Gonegno  on' the  south.  It  is  a  fruitful  and  po- 
pulous territory,  about  twenty-five  miles  long 
and  ten  broad,  and  belongs  to  the  house  of  Sa- 
voy. It  produces  excellent  wines,  and  exports 
to  various  parts  of  Italy  large  quantities  of  olives. 
ASTETE'S  Island,  an  island  to  the  north- 
west of  the  gulf  of  Carpentaria,  New  Holland, 
containing  some  traces  of  iron  ore,  and  well 
wooded. 

ASTHMA,  a  frequent,  difficult,  and  short  re- 
spiration, joined  with  a  hissing  sound  and  a 
cough,  especially  in  the  night-time,  and  when 
the  body  is  in  a  prone  posture ;  because  then  the 
contents  of  the  lower  oelly  bear  so  against  tlie 
diaphragm,  as  to  lessen  the  capacity  of  the  breast, 
whereby  the  lungs  have  less  room  to  move.  See 
MsDicrft'E. 

ASTI,  a  city  of  Montserrat  in  Italy,  capital  of 
the  county.  It  has  a  bishop's  see ;  is  well  for- 
tified with  strong  walls  and  deep  ditches :  and  is 
divided  into  the  city,  borough,  citadel,  and  castle. 


83  AST 

There  are  a  ^creat  many  churches,  convents,  and 
other  handsome  buildings  in  it.  it  is  sealed  on 
the  Tanaro,  twenty-four  miles  east  of  Turin. 
Population  22,000.  The  inhabiunts  carry  on 
a  considerable  trade  in  com,  wine,  and  silk, 
which  is  promoted  by  the  situation  of  the  town 
on  the  high-road  from  Alessandria  to  Turin. 

ASTIGI,  in  ancient  geography,  a  colony,  an«l 
conventus  juridicus,  of  Boetica,  situated  on  the 
Singulus,  which  falls  into  the  Bxtis ;  called  also 
Colonia  Astigitana,  and  Augusta  Firma;  now 
Ecya,  midway  between  Seville  and  Corduba. 

ASTIPULATE, )     To  make  an  agreement. 

Astip'ulation.    ]  See  Stipulate. 

I  do  by  my  roy«l  authority,  confirm  to  pcnons  of 
monastical  religion,  and  by  the  content  and  asti/mla- 
tion  of  my  princes  and  peers  do  esUblish  and  consign 
to  them  that  monastery. 

Bp.  HaW»  Polemical  Workt,  p.  187. 

Shortly,  all,  but  a  hateful  Epicurus,  have  oMttpu^ 
lated  to  this  truth.  Id.  DeoothmU  Works. 

ASTIPULATOR,  among  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics, he  by  whose  consent  and  leave  a  nun  takes 
the  religious  habit. 

ASTLE  (Thomas),  an  English  antiquary,  was 
the  son  of  a  farmer  in  Staflbrdshire.  After  he 
had  received  a  liberal  education,  Mr.  Grenville 
took  him  under  his  patronage,  and  about  1763 
gave  him  a  place  along  with  Sir  Joseph  Ayloffe 
and  Dr.  Ducarel,  in  the  superintendance  of  the 
Westminster  records.  In  1766  he  was  chosen  to 
conduct  the  printing  of  the  ancient  records  of 
parliament;  and  in  1775  was  appointed  prin- 
cipal clerk  in  the  record  office  m  the  Tower; 
from  which,  on  the  death  of  Sir  John  Shelly,  he 
succeeded  to  the  office  of  keeper  of  the  records. 
He  died  in  December  1803,  and  was  the  author 
of  many  curious  papers  in  the  volumes  of  the 
Archseologia;  also  of  a  work  entitled  Origin  and 
Progress  of  Writing,  as  well  hieroglyphic  as  ele- 
mentary ;  which  was  first  printed  in  1784,  4to, 
and  again  in  1803. 

ASTLEY  (John),  a  native  of  Wem  in  Shrop- 
shire, though  he  studied  painting  under  the  same 
master  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  is  more  me- 
morable as  a  fisivorite  of  fortune,  than  as  a  limner. 
His  best  pictures  are  copies  of  the  Bentivoglio's, 
Titian's  Venus,  &c.  Lady  Daniel,  having  sat  to 
him  for  her  picture,  within  a  week  afler  gave 
him  the  original,  with  the  estate  of  Duckenfield, 
worth  £5000  a  year.    He  died  in  1787. 

AsTLEY  (Philip),  the  founder  of  the  royal  am- 
phitheatre near  Westminster  Bridge,  was  born  at 
Newcastle-nnder-line  in  1742,  and  bred  a  cabinet- 
maker. In  1759  he  enlisted  in  the  Light  Horse, 
and  served  seven  years  in  Germany,  where  he 
acquired  the  reputation  of  a  good  soldier.  On 
his  return  home,  he  began  to  exhibit  equestrian 
performances;  and  in  1780  erected  a  building 
which  he  called  the  amphitheatre  riding  house, 
for  which  he  subsequently  procured  a  license. 
In  1794  Mr.  Astley  went  to  the  continent  as  a 
volunteer  in  the  army.  This  campaign  led  to  the 
publication  of  his  Descriptive  and  Historical 
Account  of  the  places  now  the  theatre  of  war  in 
the  Low  Countries,  with  plans  of  fortifications; 
l>ondon,  1794,  8vo ;  and  Remarks  on  the  Pro- 
fession and  Duty  of  a  Soldier.  Mr.  Astley  built 
amphitheatres  at  Dublin  and  at  Paris,  and  the 

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Olympic  Pavilion  near  the  Strand.  He  closed 
an  active  and  diversified  life  at  Paris,  October 
20ih,  1814,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two.  Another 
work  of  his  is  entitled  A  System  of  Equestrian 
Education,  exhibiting  the  Beauties  and  Defects 
of  the  Horse,  1800,  4to. 

ASTOMl,  in  anthropology,  a  people  feigned 
to  be  without  mouths.  Pliny  speaks  of  a  nation 
of  Astomi  in  India,  who  lived  only  by  the  smell 
or  effluvia  of  bodies  taken  in  by  the  nose ! 

ASTON  (Sir  Arthur),  a  commander  in  the 
service  of  Charles  I.  was  at  the  head  of  the  dra- 
goons at  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  and  three  times 
defeated  the  earl  of  Essex.  He  was  successively 
governor  of  Reading  and  Oxford.  He  had  the 
misfortune  to  break  one  of  his  legs  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  make  amputation  necessary;  and, 
serving  in  Ireland  after  the  death  of  the  kine, 
when  Cromwell  took  Drogheda,  where  Aston 
was  governor,  his  brains  were  beaten  out  with 
his  wooden  leg. 

Aston  (Sir  Thomas),  of  an  ancient  family  in 
Cheshire,  was  created  baronet  in  1628,  and  ap- 
pointed high  sheriff  of  Cheshire  in  1635.  He 
raised  a  troop  of  horse  for  king  Charles  I.,  but 
was  defeated  and  wounded  in  the  vicinity  of 
Nantwich  in  1642.  He  was  afterwards  made 
prisoner,  and  carried  to  Stafford;  and,  while 
endeavouring  to  make  his  escape,  a  soldier 
struck  him  on  the  head,  which,  with  other 
wounds  he  had  received,  brought  on  a  fever, 
which  ended  in  his  death,  in  1643.  Sir  Thomas 
was  author  of,  1 .  A  Remonstrance  against  Pres- 
bytery, 1641,  4to;  2.  A  Short  Survey  of  the 
Presbyterian  Discipline;  3.  Brief  Review  of 
the  Institution,  Succession,  and  Jurisdiction  of 
Bishops. 

^  Ang.-Sax.  stunian,  to 
stun.  Old  Fr.  estonne,  to 
amaze,  to  excite  wonder, 
surprise;  to  stiike  as  with 
thunder,  startle,  stupify, 
''confound,  benumb ;  to  ston- 
ny,  or,  as  we  say  in  modern 
phrase,  to  petrify.  As- 
tound is  from  the  same 
root,  and  of  a  correspond- 


ASTON'E, 
Aston'y, 
Astok'ying, 
Aston'iedness, 
Aston'isu, 
A.ston'ishedly, 
Aston'ishing. 
Aston'ishingly, 
Astom'ishment, 
Astoun'd. 
ing  signification. 

But  netheles  how  that  it  wende 
He  drad  hym  of  his  owne  sonne 
That  makedi  hym  well  the  more  attone. 

Oower.  Con,  A.  book  vi. 
And  with  this  word  she  fell  to  groond 
Aswoune,  and  there  she  lay  a$totind. 

Id,  ib.  1.  iv. 

And    anoon   all    the    paple  seynge   Jhesns  was 

oMtonyed  and  thei  dredden,  and  thei  rennynge  gretten 

him.  WicUf.  Mark,  chap.  ix. 

Be  attongfihed  (0  ye   heaues),   be   afrayde,  and 

vibashed  at  soch  a  thinge,  sayethe  the  Lord.     For  my 

people  doue  two  euels.         Bible,  1539.  Jeremy,  c.  ii. 

Her  looks  did  so  atlonUh  me» 

And  set  my  heart  a  quaking; 
Like  stag  that  gas'd,  I  was  amas*d. 
And  in  a  stranger  taking. 

Belchier,  in  EUia,  vol.  iii. 
These  thonghts  may  startle  well,  but  not  astound. 
The  virtuous  mind ;  that  ever  walks,  attended 
By  a  strong  siding  champion,  conscience.         Milton, 


Kow  they  lie 

Groveling  and  prostrate  on  yon  lake  of  fire. 

As  we  ere  while,  aaUrunded  and  amas'd. 

No  wonder,  fall'n  such  a  pernicious  height. 

HUton,  Paradite  Leet,  b.  i. 
Princes,  potentates. 
Warriors,  the  flow'r  of  heaven,  once  yours,  now  lost. 
If  such  oitoniilimeni  as  this  can  seize 
Immortal  spirits.  Id, 

But  all  sate  mute. 
Pondering  the  danger-with  deep  thoughts ;  and  each 
In  other's  countenance  read  his  own  dismay 
AtUmitht,  Id.  b.  ii. 

As  when  some  peasant  in  a  bushy  brake. 

Has  with  unwary  footing  pressed  a  snake  ; 

He  starts  aside,  atUmUh'd,  when  he  spies 

His  rising  crest,  blue  neck,  and  rolling  eyes. 

Drydin'i  VinjU. 

The  palaces  of  Pern  and  Mexico  were  cejtaiuly 
mean  and  incommodious  habitations,  if  compared  u> 
the  houses  of  European  monarchs;  yet  who  could 
forbear  to  view  them  with  tutomihmeni,  who  remeui- 
bered  that  they  were  built  without  the  use  of  imn. 

Johuoa. 

Whence  many  wearied  e'er  ihey  had  o'erpast 
The  middle  stream  (for  they  in  vain  have  tried) 
Again  retum'd  astounded  and  aghast. 
No  one  regardful  look  would  ever  backward  casu 

GUbert  Weft, 
A  genius,  universal  as  his  theme, 
AeUmkhmg  as  chaos.  Thoaaen. 

At  first,  heard  solemn  thro'  the  verge  of  heaven 
The  tempest  growls ;  but  as  it  nearer  comes. 
And  rolls  its  awful  burden  on  the  wind. 
The  lightning's  flash  a  larger  curve,  and  more 
The  noise  cuiaunda,  Thomgon*»  Seaam*. 

Unmanly  dread  invades 

The  French  attuny'd.  J,  PkUip^. 

Attonuhfnent  is  that  state  of  the  soul  in  which  &U 
its  motions  are  suspended,  with  some  degree  of  horror. 
*  Bvrke  on  the  SiMime  and  Beataiful. 

A  character  so  exalted,  so  strenuous,  so  varioos,  so 
authoritative,  aatonuhed  a  corrupt  age,  and  the  trea> 
sury  trembled  at  the  name  of  Pitt,  through  all  her 
classes  of  venality. 

OrattanU  Character  of  Lord  ChaAmm, 

ASTORCHA,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by 
some  botanists  to  the  stoechas. 

ASTORGA,  an  ancient  city  of  Spain,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Leon,  vrith  a  bishop's  see,  seated  on 
the  river  Tuerto,  and  well  fortined.  It  stands  in 
a  most  agreeable  plain,  about  160  miles  north- 
west of  Madrid.  It  is  now  the  chief  place  in  a 
small  marquisate,  the  castle  of  which  it  contains. 
In  its  territory  lies  the  lake  of  Sanabria,  through 
which  the  Tuerto  passes  with  such  rapidity  as  to 
agitate  the  whole  sur&ce. 

ASTR.£A,  in  astronomy,  a  name  of  the  sign 
Virgo,  by  others  called  Erigone,  and  sometimes 
Isis. 

AsTRXA,  in  mythology,  the  goddess  of  jus- 
tice, and  daughter  of  Jupiter  by  Themis,  or, 
as  others  say,  by  Nemesis,  the  goddess  of  ven- 
geance. The  Doets  feign  that  Astrtta  quitted 
heaven  to  reside  on  earth,  in  the  golden  age ; 
but,  growing  weazy  of  the  iniquities  of  mankind, 
she  left  the  earth,  and  returned  to  heaven,  where 
she  commenced  a  constellation  of  stars,  and  from 
her  orb  still  looks  down  on  the  ways  of  men. 

ASTRAGAli^  in  architecture,  a  little  n>und 
moulding,  which  in  the  orders  surrounds  the  top 
of  the  shaft  or  body  of  the  column.    Its  etymo- 


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logy  is  derived  from  its  resemblance  to  the  bone 
of  the  heel,  called  astragalos.  It  is  also  called 
the  talon  and  tondino ;  it  is  used  at  the  bottoms 
as  well  as  the  tops  of  columns,  and  on  other  oc- 
casions ;  it  properly  represents  a  ring,  on  what- 
ever part  of  a  column  it  is  placed ;  and  the  origi- 
nal idea  of  it  was  thA  of  a  circle  of  iron  put 
round  the  trunk  of  a  tree  used  to  support  an 
edific^  to  prevent  its  splitting.  The  astragal  is 
often  cut  into  beads  and  berries,  and  is  used  in 
the  ornamented  entablatures  to  separate  the  se- 
veral &ces  of  the  architrave.    See  Architec- 

TVRE. 

Astragal,  in  gunneiy,  a  round  moulding 
encompassing  a  cannon,  about  half  a  foot  from 
its  mouth. 

ASTRAGALOIDES,  in  botany,  the  phaca  of 
LinuKus. 

ASTRAGALOMANCY;  from  aTpayoXoc,and 
^McvrtMt,  divination ;  a  species  of  divination  per- 
formed by  throwing  small  pieces,  with  marks 
corresponding  to  the  letters  of  the  alphabet ;  tlie 
accidental  disposition  of  which  formed  the  an- 
swer required.  This  kind  of  divination  was 
practised  in  a  temple  of  Hercules  at  Achaia. 

ASTIlAGALOT£,  in  natural  history,  a  species 
of  fossile  alum,  thus  called  from  its  resembling  a  ' 
talus,  or  ankle-bone ;  whence  it  is  also  denomi- 
nated talare. 

ASTRAGALUS,  in  anatomy,  the  bone  of  the 
heel.    See  Anatomy. 

Astragalus,  in  botany,  milk-vetch,  or  liquor- 
ice vetch ;  a  genus  of  the  decandria  order,  and 
diadelphia  class  of  plants ;  ranking  in  the  na- 
tural method  under  the  thirty-second  order, 
papiliouaces,  the  pod  is  gibbous  and  bilocular. 
Or  this  genus  there  are  thirty-nine  species.  1.  A. 
communis,  the  common  species,  grows  wild 
upon  dry  uncultivated  places,  and  is  often  re- 
commended by  Mr.  Anderson  as  proper  food 
for  cattle.  2.  A.  tragacantha,  a  thorny  bush, 
growing  in  Crete,  Asia,  and  Greece,  which  yields 
the  gum  traeacanth.  This  is  of  so  strong  a 
body,  that*  a  dram  of  it  will  give  a  pint  of  water 
the  consistence  of  a  syrup,  which  a  whole  ounce 
of  gum  Arabic  is  scarce  sufficient  to  do.  Hence 
its  use  for  forming  troches  and  the  like  purposes, 
in  preference  to  tae  other  gums. 

ASTRAKHAN,  a  city  and  government  of  the 
Russian  empire,  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian, 
anciently  an  independent  T^tarian  sovereignty, 
Lut  reduced  to  a  Russian  province  by  the  Tzar 
Ivan  Vasili'ovich  in  1-554.  It  forms  a  distinct 
province,  named  after  its  principal  city ;  having 
ceen  separated  from  that  of  Caucasus,  in  which 
it  was  formerly  included.  It  is  bounded  by  the 
governments  of  Caucasus,  Saratov,  Orenburg,  the 
country  of  the  Kirgiz  Tartars,  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  the  ci-devant  Persian  provinces  of  D&ghist^n 
and  Lergist^n ;  and  contains  12,568  square  geo- 
graphicad  miles.  The  number  of  its  inhabitants 
is  from  300,000  to  400,000.  Its  extent  from 
east  to  west  is  about  600  geographical  miles,  and 
from  north  to  south  about  520.  The  climate  is 
rather  warm,  the  therrooireter  rising  in  the  sum- 
mer to  158*  (Fahrenheit);  but  the  nights  are 
cold,  and  the  dew  very  copious.  The  ice  is 
usually  strong  enough  to  bear  at  the  end  of 
November,  and  is  not  melted  again  till  February. 


This  is  followed  by  violent  storms ;  but  spring' 
soon  advances,  the  ground  is  covered  with  flowers, 
and  the  whole  face  of  nature  changed.  The 
summer  is  remar|j:ably  dry.  This  government  is 
separated  from  that  of  Kazan  and  the  Kozaks  of 
the  Ural,  by  a  barren  branch  of  the  Uralian  chain, 
which  stretches  from  north  to  south,  and  is-  the 
only  line  of  hills  in  this  province.  The  rest  of 
tlie  government  is  one  continued '  level.  The 
principal  rivers,  besides  the  Volga  and  Ural, 
are  the  Akhtuba,  running  parallel  witli  the  Volga, 
tlie  Manich,  the  great  and  little  Uzen,  the  Kuban, 
the  Kuma,  lost  in  the  summer  months  in  the 
sands,  the  Terek,  the  Malka,  and  the  Sula.  The 
air  in  the  Steppes  is  said  to  be  very  unhealthy. 
At  a  distance  from  the  stream  the  soil  becomes 
salt  and  barren,  and  is  covered  with  drifting  sand. 
There  are  several  salt  lakes,  such  as  the  Bogdo, 
Basinskoe,  Graznoe,  Kobilikha,  &c. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Volga  rhubarb  and  liquor- 
ice are  plentifiil,  and  the  extract  from  the  root 
of  the  latter  is  prepared  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties in  the  city  of  Astrakhan.  The  sea-rose, 
found  near  the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  is  here  con- 
sidered as  sacred  and  nutritious.  Its  flowers 
have  a  fragrant  smell,  and  give  an  essential  water 
of  the  scent  of  amber.  The  sh  rubs  of  the  Steppes 
are  cherries,  sloes,  dwarf  almonds,  and  capers. 
Near  the  river  there  are  the  willow,  alder,  birch, 
ash,  poplar,  elm,  and  oak ;  the  beech  also  on  the 
Kuban  ;  but  no  large  woods.  The  fruit  trees  are 
Tatarian  mulberries,  cherries,  apples,  pears, 
plums,  apricots,  peaches,  quinces,  and  vines; 
and  on  the  latter  there  are  also  figs,  almonds, 
wild  olives,  Spanish  chestnuts,  pomegranates,  and 
Cornelian  cherries  (Cornus  mas),  which,  when 
pickled,  taste  like  olives.  Silk,  tobacco,  and 
cotton  are  plentiful ;  and  the  gardens  produce  all 
the  common  roots  and  herbs.  The  pasturage  is 
excellent,  and  much  cattle  is  reared.  Sea  and 
rock-salt,  natron,  epsom-salt,  salt-petre-earth, 
bitumen,  and  mineral  pitch,  are  also  an  abundant 
source  of  wealth  to  Astrakhan. 

The  population  of  the  province  is  composed  of 
a  great  number  of  different  nations ;  Russians, 
Kozaks,  Tartars,  Kalmuks,  Indians,  Persians, 
Armenians,  &c.  Generally  the  military,  public 
officers,  merchants,  mechanics,  and  other  citizens^ 
are  Russians.  The  garrisons  on  the  Ural  consist 
of  Kozaks,  derived  from  those  of  tlie  Don,  who 
choose  their  ovm  officers,  except  their  commander, 
the  hetman,  or  ataman,  who  is  appointed  by  the 
Russian  government.  The  Tartars  are,  excepting 
a  small  number,  nomad  tribes,  continually  en- 
camped, consisting  of  about  9000  families.  Tlie 
Kalmuks,  about  12,000  families,  are  of  the  Derbet 
tribe,  and  encamp  between  the  Volga,  Don,  and 
j^uma.  There  are  also  Armenians,  Greeks, 
Georgians  (Gruzinians),  Bukharians,  Khivinzians, 
and  Hindoos,  in  considerable  numbers,  constantly 
inhabiting  the  city,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Euro- 
peans who  are  generally  to  be  found  there. 
Some  colonies,  established  on  the  Terek  and 
Kiima  in  1781,  cultivate  grain,  gardens,  and 
vineyards,  and  produce  a  considerable  quantity 
of  silk.  The  number  of  their  villages  amounted 
to  fifty-three  in  1796. 

Astrakhan,  the  capital  of  the  above  govern- 
ment,   (called    originally    H5j6  Terkhan,    the 


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Giterchan,  or  Ginterchan,  of  the  middle  ajjes), 
issituatedin  E.  long,  48"  2*  15',  N.lat46''2l'12'', 
and  is  one  of  the  most  populous  and  important 
cities,  ranking  as  the  third  town,  perhaps,  of  the 
Russian  empire.  It  contains  nearly  70,000  in- 
habitants. It  stands  on  a  hill,  in  a  long  narrow 
island  of  the  Volga,  about  thirty  miles  from  its 
entrance  into  the  Caspian,  surrounded  by  swamps, 
which  in  spring  are  very  unhealthy.  The  town 
itself,  without  including  the  suburbs,  is  from  six 
to  eight  miles  in  circumference.  The  houses  are 
built  principally  of  brick  and  sand-stone.  Here 
is  an  old  Tatar  castle,  or  kreml,  and  the  Belot- 
Gorod  (white  tower),  built  by  Uie  tzar,  Michael 
Feodorovich,  now  in  ruins;  a  cathedral,  arch- 
bishop's palace,  public  offices,  main  guard, 
arsenal,  and  powder  magazine.  Belgorod,  which 
adjoins  the  kreml,  on  the  same  hill,  is  2510  feet 
long,  1440  feet  broad,  and  7110  feet  in  circum- 
ference. The  city  has  four  gates,  and  some 
ruined  walls.  The  streets  are  ill  paved,  and 
much  exposed  to  inundations.  Between  the 
kreml  and  the  canal,  on  the  Volga,  is  the  dock- 
yard, on  the  other  side  of  which  are  the  Tatarian 
and  Armenian  suburbs  (slobods),  and  barracks 
for  the  troops.  The  exchange,  where  ships  from 
the  Caspian  unlade  and  land  their  goods,  is  not 
far  from  St  Nicolas's  Gate,  and  opposite  to  it  is 
the  haven  for  vessels  coming  down  the  river. 
Within  the  suburbs  are  about  100  vineyards, 
thirty  of  which  belong  to  the  crown ;  a  school  for 
the  artillery,  a  bank,  and  court  of  justice,  in 
what  was  formerly  the  Troitzko'i  convent ;  and, 
in  the  Belograd,  the  Spasso-preobrashenski  con- 
vent, two  parish  churcnes,  two  hospitals,  and  a 
b^r  for  the  use  of  the  Armenians  and  Hin- 
doos. 

The  variety  of  nations  and  religions  i^  Astra- 
khan is  manifested  by  the  number  and  difference 
of  the  places  of  worship.    The  total  of  them  is 
fifty-seven :  twenty-three  Russian  churches  of  the 
Greek     communion ;     twenty-seven    Tatarian 
mosques,  churches,  and  temples;  four  Arme- 
nian, two  Roman  Catholic,  one  Lutheran,  and 
one  Hindoo  temple.    There  b  also  a  handsome 
hospital  dedicated  to  St  Paul,  and  six  monas- 
teries; several  dyeing-houses,  brick-fields,  tallow- 
candle  manufactories,    one  iron-foundry,    and 
looms  for  weaving  linen,  veils,  and  sashes.    The 
morocco  leather  manufactured  here  is  most  es- 
teemed, next  to  the  Turkish  ;  especially  the  red. 
There  is  also  an  establishment  here  for  rearing 
silk-worms,   and  a  botanic  garden.    European 
goods  are  brought  either  by  water  from  Peters- 
burgh,  or,  on  sledges,  by  land  from  Moscow,  and 
are  shipped  across  the  Caspian,  or  conveyed  to 
Mozdok,  in  Mount  Caucasus.    The  merchants 
engaged  in  this  trade  employ  250  vessels  of  dif- 
ferent tonnage.    More  than  half  of  the  whole 
trade  carried  on  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Armenians. 
Many  of  the  Russian  merchants  employ  their 
vessels  in  trading  voyages  to   Persia,    Khiv^, 
or  Bukhard,  or  carrying  stores  to  Kizliacr,  and 
salt,  for  the  crown,  to  the  towns  on  the  Volga. 
The  Hindoo  merchants  generally  quit  their  native 
country  at  an  early  age,  setting  out  with  a  small 
capital,  which  they  soon  increase  by  trade  on 
their  way  through  Tatary  and  Persia ;  and  make 
enormous  profits  by  letting  the  Tatars  of  Astra- 


khan have  their  goods  on  credit;  so  that  the 
latter  are  always  deeply  in  their  debt. 

The  imports  from  Persia  and  Bukhar^  consist 
of  raw  silk,  about  120,000  lbs.  yearly,  wool,  dyed 
woollens,  madder,  galls,  morocco  leather,  chintzes, 
dyed  linens,  silks,  gauzes,  small  carpets,  counter- 
panesy  frankincense,  bezoar,  naphtha,  rice,  deer- 
skins, lamb-«kins,  Circassian  cloth,  tulups 
(pelisses),  mountain-honey,  tobacco,  cotton 
gowns,  Persian  peas,  dried  fruits,  almonds,  figs, 
pomegranates,  olives,  oil,  saffron,  dried  peaches, 
and  spices.  The  exports  consist  almost  entirely 
of  foreign  manufactures;  such  as  velvet,  cochineal, 
satin,  plush,  linen,  and  other  woven  articles, 
sugar,  Russia-leather,  iron,  dyeing  substances^ 
glass,  coral,  steel  and  iron  wares,  metal  utensils, 
wrought  gold  and  silver,  wax,  soap,  trinkets, 
alum,  quick-silver,  vitriol,  sal-ammoniac,  &c. 
Caravans  often  arrive  by  land  at  Astrakhan  from 
Bukhark  and  Khiva.  The  Indian  trade  alone  is 
from  6  to  700,000  roubles  (£120  to  140,000)  an- 
nually. The  silk-manufactures  are  said  to  em- 
ploy from  3  to  400,000  (£60  to  80,000).  The 
supplies  sent  to  the  Caucasian  lines  along  the 
Terek,  firom  4  to  500,000  (£100  to  120,000). 
The  prices  of  all  internal  produce  are  low.  Little 
is  known  concerning  the  origin  of  Astrakhan 
or  of  its  condition  before  the  Uiirteenth  century, 
when  William  de  Rubruguis  found  it  a  village 
without  any  fortifications ;  but,  at  the  close  of 
that  century,  it  was  a  considerable  emporium  for 
the  trade  with  India  and  China ;  and  completely 
ruined  by  Timur.  It  was  still  a  mere  village 
when  Josaphat  Barbaro  saw  it  in  the  fifteenth 
century ;  but  Ambrosio  Contareni,  the  Venetian 
ambassador,  in  the  latter  end  of  that  century, 
found  a  considerable  trade  in  rice  and  silk  car- 
ried on  there.  The  conquest  of  it,  by  the  tzar 
Ivan  Vasiliovich,  in  1554,  was  therefore  very 
advantageous  to  Russia,  as  it  gave  her  the  com- 
mand not  only  of  the  Volga,  but  also  of  the  Cas- 
pian, an  advantage  which  she  has  not  neglected 
to  improve. 

ASTRALISH,  among  miners,  is  the  ore  of 
gold  in  its  first  state. 

ASTRANTIA,  Masterwort,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  digynia  order,  and  the  pentandria 
class  of  plants  ;  ranking  in  the  natural  method 
under  the  forty-fifth  order,  umbellata.  The  in- 
volucrum  is  lanceolated,  open,  equal,  and  co- 
lored. The  species  are  two :  1 .  A.  major.  2. 
A.  minor,  both  natives  of  the  Alps,  and  possess- 
ing no  remarkable  properties. 

ASTRAPiEA,  in  natural  history,  a  name 
given  by  the  ancients  to  a  stone,  smce  called, 
improperly,  astrapia,  and  by  some  astrapias.  It 
was  of  a  blue,  or  blackish  ore,  with  white  varie- 
gations, running  in  the  form  of  waves  and  clouds. 
Some  specimens  of  the  Persian  lapis  lazuli  are  of 
this  kind,  but  they  are  rare. 

ASTRARII,  in  writers  of  the  middle  age, 
tlie  same  with  mansionarii,  tliose  who  live  in 
the  house  €r  family,  at  the  time  when  a  person 
dies. 

ASTRARIUS  Hares  ;  from  astre,  old  French, 
a  hearth ;  is  used  in  our  old  writers,  where  the 
ancestor^  by  conveyance,  hath  set  his  heirs  ap- 
parent, and  his  family,  in  a  house,  in  his  life- 
time.' 


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ASTRAY'.     Accordmg  to  Tooke,  the  past 
part,  of  the  Ang.-Sax.  reH)  streegan,  to  stray,  to 
scatter. 
First  every  day,  beseech  thy  God  on  knee. 

So  to  direct  thy  'staggVing  steppes  alway ; 
That  he  which  evecy  secrete  thought  doth  see. 
May  holde  thee  in,  when-  than  wonldst  goe  attttijf. 

Gateoigne. 
Yon  labour  may 
To  lead  astntff. 
The  heart  that  constant  shall  remain. 
And  I  the  while 
Will  sit  and  smile. 
To  see  you  spend  yonr  time  in  vain. 

Qeorge  Wither,  in  &Su,  ▼.  i. 
And  darkness  and  donbt  are  now  flying  away, 

No  longer  I  roam  in  conjecture- forlorn. 
So  breaks  on  the  traveller,  fbiaX,  and  dbtroy. 
The  bright  and  th»  balmy  efinlge&ce  of  mom. 

Be(Utie*9  Hermii. 


AST 


tunty  astrii^ertj  to 
contract.  To  make 
strait  or  narrow,  to 
heighten  or  draw 
dose,  to  bind;  op- 


ASTRICr,«.&d4^*. 

ASTaiC^TION, 

Astric'tiv£, 

Ajthin'oe, 

Astrin'ceittlt, 

Astrim'gemt,  n.  &  ai^.j 
posed  to  relax. 

Teara  are  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  spirits  of 
the  brain ;  which  contraction,  by  consequence,  agtn»- 
geth  the  moisture  of  the  brain,  and  thereby  sendeth 
tears  into  the  eyes.  Bacon, 

This  virtue  requireth  an  aslricthn;  but  such  an 
agtriction,  as  is  not  grateful  to  the  body :  for  a  pleas- 
ing attriction  doth  rather  bind  in  the  nerves,  than 
expel  them ;  and  therefore  such  oHrietion  is  found  in 
things  of  a  harsh  taste.  Id. 

The  juke  is  very  arirmifmit,  and  therefore  of  slow 
motion.  id.  Natural  Hutory, 

What  diminisheth  sensible  perspiration,  encreaseth 
the  insensible ;  for  that  xeseon,  a  strengthening  and 
aalrifigetU  diet  often  condnceth  to  this  purpose. 

Arbidlmot  on  AUtnenit, 

The  solid  parts  were  to  be  relaxed  or  aOricted,  as 
they  let  the  humours  pass,  either  in  too  small  or  too 
great  quantities.  Id, 

Lenitive  substances  are  proper  for  dry  atrabilarian 
constitutions ;  who  are  subject  to  aitricHon  of  the  belly, 
and  the  piles.  Id.  on  Diet. 

Addf'actid,  austere  and  bitter  substances,  by  their 
aetringemcjf,  create  honour;'  that  is,  stimulate  the 
fibres.  Id. 

Aitringent  medicines  are  binding,  which  act  by  the 
asperity  of  their  particles ;  whereby  they  corrugate 
the  membranes,  and  make  them  draw  up  closer. 

Quineg. 

AsTRicTioN,  in  law.    See  Thirlage. 

AsTRicTioN,  in  medicines,  the  operation  of 
astringent  medicines. 

ASTRICUS  Lapis,  in  natural  history,  a  kind 
of  figured  stone,  broken  or  cut  from  the  enastros, 
after  the  same  manner  as  the  trochitae,  from  the 
eatrochi. 

A3TBID%  )     On  stride,  on  straddle.    See 

Astrad'dle.  S  Stride,  and  Straddle. 
To  lay  their  native  arms  aside. 
Their  modesty ;  and  ride  attride.       Hudihraa. 

I  saw  a  place,  where  the  Rhone  is  so  straitened 
between  two  rocks,  that  a  man  may  stand  astride  upon 
both  at  once.  Boyle. 

ASTRILD,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  the 
loxia. 

AsTRiNCEiVTS,  in  the  materia  medica,  sub- 
stances distinguished  by  a  rough  austere  taste, 


and  chttiging  solutions  of  iron,  especially  those 
made  in  &e  vitriolic  acid,  into  a  dark  purple  or 
black  color ;  such  as  galls,  tormentil  root,  bistort 
root,  balaustines,  terra  japonica,  acacia,  &c. 

ASTROBOLISM;  from  a^i^p,  a  star,  and 
/SaXXw,  to  strike;  the  same  with  sphacelus; 
though  properly  applied  to  plants  which  are  de- 
stroyed in  the  dog-days,  as  if  blasted  by  that 
star. 

ASTROCUITES,  or  Astroitbs.     See  As- 

TERIA. 

ASTROGNOSIA;  fiK>m  a?i}p,  ster,  mA  ytr 
yM^rw,  I  know ;  the  art  of  knowing  the  fixed 
stars,  their  names,  ranks,  situations  in  the-  eon- 
stelktions,  and  the  like.    See  Astronomy. 

ASTROLABE,  1     ^  ,  , 

As'trolabre       i     ^''  "^^^'  *  •'*''  *™* 

The  firste  partye  of  this  treatise  shall  rehearse  the 
figures,  and  Uie  membres  of  thine  attrulaby,  because 
that  thou  shalt  have  the  greater  knowyng  of  thyne 
owne  instrument.         Chaucer.  Astrolahte,  f.  262.  c.  i. 

For  I  have  ben  toward  the  parties  of  Braban,  and 
beholden  the  astrolabre,  that  the  sterre  that  is  oL^ 
the  transmontayne,  is  53  degrees  highe. 

Sir  John  MavndevUle: 
Liv'd  Tycho  now,  struck  with  this  ray  .which  shone 
More  bright  i'  the  mom,  than  others  beam  at  noon. 
He'd  take  his  astrolabe,  and  seek  out  here 
What  new  star  'twas  did  gild  our  hemisphere. 

Dryden.  On  the  Death  of  Lord  Ha^mgt. 

Astrolabe,  among  the  ancients,  was  the  same 
as  our  armillary  sphere. 

Astrolabe,  among  the  modems,  bused  for  a 
planisphere,  or  a  stereographic  projection  of  the 
sphere,  either  upon  the  plane  of  the  equator,  the 
^e  being  supposed  to  be  in  the.  pole  of  the 
world,  or  upon  the  plane  of  the  mendian,  at  the 
time  the  eye  is  supposed  in  the  point  of  the  in- 
tersection of  the  equinoctial  and  horizon. 

ASTRCLOGY,    "^     A^-ijp,  a  star,  and  Xoyop, 
Astro' LOG ER,  a  discourse ;  from  Xtyw,  I 

Astro' LOG  I  AN,  I  say.  In  Latin  writers, 
Astro'log  ick,  j  astrology  was  synonymous 
Astro'logicall,  with,  and  more  in  use 
Astrolo'gically.J  than,  astrono^my.  This 
usage  has  been  imitated  by  our  elder  writers. 

On  which  was  written,  not  in  words. 
But  hieroglyphic  mute  of  birds ; 
Many  rare  pithy  saws  concerning. 
The  worth  of  oitrologic  learning. 

Butler's  Hudibraa,  part  i.  can.  3. 
A  worthy  astrologer,  by  perspective .  glasses,  hath 
.found  in  the  stars  many  things  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients. Raleigh. 
Not  unlike  that,  which  astrclogeru  call  a  conjunction 
of  planets,  of  no  very  benign  aspect  the  one  to  the 
ether.  Wotton. 
Some  seem  a  little  astrological;  as,  when  they  warn 
us  from  places  of  malign  influence.  Id. 
No  astrologich  wizard  honour  gains. 
Who  has  not  ofi  been,  banish'd,or  in  chains. 

Drgden. 
A  happy  genius  is  theg;ift  of  nature:  it  depends  on 
the  influence  of  the  stars*  say  the  aatroUHfers ;  on  the 
organs  of  the  body,  say  the  naturalists  ;  it  is  the  par- 
ticular gift  of  heaven,  say  the  divines,  both  Christians 
and  heathens.  Id, 

AitriAogeri,  that  future  fates  foreshow.  Pope . 


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ASTROLOGY. 


I  nerer  havd  a  finer  utire  against  lawyen,  than 
that  of  oifrofe^srv;  when  they  pietend,  by  rales  of 
art,  to  tell  when  a  suit  will  end,  and  whether  to  the 
advantage  of  the  plaintiff  or  defendant.  Swifi. 

1  know,  the  learned  think  of  the  art  of  aOrology, 
that  the  stars  do  not  force  the  actions  or  wills  of  nien. 

Id, 

AMtrologieal  prayers  seem  to  me,  to  be  built  on  as 
good  reason,  as  the  predictions.  SHUingfleet, 

The  poetical  fables  are  more  ancient  than  the 
MtTdiogical  influences ;  that  were  not  known  to  the 
Greeks,  till  after  Alexander  the  Great.  Ben/%. 

The  twelre  houses  of  heaven,  in  the  form  which 
tutrologiant  use.  Camden. 

Astrology  ;  from  arifp,  a  star,  and  Xoyog,  dis- 
couise;  was  long  considered  as  a  science,  by  which 
future  events  could  be  foretold,. from  the  aspects 
and  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  In  the  literal 
sense  of  the  term,  astrology  should  signify  no 
more  than  the  doctrine  or  science  of  the  stars; 
which  was  its  original  acceptation,  and  made  the 
'  ancient  astrology ;  though,  in  course  of  time,  an 
alteration  has  arisen :  that  which  the  ancients 
called  astrology,  being  afterwards  termed  astro* 
nomy.  Astrology  may  be  divided  into  two 
branches,  natural  and  judicial. 

Astrology,  Judicial  or  Judiciary,  is  what 
we  commonly  call  simple  astrology,  that  which 
pretends  to  foretel  moral  events,  i.  e.  such  as 
nave  a  dependence  on  the  free  will  and  agency 
of  man ;  as  if  they  were  directed  by  the  stars. 
This  art,  which  owed  its  origin  to  the  practices 
of  knavery  on  credulity,  is  now  universally  ex- 
ploded by  the  intelligent  part  of  mankind.  The 
professors  of  this  kind  of  astrology  maintain^ 
'  That  the  heavens  are  one  great  volume  or  book, 
wherein  God  has  written  the  history  of  the  world ; 
and  in  which  every  man  may  read  his  own  for- 
tune, and  the  transactions  of  his  time. — ^The  art, 
they  say,  had  its  rise  with  the  science  of  astro- 
nomy. While  the  ancient  Assyrians,  whose  se- 
rene unclouded  sky  ^vored  their  celestial  obser- 
vations, were  intent  on  tracing  the  paths  and  pe- 
riods of  the  heavenly  bqdies,  they  discovered  a 
constant  settled  relation  of  analogy  between  them 
and  things  below ;  and  hence  were  led  to  conclude 
tliese  to  be  the  parcag,  the  destinies,  so  much  talk- 
ed of,  which  preside  at  our  births,  and  dispose 
of  our  futvfre  &te.  The  laws  therefore  of  this 
relation  being  ascertained  by  a  series  of  observa- 
tions, and  the  share  each  planet  has  therein ;  by 
knowing  the  precise  time  of  any  person's  nativity, 
they  were  enabled,  from  their  knowledge  m 
astronomy,  to  erect  a  scheme  or  horoscope  of  the 
situations  of  the  planets,  at  that  point  of  time ; 
and  hence,  by  considering  their  degrees  of  power 
and  influence,  and  how  each  was  either  strength- 
ened or  tempered  by  some  other,  to  compute 
what  must  be  the  result.'  Such  are  the  argu- 
ments of  the  astrologers  in  favor  of  their  science. 
Tlie  chief  province  now  remaining  to  the  profes- 
sors of  this  art,  b  the  making  of  calendars  or 
Almanacks ;  and  the  prodigious  sale  of  Moore's 
almanack,  in  this  country,  is  no  small  proof  of 
the  popular  belief  in  this  subject. 

Judicial  astrology  is  commonly  said  to  have 
been  invented  in  Chaldea,and  thence  transmitted 
to  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans ;  though 
some  will  have  it  of  Egyptian  origin,  and  as- 
cribe the  invention  to  Ham.    But  it  is  to  the 


Arabs  we  owe  it.  At  Rome  the  people  were  so 
infatuated  with  it,  that  the  astrologers,  or,  as 
they  were  then  called,  the  mathematicians,  main- 
tained  their  ground  notwithstanding  the  edicts  of 
the  emperors  to  expel  them  out  of  the  city. 
Domitian,  in  spite  of  his  hostility  to  this  bt, 
trembled  at  its  denouncements.  They  prophesied 
the  year,  the  hour,  and  the  manner  of  nis  death ; 
and  affreed  with  his  &ther  in  foretelling,  that  he 
should  perish,  not  by  poison,  but  by  tb^  dagger. 
On  the  evening  of  his  assassination  he  spoke  of 
the  entrance  of  the  moon  into  Aquarius  on  the 
morrow.  *  Aquarius,'  he  said,  <  shall  no  longer 
be  a  watery,  but  a  bloody  sign ;  for  a  deed  shall 
there  be  done,  which  shall  be  the  talk  of  all 
mankind.'  The  dreaded  hour  of  eleven  approach- 
ed. His  attendants  told  him  it  was  passed,  and 
he  admitted  the  conspirators  and  fell.  Suet,  in 
Bomit.  16. 

The  Brahmins,  who  introduced  and  practised 
this  art  among  the  Indians,  have  hereoy  made 
themselves  the  arbiters  of  good  and  evil  hours, 
which  gives  them  great  authority ;  they  are  con- 
sulted as  oracles;  and  have  taken  care  never 
to  sell  their  answers  but  at  good  rates.  The 
same  superstition  has  prevailed  in  more  modem 
ages  ana  nations.  The  French  hbtorians  remark, 
that  in  the  time  of  Catherine  de  Medicis,  astro- 
logy was  so  much  in  vogue,  that  the  most  incon- 
siderable thing  was  not  to  be  done  without 
consulting  the  stars.  And  in  the  reign  of  king 
Henry  HI.  and  IV.  of  France,  the  predictions  of 
astrologers  were  the  common  theme  of  the  court 
conversation.  This  predominant  humor  in  tliat 
court  was  well  rallied  by  Barclay,  in  his  Ai^enis, 
on  occasion  of  an  astrologer,  who  had  under- 
taken to  instruct  king  Henry  in  the  event  of  a 
war  then  threatened  by  the  faction  of  the  Guises. 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of  astro- 
logy in  England.  Bede  and  Alcuin,  among  our 
Anglo-Saxon  ancestors,  were  addicted  to  its 
study;  and  Roger  Bacon  could  not  escape  the 
imputation  of  the  art.  His  imprisonment  was 
o^^ing,  it  is  well  known,  to  his  oeing  supposed 
skilful  in  it.  But  it  was  the  period  of  the  Stuarts 
which  must  be  considered  as  the  acme  of  astro- 
logy among  us.  Then  Lilly  drank  the  doctrine 
of  the  magical  circle,  and  the  invocadon  of 
spirits  from  the  Ars  Notoria  of  Cornelius  Agrip- 
pa ;  used  the  form  of  prayer  prescribed  therem 
to  the  angel  Salmonoeus ;  and  entertained  among 
his  familiar  acquaintance  the  guardian  spirits  of 
England,  Sammael  and  Malchidael.  Merlin 
AngUcus,  1647.  The  author  of  Waveriey  has 
made  ample  use ofthis  promising  character  in  bis 
tales  relative  to  this  period. 

The  signs  of  astrology  were  prisiarily  di- 
vided thus :  the  six  first  were  called  northern^ 
and  commanding;  the  six  last  southern,  and 
obeying.  Next  they  were  distributed  into  four 
tripUcities,  (so  called  because  three  belonffed  to 
each),  fiery,  earthy,  airy,  and  watery.  Of  these 
the  fiery  and  airy  were  said  to  be  masculine,  the 
earthy  and  watery,  feminine.  The  planets  by 
their  motion  made  several  aspects.  See  Aspects. 
The  remaining  influential  parts  of  the  heaven 
were  two,  Dragon's  Head  and  Tail,  that,  is  the 
nodes  in  which  the  ecliptic  is  intersected  by 
the  orbits  of  the  planets;  and  the  Part  of  For. 


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taiM,  that  is  die  distance  of  the  moon'9  plane 
from  the  sun,  added  to  the  degrees  of  the  ascen- 
dant 

The  influences  of  the  heavenly  bodies  being 
detenninedy  it  remained  only,  in  each  separate 
case,  to  observe  their  positions  at  some  required 
moment ;  for  upon  this,  and  their  aspect  to  each 
other,  the  resolution  of  any  <)uestion  depended. 
For  this  purpose  the  whole  circle  of  the  neavens 
was  distnbuted  into  tweWe  parts  or  houses,  by 
great  circles  drawn  through  the  intersection  of 
the  horizon  and  meridian,  and  cutting  the  equa- 
tor in  so  many  equal  parts.  The  first  house  was 
placed  directly  east,  and  the  remainder  were 
counted  round  in  order  proceeding  to  the  south 
according  to  the  motion  of  the  planets.  To  each 
of  these  houses  was  assigned  some  peculiar  go- 
vernment, according  to  the  scheme  below. 


The  remainder  of  the  art  consisted  in  accu- 
rately filling  the  scheme  by  an  observation,  and 
then  framing  from  it  an  oracular  response. 

At,  the  revolution  astrology  declined ;  and  not- 
withstanding the  labors  of  the  immortal  Par- 
tridge then,  and  those  of  Ebenezer  Sibley,  which 
in  our  own  days  fill  two  4to.  volumes,  the  art 
may  now  be  considered  as  exploded. 

Astrology,  Natural,  is  the  predicting  of 
natural  efiects  from  natuhtl  causes;  as,  the 
changes  of  weather,  winds,  storms,  hurricanes, 
thunder,  floods,  earthcjuakes,  &c.  This  art 
properly  belongs  to  physiology,  or  natural  philo- 
sophy ;  and  is  only  to  be  deduced  a  posteriori, 
from  phenomena  and  observations. 

ASTflOLOMA,  in  botany;  fi-om  avpov,  a 
star,  and  X^/m,  a  fringe,  alluding  to  the  five  tufts 
of  hair  which  form  a  star,  near  the  bottom  of 
the  tube  of  the  flower^  internally.  Brown  Prodr. 
Nov.  HoU.  V.  i.  538.  Class  and  order,  pentan- 
dria  monogynia.  Nat  ord.  £ric8e  Juss.  £pa- 
crideae,  brown. 

Gen.  ch.  cal.  perianth  inferior,  permanent, 
double;  inner  of  five  elliptic-lanceolate,  acute, 
equal,  erect  leaves ;  outer  of  four  or  more,  mudi 
iborter,  concave,  imbricated  scales :  coa.  of  one 
petal,  tubular ;  tube  twice  the  length  of  the  calyx. 


9  AST 

inflated,  fbmished  on  the  inside,  near  the  base, 
with  five  tufb  of  soft  hairs ;  limb  in  five  deep, 
8pr«ulinff,  lanceolate,  acute,  hairy  segmefits, 
snorter  than  the  tube.  Nectary  a  cup-shaped 
undivided  gland,  surrounding  the  base  ot  the  ger- 
men?  stam.  filaments  five,  linear,  inserted  into 
the  tube,  and  enclosed  within  it ;  anthers  oblong, 
in  the  mouth  of  the  tube :  pist.  Germen  superior, 
roundish,  of  five  cells ;  style  capillary,  the  length 
of  the  tube ;  stigma  <  globose,  densely  downy  :* 
pERic.  drupa  globular,  slightly  juicy :  seed,  nut 
of  five  cells,'  hard  and  solid,  not  bursting,  with 
a  pendulous  oblong  kernel  in  each  cell. 

Ess.  ch. :  outer  calyx  of  several  imbricated 
leaves :  corolla  tubular :  tube  swelling,  twice  as 
long  as  the  calyx,  with  five  internal  tufts  of  hair 
at  Uie  base :  tube  shorter,  spreading,  bearded : 
filaments  linear,  within  the  tube :  drupa  almost 
dry,  of  five  cells.  This  genus  is  closely  lelated 
to  stenanthera,  as  well  as  to  melichrus.  We 
might  perhaps  unite  them  all  to  styphelia. 

Astroloma  consists  of  shrubs,  of  humble  stature, 
for  the  most  part  decumbent :  leaves  scattered, 
often  ciliated :  flowers  axillary,  erect  There  are 
six  species:  1.  A.  humifusum,  diffuse  astroloma; 
stem  prostrate,  much  branched.  Found  in  various 
parts  of  New  Holland,  on  the  south-west  coast, 
as  well  as  at  Port  Jackson  and  in  Van  Diemen's 
island.  The  remaining  five  species  have  all 
been  found  in  the  southern  part  of  New  Hol- 
land, by  Mr.  Brown,  and  apparently  by  no  other 
botanist.  We  give  tjjeir  names  firom  his  work: 
2.  A.  prostratum,  psostrate  astroloma;  3.  A.  den- 
ticulatum,  toothea  astroloma;  4.  A.  pallidum, 
pale  astroloma ;  5.  A.  oompactum,  compact  astro- 
loma ;  d.  A.  tectum,  uprignt  astroloma. 

ASTROLUS,  in  natural  history,  a  name  given 
by  authors  to  a  white  and  splendid  stone,  small 
in  size,  and  of  a  roundish  figure,  resembling  the 
eyes  of  fishes. 

ASTROMETEOROLOGIA,  the  art  of  fore- 
telling the  weather,  and  its  changes,  from  the 
aspects  and  configurations  of  the  moon  and  pla- 
nets. It  is  a  species  of  astrology,  sometimes 
called  meteorological  astrology. 

ASTRONIUM,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  pen- 
tandria  order,  and  the  dioecia  class  of  plants. 
The  male  calyx  consists  of  five  leaves,  and  the 
corolla  is  quinquepetalous.  Of  the  female  the 
calyx  and  corolla  are  the  same  as  in  the  male ; 
the  styli  are  three,  and  the  seed  is  single.  Tliere 
is  but  one  species,  viz.  A.  graveolens,  a  na- 
tive of  Jamaica. 

ASTRONOMICAL  Calendar,  an  instru- 
ment engraved  on  copper  plates,  printed  on 
paper,  and  pasted  on  a  board,  with  a  brass  slider 
carrying  a  hair :  it  shows  by  inspection  the  sun's 
meridian  altitude,  right  ascension,  declination^ 
rising,  setting,  amplitude,  &c.  to  a  greater  de- 
gree of  exactness  than  the  common  globes. 

Astronomical  Place  of  a  star,  or  planet,  is 
its  longitude,  or  place  in  the.  ecliptic,  reckoned 
from  the  beginning  of  Aries  in  consequentia,  or 
according  to  the  natural  order  of  the  signs. 

ASTRONOMICALS,  a  name  used  by  some 
writers  for  sexagesimal  fractions ;  on  account  of 
their  use  in  astronomical  calculations. 


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From  atrrtipy  a  star, 
and  vofiOQf  a  law. 


ASTROTfOMY, 
Astro  KOMicK, 
Astronom'ical, 
astrono  micallt, 

ASTaON'OMER, 

Astron'omize. 

Images  attnmomioaBjf  fnmtd  under  certain  con- 

ftellations  to  preserve  from  several  inconveniences, 

as  under  the  sign  of  the  Lion  the  figure  of  a  lion 

made  in  gold,  against  melancholic  fandes,  dropsie, 

plague,  fevers.  ip»  HaU*i  Cases  of  Conscience. 

Our    forefathers,  marking    certain    mutations    to 

happen  in  the  sun's  progress   through  the   zodiack, 

they  registrate  and  set  them  down  in  their  astrono- 

mieai  canons.  Brovon's  y$dgar  Errors, 

The  old  ascetick  Christians  found  a  paradise  in  a 

desert,  and  with  little  converse  on  earth,  held  a  con« 

versation  in  heaven ;  thus  they  attronommed  in  caves ; 

and  though  they  beheld  not  Uie  stars,  had  the  glory 

of  heaven  before  them.  Browu.  Chris.  Mor»  ii.  9. 

Astronomers  no  longer  doubt  of  the  motion  of  the 

plancU  about  the  sun.  Locke. 

The  old  and  new  astronomers  in  vain 

Attempt  the  heav'nly  motions  to  explain.. 

Blackmore. 

Can  he  not  pass  an  tistronomiek  line. 

Or  drf^ads  the  sun  th'  imaginary  sign  ; 

That  he  should  ne'er  advance,  to  cither  pole?  Id, 

To  this  must  be  added  the  understanding  of  the 

globes,  and  the  principles  of^cometxy  and  astrotiflmy. 

Cowley. 
INTRODUCTION. 

SrxT.  I.  Etymology  asd  DipijJiTioN  op 
Astronomy. 

1.  Astronomy,  a  mixed  mathematical  science, 
teaching  the  knowledge  of  the  celestial  bodies ; 
their  magnitudes,  distances,  motions,  revolu- 
tions, and  eclipses :  and  it  comprehends  also  a 
knowledge  of  the  natural  causes  on  which  all 
celestial  phenomena  depend.  Hence  it  is  as 
much  a  branch  of  physics  as  of  mathematics, 
and  comprehends  the  ueory  of  the  universe. 

Sect.  II.    History  op  Astronomy. 

3.  As  Astronomy  is  the  most  sublime  of  all 
the  sciences,  so  it  is  also  the  most  useful,  the 
most  ancient,  and,  we  may  add,  the  most  perfect. 
How  can  it  be  otherwise  than  sublime,  when 
its  object  is  the  study  of  that  theatre  which  our 
merciful  Creator  has  vouchsafed  to  establish  as 
an  unerring  testimony  of  his  existence  and  his 
power.  Wherever  we  turn  we  perceive  immen- 
sity of  operation,  guided  by  the  strictest  regula- 
rity. We  find  revolutions,  intricate  and  complex, 
but  resolving  themselves,  by  laws  irrevocably 
fixed,  into  paths  the  most  simple,  and  the  most 
capable  of  suffering  an  increase  of  numbers  with- 
out confusion.  In  another  point  of  view  it  is  sub- 
lime :  the  contemplation  of  its  discoveries  and 
its  usefulness  would  convince  the  dreary- minded 
bigot,  who  sneers  at  human  reason  and  its  efforts, 
of  the  amazing  extent  to  which  that  noblest  gift 
of  God  to  man  can  be  extended.  Astronomy  is 
the  proudest  triumph  of  philosophy  and  of  hu- 
man reason.  Its  superior  usefulness  when  com- 
pared with  the  other  sciences  can  never  be  op- 
posed :  by  it  the  navigator  is  conducted  through 


unknown  seas  with  safety;  and  the  merchant 
transports  the  produce  or  the  surplus  of  one 
nation  to  increase  the  comforts  or  relieve  the 
wants  of  another ;  in  short,  it  affords  the  means 
of  intercourse  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe. 
If,  from  the  folly  of  mankind,  it  has  sometimes 
been  compelled  to  effect  the  transportation  of 
animosity  and  destruction,  it  has  more  frequently 
assisted  the  dissemination  of  arts,  civilisation, 
and  happiness.  That  it  is  the  oldest  science  we 
shall  more  clearly  ascertain  when  we  trace,  as 
we  shall  soon  do,  its  history  through  the  most 
ancient,  and  its  improvements  through  the  most 
modem,  nations.  If  then  astronomy  is  possessed 
of  the  highest  antiquity,  the  greatest  usefulness, 
and  the  utmost  sublimity,  it  is  an  object  of  the 
most  transcendant  worth  that  can  occupy  the  at- 
tention of  the  human  mind. 

3.  None  of  the  sciences  appear  to  be  of 
higher  antiquity  than  astronomy.  From  the  ac- 
count given  by  Moses  of  the  creation  of  the 
celestial  luminaries,  it  appears  extremely  pro- 
bable that  our  first  progenitor  received  some 
knowledge  of  their  nature  and  uses  from  his 
Almighty  Creator  himself.  The  Jewish  rabbins 
have  adopted  this  opinion:  and,  indeed,  it  is 
natural  to  think  that  no  visible  objects  would 
more  readily  excite  the  curiosity,  or  appear  more 
worthy  of  the  contemplation  of  Adam  in  a  state 
of  innocence,  than  the  celestial  bodies. 

4.  Consistently  with  this,  Joseph  us  ascribes  to 
Seth  and  his  posterity  a  considerable  degree  of 
astronomical  knowledge.  He  speaks  of  two  pil- 
lars* the  one  of  stone  and  the  other  of  bnck, 
called  the  pillars  of  Seth,  upon  which  were  en- 
graved the  principles  of  the  science;  and  he 
says  that  the  former  was  still  entire  in  his  time. 
But,  be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  evident  that  the  great 
length  of  the  antediluvian  lives  would  afford 
such  excellent  opportunities  for  observing  the 
heavenly  bodies,  that  we  cannot  but  suppose 
that  the  science  of  astronomy,  must  have  been 
considerably  advanced  before  the  flood.  Jose- 
phus  says,  that  longevity  was  bestowed  upon 
them  for  the  very  purpose  of  cultivating  the 
sciences  of  geometry  and  astronomy ;  observing, 
that  the  latter  could  not  be  learned  in  less  than 
600  years ;  '  for  that  period  (he  adds)  is  the 
grand  year.' 

5.  By  this  remarkable  expression  is  probably 
meant  the  period  in  which  the  sun  ^d  moon 
come  £^in  into  the  same  situation  in  which 
they  were  at  the  beginning  of  it,  with  regard  to 
the  nodes,  apogee  of  the  moon,  &c.  '  This  pe- 
riod (says  Cassini),  of  which  we  find  no  intima- 
tion in  any  monument  of  any  other  nation,  is 
the  finest  period  that  ever  was  invented ;  for  it 
brings  out  the  solar  year  more  exactly  than  that 
of  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy;  and  the  lunar 
month  within  about  one  minute  of  what  is  deter- 
mined "by  modern  astronomers.*  If  the  antedi- 
luvians had  such  a  period  of  600  years  they 
must  have  known  the  motions  of  tlie  sun  and 
moon  more  exactly  than  their  descendants  knew 
them  for  many  ages  after  the  flood.  That  re- 
markable expression  in  the  book  of  Job,  in  \^icb 


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the  Deity  is  spoken  of  as  the  being  who  '  maketh 
Arctunis,  Orion,  and  the  chambers  of  the  south,' 
is  too  striking  to  be  overlooked. 

6.  Indeed,  besides  the.  motives  of  mere  cu* 
riosity^  which  of  themselves  may  be  supposed  to 
have  excited  people  to  a  contemplation  of  the 
glorious  celesual  canopy,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
some  parts  of  the  science  answer  such  essential 
purposes  to  mankind  that  they  could  not  long  be 
dispensed  with.  And  it  has  been  remarked  that 
traces  of  this  science,  in  different  degrees  of  im- 
provement, have  been  found  among  all  nations. 

7.  Upon  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
it  is  supposed  Aat  Nmh  retired  with  his  chil- 
dren, born  after  the  flood,  to  the  north-eastern 
part  of  Asia,  where  his  descendants  peopled  the 
vast  empire  of  China.  It  is  .said  also  that  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  have  Ibnnd  traditional  ac- 
counts among  the  Chinese  of  their  having  been 
taught  this  science  by  their  first  emperor  Fo-hi, 
who  is  suf>po8ed  to  be  the  same  with  Noah ;  and 
Kempfer  asserts  that  Fo-hi  discovered  the  mo- 
tions of  the  heavens,  divided  time  into  years  and 
months,  and  invented  the  twelve  signs,  into 
vrhich  they  divide  the  Eodiac,  and  which  they 
distinguish  by  the  following  names:  1.  the 
mouse;  2.  the  ox  or  cow;  3.  the  tiger;  4.  the 
bare;  6,  the  dragon;  6.  the  serpent;  7.  the 
horse;  8.  the  sheep;  9.  the  monkey;  10.  the 
cock  or  hen;  11.  the  dog;  and  12.  the  boar. 
They  divide  the  heavens  into  twenty-eight  con- 
stellations, or  classes  of  stars,  allotting  (bur  to 
each  of  the  seven  planets;  so  that  the  year 
always  begins  with  the  same  planet;  and  their 
constellatiotts  answer  to  the  twenty-eight  lunar 
mansions  used  by  the  Arabian  astronomers. 

8.  They  do  not,  however,  mark  these  constel- 
lations with  the  figures  of  .animals,  like  most 
other  nations,  but  by  connecting  the  stars  by 
straight  lines,  and  denoting  the  stars  themselves 
by  small  cirdes :  so,  for  instance,  the  great  bear 
would  be  marked  as  represented  in  plate  IV. 
fig.  9. 

9.  The  Chinese  themselves  have  many  re- 
cords of  the  high  antiquity  of  their  astronomy ; 
though  not  without  suspicion  of  gceat  mistakes. 
They  ascribe  the  discovery  of  the  pole-star,  the 
invention  of  the  sphere,  and  mariners'  compass, 
&c.  to  their  emperor  Hong-Ti,  the  grandson  of 
Noah.  But  on  more  certain  authority  it  is  as- 
serted by  Gaubil  that,  at  least  120  years  before 
Christ,  the  Chinese  had  determined  by  observa- 
tion the  number  and  extent  of  their  constella- 
tions as  they  now  stand;  the  situation  of  the 
fixed  stars  with  respect  to  the  equinoctial  and 
solstitial  points ;  ana  the  obliquity  of  the  eclip- 
tic, with  the  theory  of  eclipses ;  and  that  they 
were,  long  bel^re  that,  acquainted  with  the  troe 
length  of  the  solar  year,  the  method  of  observing 
meridian  altitudes  of-  the  sun  by  the  shadow  of 
a  gnomon,  and  of  deducing  fit>m  thence  his  de- 
clination and  the  height  of  the  pole. 

10.  The  same  missionary,  also  says  that  the 
Chinese  have  yet  remaining  some  books  of  astro- 
nomy which  were  written  about  200  years  be^ 
fore  Christ;  from  which  it  appears  that  the 
Chinese  knew  the  daily  motion  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  the  time  of  the  revolutions  of  the 
planets,  many  years  before  that  period.     Du 


Ilalde  informs  us. that  Tcheourcong,  the  most 
skilful  astronomer  that  ever  China  produced 
lived  more  than  a  thousand  years  before  Chrisi , 
that  he  passed  whole  niglits  in  observing  the  ce- 
lestial bodies  and  arranging  them  into  constella- 
tions, &c.  At  present,  however,  the  stateof  as- 
tronomy is  but  very  low  in  that  country,  al- 
though it  is  cultivated  at  Pekin  by  t)ublic  autho* 
rity,  as  in  most  of  the  capital  cities  of  Europe. 
This  is  ascribed,  by  Dr.  Long,  to  a  barbarous 
decree  of  one  of  their  emperors,  to  bum  all  the 
books  in  tha  empire  excepting  such  as  related  to 
agriculture  and  medicine. 

11.  Astronomy,  according  to  Porphyry,  must 
have  been  of  very  ancient  standing  in  the  Eastj 
He  informs  us  tluit  when  Babylon  was  taken  by 
Alexander  there  were  brought  fobm  thence  ce- 
lestial observations  fi>r  the  space  of  1903  years ; 
which  therefore  must  have  commenced  within 
115  years  after  the  flood,  or  within  fifteen  years 
after  the  building  of  Babel.  Epigenes,  according 
to  Pliny,  affirmed  that  the  Babylonians  had  obser- 
vations of  720  years  engraven  on  bricks. 

12.  Achilles  Tatius  ascribes  the  invention  of 
astronomy  to  the  Egyptians ;  and  adds  that  their 
knowledge  of  that  science  was  engraven  on  pil- 
lars, and  by  that  means  transmitted  to  postenty. 
Bailly,  in  his  elaborate  History  of  Ancient  and  Mo- 
dem Astronomy,  endeavours  to  trace  the  origin 
of  this  science  among  the  Chaldeans,  Egyptians, 
Persians,  Indians,  and  Chinese,  to  a  very  early 
period ;  and  he  maintains  that  it  was  cultivated 
m  Egypt  and  Chaldea  2800  years  before  Christ; 
in  Persia,  3209 ;  in  India,  3101 ;  and  in  China, 
2952  years  before  that  era.  He  also  appre- 
hends that  astronomy  had  been  studied  even 
long  before  this  distant  period,  and  that  we  are 
only  to  date  its  revival  from  flience. 

13.  M.  Bailly,  in  investigating  the  antiquity 
and  progress  of  astronomy  among  the  Indians, 
examines  and  compares  four  sets  of  astronomical 
tables  of  the  Indian  philosophers,  viz.  that  of  the 
Siamese,  explained  by  M.  (Jassini  in  1689 ;  that 
brought  from  India  by  M.  le  Gentil,  of  the  Aca- 
demy of  Sciences;  and  two  other  manuscript 
tables,  found  among  the  papers  of  M.  de  Lisle : 
all  of  which  agree  together,  and  refer  to  the  me- 
ridian of  Benares.  It  appeara  that  the  funda- 
mental epoch  of  the  Indian  astronomy  is  a  con- 
junction of  the  sun  and  moon  which  took  place 
at  the  distance  of  years  3102  A.  A.  C.  And  M. 
Bailly  computes  that  such  a  conjunction  really 
then  happened. 

14.  He  ferther  observes  that  at  present  the 
Indians  calculate  eclipses  fix>m  observations 
made  5000  years  ago ;  the  accuracy  of  which, 
vrith  regard  to  the  solar  motion,  hr  exceeds  that 
of  the  best  Grecian  astronomers.  The  lunar 
motions  have  been  computed  from  the  space 
through  which  that  luminaiy  passes  in  1,600,984 
days.  They  also  use  the  cycle  of  nineteen  years, 
the  same  as  that  ascribed  by  the  Greeks  to 
Meton.  Their  theory  of  the  planets  is  better, 
than  that  of  Ptolemy,  as  they  do  not  suppose  the 
earth  to  be  the  centre  of  the  celestial  motions, 
and  believe  that  Venus  and  Mercury  move  round 
the  sun.  Their  astronomy  also  agrees  with  the 
roost  modern  discoveries,  with  regard  to  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic  and  the  acceleration  of  tlie 


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equinoctial  points,  &c  The  ioJiabitanU  of  Japan, 
of  Siam,  and  of  the  Mogul's  empire,  have  also 
been  acquainted  with  astronomy  from  time  im- 
memorial; and  the  celebrated  observatory  at 
Benares  is  a  monument  both  of  the  ingenuity  of 
the  Hindoos,  and  of  their  skill  in  that  science. 

15.  In  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh,  vol.  ii,  professor  Playfiiir  has 
given  a  learned  and  ingenious  dissertation  on 
the  astronomy  of  the  Brahmins,  in  nvhich  the 
great  accuracy  and  high  antiquity  of  the  science 
among  them  is  rendered  extremely  probable.  It 
appears  that  their  tables  and  rules  of  computa- 
tion have  peculiar,  reference  to  an  epoch,  and  to 
observations  3000  or  4000  years  A.  C.  It  ap- 
pears, too,  that  very  considerable  mathematical 
knowledge  had  been  employed  in  their  precepts 
and  calculations.  But  amongst  all  these,  pre- 
cepts and  those  calculations,  perhaps  none  will 
strike  the  mind  of  the  reader  with  greater  force 
than  the  following,  from  which  we  shall  find, 
without  plucking  a  leaf  from  the  never-&ding 
laurels  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  that  the  principle 
which  he  developed  to  the  western  world,  was 
discovered  by  the  philosophers  of  the  eastern, 
thousands  of  years  before  he  existed :  of  the 
truth  of  this  the  following  remariiable  passage, 
translated  by  Sir  William  Jones,  from  the  poem 
of  Shirin  and  Ferhad :  '  there  is,*  says  the  au- 
thor of  that  poem,  '  a  strong  propensity  which 
dances  through  every  atom  and  attracts  the 
minutest  particle  to  some  peculiar  object ;  from 
such  propensity  arises  every  motion  perceived  in 
heavenly  or  terrestrial  bodies.  It  is  a  disposition 
to  be  attracted  which  taught  hard  steel  to  rush 
from  its  place  and  rivet  itself  on  the  magnet;  it 
is  the  same  disposition  which  impels  the  light 
straw  to  attach  itself  firmly  on  amber.' 

16.  We  shall  conclude  this  part  of  the  his- 
tory of  Asiatic  discoveries  in  the  words  of  pro- 
fessor Playfair:  *  That  observations  made  in 
India,  when  all  Europe  was  barbarous  or  unin- 
inhabited,  and  investigations  into  the  most  subtle 
effects  of  gravitation  made  in  Europe  near  five 
thousand  years  afterwards,  should  thus  come  in 
mutual  support  of  one  another,  is  perhaps  the 
most  striking  example  of  the  progress  and  vicis- 
situdes of  science^  which  the  history  of  mankind 
has  yet  exhibited.' 

17.  It  appears  too,  that  astronomy  was  not 
unknown  to  the  Americanis ;  though  in  their  di- 
vision of  time  they  made  use  only  of  the  solar 
and  not  of  the  lunar  motions.  Tlie  Mexicans, 
in  particular,  had  a  strange  predilection  for  the 
number  thirteen:  their  shortest  periods  con- 
sisted of  thirteen  days ;  their  cycle  of  thirteen 
months,  each  containing  twenty  days ;  and  their 
epoch  of  four  periods  of  thirteen  years  each. 
This  excessive  veneration  for  the  number  diirteen 
arose,  according  to  Siguenza,  from  its  being  the 
number  of  their  greater  gods.  Clavigero  also 
asserts  it  as  a  &ct,  that  having  discovered  the 
excess  of  a  few  hours  in  the  solar  above  the 
lunar  year,  they  made  use  of  intercalary  days  to 
bring  tliem  to  an  equality,  as  was  done  by  Ju- 
lius Cssar  in  the  Roman  calendar — but  with 
this  difference,  that  instead  of  one  day  every 
four  years,  they  interposed  thirteen  days  every 
tif)y-two  years. 


18.  Among  the  ancients  we  find  (he  name  of 
Chaldean  used  often  for  astronomer  or  astrologer. 
Indeed  both  these  nations  pretended  to  a  very 
high  antiquity,  and  claimea  the  honor  of  pro- 
ducing die  first  cultivators  of  this  science.  The 
Chaldeans  boasted  of  their  temple  or  tower  of 
Belus,  and  of  Zoroaster,  whom  they  placed  5000 
years  before  the  destniction  of  Troy ;  while  the 
Egyptians  boasted  of  their  colleges  of  priests, 
where  astronomy  was  taught,  and  of  the  monu- 
ment of  Osymandias,  in  which,  it  is  said,  there 
was  a  golden  circle  of  365  cubits  in  circumfe- 
rence, and  one  cubit  thick,  divided  into  365 
equal  parts,  according  to.  the  days  of  the  year, 
&€.  It  is  indeed  evident  that  bodi  Chaldea  and 
Egypt  were  countries  very  proper  for  astrono- 
mical observations,  on  account  of  the  extended 
flatness  of  the  country,  and  the  purity  and  sere- 
nity of  the  air.  The  tower  of  Belus,  or  of  Babel 
itself,  was  probably  an  astronomical  observatory ; 
and  the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  whatever  they  were 
originally  designed  for,  might  perhaps  ansvrer 
the  same  purpose;  at  least  they  show  the  skill 
of  this  people  in  practical  astronomy,  as  they 
are  all  placed  wiUi  their  four  fronts  exactly 
facing  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass. 

19.  The  Chaldeans  began  to  make  observa- 
tions soon  after  the  confusion  of  languages,  as 
appears  from  the  observations  found  by  Alexan- 
der on  the  taking  of  Babylon ;  and  it  is  probable 
they  began  much  earlier.  They  determined, 
with  tolerable  exactness,  the  length  both  of  a  pe- 
riodical and  synodical  month.  They  discovered 
that  the  motion  of  the  moon  was  not  uniform ; 
and  they  even  attempted  to  assign  those  parts  (k 
the  orbit  in  which  the  motion  is  quicker  or  slower. 
We  are  assured  by  Ptolemy  that  they  were  not 
unacquainted  vrith  the  motion  of  the  moon's  apo- 
gee and  nodes,  the  latter  of  which  they  supposed 
made  a  complete  revolution  in  6585^  days,  or  a 
little  more  than  eighteen  years,  and  contained 
223  complete  lunations^  which  period  is  called 
the  Chaldean  Saros. 

20.  Ptolemy  also  gives  us  from  Hipparchus 
several  observations  of  lunar  eclipses  made  at 
Babylon  above  720  years  A.  A.  C. ;  and  Aristotle 
informs  us  that  they  had  many  occultations  of 
the  planets  and  fixed  stars  by  the  moon ;  a  cir- 
cumstance which  led  them  to  conceive  that  eclip- 
ses of  the  sun  were  to  be  attributed  to  the  same 
cause.  They  had  also  no  inconsiderable  share  in 
arranging  the  stars* into  constellations,  and  the 
comets  did  not  escape  their  observation.  Dialling 
was  also  practised  among  them  long  before  the 
Greeks  were  acquainted  with  that  science. 

21.  The  Egyptians  were  much  of  the  saipe 
standing  in  astronomy  with  the  Chaldeans.  He- 
rodotus ascribes  their  knowledge  in  the  science  to 
Sesostris ;  but  probably  not  the  same  whom  New- 
ton makes  contemporary  with  Solomon,  as  they 
were  acquainted  with  astronomy  at  least  many 
hundred  years  before  that  era.  We  learn  from 
the  testimony  of  some  ancient  authors,  that  they 
believed  the  figure  of  the  earth  was  spherical ; 
that  the  moon  was  eclipsed  by  passing  through  the 
earth's  shadow,  though  it  does  not  certainly  ap- 
pear that  they  had  any  knowledge  of  the  true 
system  of  the  universe ;  that  diey  attempted  to 
measure  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  and  sun. 


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though  their  methods  of  asceitainuig  the  latter 
were  rerf  erroneous ;  and  that  they  even  pretend- 
ed to  ibretel  the  appearance  of  comets,  as  well  as 
earthquakes  and  inundations.  This  science,  how- 
ever, gradually  decayed,  and  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus it  was  entirely  extinct  among  them. 

22.  Astronomy  parsed  from  Chaldea  and  Egypt 
to  the  Phcenicians,  and  was  applied  by  that  com- 
mercial people  to  the  purposes  of  navigation ; 
and  they,  in  consequence,  became  masters  of  the 
sea,  and  of  almost  all  the  commerce  in  the  world. 
The  Greeks,  it  is  probable,  derived  their  astrono- 
mical knowledge  chiefly  from  the  Egyptians  and 
Phoenicians,  by  means  of  several  of  their  country- 
men who  visited  these  nations  for  the  purpose  of 
leanung  the  different  sciences.  Newton  sup- 
poses that  the  division  into  constellations  was 
made  about  the  time  of  the  Argonautic  expedi- 
tion ;  but  it  is  probable  that  most  of  them  were 
of  a  much  oloer  date,  and  derived  from  other 
nations,  though  clothed  in  fiibles  of  their  own  in- 
Tention. 

23.  The  fable  of  Atlas  supporting  the  heavens 
upon  his  shoulders,  shows  that  some  Mauritanian 
monarch  of  that  name  had  made  considerable  ad- 
vances in  astronomical  knowledge ;  and  his  dis- 
coveries had  probably  been  communicated  to  the 
Greeks.  Several  of  the  constellations  are  men- 
tioned by  Hesiod  and  Homer,  who  lived  about 
A.  A.  C.  870.  Their  knowledge  in  this  science 
however,  was  gready  improved  by  Thales  the 
Milesian,  and  other  GredLS,  who  travelled  into 
Egypt,  and  brought  from  thence  the  chief  prin- 
ciples of  the  science.  Thales  was  bora  about 
A.  A.  C.  640,  and  he  was  the  first  among  the 
Greeks  who  observed  the  stan,  the  solstices,  and 
predicted  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon. 

24.  The  science  was  farther  cultivated  and  ex- 
tended by  his  successors  Anaximander,  Anaxi- 
menes,  and  Anaxagoras ;  but  especially  by  Pytha- 
goras, who,  about  A.  A.  C.  577,  brought  from 
Egypt  the  learning  of  these  people,  taught  it  in 
Greece  and  Italy,  and  founded  the  sect  of  the 
Pythagoreans.  He  taught  that  the  sun  was  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe ;  that  the  earth  was  round; 
that  there  were  antipodes ;  that  the  moon  reflect- 
ed the  rays  of  tlie  sun,  and  was  inhabited  like  the 
eaith;  that  comets  were  a  kind  of  vrandering 
stars,  disappearing  in  the  further  parts  of  their 
orbits ;  that  the  white  color  of  the  milky  way 
nvas  owing  to  the  united  brightness  of  a  great 
multitude  of  small  stars ;  and  he  supposed  that 
tbe  distances  of  the  moon  and  planets  from  the 
earth,  were  in  certain  harmonic  proportions  to 
one  another. 

25.  Philolaus,  a  Pythagorean,  who  flourished 
aboat  A.  A.  C.  450,  and  asserted  the  diurnal 
motion  of  the  earth  on  its  own  axis^  was  taught 
by  Hicetas,  a  Syracusan.  About  the  same  time 
Meton  and  Euctemon  flourished  at  Athens,  where 
thev  observed  tiie  summer  solstice,  A.  A.  C.  432, 
with  the  risings  and  settings  of  the  stars,  and 
what  seasons  they  answered  to.  Meton  also  in- 
rented  the  cycle  of  nineteen  yean,  which  still 
beaat  his  name. 

26.  Eudozus,  of  Cmdos,  lived  about  A.  A.  C. 
370,  and  was  one  of  the  most  skilful  astronomers 
and  geometricians  of  antiquity,  and  the  supposed 
inventor  of  many  of  the  propositions  in  £uelid*s 


Elements.  He  introduced  geometry  into  the 
scienoe  of  astronomy,  and  travelled  into  Asia, 
Africa,  Sicily,  and  Italy,  to  improve  it:  and  we 
are  informed  by  Pliny,  that  he  determined  the 
annual  year  to  contain  365  days  6  hours,  and 
also  the  periodical  time  of  the  planets,  and  made 
other  important  discoveries  and  ofa«ervations. 
Calippus  flourished  soon  after  Eudoxus,  and  his 
celestial  sphere  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle ;  but 
he  is  better  known  by  a  period  of  seventy-six 
years  which  he  invented,  containing  four  correct- 
ed Metonic  periods,  and  which  commenced  at 
the  summer  solstice,  A.  A.  C.  330.  About  this 
time  the  knowledge  of  the  Pythagorean  system 
was  carried  into  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Egypt,  by  cer- 
tain colonies  of  Greeks. 

27.  Vitruvius,  however,  represents  the  intro- 
duction of  astronomy  into  Greece,  in  a  manner 
somewhat  different.  He  maintains  that  Berosus, 
a  Babylonian,  brought  it  immediately  from  Baby- 
lon itself,  and  opened  an  astronomical  school  m 
the  isle  of  Cos.  And  Pliny  says,  that,  in  conside- 
ration of  his  wonderful  prcaictions,  the  Athenians 
erected  a  statue  to  him  m  the  gymnasium,  with  a 
gilded  tongue.  But  if  this  Berosus  be  the  same 
with  the  author  of  the  Chaldaic  histories,  he  must 
have  lived  before  Alexander.  About  this  time, 
or  rather  eariier,  the  Greeks  having  begun  to 
plant  colonies  in  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Egypt,  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  Pythagorean  system, 
and  the  notions  of  the  ancient  druids  concerning 
astronomy.  Julius  Cssar  informs  us  that  the 
latter  were  skilled  in  this  science ;  and  that  the 
Gauls  in  general  were  able  sailors,  which  they 
could  not  be  without  a  competent  knowledge  of 
astronomy ;  and  it  is  related  of  Pytheas,  who 
lived  at  Marseilles  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  that  he  observed  the  altitude  of  the  sun  at 
the  summer  solstices  by  means  of  a  gnomon.  He 
is  also  said  to  have  travelled  as  frir  as  Thule  to 
settle  the  climates. 

28.  After  Alexander's  death  the  sciences  flou- 
rished chiefly  in  Egypt,  under  the  auspices  of 
Ptolemy  PhUadelphus,  and  his  successora.  He 
founded  a  school  there,  which  continued  till  the 
invasion  of  the  Saracens,  A.  A.  C.  650.  From 
the  founding  of  that  school,  the  science  of  astrono- 
my advanc^  considerably.  Aristarchus,  about 
A.  A.  C.  270,  strenuously  asserted  the  Pythago- 
rean system,  and  gave  a  method  of  determining 
the  sun's  distance  by  the  dichotomy  of  the 
moon. — Eratosthenes,  who  was  bom  at  Cyrene 
A.  A.  C.  271,  measured  the  circumference  of  the 
earth  by  a  gnomon ;  and  being  invited  to  Alexan- 
dria, frx>m  Athens,  by  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  and 
made  keeper  of  the  royal  library  there,  he  set  up 
for  that  prince  those  armillary  spheres,  whidi 
Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy  the  astronomer  after- 
wards employed  so  successfully  in  observing  the 
heavens.  He  also  determined  the  distance  be- 
tween the  tropics  to  be  U  of  the  whole  meridian 
circle,  which  makes  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic 
in  his  time  to  be  23^  51'  |. 

29.  The  celebrated  Archimedes,  too,  cultivated 
astronomy,  as  well  as  geometry  and  mechanics, 
determined  the  distances  of  the  planets  from  one 
another;  and  constructed  a  kind  of  planeurium 
or  orrery,  to  represent  the  phenomena  abd  mo- 
tions of  tbe  heavenly  bodies. 


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30.  Not  to  mention  many  others  of  the  ancients 
who  .cultivated  astronomy,  Uipparchus,  who 
flourished  about  A.  A.  C.  140,  was  the  first  who 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  every  branch  of 
that  science.  Ptolemy  says  he  made  great  im- 
provements in  it ;  he  discovered  tliat  the  orbits 
of  the  planets  are  eccentric,  that  the  moon  moved 
slower  in  her  apogee  than  in  her  perigee,  and 
that  there  was  a  motion  of  anticipation  of  the 
moon's  nodes :  he  constructed  tables  of  the  mo- 
tions of  the  sun  and  moon,  collected  accounts  of 
such  eclipses,  &c.  asliad  been  made  by  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Chaldeans,  and  calculated  all  that  were 
to  happen  for  600  years :  he  discovered  that  tlie 
fixed  stars  changed  their  places,  having  a  slow 
motion  of  their  own  from  west  to  east ;  he  cor- 
rected the  Calippic  period,  and  pointed  out  some 
errors  in  Eratostnenes's  method  for  measuring  the 
circumference  of  the  earth ;  he  computed  the  sun's 
distance  more  accurately  than  his  predecessors : 
but  his  best  work  is  a  catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars, 
to  the  number  of  1022,  with  their  longitudes,  la- 
titudes, and  apparent  magnitudes ;  which,  with 
roost  of  hifi  other  observations,  are  preserved  by 
Ptolemy  in  his  Almagest. 

31.  From  the  time  of  ilipparchus,  till  that  of 
Ptolemy,  little  progress  was  made  in  astronomy. 
He  was  bom  at  Pelusium,  in  Egypt,  in  the  first 
century,  and  made  the  greatest  part  of  his  obser- 
vations at  the  celebrated  school  of  Alexandria  in 
that  country.  Profiting  by  those  of  Hipparchus, 
and  other  ancient  astronomers,  he  formed  a  sys- 
tem of  his  own,  which,  though  erroneous,  was 
implicitly  followed  for  many  ages  by  all  nations. 
He  compiled  a  great  work,  called  the  Almagest, 
which  contained  the  observations  and  collections 
of  his  predecessors  in  astronomy.  This  work 
was  preserved  from  the  conflagration  of  the  Alex- 
andnan  libraiy  by  the  Saracens,  and  translated 
into  Ambic,  A.D.  827,  and  into  Latin  in  1230. 
The  Greek  original  was  not  known  in  Europe 
till  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when 
it  was  brought  from  Constantinople,  then  taken 
by  the  Turks,  by  a  monk  of  Trapezond,  named 
George,  who  translated  it  into  Latin ;  and  various 
other  editions  have  been  since  made. 

32.  From  A.  D.  800,  till  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  the  western  parts  of  Europe 
were  immersed  in  gross  ignorance,  while  the 
Arabians,  profiting  by  the  books  they  had  pre- 
served from  the  wreck  of  the  Alexandrian  library, 
cultivated  and  improved  all  the  sciences,  and  par- 
ticularly that  of  astronomy,  in  which  they  had 
many  able  professors  and  authors..  Tlie  caliph 
Al.  Mansur  nrst  introduced  a  taste  for  the  sciences 
into  his  empire.  His  grandson,  Al  Mamun,  who 
ascended  the  throne  in  814,  was  a  great  encour- 
ager  and  improver  of  the  sciences,  especially  of 
astronomy.  Having  constructed  proper  instru- 
ments, he  made  many  observations ;  determined 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  to  be  23°  35 ;  and 
under  his  auspices  a  degree  of  the  circle  of  the 
earth  was  measured  a  second  time  in  tlie  plain  of 
Singar,  on  the  border  of  the  Red  Sea. 

33.  About  this  time  Alfei^ganus  wrote  ele- 
ments of  astronomy  ;  and  Albategnius,  who  flou- 
rished about  the  year  880,  greatly  reformed  it,  by 
comparing  his  own  observations  with  those  of 
Ptolemy.    Hence  he  computed  the  motion  of  the 


sun's  apogee  from  Ptolemy's  time  to  his  own; 
settled  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  at  one  de- 
gree in  seventy  years ;  and  fixed  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic  at  23°  35'.  The  tables  which  he 
composed  for  the  meridian  of  Aracta,  were  long 
esteemed  by  the  Arabians. 

34.  After  this,  though  the  Saracens  had  many 
eminent  astronomers,  several  centuries  elapsed 
without  producing  any  very  valuable  observations, 
excepting  those  of  some  eclipses  observed  by  Ebn 
Younis,  astronomer  to  the  caliph  of  Egypt,  by 
means  of  which  the  quantity  of  the  moon's  acce- 
leration since  that  time  may  be  determined.  Other 
eminent  Arabic  astronomers  were  Arzachel,  a 
Moor  of  Spain,  who  observed  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  improved  trigonometry  by  construct- 
ing tables  of  smes,  instead  of  chords  of  arches, 
dividing  the  diameter  into  300  equal  parts.  Alha- 
zen  his  contemporary,  wrote  upon  the  twilight, 
the  height  of  the  clouds,  the  phenomenon  of  the 
horizontal  moon,  and  first  showed  the  importance 
of  the  theory  of  refractions  in  astronomy. 

35.  Ulug  Beg,  grandson  of  the  celebrated  Ta- 
merlane, the  Tartarian  prince,  a  great  proficient 
in  practical  astronomy,  had  very  large  instni- 
mentSy  particularly  a  quadrant  of  about  180  feet 
high,  with  which  he  made  good  observations. 
From  these  he  determined  the  latitude  of  Samar- 
cand,  his  capital,  to  be  39°  27'  23";  and  compo- 
sed astronomical  tables  fur  the  meridian  of  the 
same  so  exact,  that  they  differ  very  little  from 
those  constructed  afterwards  by  Tycho  Brahe. — 
His  principal  work  was  his  catalogue  of  the  fixed 
stars,  made  from  his  own  observations  in  the  year 
1437. 

36.  At  this  period,  almost  all  Europe  was  im- 
mersed in  ignorance ;  which  began  to  be  dispel- 
led by  the  settlement  of  the  Moors  in  Spain.  The 
emperor  Frederic  II.  about  1230,  also  began  to 
encourage  learning;  restoring  some  decay^ uni- 
versities, founding  a  new  one  in  Vienna ;  and 
causing  the  works  of  Aristotle  and  Ptolemy's 
Almagest,  to  be  translated  into  Latin.  Two  year^ 
after  this,  John  de  Sacro  Bosco,  that  is  of  Halifax, 
compiled  from  Ptolemy,  Albategnius,  Alferga. 
nus,  and  other  Arabic  astronomers,  his  work,  Dt 
Sphxra,  which  was  held  in  the  greatest  estima- 
tion for  300  years  after,  and  was  honored  with 
commentaries  by  Clavius  and  other  learned  men. 

37.  In  1240  Alphonso,  king  of  Castile,  nd 
only  cultivated  astronomy  himself  but  greatly 
encouraged  others ;  and  by  the  assistance  of  se- 
veral learned  men  corrected  the  tables  of  Ptolemy, 
and  composed  those  which  were  deiiominated 
from  him  the  Alphonsine  tables.  About  the 
same  time  Roger  Bacon,  an  English  monk, 
wrote  several  tracts  relative  to  astronomy^  par* 
ticularly  of  the  lunar  aspects,  the  solar  rays,  ana 
the  places  of  the  fixed  stars;  and  about  1270 
Vitello,  a  Polander,  composed  a  treatise  on  O])- 
tics,  in  which  he  showed  the  use  of  refractions  in 
astronomy. 

38.  Till  the  time  of  Purbach,  who  was  bom 
in  1423,  little  farther  improvement  was  made  in 
this  science.  He  composed  new  tables  of  sines 
for  every  ten  minutes,  making  the  radius  sixty, 
with  four  cyphers  annexed.  He  constructed 
spheres  and  globes,  and  wrote  several  astronomi- 
cal tracts,  as  a  commentary  on  Ptolemy's  Alma- 


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gest;  some  treatises  on  arithmetic  and  dialling, 
"with  tables  for  various  climates;  new  tables  of 
the  fixed  stars  reduced  to  the  middle  of  that 
century;  and  he  corrected  the  tables  of  the 
planets,  making  new  equations  to  them  where 
the  Alpbonsine  tables  were  erroneous.  In  his 
solar  tables,  he  placed  the  sun's  apogee  in  the 
the  beginning  of  Cancer;  but  retained  the  ob- 
liquity oftlie  ecliptic  23°  33^',  as  determined  by 
the  latest  observations.  He  also  observed  some 
eclipses,  made  new.  tables  for  computing  them, 
and  had  just  finished  a  theory  of  the  planets, 
when  he  died  in  1462,  being  only  thirty-nine 
years  of  age. 

39.  Purbach  was  succeeded  in  these  labors 
by  his  pupil  and  friend,  John  Muller,  commonly 
called  Kegiomontanus,  who  completed  the  epi- 
tome of  Ptolemy's  Almagest,  whicn  Purbach  had 
begun ;  and  after  the  death  of  his  friend  was  in- 
vited to  Rome,  where  he  made  many  astronomi- 
cal observations.  Being  returned  to  Nuremberg 
in  1471,  by  the  encouragement  of  Bernard  Wal- 
ther,  a  wealthy  citizen,  he  made  several  instru- 
ments for  astronomical  observations,  among  which 
was  an  armillary  astrolabe,  like  that  used  at 
Alexandria  by  Hipparchus  and  Ptolemy,^  with 
which,  and  a  good  clock,  then  but  a  late  inven- 
tion, he  made  many  observations.  He  made 
ephemerides  for  thirty  years  to  come,  showing 
the  lunations,  eclipses,  8cc. ;  printed  the  works 
of  many  of  the  most  celebrated  ancient  astrono- 
mers, and  wrote  the  theory  of  the  planets  and 
comets,  and  a  treatise  on  triangles,  which  con- 
tains several  good  theorems ;  computed  a  table 
of  sines  for  every  single  minute,  to  the  radius 
1,000,000,  and  introduced  the  use  of  tangents 
into  trigonometry. 

40.  After  Muller's  death,  which  happened  at 
Rome  in  1476,  in  his  fortieth  year,  Bernard 
Walther  collected  his  papers,  and  continued  the 
astronomical  observations  till  his  own  death. 
The  observations  of  both  were  collected  by  order 
of  the  senate  of  Nuremberg,  and  published  there 
in  1544  by  John  Schoner;  they  were  also  after- 
wards published  in  1618  by  Snellius,  at  the  end  of 
the  observations  made  by  the  landgrave  of  Hesse ; 
and  lastly  with  those  of  Tycho  Brahe  in  1666. 

41.  Walther  was  succeeded,  as  astronomer  at 
Nuremberg,  by  John  Werner,  a  clergyman,  who 
observed  5ie  motion  of  the  comet  in  1500 ;  and 
wrote  several  tracts  on  geometry,  astronomy, 
and  geography,  in  a  masterly  manner ;  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  are  those  concerning  the 
motion  of  the  eighth  sphere,  or  the  fixed  stars : 
in  this  tract,  by  comparing  his  own  ohservations, 
made  in  1514,  with  moseof  Ptolemy,  Alphonsns, 
and  others^  he  showed  that  the  motion  of  the 
fixed  stars,  since  called  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  is  1^  lO'  in  100  years.  He  made  also 
the  first  star  of  Aries  26^  distant  from  the  equi- 
noctial point,  and  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic 
only  23^  28';  constructed  a  planetarium,  repre- 
senting the  celestial  motions  according  to  the 
Ptolemaic  hypothesis ;  and  published  a  transla- 
tion of  Ptolemy's  geography,  with  a  commentary, 
in  which  he  first  proposed  Uie  metliod  of  finding 
the  longitude  at  sea  by  observing  the  moon's  dis- 
tance from  the  fixed  stars.  Werner  died  in  1528, 
aged  sixty 


42.  Nicolaus  Copernicus  rose  next,  and  inade 
so  great  a  figure  in  astronomy,  that  the  true  sys- 
tem discovered,  or  rather  renewed  by  him,  has 
been  ever  since  styled  the  Copemican.  He 
restored  the  old  Pythagorean  system  of  the  world, 
which  had  been  set  aside  from  the  time  of  Pto- 
lemy. About  A.  D.  1507  he  conceived  doubts 
of  the  Ptolemaic  system,  and  entertained  notions 
about  the  true  one,  which  be  gradually  improved 
by  a  series  of  astronomical  observations,  and  the 
study  of  fooner  authors.  By  these  he  formed 
new  tables,  and  completed  hb  work  in  1530, 
containing  a  renovation  of  the  new  system  of  the 
universe,  in  which  all  the  planets  are  considered 
as  revolving  about  the  sun.  This  work  was 
printed  in  1543,  under  the  care  of  Schoner  and 
Osiander,  by  the  title  of  Revolutiones  Orbium 
Ccelestium;  and  the  author  received  a  copy  of  it 
a  few  hours  before  his  death,  on  the  23d  of  May 
1543,  he  being  then  seventy  years  of  age. 

43.  After  the  death  of  this  great  luminary  of 
Astronomy,  the  science  and  practice  of  it  were 
greatly  improved  by  Schoner,  Nonius,  Gemma, 
Fruius,  Rodman,  Byigius,  the  landgrave  of 
Hesse,  &c.  Schoner  reformed  i^nd  explained  the 
calendar;  improved  the  methods  of  making  celes- 
tial observations;  and  published  a  treatise  on 
cosmography.  He  died  four  years  after  Coper- 
nicus. Nonius  wrote  several  works  on  mathema- 
tics, astronomy,  and  navigation,  and  invented 
some  useful  and  more  accurate  instruments  than 
formerly,  one  of  these  was  the  astronomical  qua- 
drant, on  which  he  divided  the  degrees  into 
minutes,  by  a  number  of  concentric  circles ;  the 
first  was  divided  into  ninety  equal  parts  or  de- 
grees, the  second  into  eighty-nine,  tlie  third  into 
eighty-eight,  and  so  on  to  forty-six ;  so  that  the 
index  of  the  quadrant  always  falling  upon  or  near 
one  of  the  divisions,  the  minutes  are  known  by 
an  easy  computation. 

44.  Appian's  chief  work,  the  Cesarean  Astro- 
nomy, was  published  at  Ingolstadt  in  1540;  in 
which  he  shows  hpw  to  observe  the  places  of  the 
stars  and  planets  by  the  astrolabe;  to  resolve 
astronomical  problems  by  certain  instruments; 
to  predict  eclipses,  and  to  describe  the  figures  of 
them ;  and  the  method  of  dividing  and  using  an 
astronomical  quadrant.  To  these  are  added  ob- 
servations of  five  comets,  one  of  which  has  been 
supposed  the  same  with  that  observed  by  Heve- 
lius,  and  if  so,  it  ought  to  have  returned  again  in 
the  year  1789;  but  astronomers  were  disappointed 
in  their  expectations. 

45.  Gemma  Frisius  wrote  a  commentary  on 
Appian's  cosmography,  accompanied  with  many 
observations  of  eclipses :  he  also  invented  the 
astronomical  ring,  and  several  other  instruments 
useful  in  taking  observations  at  sea ;  and  was  the 
first  who  recommended  a  time-keeper  for  deter- 
mining the  longitude.  Rheticus  began  a  very 
extensive  work,  being  a  table  of  sines,  tangents, 
and  secants,  to  a  very  laige  radius,  and  to  everv 
ten  seconds,  or  one-sixth  of  a  minute ;  which 
was  completed  by  his  pupil  Valentine  Otho,  and 
printed  in  1594. 

46.  William  IV.,  landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel, 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  astronomy  about 
A.  D.  1561 ;  and,  with  the  best  instruments 
which  could  then  be  procured,  made  a  great 


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hamber  of  obseirations,  published  by  Snellius  in 
1618,  and  preferred  by  Hevelius  to  those  of 
Tycho  Brahe.  From  these  observations  he  formed 
a  catalogue  of  400  stars,  with  their  latitudes  and 
longitudes,  adapted  to  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1593. 

47.  Tycho  Brahe,  a  Danish  nobleman,  began 
his  studies  about  the  same  time  With  the  Land- 
grave of  Hesse,  and  observed  the  great  conjunc- 
tion of  Jupiter  and  Saturn ;  but,  finding  the  usual 
instruments  very  inaccurate,  he  constructed  many 
others  much  larger  and  more  exact.  In  1571 
he  discovered  a  new  star  in  the  chair  of  Cassio- 
peia ;  which  induced  him,  like  Mipparchus  on  a 
similar  occasion,  to  make  a  new  catalogue  of  the 
stars;  which  he  composed  to  the  number  of  777, 
and.  adapted  their  places  to  the  year  1600.  In 
1576,  by  the  favor  of  the  king  of  Denmark,  he 
built  his  new  observatory,  called  Uraniburg,  on 
the  small  island  Huenna,  opposite  to  Cbpen- 
hagen,  which  he  very  amply  furnished  with  many 
large  instruments,  some  of  them  so  divided  as  to 
show  single  minutes,  and  in  others  the  arch  might 
be  read  off  to  ten  seconds.  One  quadrant  was 
divided  according  to  the  method  invented  by 
Nonius,  that  is  by  forty-seven  concentric  circles ; 
but  most  of  them  were  divided  by  diagonals ; 
a  method  of  division  invented  by  Richard  Chan* 
celer,  an  Englishman.  Tycho  employed  his  time 
at  Uraniburg  to  the  best  advantage,  till  the  death 
of  the  king,  when,  felling  into  discredit,  he  was 
obliged  to  remove  to  Holstein:  he  afterwards 
introduced  himself  to  the  emperor  Rodolph, 
with  whom  he  continued  at  Prague  till  his  death 
in  1601.  Tycho  was  the  inventor  of  a  system  of 
astronomy,  a  kind  of  semi-Ptolemaic,  which  he 
vainly  endeavored  to  establish  instead  of  the  Co- 
pemican.  His  numerous  works,  however,  show 
that  he  was  a  man  of  great  abilities ;  and  his 
discoveries,  together  vnth  those  of  Purbach  and 
Regiomontanus,  were  collected  and  published 
together  in  1621,  by  Longomontanus,  the  favorite 
disciple  of  Tycho. 

48.  Tycho,  while  residing  at  Prague  with  the 
emperor,  prevailed  on  Kepler  to  leave  the  uni- 
versity cf  Ulatz,  and  to  come  to  him ;  and  Tycho 
dying  in  1601,  Kepler  enjoyed  all  his  life  the 
title  of  mathematician  to  the  emperor,  who 
ordered  him  to  finish  the  tables  of  Tycho  Brahe, 
which  he  published  in  1627,  under  the  title  of 
Rodolphine.  He  died  about  A.  D.  1630,.  at 
Ratisbon,  where  he  was  soliciting  die  arrears  of 
his  pension.  From  his  own  observations  and 
those  of  Tycho,  Kepler  discovered  several  of  the 
true  laws  of  nature,  by  which  the  motions  of  the 
celestial  bodies  are  regulated.  He  discovered 
that  all  the  planets  revolve  about  the  sun,  not  in 
circular,  but  in  elliptical  orbits,  having  the  sun 
in  one  of  the  foci  of  the  ellipse ;  that  Uieir  mo- 
tions are  not  equable,  but  varying,  quicker  or 
slower  as  they  are  near  to  the  sun,  or  farther  from 
him;  that  the  areas  described  by  the  variable 
line  drawn  from  the  planet  to  the  sun,  are  equal 
tn  equal  times,  and  alwajrs  proportional  to  the 
times  of  describing  them ;  and  that  the  cubes  of 
the  distances  of  the  planets  from  the  sun,  were 
in  the  same  proportion  as  the  squares  of  their 
periodical  times  of  revolution.  By  observations 
also  on  comets,  he  concluded  that  they  are  freely 


carried  about  among  the  orbits  of  the  planets,  in 
paths  that  are  nearly  rectilinear,  but  which  he 
could  not  then  determine. 

49.  At  this  time  there  were  man3r  other  good 
proficients  in  astronomy ;  as  Wright,  Napier, 
Bayer,  &c.  Wright  made  several  good  meridio- 
nal observations  of  the  sun,  with  a  quadrant  of 
six  feet  radius,  in  the  years  1594,  1595,  and 
1596 ;  from  which  he  greatly  improved  the  theory 
of  the  sun's  motion,  and  computed  more  accu- 
rately his  declination,  than  any  person  had  done 
before.  In  1599  he  published  also,  an  excellent 
work,  entitled,  '  Certain  Errors  in  Navigation 
discovered  and  detected,'  containing  a  method 
which  has  commonly,  though  erroneously,  been 
ascribed  to  Mercator.  To  Napier  we  owe  some 
excellent  theorems  and  improvements  in  spherics, 
besides  the  ever-memorable  invention  of  loga- 
rithms. Bayer,  a  German,  published  his  Ura- 
nometria,  or  the  figures  of  all  the  constellations 
visible  in  Europe,  with  the  stars  marked  on  them, 
and  accompanied  by  names,  or  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet ;  a  contrivance  by  which  they 
may  easily  be  referred  to  with  distinctness  and 
precision. 

50.  About  the  same  time,  astronomy  was  cul- 
tivated abroad  by  Mercator,  Maurolycus,  Magi- 
nus,  Homelius,  Schultet,  Stevin,  Galileo,  &c. 
and  in  England  by  Thomas  and  Leonard  Digges, 
John  Dee,  Robert  Flood,  Harriot,  &c. .  The 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  parti- 
cularly distinguished  by  the  invention  of  teles- 
copes, and  the  application  of  them  to  astrono- 
mical observations.  The  more  distinguished 
early  observations  with  the  telescope,  were  made 
by  Galileo,  Harriot,  Huygens,  Hook,  Cassini, 
&c.  It  is  said  that,  from  report  only,  Galileo 
made  for  himself  telescopes,  by  which  he  dis- 
covered inequalities  in  the  moon's  surfece,  Jupi- 
ter's satellites,  and  the  ring  of  Saturn;  also  spots 
on  the  sun,  by  which  he  found  out  the  revolu- 
tion of  that  luminary  on  its  axis ;  and  he  dis- 
covered that  the  nebulae  and  milky  way  were  full 
of  small  stars. 

51.  Mr.  Harriot,  who  had  previously  been 
known  only  as  an  algebraist,  made  much  the  same 
discoveries  as  Galileo,  and  as  early,  if  not  more 
so,  as  appears  by  his  papers  in  the  possession  of 
the  earl  of  Egremont  Ajnd  Mr.  Horrox,  a  young 
astronomer  of  great  talents,  found  out  in  1633, 
that  the  planet  Venus  would  pass  over  the  sun's 
disc  on  the  twenty-fourth  of  November  1639; 
an  event  which  he  announced  only  to  his  firiend 
Crabtree;  and  these  two  were  the  only  persons 
in  the  world  that  observed  this  transit.  Horrox 
made  also  many  other  useful  observations,  and 
had  even  formed  a  new  theory  of  the  moon, 
taken  notice  of  by  Newton;  but  his  early  death, 
in  the  beginning  of  1640,  put  a  stop  to  his 
valuable  labors. 

52.  Hevelius,  Burgomaster  of  Dantzick,  flou- 
rished about  the  same  time,  and  observed  the  spots 
and  phases  of  the  moon;  from  which  observations 
he  compiled  his  Selenographia.  An  account  of 
his  apparatus  is  contained  in  his  work  entitled 
Machina  Cselestis,  a  book  now  very  scarce,  as 
most  of  the  copies  were  accidentally  burnt,  with 
the  whole  house  and  apparatus,  iu  1679.  Heve- 
lius died  in  1688,  agea  76. 


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53.  Doctor  Hook,  a  contempora^  of  Hevclius 
invented  instraments  witb  telescopic  sights,  and 
censured  ttie  others.  This  occasioned  a  sharp 
dispute  between  them ;  to  settle  which,  Halley 
was  sent  over  to  Herelius  to  examine  his  instru- 
ments. The  two  astronomers  made  several  ob- 
servations together,  very  much  to  their  satisiac- 
tion ;  and  amongst  them  was  one  of  an  occulta- 
tioD  of  Jupiter  by  the  moon,  when  they  deter- 
mined the  diameter  of  the  latter  to  be  30'  33". 

54.  Huygens  and  Fontana,  before  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  greatly  improved  the 
construction  of  telescopes.  The  former  con- 
structed one  of  123  feet,  with  which  he  observed 
the  moon  and  planets,  and  discovered  that 
Saturn  was  encompassed  with  a  ring.  With 
telescopes  too,  of  200  and  300  feet  focus,  Cas- 
sini  saw  five  satellites  of  Saturn,  with  his  zones 
or  belts,  and  &e  shadows  of  Jupiter's  satellites 
passing  over  his  body.  In  1666  Azout  applied 
€t  micrometer  to  telescopes,  to  measure  the  dia- 
meters of  the  planets,  and  other  small  distances 
in  the  heavens :  but  an  instrument  of  this  kind 
had  been  invented  before,  by  Gascoigne,  though 
it  was  but  little  known  abroad.  To  obviate  the 
difficulties  arising  from  the  great  lengths  of  re- 
fracting telescopes,  and  the  e^erration  of  the  rays, 
Meisennus,  in  a  letter  to  Descartes,  first  started 
the  idea  of  making  telescopes  of  reflectors,  instead 
of  lenses ;  and  in  1663  James  Gregory  of  Aber- 
deen showed  how  such  a  telescope  might  be 
constructed. 

55.  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  after  spending  some  time 
<m.  the  construction  of  both  sorts  of  telescopes, 
found  out  the  great  inconvenience  which  arises 
to  refractors  from  the  difiecent  refrangibility  of 
the  rays  of  light ;  for  which  not  finding  a  remedy, 
and  pursuing  the  other  kind,  in  1672,  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Royal  Society  two  reflectors,  con- 
struoted  with  spherical  speculums.  The  incon- 
venience, however,  arising  from  the  different 
refrangibility  of  the  rays  of  light,  has  since  been 
frilly  obviated  by  Dollond. 

56.  Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth,  and 
begiuiung  of  the  eighteenth  century,  practical 
astronomy  rather  languished;  but  the  speculative 
part  was  carried  to  the  highest  perfection  by  New« 
ton  in  his  Principia,  by  David  Gregory,  Keil,  and 
others.  Soon  after  this,  great  improvements  in 
astronomical  instruments  began  to  take  place, 
particularly  in  Britain.  Graham  not  only 
improved  clocks  and  watch  work,  but  also  car- 
ried the  accuracy  of  astronomical  instruments  to 
a  surprising  degree.  He  constructed  the  old 
eight  feet  mural  arch  at  the  Royal  Observatory, 
Greenwich,  and  a  small  equatorial  sector  for 
making  observations  out  of  the  meridian ;  but  he 
is  chiefly  remarkable  for  contriving  the  zenith 
•sector  of  twenty-four  feet  radius,  and  afterwards 
one  of  twelve  feet  and  a  half,  with  which  Brad- 
ley  discovered  the  aberration  of  the  fixed  stars. 
The  reflecting  telescope  of  Gregory  and  Newton 
'Was  greatly  improved  by  Hadley,  who  presented 
a  very  powerful  instrumeut  of  that  kind  to  the 
Royal  Society  in  1719.  He  invented  also  the 
reflecting  quadrant  or  sector,  now  called  'by  his 
name,  presented  to  the  society  in  1731,  and  now 
universally  tised  at  sea.  It  appears,  (iowever, 
that  an  instrument  similar  to  tbb  in  its  princi- 

Vql.  111. 


pies,  had  been  invented  by  Newton;  and  a 
description,  with  a  drawing  of  it,  was  given  by 
him  to  Halley,  when  he  was  preparing  for  his 
voyage  in  1701,  to  discover  the  variation  of  the 
needle :  it  has  also  been  asserted,  that  Godfrey 
of  Philadelphia,  in  America,  made  the  same  dis- 
covery, and  the  first  instrument  of  this  kind. 

57.  About  the  middle  of  this  century,  the  con- 
structing apd  dividing  of  large  astronomical 
instruments  were  carried  to  great  perfection  by 
Bird ,  and  reflecting  telescopes  were  not  less  im- 
proved by  Short,  who  first  executed  the  divided 
object  glass .  micrometer,  which  had  been  pro- 
posed and  described  by  LouviUe  and  others. 
Dollond  also  improved  refracting  telescopes,  by 
means  of  his  achromatic  glasses:  and  tne  dis- 
coveries of  Herschel  are  owing  to  the  amazing 
powers  of  reflectors  of  his  own  constriiction. 
Thus,  the  astronomical  improvements  in  the  pre- 
sent century  have  been  chiefly  owing  to  the 
inventions  of^  and  improvements  in,  the  instru- 
ments, and  to  the  establishment  of  regular  obser- 
vatories in  England,  France,  and  other  parts  of 
Europe. 

58.  Roeroer,  a  celebrated  Danish  astronomer, 
first  made  use  of  a  meridional  telescope;  and,  by 
observing  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  first 
discovered  the  progressive  motion  of  light,  con- 
cerning which  he  read  a  dissertation  before  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  in  1675.  Flam- 
steed,  appointed  the  first  astronomer  royal  at 
Gieenwich,  in  1675,  observed  for  forty-four 
years,  and  gave  a  catalogue  of  3000  stars  with 
their  places,  to  the  year  1689;  also  new  solar 
tables,  and  a  theory  of  the  moon  according  to 
Horrox^  likewise,  in  Sir  Jonas  Moore's  System 
of  Mathematics,  he  gave  a  curious  tract  on  the 
sphere,  showing  how  to  construct,  geometrically, 
eclipses  both  of  the  sun  and  moon,  as  well  as  oe- 
cultations  of  the  fixed  stars  by  the  moon.  On  his 
observations  were  founded  both  Halley's  tables, 
and  Newton's  theory  of  the  moon.  Cassini,  the  first 
French  astronomer  royal,  made  many  observations 
on  the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  comets,  greatly  im- 
proved the  elements  of  their  motions,  erected  the 
gnomon,  and  -drew  the  celebrated  meridian  line 
in  the  church  of  Petronia  at  Bologna. 

59.  Flamsteed  was  succeeded,  in  1719,  as 
astronomer  royal  at  Greenwich,  by  Dr.  Halley, 
who  had  been  sent  at  the  early  age  of  twenty- 
one,  to  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  to  observe  the 
southern  stars  and  make  a  catalogue  of  them, 
which  was  published  in  1679.  In  1705  he 
published  his  Synopsis  Astronomies  Cometicx, 
in  which  he  ventured  to  predict  the  return  of  a 
comet  in  1758  or  1759.  He  first  discovered  the 
acoeleration  of  the  moon,  and  gave  a  very  inge- 
nious method  for  finding  her  parallax,  by  three 
observed  phases  of  a  solar  eclipse;  published  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  many  learned 
papers,  and  amongst  them,  some  concerning  the 
use  that  might  be  made  of  the  next  transit  of 
Venus,  in  determining  the  distance  of  the  sun 
from  die  earth;  composed  tables  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  all  the  planets,  which  are  still  in 
great  repute;  and  recommended  the  method  of 
determining  the  longitude,  by  the  moon's  dis- 
tances from  the  sun,  and  certain  fixed  stars ;  a 
method  which  was  first  proposed   by  Warner, 


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and  which  has  since  been  carried  into  execu- 
tion. 

60.  A  dispute  concerning  the  figure  of  the 
earth  took  place  about  this  time.  Newton  had 
determined,  from  a  consideration  of  the  laws  of 
gravity,  and  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth,  that 
the  figure  of  it  was  an  oblate  spheroid;  but  Cas- 
sini,  from  the  measures  of  Picart,  supposed  it  to 
be  an  oblong  spheroid.  To  settle.this  dispute 
it  was  resolved,  under  Louis  XV.  to  measure 
two  degrees  of  the  meridian;  one  near  the  equa- 
tor, and  the  other  as  near  the  pole  as  possible. 
For  this  purpose,  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
sent  to  Lapland,  Maupertuis,  Clairault,  Camus, 
and  Lemonnier:  who  were  accompanied  by 
Outhier,  and  Celsus,  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Upsal.  On  the  southern  expedition  were  sent 
Godin,  Condamine,  and  Bouguer,  to  whom  the 
king  of  Spain  joined  George  Juan  and  Antonio 
de  Ulloa.  These  set  out  in  1735,  and  returned 
at  different  times  1744,  1745,  and  1746;  but  the 
former  party  who  set  out  only  in  1736,  returned 
the  year  following;  having  both  fulfilled  their 
commissions.  Picart's  measure  was  revised  by 
Cassini  and  De  la  Caille,  which,  after  his  efrors 
were  corrected,  was  found  to  agree  very  well 
with  the  other  two ;  and  the  result  of  the  whole 
served  to  confirm  the  determination  of  the  figure 
before  laid  down  by  Newton.  On  the  southern 
expedition,  the  attraction  of  the  great  mountains 
of  Peru  was  found  to  have  a  sensible  effect  on 
the  plumb-line  of  one  of  their  largest  instruments, 
deflecting  it  seven  or  eight  seconds  firom  the  true 
perpendicular. 

61.  In  1742  Dr.  Bradley  succeeded,  on  the 
deadi  of  Dr.  Halley,  as  astronomer  royal  at 
Greenvrich.  The  accuracy  of  his  observations 
enabled  him  to  detect  the  smaller  inequalities  in 
the  motions  of  the  planets  and  fixed  stars.  The 
consequence  of  his  accuracy  was,  the  discovery  of 
the  aberration  of  light,  the  nutation  of  the  eardi's 
axis,  and  a  much  greater  degree  of  perfection  in 
lunar  tables.  He  observed  the  places,  and  com- 
puted the  elements  of  the  comets  which  appeared 
in  the  years  1723,  1736,  1743,  and  1757;  made 
new  and  more  accurate  tables  of  the  motions  of 
Jupiter's  satellites,  and,  from  a  multitude  of  obser- 
vations of  the  luminaries,  constructed  a  table  of 
refractions;  which  has  ever  since  been  in  very 
general  estimation  for  its  accuracy,  though  it  is 
now  generally  admitted  that  it  gives  the  refrac- 
tions too  small.  He  also,  with  a  verv  large 
transit  instrument,  and  a  new  mural  quadrant  of 
eight  feet  radius,  constructed  by  Bird  in  1750, 
made  an  immense  number  of  observations  for 
settling  the  places  of  all  the  stars  in  the  British 
catalogue,  together  with  nearly  1500  places  of 
the  moon,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  com- 
pared with  Mayer's  tables.  Bradley  died  in  1762. 

62.  Astronomers  elsewhere  were  equally  assi- 
duous in  their  endeavours  to  promote  this 
science.  .The  theory  of  the  mpon  was  parti- 
cularly considered  by  Clairault,  D'Al^mbert, 
Euler,  Mayer,  Simpson,  and  Walmsley,  and 
especially  Clairault,  Eider,  and  Mayer,  who 
computed  complete  sets  of  lunar  tables:  those 
of  the  last  of  these  authors,  for  their  superior 
accuracy,  were  rewarded  with  a  premium  of 
£3000,  and  brought  into  use  in  the  computation 


of  the  Nautical  Ephemeris,  published  by  die 
Board  of  Longitude.  The  most  accurate  tables 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  were  composed  from 
observations  by  Wargentin,  an  excellent  Swedish 
astronomer.  But  these  have  again  been  sup^^r- 
seded  by  the  more  recent  ones  of  Delambre. 
There  is  touch  room  for  improvement,  however, 
in  our  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  Jupiter's 
satellites,  even  with  respect  to  the  first  satellites^ 
the  predicted  and  actual  times  of  immersion  or 
emersion  sometimes  differ  to  the  extent  of  two 
minutes. 

63.  Among  the  many  French  astronomers  who 
contributed  to  the  advancement  of  the  science, 
it  was  particularly  indebted  to  De  la  CaiUe  for 
an  excellent  set  of  solar  tables.  He,  in  1750, 
went  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  make  obser- 
vations in  concert  with  the  most  celebrated  astro- 
nomers in  Europe,  for  determining  the  parallax 
of  Mars  and  the  moon,  and  thence  diat  of  the 
sun,  which  it  was  concluded  did  not  much  exceed 
ten  seconds.  Here  he  re-examined  and  adjusted, 
with  great  accuracy,  the  places  of  stars  about  the 
southern  pole;  and  also  measured  a  degree  of 
the  meridian.  In  Italy  the  science  was  assidu- 
ously cultivated  by  Bianchini,  Boscovich,  Frisi, 
Manfredi,  Zanotti,  and  many  others;  in  Sweden, 
by  Wargentin,  already  mentioned,  Blingenstem, 
Mallet,  and  Planman;  and  in  Germany  by  Euler, 
Mayer,  Lambert,  Grischow,  and  others. 

64.  In  1760  all  the  learned  societies  in  Eu- 
rope made  preparations  for  observing  the  transit 
of  Venus  over  the  sun,  which  had  been  predicted 
by  Hallev  more  than  eighty  years  before,  with 
the  use  that  might  be  made  of  it  in  determining 
the  sun's  parallax,  and  the  distances  of  the  plar 
nets  from  the  sun.  The  same  exertions  were  re- 
peated, to  observe  the  transit  in  1769,  by  sending 
observers  to  different  parts'  of  the  world ;  and 
from  the  whole.  Short  computed  that  the  sun's 
parallax  was  nearly  8}  seconds,  and  consequently 
the  distance  of  the  sun  firom  the  earth  about 
24,114  of  the  earth's  diameters,  or  ninety-«ix 
millions  of  miles.  Bradley  vras  succeeded,  in 
1762,  in  his  office  of  astronomer  royal,  by  Bliss, 
Savilian  professor  ofastronomy ;  who,  being  in 
a  declining  state  of  health,  did  not  loiig  enjoy  it. 

65.  In  1765  Bliss  was  succeeded  by  Nevil 
Maskelyne,  who,  in  January  1761,  was  sent  by 
the  Royal  Society,  at  a  very  early  age,  to  the 
island  of  St.  Helena,  to  observe  die  transit  of 
Venus  over  the  sun,  and  the  parallax  of  the 
star  Sirius.  The  first  of  these  objects  partly 
failed,  by  clouds  preventing  the  sight  of  the  se- 
cond internal  contact;  and  the  second  also, owing 
to  Short  having  suspended  the  plumb-line  by  a 
loop  from  the  neck  of  the  central  pin.  However, 
he  indemnified  himself  by  many  other  valuable 
observations :  thus,  he  olnerved  at  St.  Helena, 
the  tides  I  the  horary  parallaxes  of  the  moon ; 
and  the  going  of  a  dock,  to  find  by  comparison 
with  its  previous  goings  which  had  been  observed 
in  EngUnd,  the  difference  of  gravity  at  the  two 
places ;  also  in  going  out  and  returning,  he  prac- 
tised the  method  of  finding  the  longitude  by  the 
lunar  distances  taken  by  Hadley's  quadrant, 
making  out  rules  for  the  use  of  seamen,  and 
teaching  the  method  to  the  officers  on  boaird  the 
ship.    This  mediod  was  explained  in  the  Philo- 


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aopldoil  TrttnsaetioDB,  for  1763,  and  more  fully 
anerwarda  in  the  British  Mariner's  Guide,  pub- 
lished in  1763.  In  Septemher  1763,  he  sailed 
lor  the  island  of  Barbadoes,  to  settle  the  longi- 
tude of  the  place,  to  examine  Harrison's  watch, 
and  to  try  Irwin's  marine  chain  While  at  Bar- 
iMuloes,  he  made  many  oUier  observations,  and 
amongsl  thera^  many  relating  to  tiie  moon's 
horary  parallaxes,  not  yet  published. 

66.  Maskelyne  returning  to  England  in  the 
end  of  1764,  recommended  to  the  board  of  Lon- 
gitude the  lunar  method  of  finding  the  longitude; 
and  pieposed  to  it  the  project  of  a  nautical  alma- 
nack, to  be  calculated  and  published  to  facilitate 
tiiat  method.  This  the  board  agreed  to,  and  the 
first  volume  was  published  for  1767,  and  has  con- 
tinued ever  since  to  the  great  benefit  of  naviga- 
tion. 

67.  In  consequence  of  a  proposa^i  made  by 
this  astronomer  to  the  Royal  Society,  the  project 
i^as  formed  of  measuring  accurately  the  efiect  of 
aome  mountain  on  the  plumb-line,  in  deflecting 
it  from  the  perpendicular;  and  Schdiallien,  in 
Scotland,  having  been  found  the  most  convenient 
in  this  i^and  for  the  purpose,  he  went  into  Scot- 
land to  conduct  the  business ;  by  this  experi- 
ment he  showed  that  the  sum  of  the  deflections 
on  the  two  opposite  sides  was  about  11|^  of  a 
degree ;  and  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
whole  world,  the  universal  attraction  of  matter. 
From  the  data  resulting  from  these  measures, 
Dr.  Hutton  computed  the  mean  density  of  &e 
whole  matter  ip  the  earth,  to  be  about  4}  times 
that  of  common  vrater. 

68.  The  discoveries  of  Dr.  Hersche)  form  a 
new  era  in  astronomy.  In  1781,  he  began  w«th 
observations  on  the  periodical  star  in  Collo  Ceti, 
and  anew  method  ot  measuring  the  lunar  moun- 
tains, none  of  which  he  made  more  than  half  a 
mile  in  he^;ht;  and  having  constructed  teles- 
copes far  more  powerful  than  any  former  ones, 
proceeded  to  other  observations;  such  as,  on  the 
rotation  of  the  planets  round  their  axes ;  on  the 
parallax  of  the  fixed  stars  ;  catalogues  of  double, 
triple,  &c.  stars ;  on  the  proper  motion  of  the 
sun  and  solar  system  ;  on  the  remarkable  ap- 
pearances of  the  polar  regions  of  the  planet  Mars ; 
&c.    Above  all  his  discoveries  of  a  new  primary 

Slanet,  on  the  13th  of  March,  1781,  csOled  by 
im  the  Georgian  Planet,  but  named  the  Hers- 
schel,  and  sometimes  Uranus,  by  foreign  astro- 
nomers, and'  of  its  six  satellites,  discovered 
since  that  time,  has  greatly  enlarged  the  bounds 
of  the  solar  system,  this  new  planet  being  more 
than  twice  as  far  from  the  sun  as  the  planet 
Saturn. 

69.  M'.  Piazzi,  astronomer  royal  at  Palermo, 
discovered  on  January  1st,  1801,  another  planet 
moving  in  an  orbit  between  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
This  planet  has  been  named  Ceres.  Another 
was  discovered  on  March  28th,  1802,  by  Dr. 
Olbers  of  Bremen,  and  named  Pallas ;  a  third 
was  discovered  and  named  Juno  by  Mr.  Harding 
of  lilienthfd;  and  a  fourth  by  Dr.  Oliers,  and 
tiamed  Vesta,  on  March  29th,  1807.  These 
planets  are  adl  very  small,  and  all  so  nearly  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  sun,  and  moving  in  or- 
bits differing  so  little  either  in  eccentricity  or 
<icclinatio*>,  that  they  have  by  some  been  con- 


jectnred  to  be  fragments  of  a  larger  planet,  which 
from  some  explosion  had  been  burst,  and<  its 
parts  scattered  abroad  in  space. 

It  is  probable  that  as  astronomical  instru* 
ments  become  more  improved,  further  discoveries 
of  the  same  kind  will  be  made,  and  that  the 
boundaries  of  the  solar  system  may  be  enlarged 
by  the  discerning  of  planets  which  circulate  round 
the  son  even  beyond  the  orbit  of  the  Georgian 
planet. 

71 .  Dr.  Maskelyne  was  succeeded  at  the  Green- 
wich observatory  in  1 8 1 1 ,  by  J .  Pond,  esq.  the  pre^ 
senti^stronomer  royal,  under  whose  managment  the 
business  of  this  important  institution  has  been 
kept  in  full  activity.  The  number  of  instruments 
has  been  greatly  increased.  The  use  of  the  mu- 
ral quadrant  has  been  abandoned  for  that  of  the 
circle,  two  of  which,  one  by  Troughton,  and  one 
by  T.  JoneS)  are  in  constant  use,  and  give  results 
which  accoid  vrith  each  other  in  a  manner  alto- 
gether surprising.  The  most  important  discove- 
ries may  be  hoped  for  from  the  skill  and  activity 
with  which  the  splendid  instruments  at  Green- 
wich are  managed.  All  indeed  that  appears  wanting 
in  that  institution,  is  a  telescope  of  tne  first  class  to 
follow  up  the  discoveries  in  siderial  astronomy, 
which  conferred  such  splendor  on  the  name  of 
Herschel.  But  we  are  glad  to  perceive  that  this 
department  of  the  science  is  likely  to  be  carried 
to  a  degree  of  perfection  which  few  would  have 
hoped  for,  by  Mr.  Herschel,  junior,  the  worthy 
and  able  son  of  the  great  astronomer,  and  his 
fnend  Mr.  South,  whose  recent  publication  on 
the  motion  of  double  stars  does  them  the  highest 
credit. 

72.  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  greatest 
ardor  is  at  present  evinced  in  the  cultivation  of 
this  science,  ^^e  labors  of  Schumercher  at  Al- 
tona,  are  unintermitted  and  most  valuable.  He 
may  be  considered  at  present  as  a  common  bond 
among  astronomical  men.  Greass  at  Gottingen, 
Littrow,  at  Venice;  Bressel,  at  Konigsberg; 
Struve,  at  Dorpat;  Zach,  at  Genoa;  and  a  host 
of  other  individuals  distinguished  for  their  la- 
bors and  their  zeal,  have  devoted  themselves  to 
astronomy. 

73.  In  our  own  country,  it  would  be  injustice 
to  pass  over  the  names  of  Woodhouse  and  Brink- 
ley,  whose  eminence  in  this  science  is  of  the 
most  distinguished  kind. 

74.  Another  striking  feature  of  the  present 
day  is  the  formation  of  *  The  Astronomical  So- 
ciety of  London,'  an  institution  whose  only 
object  is  the  cultivation  of  astronomical  science. 
This  society  includes  among  its  members  almost 
every  individual  known  to  the  world  as  distin- 
guished for  astronomical  knowledge.  The  me- 
moirs of  the  society,  of  which  the  third  part  is 
just  ready  for  publication,  are  very  valuable  and 
mteresting. 

75.  The  university  of  Cambridge  has  recently 
evinced  its  sense  of  tne  importance  of  a  practical 
knowledge  of  this  science,  by  the  erection  of  an 
observatory  on  the  most  splendid  scale ;  and  the 
English  government  has  also  shown  by  the  recent 
order  for  the  establishment  of  an  observatory  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  that  the  importance 
which  it  has  always  attached  to  the  cultivation  of 
this  science,  has  suflered  no  abatement. 

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76.  Historical  accounts  and  lists  of  the  prin-  ▼eUing  south,  this  star  at  last  seems  depress©! 

dpal  authors  and  writings  on  this  science,  are  in  the  horizon,  and  another  point  appears  di- 

coWned  in  Weidler's  and  Bailly^s  History  of  recUy  opposite  to  it,  round  which  the  stors  in 

^Ttronotay.    Adam,  Vossius,  Bayle,  Chauffepie,  the  southern  part  of  the  honzon  seem  to  tum. 

W^rSrPerraut,  the  chronological  Uble  of  Ric-  In  this  part  of  the  heavens,  however  there  is  no 

cioH,  a^  that  of  Sherhurn,  at  the  end  of  his  star  so  near  the  pole  as  there  is  m  the  northern 

edition  of  Manilius ;  and  the  first  volume  of  De  part :  nor  is  the  number  of  stars  m  ^e  southern 

la  Lande's  astronomy,  may  also  be  consulted,  part  of  the  heavens  so  great  as  m  the  northern 

The  more  modem  and  popular  books  on  as-  part.  «^„A««,^ 

tronomy  are  very  numerSuI  and  well  known;       80.  Supposing  us  sUU  to  ^"^^^1  soudi^, 

as  those  of  Feiiuson,  Long,  Emerson,  Vince,  the  nordi  pole  enUrely  disappear^  and  the  whole 

De  la  Lande,  L^better.  Brent,  Keil,  Whiston,  atmosphere  appears  to  turn  round  a  single  pomt 

Wing,  Street^  Bonnycastle,GregOfy,Brinkley,&iC.  in  the  south,  as  the  northern  hemisphere  appears 

but  Ae  recent  treatise  on  astronomy  by  Wood-  to  us  to  tum  round  the  pole  stor.    The  gCDeral 

house,  is  by  far  the  most  complete  that  has  ap-  appearance  of  the  heavens,  therefore  is  that  of  a 

peared  in  the  English  language.  vast  con<»ve  sphere,  turning  round  two  points 

1^^  ^  *    *  fixed  in  the  north  and  south  parts  of  it,  once  m 

PART  I.  twenty-four  hours. 

OF  THE  APPEARANCES  OF  THE  CE-         81.  The  majority  of  the  stars  keep  their  places 

LESTLAL  BODIES.  with  respect  to  one  another ;  that  is,  if  we  ob- 

„        -     ^  ^  ^    •  serve  two  stars  having  a  certain  apparent  dis- 

Sect.  I.-Of  the  Celestial  Bodies,  as  seen  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^er  one  night,  they  seem  to 

BT  THE  NAKED  EYE.  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  Succeeding  night.     But  all 

77.  The  most  obvious  celestial  phenomenon  the  stars  in  the  heavens  do  not  appear  to  be  of 
is  the  daily  rising  of  the  sun  in  the  east,  and  his  this  fixed  kind :  some  of  them  change  their 
setting  in  the  west ;  next  to  which  is  that  of  the  places,  with  regard  to  the  fixed  stars,  and  to  one 
moon  and  stars  appearing,  and  keeping  the  same  another.  Of  these  ten  are  at  present  known, 
westerly  course.  These  cannot  be  long  taken  They  are  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of 
notice  of  before  we  must  perceive  that  neither  planets,  from  irXavata,  to  wander,  and  are  called 
the  sun  nor  moon  always  rise  exactly  in  tlie  by  the  names  of  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars,  Ceres, 
same  point  of  the  heavens.  If  we  observe  the  Pallas,  Juno,  Vesta,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Hers- 
sun,  from  the  beginning  of  March,  we  find  that  chel,  Uranus,  or  the  Georgium  Sidus.  The  fixed 
he  seems  to  rise  almost  every  day  sensibly  more  stars  are  likewise  distinguished  from  the  planets 
to  the  nortliward,  than  he  did  the  day  before,  to  by  continually  exhibiting  that  appearance  which 
continue  longer  above  the  horizon,  and  to  be  is  called  the  scintillation  or  twinkling  of  the 
more  elevated  at  midnlay,  till  towards  the  end  stars. 

of  June,  when  he  is  observed  to  move  backward        82.  Mercury  is  a  small  star  which  emits  a 

in  the   same  manner  :  this  retrograde  motion  very  bright  white  light ;  but,  by  always  keeping 

continues  beyond  the  middle  of  December,  when  near  the  sun,  he  is  seldom  to  be  seen ;  and  when 

he  begins  again  to  move  forwards,  and  so  on.  he  does  make  his  appearance,  his  motion  toward 

78.  When  the  new  moon  (as  she  is  called,  at  tlie  sun  is  so  swift,  tnat  he  can  only  be  discerned 
her  early  period,)  first  becomes  visible,  she  ap-  for  a  short  time,  a  little  after  sun-set,  and  again 
pears  in  tne  western  part  of  the  heavens,  at  no  a  little  before  sun-rise. 

great  distance  from  the  sun.  Every  night  she  83.  Venus  the  most  beautiful  star  in  the  hea- 
increases  in  size,  and  removes  to  a  greater  dis-  vens,  known  by  the  names  of  the  morning  and 
tance  from  the  sun ;  till  at  last  she  appears  in  evening  star,  keeps  near  the  sun,  though  at 
the  eastern  part  of  the  horizon,  just  at  tlie  time  almost  double  the  distance  of  Mercury.  She  is 
file  sun  disappears  in  the  western.  After  this  never  seen  in  the  eastern  quarter  of  the  heavens 
she  gradually  moves  farther  and  farther  east-  when  the  sun  is  in  the  western ;  but  seems  to 
ward,  rising  every  night  later  and  later,  till  at  attend  him  in  the  evening,  or  to  give  notice  of 
last  she  seems  to  approach  the  sun  as  nearly  in  his  approach  in  the  morning, 
the  east  as  she  did  in  the  west,  and  rises  only  a  84.  Mars  is  of  a  red  fiery  color,  and  gives 
little  before  bim  in  the  morning,  as  in  the  first  a  much  duller  light  than  Venus,  though  some- 
part  of  her  course  she  set  in  the  west  not  long  times  he  equals  her  in  size.  He  is  not  subject 
after  him.  All  these  different  appearances  are  to  the  same  limitation  in  his  motions  as  Mercury 
completed  in  the  space  of  a  month ;  after  which  or  Venus;  but  appears  sometimes  very  near  the 
they  begin  in  the  same  order  as  before.  sun,  and  sometimes  at  a  great  distance  ftt>m  him ; 
79.  Several  of  the  stars  neither  rise  in  the  sometimes  rising  when  2ie  sun  sets,  or  setting 
east,  nor  set  in  tlie  west,  but  seem  to  tum  round  when  he  rises.  Of  this  planet  it  is  remarkable, 
an  immovable  point,  near  which  is  placed  a  that  when  he  approaches  any  of  the  fixed  stars, 
single  star  called  the  pole,  or  pole  star.  This  they  change  their  color,  grow  dim,  and  often  be- 
point  is  more  or  less  elevated  according  to  the  come  totally  invisible,  though  at  some  little 
different  parts  of  the  earth  from  which  we  take  distance  from  the  body  of  the  planet :  but 
our  view.  The  inhabitants  of  Lapland,  for  in-  Herschel  thinks  this  has  been  exaggerated  by 
stance,    see*  it  much  more  elevated  above  the  former  astronomers. 

horizon  than   we  do;  we  see  it  more  elevated  85.  Jupiter  and  Saturn  often  appear  at  great 

than  the  inhabitants  of  France  and  Spain  ;  and  distances  from  the  sun.    The  former  shines  with 

they,   again^  see    it   Ilaore    elevated   than   the  a  bright  white  light,  and  the  latter  with  a  pal6 

inhabitants   of  Barbary.     By  continually  tra-  faint  one ;  and  the  motion  of  Saturn  among  the 


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fixed  stars  is  so  slow,  that,  unless  carefully  ob- 
served, he  will  not  be  tliought  to  move  at  all. 
Her8chel*s  motion  is  still  slower,  and  he  is  sel- 
dom to  be  seen  without  a  telescope. 

86.  The  apparent  magnitudes  of  these  bodies 
are  very  different  at  different  times.  Every  per- 
son must  have  observed  that  Venus  is  not  always 
equally  big;  and  this  apparent  difference  of 
magnitude  is  so  remarkable,  that  she  appears  no 
less  than  thirty-two  times  larger  at  some  seasons 
than  at  others.  This  increase  of  magnitude  is 
likewise  veiy  remarkable  in  Mars  and  Jupiter, 
but  less  so  in  Saturn,  Mercury  and  Herschel. 
These  planets  by  no  means  appear  to  us  to  move 
regularly  in  the  heavens,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
sometimes  go  forward,  sometimes  backward,  and 
sometimes  seem  to  be  stationary. 

87.  There  are  other  moving  bodies,  besides 
the  planets,  which  appear  at  uncertain  intervals, 
and  with  a  very  different  aspect.  These  are  very 
numerous,  and  upwards  of  500  are  recorded  as 
having  visited  our  system.  They  are  called 
Comets,  from  cofM}nic>  hairy,  having  a  long  tail, 
somewhat  resembling  the  appearance  of  hair. 
This,  however,  is  not  always  the  case ;  for  some 
comets  have  appeared  as  round  as  planets :  but 
in  general  they  nave  a  luminous  matter  diffused 
around  them,  or  projecting  out  from  thdm,  which 
to  appearance  very  much  resembles  the  Aurora 
Borealis.  They  appear  to  come  in  a  direct  line 
towards  the  sun,  as  if  they  were  going  to  fall  into 
his  body ;  and  after  having  disappeared  for  some 
time,  in  consequence  of  their  proximity  to  that 
luminary,  fly  off  again  on  the  other  side  as  &st 
as  they  came,  projecting  a  tail  much  greater  and 
brighter  in  their  recess ;  but,  getting  daily  at  a 
&rther  distance  from  us  in  the  heavens,  they 
continually  lose  some  of  their  splendor,  and  at 
last  totally  disappear. 

88.  The  apparent  magnitude  of  comets  is  very 
different;  sometimes  &ey  appear  only  of  the 
bigness  of  the  fixed  stars ;  at  other  times  they 
equal  the  diameter  of  Venus,  and  sometimes 
even  of  the  sun  or  moon.  In  1652  Hevelius  ob- 
served a  comet  which  seemed  not  inferior  to  the 
moon  in  size,  though  it  was  not  so  bright,  but 
appeared  with  a  pale  and  dim  light.  These 
bodies  also  sometimes  lose  their  splendor  sud- 
denly, while  their  apparent  bulk  remains  un- 
altered. With  respect  to  their  apparent  motions, 
they  have  all  the  inequalities  of  the  planets; 
sometimes  seeming  to  go  forwards,  sometimes 
backwards,  and  sometimes  to  be  stationary. 

89.  The  fixed  stars  are  liable  to  changes :  se- 
veral observed  by  the  ancients  are  now  no  more 
to  be  seen ;  and. new  ones  have  appeared  which 
were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Some  of  them 
have  also  disappeared  for  some  time,  and  again 
become  visible.  At  times  some  have  been  ob- 
served to  distinguish  themselves  by  superlative 
lustre ;  but  afterwards  decreasing,  to  vanish  by 
degrees,  and  to  be  no  more  seen.  One  of  these 
stars  being  first  seen  and  observed  by  llippar- 
chus,  set  him  upon  composing  a  catalogue  of 
the  fixed  stars,  that  by  it  posterity  might  learn 
whether  anv  of  the  stars  perish,  and  others  are 
produced  afresh.  After  several  ages  Tycho  Brahe 
observed  another  new  star,  which  put  him  on  the 
same  design.    Of  these  changes  accounts  have 


been  given  by  Halley,  Montanere,  and  Pigot,  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions.  As  a  specimen 
of  these  phenomena  we  shall  here  insert  an  ex- 
tract firom  the  former. 

90.  '  The  first  new  star  in  the  chair  of  Cassio- 
peia was  not  seen  by  Cornelius  Gemma  on  the 
8th  of  November,  1572,  who  says,  he  that  night 
considered  that  part  of-  the  heavens  in  a  very  se- 
rene sky,  and  saw  it  not :  but  that  the  next  night 
November  9,  it  appeared  with  a  splendor  sur- 
passing all  the  fixea  stars,  and  scarcely  less  bright 
than  Venus.  This  was  not  seen  by  Tycho 
Brahe  before  the  11th  of  the  same  month:  but 
from  thence  he  assures  us  that  it  gradually  de- 
creased and  died  away,  so  that  in  March  1574, 
after  sixteen  m9nths,  it  was  no  longer  visible ; 
and  at  this  day  no  signs  of  it  remain."  The  place, 
thereof,  in  the  sphere  of  fixed  stars,  by  tlie  ac- 
curate observations  of  Tycho,  was  0*  9°  17'  a 
1  •»•  j^  cy.i»,  with  53°  45'  N.  lat. 

91.  '  Such  another  star  was  seen  and  observed 
by  the  scholars  of  Kepler,  to  begin  to  appear 
Sept.  30.  O.  S.  anno  1604,  and  which  was  not 
to  be  seen  the  day  before.  It  broke  out  at 
once  with  a  lustre  surpassing  that  of  Jupiter ; 
and  like  the  former  died  away  gradually,  and 
in  much  about  the  same  time  disappeared  to- 
tally, there  remaining  no  footsteps  thereof  in  Jar 
nuary  1605.  This  was  near  the  ecliptic,  follow- 
ing the  right  leg  of  Serpentarius ;  and  by  the  ob- 
servations of  Kepler  and  others,  was  m  7*^  20° 
00'  a  1»*  i^  cy^,  with  north  lat.  1°  56'.  These 
two  seem  to  be  of  a  distinct  species  from  the 
rest,  and  nothing  like  them  has  appeared  since. 

92.  '  But  between  them,  viz.  in  1596,  we 
have  the  first  account  of  the  wonderful  star  in 
Collo  Ceti,  seen  by  David  Fabridus  on  the  3d 
of  August,  as  bright  as  a  star  of  the  third  magni- 
tude,, which  has  been  since  found  to  appear  and 
disappear  periodically;  its  period  b«mg  pre- 
cisely seven  revolutions  in  six  years,  though  it 
returns  not  always  with  the  same  lustre.  Nor  is 
it  ever  totally  extinguished,  but  may  at  all  times 
be  seen  with  a  six  feet  tube.  This  was  singular' 
in  its  kind  till  that  in  Collo  Cygni  was  disco- 
covered.  It  precedes  the  first  star  of  Aries  1° 
40',  with  150  57'  south  lat. 

93.  *  Another  new  star  was  first  discovered  by 
William  Jansonius  in  the  year  1600,  in  pectore, 
or  rather  in  eductione.  Colli  Cygni,  which  ex- 
ceeded not  the  third  magnitude.  This  haying 
continued  some  years  became  at  length  so  nnall 
as  to  be  thought  by  some  to  have  disappeared 
entirely;  but  in  the  years  1657, 1658,  and  1659, 
it  again  arose  to  the  third  magnitude;  though 
soon  after  it  decayed  by  degrees  to  the  fifUi  or 
sixth  magnitude;  and  at  this  day  is  to  be  seen  as 
such  in  9*  18°  38'  a~  #  «Y»,^th  55°  29'  north  lat. 

94.  *  A  fifUi  new  star  was  first  seen  by  Heve- 
lius in  1600,  on  July  15,  O.  S.  as  a  star  of  the 
third  magnitude,  but  by  the  beginning  of  Octo- 
ber was  scarce  to  be  perceived  by  the  naked  eye. 
In  April  following  it  was  again  as  bright  as  be- 
fore, or  rather  greater  than  of  the  third  magni- 
tude, yet  wholly  disappeared  about  the  middle 
of  August.  The  next  year,  in  March  1672,  it 
was  seen  again,  but  not  exceeding  the  sixth 
magnitude :  since  when  it  has  been  no  farther 
visible,  though  we  have  frequently  sought  for  its . 


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return ;  its  place  is  9*  3°  ir  a  I'*"  *  ^,  3tnd 
has  Jat  north  47^  28*. 

95.  '  The  sixth  and  last  is  that  discovered  by 
Mr.  G.  Kirch  in  the  year  1686,  and  its  period 
determined  to  be  of  404)  days ;  and  though  it 
rarely  exceeds  the  fifth  magnitude,  yet  it  is  very 
regular  in  its  returns,  as  we  found  in  the  year 
1714.  Since  then  we  have  watched,  as  the  ab- 
sence of  the  moon  and  clearness  of  the  weather 
would  permit,  to  catch  the  first  beginning  of  its 
appearance  in  a  six  feet  tube,  that,  bearing  a 
very  great  aperture,  discovers  most  minute  stars. 
And  on  June  15,  last,  it  was  first  perceived  like 
one  of  the  very  least  telescopical  stars ;  but  in 
the  rest  of  that  mouth  and  July  it  gradually  in- 
creased so  as  to  become  in  August  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  and  so  continued  all  the  month  of 
September.  After  that  it  again  died  away  by 
degrees,  and  on  the  8th  of  December,  at  nigh^ 
was  scarcely  discernible  by  the  tube;  and,  as 
near  as  could  be  guessed,  equal  to  what  it  was 
at  its  first  appearance  on  June  15th ;  so  that  this 
year  it*  has  been  seen  in  all  nearly  six  months, 
which  is  but  little  less  than  half  its  period ;  and 
the  middle,  and  consequently  the  greatest  bright- 
ness, falls  about  the  10th  of  September.' 

96.  The  galaxy  or  milky  way  is  a  remarkable 
appearance  in  the  heavens,  being  a  broad  ring  of 
a  whitish  color  surrounding  the  whole  celestial 
concave,  whose  light  is  now  known  to  proceed 
from  vast  clusters  of  stars,  discoverable  only  by 
the  telescope.  Mr.  Brydone,.  in  bis  journey  to 
the  top  of  Mount  iEtna,  found  this  phenomenon 
to  make  a  glorious  appearance,  Mike  a  pure 
flame  (as  he  expresses  it)  that  shot  across  the 
heavens.' 

97.  The  only  other  appearances  which  are 
very  observable  by  the  unassisted  eye^  are  those 
obscurations  of  the  sun  and  moon  commonly 
called  eclipses.  These  are  too  well  known,  and 
attract  the  attention  too  much,  to  need  any  par- 
ticular description.  We  have,  however,  accounts 
very  well  authenticated,  of  obscurations  of  the 
sun  continuing  for  a  much  longer  time  than  a 
common  eclipse  possibly  can  do,  and  likewise  of 
the  darkness  being  much  greater  than  usual  on 
such  occasions. 

Sect.  II.  Op  the  Celestial  Bodies  as  seen 
THEOUGH  Telescopes. 

9B.  Although  the  sun,  to  the  naked  eye,  is 
extremely  bright  and  splendid,  he  is  frequently 
observed,  even  through  a  telescope  of  but  very 
imall  powers,  to  have  dark  spots  on  his  surface, 
which  are  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  in 
1611 ;  and  the  honor  of  the  discovery  is  disputed 
betwixt  Galileo  and  Scheiner,  a  German  Jesuit 
at  Ingolstadt.  But  whatever  merit  Scheiner 
might  have  in  the  priority  of  the  discovery,  it  is 
certain  that  Galileo  far  exceeded  him  in  accu- 
racy;  though  Scheiner's  work  has  considerable 
merit,  as  containing  observations  selected  from 
above  3000  made  by  himself. 

99.  It  appears  from  the  papers  of  Harriot, 
the  Englisn  algebraist,  which  were  found  ifi 
1784,  at  the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Egremont  in 
Sussex,  that  he  made  a  great  number  of  obser- 
vations upon  the  solar  spots  much  about  die 


sathe  lime;  and  Dr.  Zach,  astrotadmer  to  the 
dtike  of  Saxe  Gotha,  in  an  account  of  Harriot's 
papers,  published  in  ltB8,  says  that  there  is  the 
greatest  probabililfy  of  HaiYiot  being  the  first  dis- 
coverer of  diese  spots,  even  before  either 
Galileo  or  Scheiiner.  Galileo's  fifiit  produced 
observations  sore  only  fot  June  2, 161$,  aftid  those 
of  Scheiner  of  the  month  of  October  in  the  same 
year,  whereas  Harriotts,  as  appears  from  his 
MSS,  are  of  December  8, 1610. 

100.  There  is  great  variety  in  the  tDdffitfitades 
of  the  solar  spots ;  the  difierence  is  cfaie%  in  su- 

Serficial  extent  of  length  and  bteadth;  their 
epth  or  thickness  is  very  small:  some  have 
been  so  large  as  by  computation  to  be  capable 
of  covering  the  whole  sorftce  of  Dfe  earm,  or 
even  five  times  its  surface.  The  diameter  of 
a  spot,  when  neav  the  middle  of  the  disk,  is 
measured  by  coikiparing  the  time  it  takes  in 
passing  over  a  cross  hair  in  a  telescope,  with  the 
time  wherein  l})e  whole  disk  of  the  sun  passes 
over  the  same  hair.  It  may  also  be  measured  by 
the  micromeier;  and  thus  we  ^iHay  Judge  how 
many  times  the  diameter  of  the  spoT^  -con- 
tained in  the  diameter  of  the  Stm. 

101.  Spots  are  subject  to  incfreaselttd  dimi- 
nution of  magnitude,  and  seldom  continue  Img 
in  the  same  state.  They  are  of  various  ^apes ; 
most  of  them  having  a  deep  black  nucleus,  sur- 
rounded by  a  dusky  cloud,  whei^f  the  inner 
parts  near  the  black  are  a  little  brighter  than  the 
outskirts.  They  change  their  shapes,  something 
in  the  manner  that  our  clouds  do,  though  not 
often  so  suddenly;  thus  what  is  of  a  certain 
figure  to  day,  will  to-morrow,  or  perhaps  in  a  few 
hours,  be  of  a  different  one ;  what  is  now  but 
one  spot  vrill  in  a  little  time  be  broken  into  two 
or  three ;  and  sometimes  two  or  three  spots  will 
coalesce,  and  be  united  into  one.  The  number 
of  spots  on  the  stm  is  very  uncettain ;  some- 
times there  are  a  great  many,  sometimes  very 
few,  and  sometime^  none  at  all. 

102.  Scheiner  made  observations  on  the  son 
firom  1611  to  1629;  atid  says  he  never  found 
his  disk  quite  free  fVom  spots,  excepting  a  few 
days  in  December,  1624.  At  other  times  he  fn- 
quently  saw  twenty,  thirty,  and  in  the  year  1625, 
he  was  able  to  count  fifty  spots  on  the  sun  at  a 
time.  In  an  interval  afterwards  of  twenty  years, 
from  1650  to  1670,  scarcely  any  spots  Were  to 
l^e  seen,  and  since  that  time  some  years  have 
furnished  a  great  number  of  spots,  and  others 
none  at  all;  but  since  the  beginning  .of  the  last 
century,  not  a  year  has  passed  wherein  some 
were  not  seen. 

103.  It  is  evident  flrom  these  vari6us  appear- 
tinces  that  the  spots  are  not  endowed  with  any 
permanency,  nor  at  all  regular  in  their  shape, 
magnitude,  number,  or  time  of  appearance  or 
continuance.  Hevelius  observed  one  that  arose 
and  vanished  in  sixteen  or  seventeen  hours ;  and 
no  one  has  been  observed  to  continue  longer 
than  seventy  days :  those  spots  that  are  formed 
gradually  are  gradually  dissolved,  while  those 
that  arise  suddenly  are  for  the  most  part  sud- 
denly dissolved.  When  a  spot  disappears,  that 
part  where  it  was,  generally  becomes  brighter 
than  the  rest  of  the  sun,  and  continues  so  for  se- 
veral days :  on  the  other  hand,  those  bright  parts 


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called  &culfle  (ai9  tKe  otiien  are  called  macule) 
sometimes  turn  to  spots. 

104.  Tbe  solar  spots  appear  to  have  a  motion 
across  the  sun's  disk.  Eveiy  spot«  if  it  conti- 
nues long  enough  without  being  dissolved,  ap- 
pears to  enter  the  sun's  disk  on  thf!  east  side,  to 
go  ttota.  thence  with  the  velocity  continually  iii- 
creasinff  till  it  has  gone  half  way,  and  then  to 
move  slower  and  ^ower  till  it  goes  off  at  the 
inrest  side ;  after  which  it  dtsappeare  for  about  the 
sasre  s^^ace  of  time  that  it  spent  in  crossing  the 
disk,  and  then  enters  upon  the  east  side  again; 
nearly  in  the  same  place,  and  crosses  it  in  the 
same  track,  and  with  the  same  unequal  motion 
as  before,  t'he  motion  of  the  spots  is  in  the 
order  of  the  signs  (the  same  wiy  that  all  mo- 
lions  in  the  solar  system,  those  of  the  comets 
alone  excepted,  ^e  performed)  $  sind  therefore, 
as  the  earth  revolves  round  th6  sun  the  same 
-way  wiA  the  Solar  spots,  one  of  these  will  ap- 
pear to  remain  longer  oii  the  di^k  than  it  would 
otherwise  ao  if  the  earth  remained  ai  rest. 

105.  /the  face  of  the  sun;  ^hen  clear  of  spots, 
seen  hf  the  naked  eye  through  a  smoked  or  co- 
lored glass,  or  through  a  thin  cloud,  or  the  va- 
pours near  the  horizon,  appears  all  over  equally 
luminous ;  but  .when  viewed  through  the  teles- 
cope; (he  glasses  being  smoked  or  colored,  the 
midcUe  of  &  djsk  appears  brighter  than  the  out- 
skiris,  because  the  hgnt  is  darted  more  directly 
towards  us  from  the  middle  than  firdm  any  other 
part,  and  the  &culfle  appear  more  distinctly  near 
the  sides,  as  being  on  a  darker  ground  than  in 
(he  middle. 

106.  Afi  {he  phenomena  of  the  solar  spots,  as 
delivered  by  Scheiher  and  Hevelius,  may  be  sum- 
med up  in  the  following  particulars :  1.  £ver^ 
iipot  which  has  a  nucleus,  or  considerably  dark 
part,  has  also  an  umbra,  or  fainter  shade,  sur- 
rounding it.  2.  The  boundary  betwixt  the  nu- 
cleus and  umbra  is  adways  distinct  and  well  de- 
fined. 3.  The  increase  of  a  s'pot  is  gradual,  the 
preadth  of  die  nucleus  and  umbta  dilating  at  th6 
Same  time.  4.  In  tike  manner;  the  dterease  of 
a  spot  is  gradual ;  the  breadth  of  the  nucleus 
ana  umbra  contracting  at  the  same  time.  5. 
The  exterior  boundary  of  the  umbra  never  con- 
sists of  sharp  angles;  but  i$  always  curvilinear, 
how  irregular  soever  the  outline  of  the  nucleus 
inay  be.  fe.  The  nucleus  of  a  spot,  Whilst  on 
the  decrease,  often  changes  its  figure  by  the 
umbra  encroaching  irregularlv  upon  it,  insomuch 
that  jn  a  small  space  of  tune  new  encroaeh- 
inents  are  discernible,  whereby  the  boundary 
betwixt  the  nucleus  and  uml^ra  is  perpetually 
varying^  7.  It  often  happens,  by  these  Cncroach- 
inenfs,  (Hat  the  nucleus  of  a  spot  is  divided  ioito 
two  or  more  nuclei.  8.  The  niiclei  of  the  spots 
vanish  sooner  thdin  th^  umbrse.  d.  Small  umbrse 
are  often  seen  without  nuclei.  10,  An  umbra  of 
any  considerable  size  is  seldom  seen  ^thout  a 
nucleus  in  the  middle  of  it.  li.  When  a  spot 
which  consists  of  a  nucleus  and  umbra  is  about 
to  disappear,  if  it  is  not  succeeded  by  a  facula, 
or  spot  brighter  than  the  ^t  of  the  disk,  the 
'place  where  ft  was  is  soon  afte^  not  dbtinguish- 
ablA  (rom  the  rest. 

lor.  Dr.  Wilson,  in  the  Phil.  Trans,  vol.  Ixiv. 


mentions  the  following  appearances :  1 .  When 
the  spot  is  about  to  disappear  on  the  western  edge 
of  the  sun'3  limb,  the  eastern  part  of  the  umbra  first 
contracts,  then  vanishes,  the  nucleus  and  Western 
part  of  the  umbra  remaining ;  then  the  nucleus 
gradually  contracts  and  vanishes,  while  the  west- 
em  part  of  the  umbra  remains.  At  last  this  disap- 
pears also ;  and  if  the  spot  remains  long  enough 
to  become  again  visible,  the  eastern  part  of  the  um- 
bra first  becomes  visible,  then  th6  nucleus;  and 
when  the  spot  approaches  the  middle  of  the  disk, 
the  nucleus  appears  environed  by  the  umbra  on 
all  sides,  as  already  mentioned.  2.  When  two 
spots  lie  very  near  to  one  another,  the  umbra  is 
deficient  on  that  sld6  which  lies  next  the  other 
spot;  and  this  will  be  the  case,  though  a  larger 

Siot  should  be  contiguous  to  one  much  smaller ; 
e  umbra  of  the  Ikige  spot  will  be  totally  want> 
ing  on  that  side  next  the  small  one.  If  there  are 
little  spots  on  each  side  of  the  large  one,  the  um- 
bra does  not  totally  vanish ;  but  appears  flattened 
or  pressed  in  towards  the  nucleus  on  each  side. 
When  the  little  spots  disappear,  the  umbra  of  the 
large  one  extends  itself  as  usual.  This  circum- 
stance, he  observes,  may  sometimes  prevent  the 
disaippearance  of  the  umbra  in  the  manner  above 
mentioned ;  so  that  the  western  umbra  may  disap- 
pear before  the  nucleus,  if  a  small  spot  happens 
to  break  oat  on  that  side. 

108.  Mr.  Wollaston  observes,  in  the  same 
volume^  p.  337,  that  the  appearances  mentioned 
by  Wilson  are  not  constant ;  and  as  much  depends 
on  the  accuracy  of  observers  and  the  situation  of 
the  spots  on  the  sun's  orb,  it  is  probable  that  the 
observation  will  continue  to  differ  in  minute  par- 
ticulars, till  a  consistent  theory  is  formed,  by 
which  the  cause  of  these  phenomena  may  be  ex- 
plained. The  spots  are  not  confined  to  one  part 
of  the  sun's  disk;  though  they  are  generally 
observed  about  his  polar  regions.  The  paths 
they  describe  in  their  course  over  the  disk  are 
exceedingly  different ;  sometimes  being  straight . 
lines,  sometimes  curves,  sometimes  descending  . 
from  the  northern  to  the  southern  parts  of  the 
disk,  sometimes  ascending  from  the  southern  to 
the  northern,  &c.  These  appearances  are  in- 
creased by  the  inclination  of  the  solar  axis  to  the 
plane  of  tne  earth's  orbit ;  from  whence  it  arises, 
that  the  part  described  by  a  spot  which  is  on  a 
circle  parallel  to  the  solar  equator  sometimes  ap- 
pears oval,  and  at  others  a  straight  line,  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of  the  earth  with  respect  to 
the  suii.  Besides  these  spots,  there  are  others 
which  sometimes  appear  very  round  and  black, 
travelling  over  the  aisk  of  the  sun  in  a  few  hours, 
totally  unlike  the  odiers,  and  proceeding  from 
^  interposition  of  the  planets  Mercury  and  Ve- 
nus between  the  earth  alid  the  sun.  ^  Excepting 
the  two  kinds  of  spots  above-mentioned,  how- 
ever, no  kind  of  object  is  discoverable  on  the 
surfiice  of  d^e  sun,  but  he  appears  like  an  im- 
mense 6cean  of  light. 

109.  The  appearance  of  the  Moon  is  very 
different.  Many  darkish  spots  appear  in  her  to 
the  naked  eye;  and  through  a  tele^ope  their 
number  ts  prodigiously  increased ;  she  also  ap 
pears  very  plainly  to  be  more  protuberant  in  the 
middle  than  at  the  edges,  or  to  have  the  figure  tf 


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a  globe,  and  not  a  flat  circle.  When  the  moon 
is  gibbous  or  horned,  die  one  side  appears  very 
ragged  and  uneven,  but  the  other  pretty  well 
defined  and  circular.  The  spots  in  the  moon  al- 
ways keep  their  places  exactly ;  never  vanishing, 
or  going  from  one  ^de  to  die  other,  as  those  of 
the  sun  do.  We  sometimes  see  more  or  less  of 
the  northern  or  southern,  the  eastern  or  west- 
em  part  of  the  disk  or  face ;  which  is  owing  to 
what  is  called  her  libration.  Plate  IV.  fig.  1, 
gives  a  representation  of  the  full  moon  in  her 
mean  libration,  with  the  principal  spots  accord- 
ing to  Riccioli,  Cassini,  and  Mayer. 

110.  Mercury,  when  looked  at  through  tele- 
scopes magnifying  about  200  or  300  times,  ap- 
pears equally  luminous  throughout  his  whole 
surface,  without  the  least  dark  spot.  He  appears 
to  have  the  same  phases  with  the  moon,  being 
sometimes  homed,  sometimes  gibbous,  and  some- 
times shining  almost  with  a  rotmd  face,  though 
not  entirely  full,  because  his  enlightened  side  is 
never  turned  directly  towards  us. 

111.  Dr.  Herschel  has  frec^uendy  examined 
Mercury  with  telescopes  of  highly  magnifying 
powers ;  but  he  always  appeared  equally  bright 
on  every  part  of  his  disk,  without  any  dark  spot 
or  ragged  edg^e.  But  Schroeter,  who  has  so 
much  distinguished  himself  in  this  department 
of  astronomy,  affirms  that  he  has  not  only 
seen  spots,  but  even  mountains  in  Mercury; 
and  that  he  has  succeeded  in  measuring  the 
altitude  of  two  of  them.  He  makes  the  elevation 
of  the  higher  of  these  about  ten  English  miles 
and  three-quarters,  or  about  thrice  the  height 
of  the  highest  mountain  on  our  earth:  but 
where  so  small  an  enor  in  the  admeasure- 
ment of  the  angle  on  which  the  computation  is 
founded  would  entail  so  great  a  mistake  in  the 
result,  we  can  only  consider  this  determination 
of  the  height  of  the  mountains  of  Mercury,  as  a 
strong  evidence  that  considerable  elevations  do 
exist  on  that  planet.  By  examining  the  variation 
on  the  appearance  of  Mercury's  horns  from  day 
to  day,  Scnroeter  found  the  period  of  his  diurnal 
rotation  to  be  about  twenty-four  days,  five  hours, 
and  twenty-eight  minutes.  Considerable  diflfer- 
ence  of  opinion  exbts  respecting  the  atmosphere 
of  this  planet ;  if  it  possesses  any,  it  certainly  at 
the  centre  subtends  a  very  small  angle. 

112.  Venus,  when  viewed  dirough  a  telescope, 
is  rarely  seen  to  shine  with  a  fUll  &ce,  but  has 
phases  and  changes  like  those  of  the  moon,  in- 
creasing, decreasing,  being  homed,  gibbous,  &c. 
Her  illuminated  part  is  constandy  turned  towards 
the  sun ;  being  directed  towards  the  east  when  she 
is  a  morning  star,  and  towards  the  west  when  an 
evening  star.  Her  different  phases  were  first  dis- 
covered by  Galileo.  Dr.  Herschel  has  published, 
in  die  Phil.  Trans,  for  1793,  a  long  series  of 
observations  on  this  planet,  from  which  he  con- 
cludes, 1  that  the  planet  revolves  about  its  axis, 
but  that  the  period,  and  the  position  of  the  axis, 
are  uncertain;  2.  that  the  planet's  atmosphere  is 
verv  considerable ;  3.  diat  there  are  probably  hills 
and  inequalities  upon  its  surfece,  though  he  has 
not  been  able  to  see  much  of  them,  owing,  per- 
haps, to  die  density  of  its  atmosphere ;  and,  4. 
that  this  planet  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  earth. 


instead  of  being  less,  as  former  astronomers  hare 
imagined.  Schroeter,  also,  in  the  Phil.  Trans, 
for  1792,  published  the  result  of  a  series  of  ob- 
servations on  this  planet,  which  were  begun  in 
1780.  He  infers  from  his  observaUons  that 
Venus  has  an  atmosphere  of  great  density  and 
height,  and  that  many  of  her  mountains  are  five 
or  six  Umes  as  high  as  those  of  the  earth. 
•  113.  Much  larger  and  more  remttzkable  spots 
have  been  perceived  on  the  disk  of  Mars  than  on 
that  of  any  other  primary  plapet.  By  very  accu- 
rate observations,  Herschel  has  determined  the 
Sroportion  between  the  polar  and  equatorial 
iameters,  and  the  length  of  the  day  in  this 
planet.  He  has  also  given  some  good  conjectures 
on  its  seasons  and  its  atmosphere  i  the  latter  it  is 
now  ascertained  to  have;  but  though  consider- 
able, the  atmosphere  is  not  of  so  great  an  extent 
as  the  conjectures  on  former  observations  led 
astronomers  to  imagine.  By  very  accurate  obser- 
vations, Dr.  Herschel  has  determined  that  the  pro- 
portion of  his  polar  and  equinoctial  axis  is  as 
1272  to  1355,  or  nearljr  as  15  to  16 ;  that  its  time 
of  rotation  on  its  axis  is  24  h.  22  m.  and  that  the 
inclination  of  the  axis  of  Mars  to  the  orbit  of  the 
earth  is  59^42'.  From  the  great  obliquity  of  this 
planet's  axis  of  rotation,  the  polar  regions  of  it 
are  alternately  presented  towards  the  earth,  and 
a  much  better  opportunity  is  thereby  offered  for 
examining  its  surface  than  that  of  any  other 
planet.  This,  however,  is  in  some  degree  coun- 
terbalanced by  the  very  dense  atmosphere  with 
which  this  planet  is  surrounded.  It  is  not  a  litde 
remarkable,  that  when  either  pole  emerges  into 
the  light  of  the  sun,  it  exhibits  a  very  striking 
brilliancy,  something  like  what  would  arise  from 
its  being  covered  with  snow.  The  analogy 
between  this  phenomenon  and  what  annually 
takes  place  on  our  own  globe,  is  too  obvious  to 
escape  notice. 

114.  The  planet  Ceres  is  of  a  red  color,  and 
appears  about  the  size  of  a  star  of  the  eighth  mag- 
nitude. It  is  surrounded  by  a  very  dense  and 
extensive  atmosphere,  in  which  very  great  and 
sudden  changes  are  observed  to  take  place.  The 
estimates  that  have  been  made  of  this  planet's 
diameter  are  a  striking  instance  of  the  difficulty 
of  measuring  the  apparent  diameters  of  such 
small  objects.  Herschel  makes  its  diameter 
about  163  miles;  and  Schroeter  about  1624,  or 
nearly  ten  times  as  much.  Its  periodical  revo- 
lution round  the  sun  is  accomplished  in  about 
four  years,  seven  months,  and  ten  days. 

115.  Pallas  is  neariy  of  the  same  size  as  Cere^ 
but  not  quite  of  so  red  an  appearance.  Its  period 
of  revolution  has  been  computed  to  be  about  four 
years,  ten  months,  and  eleven  days;  and  its  dia- 
meter has  been  estimated  at  from  eighty  to  up- 
wards of  2000  miles.  It  has  also  an  atmosphere,  but 
of  less  extent  than  that  of  Ceres ;  but  it  differs 
from  that  and  all  other  planets  in  die  great  incli- 
nation of  its  orbit.  The  planets  generally  circu- 
late in  planes  that  do  not  deviate  much  from  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic ;  but  the  orbit  of  Pallas  is 
inclined  about  thirty-five  degrees,  nearly  five 
times  as  much  as  that  of  any  other  planet. 

116.  Juno  is  of  a  reddish  color,  and  is  sur- 
rounded  by  an  atmosphere  of  considerable  den- 


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sity.  Its  diameter  is  allowed  by  all  observen 
to  be  less  than  that  of  either  Ceres  or  Pallas.  It 
differs  from  all  other  planets  in  the  eccentricity 
of  its  orbit ;  being,  when  at  its  greatest  distance 
from  the  sun,  at  double  the  least  distance.  The 
period  of  its  rcTolution  is  about  four  years  and 
128  days. 

117.  Vesta  appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth 
magnitude,  and  may  on  a  clear  night  be  some- 
times seen  with  the  naked  eye.  Its  light  is  whiter 
and  more  intense  than  any  of  the  other  three 
small  planets.  Its  apparent  diameter  has  been 
estimated  at  about  half  that  of  the  fourth  satellite 
of  Saturn ;  and  yet  it  is  very  remarkable  that  its 
light  is  so  intense,  that  Schroeter  saw  it  several 
times  with  his  naked  eye,  while  it  requires  a 
telescope  of  considerable  power  to  see  the  fourth 
or  indeed  any  satellite  of  Saturn.  This  planet 
revolves  in  about  three  years,  sixty-six  days,  and 
four  hours.  The  orbits  of  all  these  four  little 
planets  (which  from  their  smallness  have  been 
called  Asteroids)  intersect  each  other  in  various 
places ;  and  the  points  of  intersection  are  conti- 
nually varjring  from  the  changes  in  the  places 
of  4heir  aphelia. 

118.  Jupiter  has  the  same  general  appear. 
ance  with  Mars,  only  that  the  belts  on  his  surface 
are  much  larger  and  more  permanent.  Their 
nimiber  is  very  variable,  as  sometimes  only  one, 
and  at  other  times  no  fewer  than  eight,  may  be 
perceived.  They  are  generally  parallel  to  one 
another,  but  not  always  so ;  and  their  breadth  is 
likewise  variable,  one  belt  having  been  observea  to 
grow  narrow,  while  another  in  its  neighbourhood 
has  increased  in  breadth,  as  if  the  one  had  flowed 
into  the  other.  The  time  of  their  continuance  is 
very  uncertain,  sometimes  reoviining  unchanged 
for  three  months ;  at  others,  new  belts  have  been 
formed  in  an  hour  or  two.  In  some  of  these  belts 
large  black  spots  have  appeared,  which  moved 
swiftly  over  tne  disk  from  east  to  west,  and  re- 
turned in  a  short  time  to  the*  same  place ;  from 
whence  the  rotation  of  this  planet  about  its  axis 
has  been  determined. 

119.  The  figure  of  Jupiter  is  evidently  an  ob- 
late spheroid,  the  longest  diameter  of  his  disk 
being  pa  the  shortest  as  thirteen  to  twelve.  His 
rotation  is  from  west  to  east,  like  that  of  Uie  sun, 
and  the  plane  of  his  equator  is  very  nearly  coin- 
cident with  that  of  his  orbit ;  so  that  there  can 
scarcely  be  any  difference  of  seasons  in  that  planet. 
Uis  rotation  has  been  observed  to  be  somewhat 
quicker  in  his  aphelion  than  his  perihelion. 

120.  The  most  remaricable  circumstance  at- 
tending this  planet,  is  his  having  four  moons  or 
satellites,  which  constantly  revolve  round  him 
at  different  distances.  These  are  all  supposed  to 
move  in  ellipses ;  though  the  eccentricities  of  all 
of  them  are  too  small  to  be  measured,  excepting 
that  of  the  fourth ;  and  even  this  amounts  (o  no 
more  than  00'07  of  its  mean  distance  from  the 
primary. 

121 .  The  periodic  times  and  distances  of  these 
satellites,  in  semidiameters  of  Jupiter,  as  well  as 
in  English  miles,  the  angles  under  which  their 
orbits  appear,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  at  its  mean 
distance  from  Jupiter,  taken  from  the  latest  and 
most  exact  observations,  are  as  follow : 


No. 

Periodic  times. 

Distances  in 

Angles 
ofOrt). 

Semi- 
diam. 

MUes. 

1 

2' 

3 

4 

U.  18A.  27' 34" 
3     13     13  42 
7       3     42  36 
16     16     32     9 

5| 

9i 
14fc 
25?. 

266,000   3  55" 
423,000   6  14 
676,000   9  58 
1,189,000  17  30 

122.  The  nodes  of  these  satellites  are  not  in 
the  same  place.  All  of  them,  by  reason  of  their 
immense  distance,  seem^o  keep  near  their  prima- 
ly,  and  their  apparent  motioo  is  a  kind  of  oscil- 
lation like  that  of  a  pendulum,  going  alternately 
from  their  greatest  distance  on  one  side  to  the 
greatest  distance  on  the  other,  sometimes  in  a 
straight  line,  and  sometimes  in  an  elliptic  curve. 
When  a  satellite  is  in  its  superior  semicircle,  or 
that  half  of  its  orbit  which  is  more  distant  from 
the  earth  tlian  Jupiter  is,  its  motion  appears  to 
us  direct,  according  to  the  order  of  the  signs ; 
but  in  its  inferior  semicircle,  when  it  is  nearer  to 
us  than  Jupiter,  its  motion  appears  retrograde ; 
and  both  taese  motions  seem  quicker  the  nearer 
the  satellites  are  to  the  centre  of  the  primary, 
slower  the  more  distant  they  are,  and,  at  the 
greatest  distance  of  all,  they  appear  for  a  short 
time  to  be  stationary. 

123.  It  is  evident,  from  this  account  of  the 
system  of  Jupiter  and  his  satellites,  tliat  occul- 
tations  of  them  must  frequently  happen  by  their 
going  behind  their  primary,  or  by  coming  in  be- 
twixt us  and  it.  The  former  takes  place  when 
they  proceed  towards  the  middle  of  their  upper 
semicircle ;  the  latter  when  they  pass  through  the 
same  part  of  their  inferior  semicircle.  Occulta- 
tions  of  the  former  kind  happen  to  the  fii^t  and 
second  satellite ;  at  every  revolution,  the  third 
very  rarely  escapes  an  occultation,  but  the  fourth 
more  frequently  by  reason  of  its  greater  distance. 
It  is  seldom  that  a  satellite  can  be  discovered 
upon  the  disk  of  Jupiter,  even  by  the  best  tele- 
scopes, excepting  at  its  first  entrance,  when,  by 
reason  of  its  being  more  directly  illuminated  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun  than  the  planet  itself,  it  ap- 
pears like  a  lucid  spot  upon  it.  Sometimes, 
however,  a  satellite,  in  passing  over  the  disk,  ap- 
pears like  a  dark  spot,  and  is  easily  to  be  distin- 
guished. This  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  spots 
on  the  body  of  these  secondary  planets ;  and  it  is 
remarkable,  that  the  same  satellite  has  been 
known  to  pass  over  the  disk  at  one  time  as  a. dark 
spot,  and  at  another  so  luminous  that  it  could 
not  be  distinguished  from  Jupiter  himself,  ex- 
cept at  its  coming  on  and  going  off. 

124.  To  account  for  Uiis  phenomenon,  we 
must  say  that  either  the  spots  are  subject  to  change, 
or,  if  they  be  permanent  like  those  of  our  moon, 
that  the  satellites  al  different  times  turn  different 
parts  of  their  globes  towards  us.  Possibly  both 
these  causes  may  contribute  to  produce  the  phe- 
nomena just  mentioned.  For  tnese  reasons  also 
both  the  light  and  apparent  magnitude  of  the  sa- 
tellites are  variable;  for  the  fewer  spots  there 
are  upon  that  side  which  is  turned  towards  us, 
the  brighter  it  will  appear ;  and,  as  the  bright  side 


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ASTRONOMY. 


only  can  be  leen,  a  satellite  must  appear  larger 
tlie  more  of  its  bright  siae  it  turns  towards  the 
earth,  and  the  less  so  the  tnore  it  happens  to  be 
covered  with  spots.  The  fourth  satellite,  though 
generally  the  smallest,  sometimes  appears  bigger 
than  any  of  the  rest;  Ae  third  sometimes  seems 
least,  though  usually  the  largest ;  nay,  a  satellite 
may  be  so  coTered  with  spots  as  to  appear  less 
than  its  shadow  passing  over  the  disk.ot  the  pri- 
mary, though  we  are  certain  that  the  shaaow 
must, be  smaller  than  the  body  whidi  casts  it. — 
io  a  spectator  placed  on  tlie  surface  of  Jupiter, 
each  ot  these  satellites  would  put  on  the  various 
appearances  of  the  moon;  but  they  appear  to  tis 
always  rouiidi  having  constantly  their  enlighiebed 
half  turned  towards  the  earth. 

125.  When  these  moons  pass  through  their  in- 
ferior semicircles,  they  cast  a  shado^  upon  Jupi- 
ter, and  thus  cause  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  to  nis 
inhabitants ;  ana  in  some  situations  this  shadow 
may  be  observed  going  before  or  foUowjn^  the 
satellite.  lierschel  says,  <  April  6th,  1780,  I 
had  a  fine  view  of  Jupiter,  and  saw,  as  soon  as 
t  looked  into.the  telescope,  without  any  previous 
notice  of  it,  the  shadow  of  the  tliird  satellite,  and 
tlie  satellite  itself  on  the  lower  part  of  the  disk. 

fhe  shadow  was  so  black  and  welt  denned,  that 
attempted  to  measure  it,  and  found  its  diameter, 
by  the  micrometer,  to  be  1'  562.'  See  plate  XI. 
fig.  2.  On  the  other  hand,  in  pacing  through 
tneir  superior  semicircles,  the  satellites  may  be 
eclipsed  in  the  same  manner  as  our  moon  is  to 
us,  oy  passing  througli  the  shaddiv  of  Jupiter ; 
and  this  is  actually  the  case  with  the  first,  se- 
cond, and  third  of  these  bodies ;  but  the  fourth, 
by  reason  of  the  largeness  ot  its  orbit,  passed 
Sometimes  above  or  below  the  shadow,  as  is  the 
case  with  our  moon.  The  beginnings  and  end- 
ings of  these  eclipses  are  easily  seen  by  a  teles- 
cope wheii  the  earth  is  in  a  proper  situation  with 
regard  to  Jupiter  and  the  sun ;  but  when  this 
or  any  other  planet  .is  in  conjimction  with  the 
sun,  ihe  superior  brightness  of  that  luminary 
renders  bdlh  it  and  tlie  satellites  invisible.  From 
6ie  time  of  its  first  appearing  after  a  conjunction 
iintil  near  the  opposition,  only  the  immersions  of 
the  satellites  into  his  shadow,  or  the  begiiinings 
of  the  eclipses  are  visible ;  at  ihk  opposition, 
only  the  occultations  of  the  satellites,  by  going 
behind  or  coming  before  their  primary,  are  ob- 
liervable ;  and  from  the  opposition  to  the  conjunc- 
tion, only  the  inim^rsions,  or  end  of  the  eclipses 
ftre  to  be  seen.  For  let  S,  plate  VI.  fig.  8,  be  thfe 
sun;  I  Jupiter  and  its  shadow;  A  and  P  di^ &a(ti, 
before  and  after  the  opposition  of  Jupiter;  Sp 
the  path  of  the  first  satellite  in  the  Shadow ;  A  ^  • 
a  tangent  to  Jupiter.  When  the  first  satellite 
enters  the  shadow,  the  apparent  distance  of  it 
from  the  body  of  Jupiter  is  <  As;  but  at  its 
emersion,  the  line  pk  passes  ihrougli  Jupiter, 
and  therefore  the  emersion  is  not  Visible;  but 
afler  opposition,  the  earth  bein^  at  P,  the  emer- 
sion, and  not  the  immersioti,  will  be  seen.  The 
saYne  things  take  place  with  resptet  to  the  second 
Satellite.  If  mtito  be  the  pam  of  the  third  te- 
tellite,  m  A  frequently  ties  without  the  body  of 
Jupiter,  and  therefore  1x>th  the  iinmcniton  and 
Emersion  will  be  visible ;  the  satellite  disappears 


and  re-appears   a^ti  at  a  distance  fi^om  the 
t>ody  of  Jupiter,  and  On  the  same  side. 

126.  This  is  exactly  true  in  the  first  satellite, 
of  ifYdA  we  can  never  see  an  iminersidn  with  its 
immediately  subsequent  emersion :  and  it  b  but 
rarely  that  they  can  be  1x>th  seen  in  the  second ; 
as  in  order  to  their  l>eing  so,  that  satellite  must  be 
hear  one  of  its  limits,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
planet  is  near  its  perihelion  and  faaadrahire  with 
the  sub.  Wiih  regard  to  the  third;  when  Jupiter 
is  more  than  46^  mm  conjunction  with,  or  op- 
position to,  the  sun,  lM>th  its  imther^ons  and  im- 
mediately subsequent  emersions  are  visible ;  as 
they  likewise  ate  in  the  fonrth;  when  the  diAabce 
bf  Jupiter  from  conjunction  or  opposition  is 
24^.  It  had  long  been  suspected  tnat  the  sa- 
tellite of  this  planet  revolved  on  their  axis;  aiid 
Dr.  Herscliel  nas  discovered  that  each  of  dieffl 
revives  about  its  axis  id  the  tiiUe  of  its  revoln< 
tion  Touild  its  primary ;  thus  furnishing  another 
tftrikiiig  correspoudence  between  the  satellites  of 
the  other  planets  and  the  modii,  the  satellite  of 
the  earth.  They  must  be  very  magnificent  ob- 
jects to  tlie  ihhabitants  of  Jupiter.  The  first  of 
them  appears  to  them  four  times  larger  than  our 
moon  does  to  us,  atid  goes  through  alt  the  cH^ges 
6f  the  mooti  in  the  short  kpace  of  forty-two 
hours,  within  which  period  it  is  itself  eclipsed,  * 
and  causes  an  eclipse  of  the  sijtn  on  the  sur&oe 
6f  Jupiter. 

127.  When  Jupiter  is  in  quadrature  with  the 
hm,  the  earth  is  rarthest  out  of  the  line  that  pas- 
iea  through  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  Jupiter, 
knd  therefo'tie  the  Ihadow  of  the  phmet  is  then 
inost  exposed  to  oUr  view :  l>ut  even  then  the 
l)ody  of  the  planet  will  hide  from  us  one  side  of 
that  part  bf  the  ^adow  which  is  nearest  to  it^ 
through  #h2ch  the  first  satellite  passes;  which  is 
(he  reason  that,  though  ^e  see  the  entrance  of 
that  satellite  into  the  shadow,  or  its  ooniing  out 
{W)m  thence;  as  the  earth  is  situate  on  the  east  or 
west  side  thereof;  We  cannot  see  them  l>oth; 
Whereas  the  dther  satellites;  goitig  through  the 
shadow  at  a  greater  distance  m>m  Jupiter,  their 
ingress  and  egress  ar«  both  visible.  The  orbits 
bf  the  satellites  are  inclined  to  the  plane  of  Ju- 
piter's orbit,  as  is  eVidetit  firom  the  unequal  dura- 
tion of  the  eclipses  bf  the  same  satettite.  The 
fburth  satellite,  like  our  own  moon,  is  sometimes 
in  opposition  to  the  sun,  without  beiiig  eclipsed. 
The  third  and  fourth  satellites  often  disappear  in 
the  shadow,  arid  re-appear  asaih  on  tne  same 
side  of  Jupiter ;  but  only  the  beginnings  or  the 
endings  of  the  eclipses  of  the  first  and  second 
satellites  are  visible.  The  rehiti^  distances  of 
these  moons  frmn  their  prhnary,  are  shown  in 
plate  VII.  fi^.  13. 

127*.  We  cannot  close  tlfis  account  of  Jupiter 
without  noticing  two  curious  results  obtained  by 
Ia  Pldce,  with  respect  to  the  satellites  of  Ju- 
piter; results  whioi  agree  With  observation  in  a 
remarkable  manner.  The  first  is,  that  if  m',  m', 
fft",  represent  the  mean  motions  of  the  fiM,  se- 
cond, and  third  satellites  respectively,  the 
iM'  +  2  m''  —  ^nTf  is  always  equal  to  nodiing. 
The  second  is,  that  if  /',  T,  and  /'"  represent  the 
mean  longitudes  of  the  satellites,  as  seen  from 
the  centre  of  Jupiter,  then  T—  3^+2/"'  = 


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ASTRONOMY. 


107 


18(r.  It  ibHowB  ftaok  thb  ttieorem,  that  the 
first  three  satellitef  of  Jupiter  can  never  all  be 
eclipsed  togeAer.  For  it  it  was  possible,  then 
^,  r,  and  t"  would  be  equal,  and  consequently 
r— 3r  +  2r=:0.  when  the  second  and 
third  aie  «chpsed  tofj^efiiery  then  fs=  f^  and  con- 
sequently T — /"=  180;  heno^  when  Ae  se- 
cond end  third  satellites  of  Juptter  are  eclipsed 
at  th^  same  time^  die  first  i^  always  in  coiqunc- 
tion  with  Jupiter.  Various  other  interestii%  con- 
sequences of  this  theorem  might  be  ^easily  de- 
duced ;  but  we  leave  the  ingenious,  reader  to 
make  Aem  out  for  himself.  The  relative  dis- 
tances of  the  satellites  from  their  primarips  are 
shown  in  plate  VH.  fig;l3. 

128.  Saturn,  when  viewed  through  a  good 
telescope,  makes  a  more  remarkable  appearance 
than  any  of  tie  othbr  planets.  Galileo  first  dis- 
covered his  Uflteommon  shape,  and  from  the  dis- 
coveries made  by  him  and  other  astronomers,  it 
appears  that  this  planet  is  surrounded  by  a  broad 
thin  ring,  the  edge  of  which  reflects  littlei  if  any, 
of  the  sun's  light  lo  us,  but  the  pflades  of  the  ring 
reflect  the  li^t  in  the  same  manner  that  the 
planet  itKlf  dees.  If  we  suppose  the  diameter 
of  Saturn  to  be  divided  into  three  equal  parts, 
the  diameter  of  the  ring  is  about  seven  of  these 
parts.  The  ring  is  detached  from  the  body  of 
Saturn  in  sudi  a  manner,  that  the  distance  be- 
tween the  innermost  part  of  the  ring  and  the 
body  is  equal  to  its  breadth.  If  we  had  a  view 
of  Ihtfknet  and  his  king  with  our  eyes  perpen- 
dicular to  one  df the  pUiaei  ef  ibe  latter,  we  should 
see  them  as  in  plate  VII.  fig.  12 ;  but  our  eye  is 
never  so  much  elevated  above  either  plane  as  to 
have  the  visual  ray  at  right  angles  to  it,  nor  in- 
deed is  it  ever  elevated  more  than  about  30^ 
above  it;  so  diat  the  ring  being  commonly 
viewed  at  an  oblique  aAgle,  appears  of  an  oval 
formi  and  through  very  good  t^escopes  double^ 
as  represented,  plate  VII.  fig.  13.  and  plate  XI. 
fig.  3.  When  tke  ring  appeais  most  open,  its 
loiijgest  diameter  appears  about  twice  the  length 
of  its  shortest. 

139.  Botli  the  outward  and  inward  rim  are 
projected  into  an  ellipsis^  more  or  less  oblongs 
according  to  the  different  degrees  of  obliquity  wiUi 
which  it  is  viewed;  Sometimes  our  eye  is  in 
the  plane  of  the  ring,  and  then  it  becomes  in- 
visible ;  either  because  the  outward  edge  is  not 
fitted  to  reflect  the  sun's  light,  or  more  probably 
became  it  is  too  thin  to  be  seen  at  such  a  dis- 
tance. As  the  i^ane  of  this  ring  keeps  always 
parallel  to  itself,  that  is,  its  situation  in  one  part 
of  the  orbit  is  always  parallel  to  that  in  any 
other  part,  it  disappears  twice  in  every  evolution 
of  the  planet,  that  is  about  once  in  fifteen  years ; 
and  the  planet  sometimes  appears  quite  round 
for  months  together.  At  other  times  the  dis- 
tance betwixt  the  body  of  the  planet  and  the 
ring  is  very  perceptible;  and  Mr.  Whiston  tells 
us,  that  Dr.  CUrkeli  father  saw  a  star  through 
the  opening. 

130.  When  Saturn  appears  round,  if  our  eye 
be  in  the  plane  of  the  ring,  it  will  appeal  as  a 
dark  line  across  the  middle  of  the  planet's  disk ; 
and  if  our  eye  be  elevated  above  the  plane  of  the 
lingi  a  shadowy  belt  will  be  visible,  caused  by  the 


shadow  of  tiie  nng  as  weH  as  by  Ae  interposition 
of  part  of  it  betwixt  the  eye  and  the  planet.  The 
shadow  of  the  ring  is  broadest  when  the  sun  is 
most  elevated^  but  its  obscure  parts  appear 
broadest  When  our  eye  is  most  elevated  above 
the  plane  of  it.  When  it  appears  double,  the 
ring  next  the  body  of  the  planet  appears  bright- 
est ;  when  the  ring  appears  of  an  elliptical  form, 
the  parts  about  the  ends  of  the  hu-gest  axis  are 
call^  the  anss.  These,  a  little  before  and  afler 
the  disappearing  of  the  ting,  ai^  of  unequal 
magnituae :  the  Urg^t  anSs  is  longer  visible 
before  thie  placet's  fotktid  phase,  and  appears 
again  sooner  than  the  other.  In  the  diagram, 
j)late  VII.  fig.  2,  are  delineated  the  phases  of  the 
ring  from  its  full  appearance  in  1825,  to  its  dis- 
appearance in  183^  and  its  full  re-appearance 
in  1839. 

131.  Dr.  Herschel  has  found  that  the  ring 
is  double,  or  that  there  are  two  concentric  rings ; 
also  that  it  has  a  motion  of  rotation  in  its  own 
plane,  its  axis  of  motion  being  the  same  as  that 
of  Saturn  himself  and  its  periodical  tiqae  lOh. 
3r  15",  4:  But  he  thinks  it  probable. that  the 
concentric  rings  may  not  revolve  in  tiie  same 
period.  Their  dimensions,  and  the  space  be- 
tween them,  he  states  in  the  following  proportion 
to  each  other : — 

mSles. 
Inner  diameter  of  thift  same  ring  .  146,345 

Oiktshlediametter  of  ditto  .  .  .  .184,393 
Inner  diaqieter  of  tiie  lalk^  ring  .  ;  190,248 
Outside  diameter  of  ditto       ....  204,883 

Breadth  of  the  ring 20,000 

Breadth  of  the  outer  ditto  ....  7,20a 
Breadth  of  the  vacant  space  .    .*   .    .      2,839 

1 32:  Dr.  Herschel  concludes,  from  his  obser- 
vations on  (h^  rihg,  that  ib  structure  is  such  as 
to  allow  it  to  remain  permanently  in  its  present 
siate ;  nor  does  he  think  it  at  all  probable  that 
the  ring  is  of  that  changeable  miture  which  Some 
persons  have  imagined. 

133.  The  same  excellent  asfronomer,  from  a 
sbries  of  observatibns  on  the  belts  of  Saturn,  has 
cbnduded,  that  he  revolves  upon  his  axis  in 
10b.  16'  0",  4,  that  he  has  a  dense  atmosphere, 
and  that  his  polar  diameter  is  to  his  equatorial 
due  as  10  to  11. 

134.  Saturn  hai,' besides  his  ring,  seven  little 
!tecondary  planets  or  satellites  revolving  round 
him.  One  of  ihem,  which  till  lately  was  reckon- 
ed the  fourth  in  onder  from  Saturn,  was  discovered 
by  Huygens  in  1655,  by  means  of  a  telescope 
100  feet  long;  and  the  others,  viz.  the  first,  se- 
cond, third,  and  flflh,  at  different  times  by  Cas- 
^ini,  between  1671  and  1684,  by  the  help  of 
glasses  of  100  and  136  feet.  The  sixth  and 
seventh  have  lately  been  discovered  by  Herschel, 
with  his  forty  feet  reflecting  telescope,  in  1787 
And  1788.  These  he  has  called  the  sixth  and 
seventh  satellites,  though  they  are  nearer  to  Sa- 
turn than  the  other  five ;  that  the  names  may  not 
be  mistaken  with  regaid  to  former  observations 
of  them. 

,135.  The  periodical  revolutions  and  distances 
of  these  satellites  expressed  in  semidiameters  of 
that  planet,  and  in  English  miles  are  as  follows : 


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108 


ASTRONOMY. 


Periodic  Times. 

Distances  in 

Angles 

of 
Orbs. 

Semi- 
diam. 

Miles. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

Irf.  2lA.  18'27" 
2       17     41  22 
4       12     25  12 
15       22     41  13 
79         7     48     0 
1         8     53     9 
0       22      40  46 

4j 

8 
18 
54 

3| 

n 

170,000 
217,000 
303,000 
704,000 
2,050,000 
135,000 
107,000 

1'  2r 

1  52 

2  36 
6    18 

17      4 
1    14 
0   57 

136.  The  first  four  descnoe  ellipses  like  those 
of  the  ring,  and  are  in  the  same  plane  :  their  in- 
clination to  the  orbit  is  from  30°  to  31°.  The 
fifth  describes  an  orbit  inclined  from  17°  to  18° 
to  the  orbit  of  Saturn,  his  plane  lying  between 
the  ecliptic  and  those  of  the  other  satellites.  Dr. 
Herschel  observes,  that  the  fifth  satellite  turns 
round  its  axis  once,  exactly  in  the  time  in  which 
it  revolves  round  the  planet  Saturn.  In  this  re- 
spect, like  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  it  resembles 
oar  moon,  which  does  the  same  thing.  The  pro- 
portional distances  of  the  seven  satellites  for- 
merly known  to  astronomers,  are  shown  in  plate 
VII.  fig.  13. 

137.  The  apparent  form  of  the  ring  of  Saturn, 
snd  the  form  ot  the  orbits  of  his  first  four  satel- 
lites, may  easily  be  found  by  means  of  the  follow- 
ing table : 


ARGUMENT 

Long,  of  Saturn  -|-  13°  43'. 

1 

Signs.              Signs. 

Signs. 

? 

0.     VI. 

I.     VII. 

II.     VIII. 

1 

' 

-      + 

-      + 

—       4. 

' 

0 

0-000 

0-260 

0-451 

30 

3 

0-027 

0-284 

0-464 

27 

6 

0054 

0-306 

0-476 

24 

9 

0-081 

0328 

0.486 

21 

12 

0-108 

0-348 

0-495 

18 

15 

0-135 

0-368 

0-503 

15 

18 

0-161 

0-387 

0-509 

12 

21 

0-187 

0-405 

0-514 

9 

24 

0-212 

0-421 

0-518 

6 

27 

0-236 

0-437 

0-520 

3 

30 

0-260 

0-451 

0-521 

0 

1 

XI.    V. 

X.     IV. 

IX.      III. 

\S 

+     - 

+     - 

+       — 

1 

• 

Signs. 

Signs. 

Signs. 

planet*8  latitude,  which  correction  is  obtsdned  by  ' 
taking  one-fourth  of  the  latitude  in  minutes,  and 
applying  it  to  the  number  in  the  table,  with  the 
sign  —  when  the  latitude  is  north,  but  -|-  when 
south. 

Example,  What  is  the  shape  of  Saturn's  ring 
on  January  25, 1826  ? 

By  the  Nautical  Almanack,  his  longitude,  on 
that  day,  is  2«15°  23',  and  latitude  1°  26'  S. 
Now  2«  15°  23'  H-  13°  43',  is  2»  29°  6',  with 
which,  in  the  table,  we  find  — -521,  which  cor- 
rected by  +  26,  one-fourth  of  the  latitude  gives 
— '495 ;  or  the  shorter  diameter  is  to  the  longer, 
as  495  to  1000.  The  sign  +  indicates  that  the 
most  distant  half  of  the  ring  is  north,  and  —  that 
the  most  distant  half  is  south  of  the  centre  of  the 
planet. 

139.  The  Georgium  Sidus,  Herschel,  or 
Uranus,  was  discovered  by  Herschel  on  March 
13th  1781.  From  certain  inequalities  m  the 
motion  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  the  existence  of  a 
planet  of  considerable  size,  without  the  orbit  of 
either,  had  before  been  suspected.  Its  apparent 
magnitude,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  is  about  three 
seconds  and  a  half;  and  as,  from  its  distance 
fix>m  the  sun,  it  shines  but  with  a  pale  light,  it 
cannot  often  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  Its 
d  iameter  is  about  four  times  and  a  half  that  of  the 
earth,  and  it  revolves  round  the  sun  in  83  years, 
\r,Q  days,  18  hours.  The  want  of  light  in  this 
planet,  on  account  of  its  great  distance  from  the 
6un,  is  supplied  by  no  less  than  six  moons,  which 
revolve  round  it  in  different  periods.  But  there 
(s  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  the  position  of  the 
orbits  in  which  tnese  moons  revolve  round  their 
primary,  and  in  the  direction  in  which  they  re- 
volve in  their  orbits.  The  orbits  are  nearly  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and  they 
revolve  in  them  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the 
order  of  the  signs  of  the  ecliptic.  -  La  Place,  from 
theoretical  considerations,  concludes  that  this 
planet  itself  revolves  on  an  axis  very  little  in- 
clined to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic ;  but  there  is 
little  hope  that  this  theoretical  deduction  will 
ever  be  either  confirmed,  or  set  aside,  by  obser- 
vations on  a  body  so  very  remote. 

140.  The  periods  of  the  revolution  of  the  sa- 
tellites, and  the  greatest  angle  of  elongation  of 
their  orbits,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  are  contained 
in  the  following  table. 


Satellite. 

Period. 

1 
Elongation 

D.      H.       M. 

1 

5     21     25 

25-5' 

2 

8     17      1 

33-9 

3 

10     23       4 

38-57 

4 

13     11       5 

44-22 

5 

38       1     49 

88-44 

6 

107     16     40 

176-88 

138.  To  find  the  shape  of  Saturn's  nng  by  this 
table,  add  his  longitude  to  13°  43',  and  with  the 
sum  as  an  argument  enter  the  table,  the  number 
from  which  will  represent  the  shorter  diameter, 
X  the  longer  diameter  being  reckoned  a  thousand. 
This,  however,  requires  a  small  correction  for  the 


141.  We  are  unacquainted  with  any  second- 
ary cause  that  could  have  any  influence  in  re- 
gulating the  respective  distances  of  the  planets 
from  the  sun ;  but  there  certainly  does  exist  a 
relation  which,  from  its  singularity,  it  is  difficult 
to  believe  quite  accidental.    This  was  first  ob- 


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ASTRONOMY. 


109 


served  by  professor  Bode  of  Berlin^  who  re- 
marked, that  a  planet  was  wanting  at  the  dis*> 
lance  at  which  the  new  planets  have  been  dis- 
covered, to  complete  the  relation.  According 
to  him  the  distances  of  the  planets  may  be  ex- 
pressed nearly  as  follows,  the  earth's  distances 
from  the  sun  being  ten. 

Mercury  ...    4  zz      4 

Venus  ...  4  -f  3  X  1  =  7 
Earth  .  .  .  4  +  8x2=  10 
Mars  .  .  .  .  4  +  3x2*=  16 
New  Planets  .  4+3x2'=  28 
Jupiter  .  .  .  4+3x2*=  52 
Saturn  .  .  .  4  +  3  x  2*  =  100 
Herschel       .    .    4  +  3  X  2*  =  196 

142.  The  comets,  yiewed  through  a  telescope, 
have  a  very  diiferent  appearance  from  any  of 
the  planets.  The  nucleus,  or  star,  seems  much 
dimmer.  They  are  to  appearance  surrounded 
with  atmospheres  of  a  prodigious  size,  often 
rising  ten  times  higher  than  the  nucleus,  and 
have  often  likewise  different  phases,  like  the 
moon. 

143.  The  head  of  a  comet,  seen  through  a 
good  telescope,  appears  to  consist  of  a  solid 
globe,  and  an  atmosphere,  that  surrounds  it. 
The  solid  part  is  frequently  called  the  nucleus ; 
which,  through  a  telescope,  is  easily  distinguished 
from  the  atmospheres  or  hairy  appearance. 

144.  A  comet  is  generally  attended  with  a 
blaze  or  tail,  whereby  it  is  distinguished  from  a 
star  or  planet;  as  it  is  also  by  its  motion.  Some- 
times the  tail  only  of  a  comet  has  been  visible  at 
a  place  where  th^  head  has  been  all  the  while 
under  the  horizon ;  such  an  appearance  is  called 
a  beam.  Whether  the  tail  of  a  comet  is  caused 
or  not  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  it  is  always 
observed  to  grow  larger  as  it  approaches,  and  to 
diminish  as  it  recedes  from  that  luminary. 

145.  If  the  tail  were  to  continue  of  the  same 
length,  it  would  appear  longer  or  shorter,  accord- 
ing to  the  different  views  of  the  spectator ;  for  if 
his  eye  be  in  a  line,  drawn  through  the  middle 
of  the  tail  lengthways,  or  nearly  so,  the  tail  will 
not  be  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  atmos- 
phere, but  the  whole  will  appear  round ;  if  the 
eye  be  a  little  out  of  that  line,  the  tail  will  ap- 
pear short  (see  plate  VII.  fig.  8) ;  and  it  is  called 
a  hearded  comet,  when  the  tail  hangs  down  to- 
wards the  horizon,  as  in  thai  figure.  If  the  tail 
of  a  comet  be  viewed  sideways,  the  whole  length 
of  it  is  seen.  It  is  obvious,  that  the  nearer  the 
«ye  is  to  the  tail,  the  greater  will  be  its  apparent 
length.  ^  ^^ 

146.  The  tails  of  comets  often  appear  bent 
(see  plate  V.  fig.  12,  13).  This  is  probably 
owing  to  the  resistance  of  the  tether;  which, 
though  extremely  small,  may  have  a  sensible 
effect  on  so  thin  a  vapour  as  the  tail  consists  of. 
This  bending  is  seen  only  when  the  eartli  is  not 
in  the  plane  of  the  orbit  of  the  comet  continued. 
When  that  plane  passes  through  the  eye  of  the 
spectator,  the  tail  appears  straight.    See  plate 

147.  The  fixed  stars,  when  viewed  through  the 
best  telescopes,  appear  not  in  the  least  magnified, 
but  rather  diminished,  on  account,  as  is  thought 
by  some,  that  the  telescope  takes  off  that  twinkling 
appearance  they  make  to  the  naked  eye;  but  by 


others  more  probably,  that  the  telescope  tube  ex- 
cludes a  quantity  of  the  rays  of  light,  which  are 
not  only  emitted  from  the  particular  stars  them- 
selves, but  by  many  thousands  more,  which 
&lling  upon  our  eyelids  and  the  aerial  particles 
about  us,  are  reflected  into  our  eyes  so  strongly 
as  to  excite  vibrations,  nol  only  on  those  points 
of  the  retina  where  the  images  of  the  stars  are 
formed,  but  also  in  other  points  at  the  same  dis- 
tance round  about.  This,  vrithout  the  telescope, 
makes  us  imagine  the  stars  to  be  much  bigger 
than  when  we  see  them  only  by  a  few  rays 
coming  directly  from  them,  so  as  to  enter  our 
eye  without  being  intermixed  with  others. 

148.  The  number  of  stars  appear  prodigiously 
increased  through  the  telescope ;  seventy  stars 
have  been  counted  in  the  constellation  called 
Pleiades,  and  no  fewer  than  2000  in  that  of 
Orion.  The  late  improvements  of  Herschel, 
however,  have  shown  the  number  of  stars  to  be 
exceedingly  beyond  even  what  the  discoveries  of 
former  astronomers  would  induce  us  to  suppose. 
He  has  also  shown  that  many,  which  to  the  eye* 
or  through  ordinary  glasses,  appear  single,  do  in 
fact  consist  of  two  or  more  stars ;  and  that  the 
galaxy,  or  milky  way,  owes  its  light  entirely  to 
multitudes  of  small  stars  placed  so  close,  that 
the  naked  eye,  or  even  ordinary  telescopes,  can- 
not distinguish  them. 

149.  The  nebuls,  or  small  whitish  specks, 
discoverable  by  telescopes  in  various  parts  of 
the  heavens,  are  owing  to  the  same  cause. 
Former  astronomers  could  only  reckon  103 ;  but 
Herschel  has  discovered  upwards  of  1250.  He 
has  also  discovered  a  species  of  them,  which  he 
calls  planetary  nebuls,  on  account  of  their 
brightness,  and  shining  with  a  well-defined  disk. 

Sect.  III. — Conclusions    drawn  from   the 

APPEARANCES   OF  THE   SuN    AND  PlaNETS. 

150.  There  is  an  appearance  m  the  heavens, 
termed  semita  luminosa,  or  the  zodiacal  light, 
which  is  now  generally  supposed  to  be  owing 
to  the  sun's  atmosphere.  This  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Cassini  in  1683.  It  is  something 
like  the  milky  way,  a  faint  twilight,  or  the  tail  of 
a  comet,  thin  enough  to  let  stars  be  seen  through 
it,  and  seems  to  surround  the  sun  in  the  form  of 
a  lens,  the  plane  whereof  is  nearly  co-incident 
with  that  of  the  sun's  equator.  It  is  seen 
stretched  along  the  zodiac,  and  accompanies  the 
sun  in  his  annual  motion  through  tne  twelve 
signs.  £ach  end  terminates  in  an  angle  of  about 
21°  :  the  extent  of  it  in  length  from  either  of  the 
angular  points  varies  from  50  to  100^;  it  reaches 
beyond  tne  orbit  of  Venus,  but  not  so  far  as  that 
of  .the  earth.  The  breadth  of  it  near  the  horizon 
is  also  various;  from  12°  almost  to  30°  :  near  the 
sun,  where  it  may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  be 
broadest,  it  cannot  be  seen. 

151.  Tliis  light  is  weakest  in  the  morning, 
and  strongest  at  night;  disappearing  in  full 
moon-light,  or  in  strong  twdignt,  and  tlierefore 
is  not  at  all  visible  about  midsummer,  in  places 
so  near  either  of  the  poles  as  to  have  their  twi- 
light all  the  night,  but  may  be  seen  in  those 
places,  in  the  middle  of  winter,  both  morning  and 
evening,  as  it  may  in  places  under  and  near  the 
equator,  all  the  year  round.  In  north  latitude  it 
is  most  conspicuous  after  the  evening  twilight. 


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about  the  lattes  end  of  Febniaiy,  and  before  the 
mommg;  twilight  in  the  beginoing  of  October; 
for  at  Uiose  times  it  stands  most  erect  above  the 
horiion,  and  is  therefore  clearest  from  the  thick 
vapours  of  the  twilight.  Besides  the  difference 
of  real  extension  of  this  light  in  length  and 
brfadth  at  difierent  times,  it  is  diminished  by  the 
nearness  of  any  other  light  in  the  skv ;  not  to 
mention,  that  Uie  extent  of  it  wiU  be  diffnently 
determined  by  diflerent  spectators,  according  t6 
the  goodness  of  their  eyes. 

152.  Gassini  supposed  that,  as- by  the  rotation  of 
the  sun,  some  gro^  parts  are  thrown  up  on  his 
surface,  whereof  spotsandnebulosities  are  formed ; 
so  the  great  rapijiity  wherewilk  the  equatorial 
parts  4re  moveo,  may  throw  out,  to  a  considev- 
iLble  distance,  a  number  of  pactides  of  a  much 
finer  texture,  of  sufficient  density  to  reflect 
light  That  this  Ught  was  caused  by  an  emana- 
tion from  the  sun,  similar-  to  that  of  the  spots,  he 
thought  probable  from  the  following  oboewatioB : 
That  after  the  year  1688^  when  this  light  b^n 
to  grow  weaker,  np  spots  appeared  upon  the 
sun ;  whereas,  in  lM  preceding  years,  they  wer^ 
frequently  seen  there;  and  tfiat  the  great  in- 
equality tn.the  intervab  between  the  times  of  the 
appearances  of  the  solar  spots,  has  some  analogy 
to  the  irregular  returns  of  weakness  and  stiengtti 
in  this  light,  in  like  circumstances  of  the  consti- 
tution of  the  air,  and  of  the  darkness  of  the  sky. 
But  die  atmosphere  of  no  planet  can  extenci' 
beyond  the  pomt  at  which  tne  centrifngal  force 
arising  from  its  evolution  is  equal*  to  the  force 
of  gravity,  and  that  distance  is  equal  to  the  radius 
of  a  planet's  orUt,  which  revolves  in  the  same 
time  that  the  sun  revolves  on  his  avs.  Now  th^ 
sun  revolves  in  about  25  days,  and  Mercuiy  in 
about  eighty-eight,  therefore  t^e  aplar  atqi^osphjere 
can  never  extend  to  the  orbit  pf  M^ercury,  wl^ile 
the  zodiacal  light,  whatever  it  \i,  certainly  ex- 
tends much  fiurther.  This  consideration  certainly 
militates  strongly  against  the  hypothesis  of  the 
zodiacal  light  l^ing  connected  with  the  solar 
atmosphere. 

153.  He  was,  also  of  opinion  that  this  light  in 
the  zodiac,  as  it  is  subject  to  great  increase  at 
one  time  and  diminution  at  another,  may  some- 
times become  quite  imperceptible ;  and  thought 
this  vras  the  case  in  1665, 1672,  and  1661,  when 
he  saw  nothing  of  it,  though  he  surveyed  with 
great  attention  those  parts  of  the  heavens  where, 
according  to'  his  theoty,  it  must  have  appeared, 
if  it  had  been  as  visible  then  as  it  was  in  others.' 
He  cites  also  passazes  out  of  several  authors, 
both  ancient  and  modem,  which  make  it  proba- 
ble that  it  had  been  seen,  both  in  former  and 
latter  ages,  but  without  being  sufficiently  attended 
to,  or  its  nature  enquired  into. 

154.  As  to  the  solar  spotSi  Dr.  Long  informs 
us,  that  '  they  do  not  coan^  their  places  upon 
the  sun,  but  adhere  to  his  surface,  or  float  in  his 
atmosphere,  very  near  hn  body ;  and  if  there  be 
twenty  spots  upon  him  at  a  time,  they  all  keep 
in  the  same  situation  with  respect  to  one  another ; 
and,  as  long  as  they  last,  are  carried  round  in 
the  same  manner :  by  the  motion  of  the  spots 
therefore  we  learn,  what  we  should  not  otherwise 
have  known,  that  the  sun  is  a  globe,  and  has  a 
rotation  about  his  axis.' 


155.  Notwithstanding  this,  he  telb  us  after^ 
wards,  'The  spots,  geneially  speaking,  may  be 
said  to  adhere  to  the  sun,  or  to  be  so  near  him 
as  to  be  carried  round  upon  him  uniformly; 
nevertheless  sometimes,  though  rarely,  a  spot 
has  been  seen  to  move  with  a  veloci^  a  little 
di£ferent  from  the  rest ;  spots  that  were  different 
parallels,  have  appeared  to  be  carried  along,  not 
Keeping  always  tne  same  distance,  but  approach- 
ing nearer  to  each  other ;  and  when  two  spots 
moved  in  the  same  parallel,  the  hindmost  has 
been  observed  to  overtake  and  paiss  by  the  other. 
The  revolution  of  spots  near  tne  equator  of  the 
sun,  is  shorter  than  of  those  that  are  mpre  dis- 
tant from  it'  The  apparent  change  of  shape  in 
the  spots,  as  they  approach  the  circumference  of 
the  disk,  acoording  to  this  author,  is  lU^ewise  a 
proof  of  the  sun's  Botatio»  round  his  axis,  and 
that  they  either  adhere  to  the  surfoce  of  the  lumi- 
nary, or  are  carried  round  his  atmosphere  very 
near,  his  surface. 

156.  The  time  of  the  appfoent  rewilation  of  a 
spot  being  known,  the  true  time  of  its  gomg 
round  upon  the  sun  may  be  thus  found :  In  plate 
VII.  fig.  3.  the  are  A  C,  which,  in  the  month  of 
May,  die  earth  goes  through  in.  her  orbit  in  37 
days  12  hours  and  20  minutes,  is  26^  22^ ;  the 
are  ac  being  equal,  to  A  C :  the  apparent  revela- 
tion of  a  spot  is  the  whole  circle  a  5  c  d,  or  360" 
with  the  addition  of  the  are  a  c  of  26**.  32*,  which 
mkkes  386^  22* :  then  say,  as  386''  22^  is  to  27  d. 
12  h.  20^;  so  is  360''  to  25  d.  15  h.  16*;  die  true 
time  of  the  rotation  of  the  sun  afr  it- would  be 
seen  from  a  fixed  star. 

157.  The  angle  of  intersection  of  the  sun's 
equator  with  the  ecUptic  is  but  small,  being 
never  more,  according  to  Scheiner,  thaii  8^,  nor 
less  than  6^ ;  for  whidi  reason  he  settled  it  at  7^, 
though  Cassini  makes  it7|.  This  plane<^ntinued 
cuts  the  ecliptic  in  two  opposite  points,  which 
are  called  die  sun's  nodes,  oeing  10®  of  n,  and 
lO'^  oi"H ;  and  two  points  in  die  ecliptic,  90° 
from  the  nodes,  may  be  called  the  limits.  These 
are io''  of  iQt  and  10"  of  X*  When  the  earth  is 
in  either  of  these  nodes^  the  equator  of  the  sun, 
if  visible,  would  appear  as  a  straight  line ;  and, 
br  reason  of  the  vast  distance  of  the  sun  from  us, 
all  his  parallels  would  likewise  appear  as  straight 
lines ;  but^  in  every  other  situation  of  the  eanh, 
the  equator  and  parallels  of  the  sua  would,  if 
visible;  appear  as  ellipses  growing  wider  the 
farther  the  earth  is  from  the  nodes,  and  widest  of 
all  when  the  earth  is  in  one  of  her  limits. 

158.  There  has  been  no  small  speculation  respect- 
ing the  nature'  and  formation  of  the  solar  spots. 
Some  have  thought  that  the  sun  is  an  opaque 
body,  mountainous  and'  uneven  as  our  earth  is, 
covered  all  over  with  a  fiery  and  luminous  fluid ; 
that  this  fluid  is  subject  to  ebbing  and  flowing, 
after  the  manner  of  our  tides,  so  as  sometimes  to 
leave  uncovered  the  tops  of  rocks  or  hills,  which 
appear  like  black  spots ;  and  that  the  nebulosi- 
ties about  them  are  caused  by  a  kind  of  froth. 
Others  have  imagined  that  the  fluid  which  sends 
us  so  much  light  and  heat,  contains  a  nucleus  or 
solid  globe,  wherein  are  several  volcanoes,  which, 
like  &tna  or  Vesuvius,  from  time  to  time  cast 
up  quantiues  of  bituminous  matter  to  the  sur- 
fiice  of  the  sun,  and  form  those  spots  which  arc 


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seenthertBon;  ttn4  that, «9  this vaastet  it  gradual^ 
consumed  hy  the  luminoMs  fluid,  the  ^pots  dis- 
appear for  a  time,  but  are  seen  to  liw  agaio  in 
the  same  places  when  these  rolcaooes  cast  up 
new  matter.  A  third  opinion  is,  that  the  sun 
consists  of  a  fiery  luminous  fluid,  wherein  are 
immersed  several  opaque  bodies  of  irregular 
shapes;  and  that  these  bodies,  by  the  rapid 
motion  of  the  sun,  ace  sometimes  buoyed  or 
raised  up  to  die  surftce,  where  they  form  the 
appearance  of  spots,  which  seem  to  change 
their  shapes  accpidiJog  as  different  ^des  of 
them  are  presented  to  the  ▼iaw.  A  fourth 
oi$inion  is,  that  the  sun  consists  of  a  fluid  in 
continual  agitation ;  that,  by  the  rapid  motion 
of  this  fluid,  some  parts  more  gross  than  the 
rest  are  carried  up  to  the  surface  of  the  lumif 
nary,  like  the  scum  of  melted  metal  rising  up 
to  the  top  in  a  furnace ;  that  these  scums,  as 
they  are  difierently  agitated  bv  the  motion  of 
the  fluid,  form  themselTes  into  tnoae  spots  we  see 
on  the  solar  disk ;  and,  besides  di^  optical  changes 
already  mentioned,  grow  larger,  are  diminished 
in  their  apparent  magnitude,  rec^  a  Utile  from, 
or  approach  nearer  to,  each  otber,  and  are  at 
last  entirely  dissipated  by  the  continual  rapid 
motion  of  the  fluid,  or  are  otherwise  consumed 
or  absorbed. 

159.  Dt,  Wilson,  in  the  sizty^fourth  volume 
of  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  advances  a 
new  opinion,  viz.  that  th^  are  hc^ws  in  the 
surfiice  of  the  luminary.  On  this  supposition  he 
offers  some  queries  and  conjectures  concerning 
the  nature  of  the  sun  himself.  He  asks,  Whether 
it  is  not  reasonable  to  think,  that  the  vast  body  of 
the  sun  is  made  up  of  two  kinds  of  matter  veiy 
different  in  their  qualities ;  that1)y  fiir  the  greatest 
part  is  solid  and  dark ;  and  that  this  dark  globe 
IS  encompassed  with  a  thin  covering  of  that  re- 
splendent substance,  fcpm»  which  the  sun  would 
seem  to  derive  the  whole  of  bis.  vivifying,  heat 
and  energy  ? 

160.  This»  if  granted,  will  afford  a  satisfieurtoi^ 
solution  of  the  appearance  of  spots ;  because,  if 
any  part  of  this  resplendant  sur&ce  shall  be  by 
any  means  displaced,  the  dark  globe  must  neces- 
sarily appear ;  the  bottom  of  the  cavity  corres- 
ponding to  the  nucleus,  and  the  delving  sides 
to  the  umbr«.  The  shining  substance,  he  thinks, 
may  be  displaced  by  the  action  of  some  elastic 
vapour  generated  within  the  substance  of  the 
dark  globe.  This  vapour  swelling  into  such  a  vo- 
lume as  to  reach  up  to  the  surfiice  of  the  luminous 
matter,  would  thereby  throw  it  aside  in  all  direc- 
tions :  and  as  we  cannot  expect  any  regularity  in 
the  production  of  such  a  vapour,  the  irregular 
appearance  and  disappearance  of  the  spots  is  by 
that  means  accounted  for;  as  the  reflux  of  the 
luminous  matter  must  always  occasion  the  dark 
nucleus  gradually  to  decrease,  till  at  last  it  be- 
comes indistingiushable  from  the  rest  of  the 
surfiatoe. 

161.  But  aa  ol^ection  occurs,  that,  on  this 
supposition,  the  nucleus  of  a  spot,  whibt  on  the 
decrease,  should,  always  appear  nearly  circular, 
by  the  gradual  descent  of  the  luminous  matter 
from  all  sides  to  cover  it  To  diis  Dr.  Wilson 
Implies,  that  in  all  probability  the  surfoce  of  the 
dark  globe  is  veiy  uneven  and  mountainous, 


which  prevents  the  regular  reflux  oC  the  shin- 
ing matter;  and  this*  he  thinks,  is  rendered  veiT 
probable  by  the  enormous  mountains  and  cavi- 
ties which  are  observed  on  the  moon ;  and  why, 
says  he,  may  thene  not  be  the  same  on  the  sur&ce 
of  the  sun  1  He  thinks  his  hypothesis  also  con* 
finned  by  the  dividing  of  the  nucleus  intp  seve- 
ral parts,  which  might  arise  from  the  luminous 
matter  flowing  in  differentchannels  in  the  bottom 
of  the  hoUpw. 

162.  The  appearance  of  the  umbraa  afrer  the 
nucleus  is  gone,  he  thinks,  may  be  owing  to  a 
caviW  remaining  in  the  luminous  matter,  though 
the  <vuk  globe  is  entirely  covered.  As  to  a  mo'- 
tion  of  the  spots,  distinct  from  what  they  are 
supposed  to  receive  from  the  rotation  of  the  sun 
round  his  axis,  he  savs  he  never  could  observe 
any,  except  vifhat  might  be  attributed  to  the  en- 
lai^ment  or  diminution  of  them  wheu  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  one  another.  '  But,'  says  he, 
'  what  would  fiucther  contribute  towards  forming 
a  judgment  of  this  kind,  is  the  apparent  alteration 
of  the  relative  place,  which  must  arise  from  the 
motiou  across  tne  disk  on  a  spherical  surface ;  a 
circumstance  which  I  am  uncertain  if  it  has  been 
sufficiently  attended  to.' 

163.  Ihr.  Wilson's  hypothesis  is  frulher  con- 
firmed by  the  disappearance  of  the  umbne  on  the 
sides  of  spots  contiguous  to  one  another;  as  the 
action  of  ttie  elastic  vapour  must  necessarily  drive 
the  luminous  matter  away  firom  each,  and  thus  as 
it  were  accumulate  it  between  them,  so  that  no 
umbrc  can  be  perceived.  As  to  the  luminous 
matter  itself,  he  conjectures,  that  it  cannot  be  any 
very  ponderous  fluid,  but  that  it  rather  resembles 
a  dense  fog  which  broods  on  the  surfiice  of  die 
sun's  dark' body. 

164.  Br.  Wilson's  general  conclusion  is,  that, 
*  According  to  the  view  of  things  given  in  the 
foregoing  queries,  there  would  seem  to  be  some- 
thing vety'extradrdinary  in  the  dark  and  untg- 
nited  state  of  the  great  internal  spot  of  the  sun. 
Does  not  this,  (he  asks),  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  luminous  mditter  that  encompasses  it  derives 
not  its  splendor  from  any  intensity  of  heat  ?  For, 
if  thb  were  the  case,  would  not  the  parts  under- 
neathy  which  would  be  perpetually  in  contact 
vrith  that  glowing  mailer,  be  heated  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  become  luminous  and  bright^  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  confessed,  that  Jthough  the 
internal  globe  vnis  in  reality  much  ignited,  yet 
when  any  part'of  it  forming  Ine  nucleus  of  a. spot 
is  exposed  to  our  view,  and  b  seen  in  competition 
vrith  a  substance  of  such  amazing  spleUdor,  it  is 
no  wonder  that  an  inferior  degree  of  light,  should 
in  these  cases,  be  unperceivablel 

165.  As  to  the  moon,  it  is  allowed  on  all  hands, 
that  there  are  prodigious  ineaualities  on  her  sur- 
fece.  This  is  proved  by  looking  at  her  through 
a  telescope,  at  any  other  time  than  when  she  is 
full ;  for  then  there  is  no  regular  line  bounding 
light  and  darkness ;  but  the  confines  of  these 
parts  appear  as  it  were  toothed  and  cut  with  in- 
numerable latches  and  breaks;  and  even  in  the 
dark  part,  neair  the  borders  of  the  lucid  surface, 
there  are  seen  some  small  spaces  enlightened  by 
the  sun's  beams.  Upon  the  fourth  day  afiernew 
moon,  diere  may  oe  perceived  some  shining 
points  like  rocks  or  small  islands  vrithin  the  daik 


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body  of  the  moon ;  and  not  far  from  the  confines 
of  light  and  darkness,  there  are  observed  other 
little  spaces  which  join  to  the  enlightened  sur- 
face, but  run  out  into  the  dark  side,  which  by 
degrees  change  their  figure,  till  at  last  they  come 
wholly  within  the  illuminated  space,  and  have  no 
dark  parts  round  them  at  all.  Afterwards  many 
more  shining  spaces  are  observed  to  arise  by  de- 
grees, and  to  appear  within  the  dark  side  of  the 
moon,  which,  before  they  drew  near  to  the  con- 
fines of  light  and  darkness,  were  invisible,  being 
wi^out  any  light,  and  totally  immersed  in  the 
shadow.  Hie  contrary  is  observed  in  the  decreas- 
ing phases,  where  the  lucid  spaces  which  joined 
the  illuminated  surfiaice  by  degrees  recede  from  it ; 
and,  after  they  are  quite  separated  firom  the  con- 
fines of  light  and  darkness,  remain  for  some  time 
visible,  till  at  last  they  also  disappear.  Now  it 
is  impossible  that  this  should  be  the  case,  unless 
these  shining  points  were  higher  than  the  rest  of 
the  surface,  so  that  the  light  of  the  sun  may  reach 
them. 

166.  Astronomers  have  endeavoured  to  mea- 
sure the  height  of  these  lunar  mountains,  in  the 
following  manner.  Let  E  C  D,  Plate  VII.  fig.  6, 
be  the  hemisphere  of  the  moon  illuminated  by 
the  sun ;  £C  D  the  diameter  of  the  circle  bound- 
ing light  and  darkness,  and  A  the  top  of  a 
hill  within  the  dark  part  when  it  first  begins  to 
be  illuminated.  Observe  with  a  telescope  the 
proportion  of  the  right  line  A  £,  or  the  distance 
of  tne  point  A  from  the  lucid  surface  to  the  dia- 
meter of  the  moon  £  D ;  and  because  in  this  case 
the  ray  of  light  £  S  touches  the  globe  of  the  moon, 
A  £(5  will  be  a  right  angle,  and  therefore  in  the 
triangle  A  EC  having  Uie  two  sides  A E  and 
£  C,  we  can  find  the  third  side  A  C ;  from  which 
deducting  BC  or  EC,  there  will  remain  AB  the 
height  of  the  mountain.  By  this  mode  of  mea- 
suring, which  would  be  just  if  the  line  A£  could 
be  taken  accurately,  the  height  of  St.  Catherine 
would  be  nearly  8^  miles,  if  according  to  Riccioli 
its  top  was  about  a  sixteenth  part  of  the  moon's 
diameter  distant  from  the  confines  of  the  lucid 
surface.  '  But  by  the  more  accurate  observations 
and  just  calculations  of  Herschel,  this  dispropor- 
tionate height  appears  to  be  ill  founded,  and  the 
generality  of  the  lunar  mountains  do  not  exceed 
half  a  mile  in  perpendicular  elevation.  He  thus 
calculates  their  heights :  Let  S  L  M  or  5  /  m,  fig.  1 , 
be  a  line  drawn  from  the  sun  to  the  mountain, 
touching  the  moon  at  L  or  /,  and  the  mountain  at 
M  or  m.  Then,  to  an  observer  at  £  or  e,  the 
lines  L  M ,  /  m,  will  not  appear  of  the  same  length, 
though  the  mountain  should  be  of  an  equal 
height;  for  LM  will  be  projected  into  on^  and 
Im  into  ON.  But  these  are  the  quantities  tliat 
are  taken  by  the  micrometer  when  we  observe  a 
mountain  to  project  from  the  line  of  illuraination. 
From  .the  observed  quantity  o  n,  when  the  moon 
is  not  in  her  quadrature,  to  find  L  M,  we  have 
the  following  analogy.  The  triangles  o  O  L,  r 
M  L  are  similar ;  therefore  Lo  :  LO : :  L  r :  L  M, 

orL^-l?=:  LM  :  but  LO  is  the  radius  of 
Lo 

the  moon,  and  L  r  or  on  is  the  observed  distance 

of  the  mountain's  projection ;  and  L  o  is  the  sine 

of  the  angle  RO  i;=.o  L  S ;  which  we  may  take 

t>  be  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  moon  with- 


out any  material  error,  and  which  therefore  we 
may  find  at  any  giv^n  time  from  an  ephemeris. 

167.  Some  modem  astronOtaiers  have  disco- 
vered a  still  greater  similarity  between  the  lunar 
mountains  and  those  of  our  earth ;  viz.  that  some 
of  them  are  really  volcanoes,  and  emit  fire,  as 
ours  do.  An  appearance  of  this  kind  was  dis- 
covered some  years  ago  by  Ulloa,  in  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun.  It  was  a  small  bright  spot  like  a  star 
near  the  margin  of  the  moon,  and  which  he  at 
that  time  supposed  to  have  been  a  hole  with  the 
sun's  light  shining  through  it.  Succeeding  ob- 
servations, however,  have  Uiduced  astronomers  to 
attribute  appearances  of  this  kind  to  the  eruDtion 
of  volcanic  fire :  and  Herschel  has  particularly 
observed  several  eruptions  of  the  lunar  volcanoes, 
and  similar  appearances  have  been  more  recently 
noticed  by  tnat  acute  and  accurate  observer, 
captain  Henry  Kater. 

168.  Many  conjectures  have  been  formed  re- 
specting the  nature  of  the  moon's  substance ;  some 
have  imagined,  that,  besides  the  light  reflected 
from  the  sun,  the  moon  has  also  some  obscure 
li^ht  of  her  own,  by  which  she  would  be  visible 
without  being  illuminated  by  the  sun-beams.  In 
proof  of  this  it  is  urged,  that  during  the  time  of 
even  total  eclipses  the  moon  is  still  visible,  ap- 
pearing of  a  dull  red  color,  as  if  obscured  by  a 
great  deal  of  smoke.  In  reply  to  this,  it  has  been 
advanced,  that  this  is  not  always  the  case ;  the 
moon  sometimes  disappearing  totally  in  the  time 
of  an  eclipse,  so  as  not  to  be  discernible  by  the 
best  glasses,  while  little  stars  of  the  fifth  and  sixth 
magnitudes  were  distinctly  seen  as  usual ;  and 
when  the  moon  is  visible  in  a  total  eclipse,  a  suf- 
ficient reason  may  be  assigned  for  this  appear- 
ranee  from  the  refiraction  of  Uie  sun's  rays  throu«rh 
our  atmosphere,  which  are  reflected  Inck  to  the 
earth  by  the  otherwise  dark  sur&ce  of  the  mooD. 

169.  Various  speculations  have  also  been  io- 
dulged  concerning  the  spots  on  the  moon's  sur- 
face. Some  philosophers  have  been  so  taken  with 
the  beauty  ot  the  brightest  places  observed  in  her 
disk,  that  they  have  imagined  them  to  be  rocks 
of  diamonds ;  and  others  have  compared  them  to 
pearls  and  precious  stones.  Keill,  and  the  greater 
part  of  astronomers  are  now  of  opinion,  that  these 
are  only  the  tops  of  mountains,  which,  by  reason 
of  their  elevation,  are  more  capable  of  reflecting 
the  sun's  light  than  others  which  are  lower.  The 
duskish  spots,  he  says,  cannot  be  seas,  nor  any 
thing  of  a  liquid  substance ;  because,  when  ex- 
amined by  the  telescope,  they  appear  to  consist 
of  an  infinity  of  caverns  and  empty  pits,  whose 
shadows  fall  within  them,  which  can  never  be  the 
case  with  seas,  or  any  liquid  substance ;  but  even 
within  these  spots,  brighter  places  are  also  to  be 
observed ;  which,  according  to  his  hypothesis, 
ought  to  be  the  points  of  rocks  standing  up 
within  the  cavities. 

170.  The  existence  of  the  lunar  atmosphere, 
so  long  a  subject  of  controversy,  is  now  de- 
cidedly set  at  rest.  Schroeter  of  Lilienthal  has 
observed  phenomena  precisely  analogous  to  the 
twilight,  and  which  can  in  no  way  be  accounted 
for  independently  of  atmospheric  refraction.  He 
has  also,  as  he  says,  observed  several  obscuTa- 
tions,  and  returning  sereniw,  and  other  changes 
in  the  lunar  atmosphere.    In  the  occultation  of 


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Jupiter  by  the  moon  on  April  5th,  1824,  Mr.  in  1577,  enabled  Tycho  Brahe  to  determine 

R^mage  of  Aberdeen,  and  Captain  John  Ross,  that,  at  any  rate,  these  bodies  were  at  an  iro- 

R.  N.  at  Stranraer,  with  each  one  of  Mr.  Ram-  mense  distance ;   as  from  many  careful  obserya* 

age's  splendid  reflecting  telescopes,  observed  tions  he  found  that  that  comet  had  no  sensible 

the  disk  of  Jupiter  to  be  decidedly  distorted  at  diurnal  parallax ;  and  Kepler  discoyered,  from 

the  time  of  its  approach  to  the  edge  of  the  moon;  his  own  observations  and  those  of  his  master, 

and  precisely  similar  aDoearances  were  noticed  Tycho,  that  the  comets  did  not,  as  had  been 

by  Mr.  Comfkeld  of  Northampton,   and  Mr.  supposed,  move  in  straight  lines,  but  in  paths 

Wallis,  lecturer  on  astronomy,  on  the  occultation  concave  towards  the  suo,  and  he  conceived  that 

of  Saturn  by  the  moon,  on  October  30th,  1825.  their  orbits  were  parabolas. 


This  question,  therefore,  having  been  settled 
by  the  most  satis&ctory  of  all  tests,  we  deem  it 
unecessary  to  enter  into  the  arguments  which 
were  wont  to  be  advanced  on  ei&er  side  of  the 


At  length,  from  observations  made  on  the  great 
comet  of  1680,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  found  that  these 
bodies,  like  the  planets,  move  round  the  sun  in 
elliptiod  orbits.   This  comet  was  seen  for  twenty- 


Question,  before  sufficient  data  were  obtained  for  one  days  in  its  passage  towards  die  sun,  and  for 

etermining  it  in  any  vray.  nearly  three  nlbnths  as  it  receded  from  that  lu- 

171.  It  has  been  a  question  whether  the  moon  minary.    The  most  careful  observations  were 

and  other  planets  are  inhabited.  The  answers  made  to  determine  its  pUbce,  and  the  conclusions 

.  given  to  it  in  the  negative  depend  on  the  posi-  deduced  from  these  observations  are  confirmed 

tion,  that  human  beings  coula  not  exist  in  any  by  observations  made  on  all  that  have  been  well- 

of  the  planets  on  account  of  their  distance  from  observed  since. 

the  sun,  and  consequent  inequality  of  heat  173.  It  has  been  remarked  that  a  greater  num- 
to  diat  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  ex-  her  of  comets  are  seen  towards  the  sun  than 
perience ;  and  the  want  of  an  atmosphere  in  in  the  opposite  hemisphere;  the  reason  of  which 
the  moon,  or  the  mitj  of  it,  would  as  effectually  will  easily  appear  from  fig.  9,  plate  VII.  wherein 
preclude  that  body  from  being  a  fit  habitation  S  represents  the  sun,  £  the  earth,  A  B  C  D  the 
tor  man.  But  in  reply  it  is  argued,  and  with  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars ;  and  because  comets 
reason,  that  the  same  power  which  could  make  neither  reflect  light  enough  to  be  visible,  nor 
the  earth  a  fit  habitation  for  the  animals  upon  it,  emit  tails  conspicuous  enough  to  attract  our  no- 
could  also  adapt  the  organs  of  other  animals  to  tice,  till  they  come  within  the  planetary  regions, 
their  Various  situations  m  the  planets ;  and  as  commonly  a  good  way  within  the  sphere  of  Jupi- 


ihe  earth  teems  with  life  of  all  kinds,  it  is  pro- 
bable, that,  as  there  is  so  great  an  analogy  be- 
tween it  and  the  planets  in  other  respects,  the 
same  analogy  prevails  with  respect  to  life  and  in- 
habitants. 

Sect.  IV.  Conjectures  and  Conclusions 

RESPECTING   CoMETS. 

172.  None  of  the  celestial  bodies  have  given 
rise  to  more  speculation  and  conjecture  than 
comets.  Their  strange  appearance  has  in  all 
ages  been  a  matter  of  terror  to  die  vulgar,  who 
uniformly  have  looked  upon  them  as  bad  omens, 
and  forerunners  of  war,  pestilence,  &c.  Others, 
leas  superstitious,  supposed  them  to  be  meteors 
raised  in  the  higher  regions  of  die  air. 

Some  part  of  die  modem  doctrine  concerning 
them, '  however,  was  received  in  the  ancient 


ter ;  let  K  L  M  N  be  a  sphere  concentric  to  the 
sun,  at  such  a  distance  from  him,  that  no  comet 
can  be  seen  by  us  till  it  come  within  that  distance : 
through  £  draw  the  plane  B  D  perpendicular  to 
S  E,  which  will  divide  the  sphere  R  L  M  N  into 
two  hemispheres,  one  of  which,  BCD,  is  towards 
the  sun,  the  other  D.A  B,  opposite.  Now  it  is 
manifest,  that  the  spherical  portion  L  M  N,  which 
is  in  the  hemisphere  BCD  towards  the  sun,  is 
larger  than  the  portion  N  K  L  in  the  hemisphere 
opposite  to  him  ;  and  consequently  a  greater 
number  of  comets  will  appear  in  the  hemisphere 
BCD  than  in  that  marked  DAB. 

174.  Although  the  orbs  of  all  comets  are  very 
eccentric  ellipses,  there  are  vast  diflerences  among 
them.  Excepting' Mercury  and  Pallas,  there  are 
no  great  differences  among  the  planets  either  as 
to  tiie&eccentricity  of  their  orbits,  or  the  inclina- 


Italic  and  Pythagorean  schools;  for  they  held  tion  of  their  planes ;  but  the  planes  of  some 
them  to  be  so  much  of  the  nature  of  planets  that  comets  are  almost  perpendicular  to  others,  and 
they  had  their  periodical  times  of  appearing;    some  of  their  ellipses  are  much  wider  than  others. 


that  they  were  out  of  sight  for  a  long  time, 
while  they  were  carried  aloft  at  an  immense  dis- 
tance from  the  earth,  but  became  visible  when 
thev  descended  into  the  lower  regions  of  die  air, 
and  thus  were  nearer  to  us. 

It  would  be  as  endless  as  useless  to  detail  the 
various  conjectures  which  in  the  dark  ages  were 
formed  respecting  the  nature  of  comets ;  and  the 
various  extravagant  postulata  by  which  each 


The  narrowest  ellipsis  of  any  comet  hitherto  ob- 
served was  diat  of  1680.  Tnere  is  also  a  much 
greater  inequality  in  the  motion  of  the  comets 
dian  of  the  planets ;  the  velocity  of  the  former 
being  incomparably  greater  in  their  perihelion 
than  in  their  aphelion ;  but  the  planets  are  but 
very  little  accelerated. 

175.  There  is  now  no  question  among  astro- 
nomers, that  comets  are  opaque  bodies  enlight- 


theorist  sought  to  reconcile  tiieir  appearances    ened  by  the  sun.    Their  perihelion  distances 


with  hi*  explanation.  Aristotle  conceived  them 
to  be  meteoric  bodies;  Kepler  huge  animals, 
that  swam  round  the  sun  like  fishes ;  and  Bodin 
imagined  that  they  are  spirits,  which,  having 
long  dwelt  on  the  eardi,  are  about  to  be  trans- 
lated to  the  skies. 
A  celebrated  comet,  however,  which  appeared 
Vol.  III.  ^ 


from  the  sun  are  exceedingly  various,  Foroe 
being  not  more  than  one-fifth,  and  others  up- 
wards of  four-times  the  mean  distance  of  the 
earth.  Their  diameters  too  differ  very  greatly. 
Their  apparent  diameters  of  course  vary  with 
their  distance;  and  some  have  supposed  that 
those  apparently  preternatural  darknesses,  of 


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ASTRONOMY. 


which  several  are  recorded  in  history,  may  have 
been  caused  by  the  interposition  of  a  comet 
between  the  ear&i  and  the  sun,  at  a  time  when, 
from  its  proximity  to  the  earth,  its  apparent 
diameter  was  greater  than  the  sun's,  and  when 
its  apparent  motion  was  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  sun's.  The  diameter  of  the  comet  of  1744, 
when  at  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  us»  was 
about  one  minute,  hence  its  real  diameter  was 
about  three  tiroes  that  of  the  earth.  The  diame- 
ter of  their  atmosphere  is  however  often  ten  or 
fifteen  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  nucleus. 

176.  The  tail3  of  comets  have  given  rise  to 
various  conjectures ;  tbut  though  it  is  apparent 
that  they  are  in  some  way  connected  with  the  sun, 
we  know  as  yet  absolutely  nothing  of  either  their 
cause,  or  their  uses.    Perhaps  the  most  rational 

•  conjecture  that  has  been  made  respecting  them 
is  that  of  Euler,  who  imagines  that  on  a  comet's 
approaching  the  sun  the  impulse  of  the  solar 
rays  may  drive  the  finer  particles  of  the  comet's 
atmosphere  in  a  direction  of  course  opposite  to 
ihe  sun,  and  that  these  particles  become  visible 
in  the  shape  of  a  tail,  which,  from  the  resistance 
it  may  meet  with  moving  obliquely  through  the 
ether,  may  put  on  that  curved  appearance  which 
the  tails  are  often  observed  to  assume.  If  this 
hjrpothesis  were  true,  we  might  conceive  that  the 
velocity  of  a  comet  may  be  so  great,  that  a  tail 
may  be  produced  opposite  to  the  sun  before  the 
previously  formed  one  can  overtake  it  This 
agrees  with  what  is  recorded  of  the  comet  of 
1744,  which  is  said  to  have  had  several  tails 

when  near  its  perihelion. 

177.  Mr.  Whiston  has  conjectured  that  the 
deluge,  of  which,  in  the  sacred  writings,  we  have 
the  only  authentic  record,  but  of  which  the 
annlds  of  most  nations  have  traditionary  accounts, 
was  produced  by  the  near  approach  of  a  comet, 
whose  atmosphere  had  been  attracted  by  the 
earth;  and  he  further  surmises,  that  the  final 
catastrophe  foretold  in  the  scriptures  may  be  pro- 
duced by  the  approach  of  a  comet  prodigiously 
heated  in  its  perihelion.  We  pretend  not,  how- 
ever, on  such  subjects  as  these,  to  penetrate  the 
secrets  of  Almighty  wisdom,  which  can  produce 
its  own  ends,  by  means  of  which  we  nave  no 
conception. 

178.  On  looking  over  the  catalogue  of  ancient 
comets,  Dr.  Halley  found  that  there  vras  consider- 
able similarity  in  the  elements  of  the  orbits,  and  in 
the  periodic  times  of  three  which  appeared  in 
1531,  1607,  and  1682;  and  he  strongly  surmised 
that  these  three  comets  had  only  been  several 
returns  of  the  same  comet,  which  might  be  ex- 
pected to  return  again  about  the  end  of  1758  or 
the  bc^nning  of  1759.  Clairault  applied  him- 
self with  great  diligence  and  success  to  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  elements  of  these  comets,  which 
he  too  conceived  to  be  the  same;  and  he  pre- 
dicted that  it  would  be  in  perihelion  on  April 
13th,  1759,  and  it  actually  was  in  its  perihelion 
on  the  13th  of  March,  differing  about  a  month 
from  the  predicted  time.  This  comet  may  be 
expected  again  in  1835. 

179.  Clairault  ftiund,  by  applying  the  princi- 
ples of  physics  to  the  computation  of  this  comet's 
motion,  that  its  last  period  was  lengthened  about 
100  days  by  the  action  of  Saturn,  and  about  518 


days  by  that  of  Jupiter.  And,  as  we  know  not 
how  the  orbits  of  these  eccentric  bodies  may  be 
affected  by  their  mutual  attractions  among  them- 
selyes,  it  is  probable  that  many  ages  wiU  elapse 
before  any  very  accurate  knowledge  of  the  peri- 
odic times  of  many  of  them  will  be  obtained. 
Much  attention  however  is  at  present  paid  to  thit 
branch  of  astronomy;  and,  the  consequence  has 
been,  that  a  visit  of  a  comet  to  our  r^ons  is 
found  to  be  an  event  of  very  frequent  occurrence. 
In  the  year  1825  not  less  than  five  different 
comets  were  observed. 

180.  The  Astronomical  Society  of  London,  at 
their  anniyersary  in  February  1824,  voted  a  gold 
medal  to  M.  Rumker,  for  his  re-discoveiy  of  a 
comet,  which  was  first  discovered  by  M.  Guke, 
and  has  been  called  by  his  name.  This  comet 
had  been  seen,  in  an  intervening  return  in  1818, 
bv  M«  Pons,  and  the  astronomical  society  voted 
him  a  silver  medal  as  a  token  of  their  approbation 
of  the  industry  and  talent  with  which  lie  has  ap- 
plied to  this  interesting  branch  of  the  science. 

In  connexion  with  this  subject  too,  we  canuot 
help  noticing  a  most  profound  and  ingenious 
paper  by  M.  Masotti,  on  the  resistance  of  ether, 
as  deduced  from  the  irregularities  of  the  motion 
of  Ouke's  comet. 

Sect.  V. — Conjectures  and  Conclusions 

RESPECTINO  THE  FiXED  StARS.    . 

181.  Astronomers  liave  supposed  the  innu- 
merable multitude  of  fixed  stars  to  be  so  many 
suns,  each  of  which  is  attended  by  a  certain 
number  of  planets  or  habitable  worlds  like  our 
own,  as  well  as  visited  by  comets.  The  strong- 
est argument  for  this  hypothesis  is,  that  the  stars 
cannot  be  magnified  by  a  telescope  on  account 
of  their  immense  distance ;  whence  it  b  concluded 
that  diey  shine  by  their  oWn  light,  and  are  there- 
fore so  many  suns ;  each  of  whidi  we  may  sup- 
pose to  be  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  lustre  and 
magnitude  to  our  own.  They  are  not  supposed 
to  be  at  equal  distances  from  us,  but  to  be  more 
remote  in  proportion  to  their  apparent  smallness. 
This  supposition  is  necessary  to  prevent  any  in- 
terference of  their  planets,  and  thus  there  may 
be  as  great  a  distance  between  a  star  of  tho  first 
magnitude  and  one  of  .the  second  apparently 
close  to  it,  23  between  the  earth  and  the  fixed 
stars  first  mentioned. 

182.  Others  object,  diat  the  disappearatice  of 
some  of  the  fixed  stars  is  a  demonstnuioki  that 
they  cannot  be  suns,  as  it  would  be  in  the  highest 
degree  absurd  to  thitik  that  God  would  create  a 
sun  which  might  disappear  of  a  sadden,  and 
leave  its  planets  and  their  inhabitants  in  endless 
night.  But  this  argument  will  have  no  weight 
with  those  who  believe  in  the  doctrines  of  revela- 
^on ;  which  assures  us  that  our  worid  will  come 
to  an  end,  and  that  our  sun  will  be  deprived  of 
his  light';  and  consequendy  that  all  the  planets 
which  circulate  around  him  will  be  tnvoiYed  in 
darkness. 

183.  In  short,  there  is  nothing  inconsistent 
with  either  scripture  or  reason  in  sapnosing,  that 
while  infinite  space  is  universally  nlled  with  il- 
luminating suns  and  circulating  planets,  each 
world,  or  rather  each  solar  system  of  worlds,  has 


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Its  own  periods  of  creation,  duiation,  and  final 
Gonsmamation ;  as- we  are  assured  ours  has  had, 
and  will  have.  *  And  the  discoveries  of  astrono- 
mers respecting  old  stars  disappearing,  and  new 
ones  beii^  observed,  are  perfectly  consistent 
with  the'  doctrines  of  creation  and  dissolation, 
which  all  Christians  profess  to  believe,  with  re- 
gard to  our  own  solar  system  and  the  globe  we 
inhabit. 

184.  Some,  however,  have  thought  that  the 
variable  stars  which  disappear  for  a  time,  are 
planets,  which  are  only  visible  during  some  part 
of  their  course.  But  this  their  apparent  immo- 
bility, notwithstanding  their  decrease  of  lustre, 
will  not  allow  us  to  think.  Some  have  imagined 
that  one  side  of  them  may  be  naturally. much 
darker  than  the  other,  and  when  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  star  upon  its  axis,  the  dark  side  is 
tamed  towards  us,  the  star  becomes  invisible, 
and  for  the  same  reason,  after  some  interval,  re- 
sumes its  former  lustre« 

185.  M.  Maupertius  is  of  opinion  that  some 
stars,  by  ti^eir  prodigiously  quick  rotations  on 
their  axes,  may  not  only  assume  the  figures  of 
oblate  spheroids^  bat  that  hj  the  great  centri^- 
gal  force  arising  from  sudi  rotations,  they  may 
become  of  the  figures  of  mill-stones,  or  be  re- 
duced to  fiat  circular  planes,  so  thin  as  to  be 
quite  invi&ible  when  their  edges  are  turned  to- 
wards us;  as  Saturn's  ring  is  in  such  positions. 
But  when  very  eccentric  planets  or  comets  go 
round  any  flat  star,  in  orbits  much  inclined 
to  its  equator,  the  attraction  of  the  planets  or 
comets  in  their  perihelions  must  alter  the  incli- 
nation of  the  axis  of  that  star ;  on  which  account 
it  will  appev  more  or  less  large  and  luminous, 
as  its  broad  side  is  more  or  less  turned  towitrds 
us.  And  thus  he  imagines  we  may  acfcount  for 
the  apparent  changes  of  magnitude  and  lustre  in - 
those  stars,  and  likewise  for  their  appearing  and 
disappearing. 

186.  In  the  Philosophical  Transactioils  for 
1783,  Mr.  Mitchell,  in  proposing  a  method  of 
determining  the  distance,  magnitude,  &c.  of  the 
fixed  stars,  by  the  diminution  of  the  velocity  of' 
their  light,  should  any  such  thing  be  discovered, 
supposes  that  by  far  the  greater  part,  if  not  all 
of  them,  are  systems  of  stars  so  near  each  other, 
as  probably  to  be  liable  to  be  affected  sensibly  by 
their  mutual  gravitation ;  and  that  it  is  therefore 
not  unlikely  that  the  periods  of  the  revolutions 
of  tome  of  these  about  their  principals  (the 
smaller  ones  being  upon  this  hypothesis  to  be 
considered  as  satellites  to  the  others),  may  some 
time  or  other  be  discovered.  And  the  leoent 
observations  of  Mr.  Herschel  and  Mr.  South  on 
double  stars,  when  t»inpared  with  those  made 
by  Sir  William  Herschel  many  years  ago,  show 
decidedly  that  many  of  these  double  stars  do 
certainly  revolve  round  each  other. 

187.  Herschel,  improving  on  Mitchell's  idea 
of  the  fixed  stars  being  collected  into  groups, 
and  assisted  by  his  own  observations  with  the  ex- 
traordinary telescopic  powers  already  m^itiooed, 
has  suggested  a  theory  concerning  the  construc-^ 
tion  of  the  universe  entirely  new  and  singular. 
It  had  been  the  opinion  of  former  astronomers, 
that  oar  sun,  besides  occupying  the  centre  of 
the  system  which  properly  belongs  to  him,  occu- 


pied also  the  centre  of  the  universe :  but  Hers- 
chel is  of  a  difierent  opinion. 

188.  The  observations  on  which  this  theory  is 
founded,  were  made  with  a  Newtonian  reflector 
oftwen^  feet  focal  length,  and  an  aperture  of 
eighteen  inches.  With  this  powerful  telescope 
he  first  began  to  survey  jdie  Via  Lactea,  and 
found  that  it  completely  Absolved  the  whicij»h 
appearance  into  stars,  which  the  telescopes  he 
formerly  used  had  not  light  enough  to  do.  The 
portion  he  first  observed  was  that  about  the  hand 
and  club  of  Orion ;  in  which  he  found  an  asto- 
nishing multitude  of  stars,  whose  number  he 
endeavoured  to  estimate  by  counting  many  fields 
(or  apparent  spaces  of  the  heavens,  which  he 
could  see  at  once  through  his  telescope),  and 
computing  from  a  medium  of  these  how  many 
might  be  contained  in  a  given  portion  of  the 
milky  way.  In  the  most  vacant  place  to  be  met 
with  in  that  neighbourhood,  he  found  63  stars ; 
other  six  fields  contained  110,  60,  70,  90,  70, 
and  74  stars ;  a  medium  of  all  which  gave  79  for 
the  number  of  stars  to  each  field.  Thus  he  found 
that  by  allowing  15'  for  the  diameter  of  his  field 
of  view,  a  belt  of  16®  long  and  2°  broad,  which 
he  had  often  seen  pass  before  his  telescope  in  an 
hour's  time,  could  not  contain  less  than  50,000 
stars,  large  enough  to  be  distinctly  numbered  : 
besides  which  he  suspected  twice  as  many  more, 
which  could  be  seen  only  now  and  then  by  faint 
glimpses,  for  want  of  sufficient  light. 

189.  The  doctor's  success  within  the  milky 
way  soon  induced  him  to  turn  his  telescope  to 
the  nebulous  parts  of  the  heavens,  of  which  an 
accurate  list  had  been  published  in  the  Connois- 
sance  des  Temps  for  1783  and  1784.  Most  of 
these  yielded  to  a  Newtonian  reflector  of  twenty 
foet  focal  distance,  and  twelve  inches  aperture ; 
which  plainly  discovered  them  to  be  composed 
of  stars,  or  at  least  to  contain  stars,  and  to  show 
every  other  indication  that  they  consisted  of 
them  entirely. 

190.  ^  The  nebulse,'  says  he,  '  are  arranged 
into  strata,  and  run  on  to  a  great  length ;  and 
some  of  them  I  have  been  able  to  pursue,  and  to 
guess  pretty  well  at  their  form  and*  direction. 
It  is  probable  enough  that  tliey  may  surround 
the  whole  starry  sphere  of  the  heavens  not  unlike 
the  milky  way,  which  undoubtedly  is  nothing  but 
a  stratum  of  fixed  stars ;  and  as  this  latter  im- 
mense starry  bed  is  ,not  of  equal  breadth  or 
lustre  in  every  part,  nor  runs  on  in  one  straight 
direction,  but  is-  curved,  and  even  divided  int 
two  streams  along  a  very  considerable  portion 
of  it,  we  may  likewise  expect  the  greatest  variety 
in  the  strata  of  the  clusters  of  stars  and  nebule. 

191.  *  One  of  these  nebulous  beds  is  so  rich, 
that  in  passing  through  a  section  of  it  in  the 
time  of  only  thirty-six  minutes,  I  have  detecttid 
no  less  than  thirty-one  nebulae,  all  distinctly  visi- 
ble upon  a  fine  bhie  sky.  Their  situation  and 
shape,  as  well  as  condition.  Seem  to  denote  the 
greatest  variety  imaginable.  In  another  stratiTm, 
or  perhaps  a  difierent  branch  of  the  former,  I 
have  often  seen  double  and  treble  nebulae  va- 
riously arranged ;  large  ones  with  small  seeming 
attendants ;  narrow,  but  much  extended  lucid 
nebulae  or  bright  dashes ;  some  of  the  shape  of 
a  fan,  resembling  an  electric  brush  issuing  fcom 

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a  lucid  point;  others  of  the  cometic  shape,  with 
a  seeming  nucleus  in  the  centre,  or  like  cloudy 
stars,  surrounded  with  a  nebulous  atmosphere ; 
a  different  sort  again  contain  a  nebulosity  of  the 
milky  kind,  like  Uiat  wonderful  inexplicable  phe- 
nomenon about  0  Ononis  i  while  others  stiine 
with  a  fainter  mottled  kind  of  light,  which  de- 
notes their  being  reso#able  into  stars. 

192.  '  It  is  very  probable  that  the  great  stra- 
tum called  the  milky  way,  is  that  in  which  the 
sun  is  placed,  though  perhaps  not  in  the  very 
centre  of  its  thickness.  We  gather  tliis  from  the 
appearance  of  the  galaxy,  which  seems  to  en- 
compass the  whole  heavens,  as  it  certainly  must 
do  it  the  sun  is  within  the  same.  For  suppose 
a  number  of  stars  arranged  between  two  parallel 
planes,  indefinitely  extended  every  way,  but  at  a 
given  considerable  distance  from  one  another, 
and  calling  this  a  sidereal  stratum ;  an  eye 
placed  somewhere  within  it  will  see  all  the  stars 
m  the  direction  of  tlie  planes  of  the  stratum  pro- 
jected into  a  great  circle,  which  will  appear 
hicid  on  account  of  the  accumulation  of  the 
stars,  while  the  rest  of  the  heavens  at  the  sides 
will  only  seem  to  be  scattered  over  with  con- 
stellations, more  or  less  crowded  according,  to 
the  'distance  of  the  planes,  or  number  of  stars 
contained  in  the  thickness  or  sides  of  the 
tratum. 

193.  *  From  appearances,'  Dr.  Herschel  con- 
Cmues,'  we  may  mfer  that  the  sun  is  most  likely 
placed  in  one  of  the  great  strata  of  the  fixed 
stars,  and  very  probably  not  far  from  the  place 
where  some  smaller  stratum  branches  out  firom 
it.  This  supposition  will  satisfactorily,  and  with 
great  simplicity,  account  for  all  the  phenomena 
of  the  milky  way ;  which,  according  to  this  hypo- 
thesis, is  no  other  than  the  appearance  of  the 
projection  of  the  stars  contained  in  this  stratum 
and  its  secondary  branch.  As  a  farther  induce- 
ment to  look  on  the  galaxy  in  this  point  of  view, 
let  it  be  considered  that  we  can  no  longer  doubt 
of  its  whitish  appearance  arising  from  the  mixed 
lustre  of  the  numberless  stars  that  compose  it. 
l*fow  should  we  suppose  it  to  be  an  irregular 
ling  of  stars,  in  the  centre  nearly  of  which  we 
must  then  suppose  the  sun  to  be  placed,  it  will 
appear  not  a  little  extraordinary  that  the  sun, 
being  a  fixed  star  like  those  which  compose 
this  imagined  ring,  should  just  be  in  the  centre 
of  such  a  multitude  of  celestial  bodies,  vnthout 
any  apparent  reason  for  this  singular  distinction ; 
whereas,  on  our  supposition,  every  star  in  this 
stratum,  not  very  near  the  termination  of  its 
length  or  height,  will  be  so  placed  as  also  to 
have  its  own  galaxy,  with  only  such  variations 
in  the  form  and  lustre  of  it  as  may  arise  from  the 
particular  situation  of  each  star.' 

194.  A  continued  series  of  observations  con- 
firmed Dr.  Herschel  in  these  opinions ;  and  in  a 
succeeding  paper  he  has  given  a  sketch  of  his 
ideas  of  the  mterior  construction  of  the  heavens : 
*  That  the  milky  way,'  says  he, '  is  a  most  ex- 
tensive stratum  of  stars  of  various  sizes,  admits 
no  longer  of  the  least  doubt ;  and  that  our  sun  is 
one  of  the  heavenly  bodies  belonging  to  it  is  as 
evident.  I  have  now  viewed  and  gauged  this 
shining  zone  in  almost  every  direction,  and  find 
it  composed  of  shining  stars,  whose  number,  by 


the  account  of  those  gauges,  constantly  increases 
and  decreases  in  proportion  to  its  apparent 
brightness  to  the  naked  eye. 

195.  *  But,  in  order  to  develop  the  ideas  of  the 
universe  that  have  been  suggested  by  my  late 
observations,  it  will  be  best  to  take  the  sub- 
ject from  a  point  of  view  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance both  of  space  and  time.  Let  us  then 
suppose  numberless  stars  of  various  sizes  scatter- 
ed over  an  indefinite  portion  of  space,  in  such  a 
a  manner  as  to  be  sdmost  equally  distributed 
through  the  whole.  The  laws  of  attraction, 
which  no  doubt  extend  to  the  remotest  regions 
of  the  fixed  stars,  will  operate  in  such  a  manner 
as  most  probably  to  produce  the  following  re- 
markable effects : 

196.  1.  It  will  frequently  happen  that  a  star, 
being  considerably  larger  than  its  neighbouring 
6nes,  will  attract  them  more  than  they  will  be 
attracted  by  others  that  are  immediately  around 
them ;  by  which  means  they  will  be  in  time  as 
it  were  condensed  about  a  centre ;  or  in  other 
words,  form  themselves  into  a  cluster  of  stais 
of  almost  a  ghibular  figure,  more  or  less  regii- 
larly  so,  according  to  die  size  and  original  dis- 
tance of  the  surrounding  stars.  The  perturba- 
tions of  the  mutual  attractions  must  undoubtedly 
be  very  intricate,  as  we  may  easily  comprehend 
by  considering  what  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  md 
(Princip.  lib.  i.  prob.  38,  et  seq.) :  but  in  order 
to  apply  thb  great  author*s  reasoning,  of  bodies 
moving  in  ellipses,  to  such  as  are  here  for  a 
while  supposed  to  have  no  other  motion  than 
what  their  mutual  gravity  has  imparted  to  them, 
we  must  suppose  the  conjugate  axes  of  these 
ellipses  indennitely  diminished,  whereby  tlie 
ellipses  will  become  straight  lines. 

197.  2.  The  next  case,  which  will  happen 
almost  as  frequently  as  the  former,  is  where  a 
few  stars,  though  not  superior  in  size  to  the  rest, 
may  chance  to  be  rather  nearer  each  other  than 
the  surrounding  ones;  for  here  also  will  be 
formed  a  prevailing  attraction  in  the  combined 
centre  of  gravity  of  them  all,  which  will  occasion 
the  neighbouring  stars  to  draw  together;  not, 
indeed,  so  as  to  form  a  reguUr  globular  figure, 
but,  however,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  con- 
densed towards  the  common  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  whole  insegular  cluster.  And  this  construc- 
tion admits  of  the  utmost  variety  of  shapes,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  and  situation  of  the 
stars  which  first  gave  rise  to  the  condensation  of 
the  rest. 

198.  3.  From  the  composition  and  repeated 
conjunction  of  both  the  foregoing  forms,  a  third 
may  be  derived,  when  many  large  stars,  or  com- 
bined small  ones,  are  situatM  in  long  extended 
r^^lar  or  crooked  rows,  hooks,  or  branches; 
for  they  will  also  draw  the  surrounding  ones  so 
as  to  produce  figures  of  condensed  stars  coarsely 
similar  to  the  former,  which  gu  «e  rise  to  these 
condensations. 

199.  4.  We  may  likewise  admit  of  still  more 
extensive  combinations ;  when,  at  the  same  time 
that  a  cluster  of  stars  is  forming  in  one  part  of 
space,  there  may  be  another  collecting  in  a  dif- 
ferent, but  perhaps  not  hr  distant,  quarter,  which 
may  occasion  a  mutual  approach  towards  their 
common  centre  of  gravity. 


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200.  5.  In  the  last  place,  as  a  nataral  conse- 
quence of  the  former  cases,  there  will  be  great 
cavities  or  vacancies  formed  by  the  retreat  of  the 
Stan  towards  the  various  centres  which  attract 
them ;  so  that,  upon  the  whole,  there  is  evidently 
a  field  of  the  greatest  variety  for  the  mutual  and 
combined  attractions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  to 
exert  themselves  in. 

201.  From  this  theoretical  view  of  the  heavens, 
which  has  been  taken  from  a  point  not  less  dis- 
tant in  time  than  in  space,  we  will  now  retreat  to 
our  own  retired  station,  in  one  of  the  plauets  at- 
tending a  star  in  its  great  combination  with  num- 
berless others;  and  in  order  to  investigate  what 
will  be  the  appearances  from  this  contracted 
situation,  let  us  oegin  with  the  naked  eye.  The 
stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  being  in  all  proba- 
bility the  nearest,  will  furnish  us  with  a  step  to 
begin  our  scale.  Setting  off,  therefore,  with  the 
distance  of  Sinus  or  Arcturus,  for  instance,  as 
unity,  we  will  at  present  suppose,  tliat  those  of 
the  second  magnitude  are  at  double,  those  of  the 
third  at  treble,  the  distance,  &c.  Taking  it  for 
granted,  then,  that  a  star  of  the  seventh  magni- 
tude (the  smallest  supposed  visible  with  the 
naked  eye)  is  about  seven  times  as  far  as  one  of 
the  first,  it  follows,  that  an  observer  who  is  en- 
closed in  a  globular  cluster  of  stars,  and  not  far 
from  the  centre,  will  never  be  able  with  the  naked 
eye  to  see  to  the  end  of  it ;  for  since,  according 
to  the  above  estimations,  he  can  only  extend  his 
view  to  above  seven  times  the  distance  of  Sinus, 
it  cannot  be  expected  that  his  eyes  should  reach 
the  borders  of  a  cluster  which  has  perhaps  not 
less  than  fifty  stars  in  depth  everywhere  around 
him.  The  whole  universe  to  him,  therefore,  will 
be  comprised  in  a  set  of  constellations  richly  or- 
namented with  scattered  stars  of  all  sizes :  or,  if 
the  united  brightness  of  a  neighbouring  cluster  of 
stars  should,  in  a  remarkably  clear  night,  reach 
his  sight,  it  will  put  on  the  appeamnce  of  a  small, 
faint,  whitish,  nebulous  cloud,  not  to  be  per- 
ceived without  the  greatest  attention. 

202.  Let  us  suppose  him  placed  in  a  much 
extended  stratum,  or  branching  cluster  of  millions 
of  stars,  such  as  may  fall  under  the  third  form 
of  nebulae  already  considered.  Here  also  the 
heavens  will  not  only  be  richly  scattered  over 
with  brilliant  constellations,  but  a  shining  zone 
or  milky  way  will  be  perceived  to  surround  the 
whole  sphere  of  .the  heavens,  owing  to  the  com- 
bined light  of  those  stars  which  are  too  small, 
tliat  is,  too  remote  to  be  seen.  Our  observer's 
sight  will  be  so  confined,  that  he  will  imagine 
this  single  collection  of  stars,  thoueh  he  does  not 
even  perceive  the  1000th  part  of  them,  to  be  the 
whole  contents  of  the  heavens. 

203.  Allowing  him  now  the  use  of  a  common 
telescope,  he  begins  to  suspec^  that  all  the  milki- 
ness  of  the  bright  path  which  surrounds  the 
sphere  may  be  owing  to  stars.  He  perceives  a 
few  clusters  of  them  in  various  psuts  of  the 
heavens,  and  finds  also  that  there  are  kinds  of 
nebulous  patches:  but  still  his  views  are  not 
extended  to  reach  so  fiir  as  to  the  end  of  the 
stratum  in  which  he  is  situated ;  so  that  he  looks 
uDon  these  patches  as  belonging  to  that  system, 
woich  to  him  seems  to  comprehend  every  ce- 
lesti^  object.     He  now  increases  his  power  of 


vision ;  and,  applying  hhnself  to  a  close  obser- 
vation, finds  tnat  the  milky  way  is  indeed  no 
other  than  a  collection  of  very  small  stars.  He 
perceives,  that  those  objects  which  had  been 
called  nebuls,  are  evidenUy  nothing  but  clusters 
of  stars.  Their  number  increases  upon  him; 
and  when  he  resolves  one  nebula  into  stars,  he 
discovers  ten  new  ones  which  he  cannot  resolve. 
He  then  forms  the  idea  of  immense ,  strata  of 
fixed  stars,  of  clusters  of  stars,  and  of  nebule  ; 
till  going  on  with  such  interesting  observations, 
he  now  perceives,  that  all  these  appearances 
must  naturally  arise  from  the  confined  situation 
in  which  we  are  placed.  Confined  it  may  justly 
be  called,  though  in  no  less  a  space  than  what 
appeared  before  to  be  the  whole  region  of  the 
fixed  stars,  but  which  now  has  assumed  the  shape 
of  a  crookedly  branching  nebula ;  not  indeed  one 
of  the  least,  but  perhaps  very  far  from  being  the 
most  considerable,  of  those  numberless  clusters 
that  enter  into  the  construction  of  the  heavens. 

204.  Dr.  Herschel  shows,  that  this  theoretical 
view  of  the  heavens  is  perfectly  consistent  with 
facts,  and  seems  to  be  confinned  by  a  series  of 
observations.  *  Upon  the  whole,'  says  he,  *  I  be- 
lieve it  will  be  found,  that  the  foregoing  theo- 
retical view,  with  all  its  consequential  appear- 
ances, as  seen  by  an  eye  enclosed  in  one  of  the 
nebuls,  is  no  other  than  a  drawing  from  nature, 
wherein  the  features  of  the  original  have  been 
closely  copied  :  and  I  hope  the  resemblance  will 
not  be  called  a  bad  one,  when  it  shall  be  con- 
sidered how  very  limited  must  be  the  pencil  of 
an  inhabitant  of  so  small  and  retired  a  portion 
of  an  indefinite  system,  in  attempting  the  picture 
of  so  unbounded  an  extent.' 

205.  The  doctor  having  determined  that  the 
visible  system  of  nature,  by  us  called  the  uni- 
verse, consisting  of  all  the  celestial  bodies,  and 
many  more  than  can  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye, 
is  only  a  group  of  stars  or  suns  with  their  planets, 
constituting  one  of  those  patches  called  a  nebula, 
and  perhaps  not  one  10,000th  part  of  what 
is  really  the  universe,  he  g'^es  on  to  delineate  the 
figure  of  this  vast  nebula,  which  he  is  of  opinion 
may  now  be  done ;  and  for  this  purpose,  he  gives 
a  uble,  calculating  the  distance  of  the  stars  which 
form  its  extreme  boundaries,  or  tlie  length  of  the 
visual  ray  in  different  parts,  by  the  number  of 
stars  contained  in  the  field  of  his  telescope  at 
different  times.  He  then  proceeds  to  offer  some 
thoughts  on  the  origin  of  the  nebulous  strata  of 
the  heavens;  in  doing  which,  he  gives  some 
])ints  concerning  the  antiquity  of  them ;  con- 
jectures which,  though  abundantly  ingenious, 
are  of  too  fanciful  a  nature  to  justify  us  in  de- 
tailing them. 

206.  An  objection  naturally  occurred  in  the 
course  of  Herschel's  observations  and  enquiries 
concerning  the  structure  of  the  heavens,  diat  if 
the  different  systems  were  formed  by  the  mutual 
attractions  of  the  stars,  the  whole  would  be  in 
danger  of  destruction  by  their  falling  one  upon 
another. 

207.  Several  circumstances,  however,  he  says, 
manifestly  tend  to  a  general  preservation.  The 
indefinite  extent  of  the  sidereal  heavens,  must 
produce  a  balance  that  will  effectually  secure  aU 
the  great  parts  of  the  whole  from  approa«ihing 


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to  each  other.  '  There  remains  then  (says  he) 
only  to  see  how  the  particular  stars  belonging  to 
separate  clusters  are  prevented  irom  rushing  on 
to  their  centres  of  attraction.'  This  he  supposes 
may  be  done  by  projectile  forces;  *  the  admis- 
sion of  which  will  prove  such  a  barrier  against 
the  seeming  destructive  power  of  attraction,  as  to 
secure  from  it  all  the  stars  belonging  to  a  cluster, 
if  not  for  ever,  at  least  for  millions  of  ages. 
Besides,  we  ought  perhaps  to  look  upon  such 
clusters,  and  ihe  destruction  of  a  star  now  and 
Uien  in  some  thousands  of  ages,  as  the  very 
means  by  which  the  whole  is  preserved  and 
renewed.  These  clusters  may  be  the  laboratories 
of  the  universe,  wherein  the  most  salutary 
remedies  for  the  decay  of  the  whole  are  pre- 
pared.' 

208.  The  existence  of  such  projectile  forces  is 
rendered  probable,  from  the  apparent  changes  of 
position  of  certain  stars ;  and  from  a  comparison 
of  the  best  modem  observations  with  the  most 
accurate  of  former  times,  there  appears  to  have 
been  a  real  change  in  the  places  of  some  of  diem. 
The  Bull's  Eye,  Sirius,  and  Arcturus,  are  now 
found  to  be  half  a  degree  more  southerlv  than 
the  ancients  reckoned  them ;  and  the  bright  star 
in  the  Moulder  of  Orion,  has,  in  Ptolemy,  almost 
a  whole  degree  of  latitude  more  southerly  than 
at  present.  And,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  such 
remarkable  changes  have  been  observed  both  in 
the  positions  and  distances  of  so  many  of  the 
double  stars,  that  we  are  constrained  to  admit 
that  nothing  created  Is  suble.  Appearanora, 
indeed,  in(£cate  that  our  own  system  is  in 
motion  towards  a  point  of  the  heavens  whose 
right  ascension  is  about  250"  and  declination 
about  50^  north.  Whether  this  motion  is  one  of 
rotation  about  some  distant  centre,  or  of*  direct 
motion,  must  be  left  to  time  and  accumte  obser- 
vation to  determine.  The  consequence  of  thb 
motion,  however,  is,  certain  apparent  motions  of 
several  of  the  fixed  stats,  entirely  unconnected 
with  the  phenomena  arising  either  from  the 
earth's  figure,  or  its  revolution  round  the  sun. 
Dr.  Maskelyno  has  given  a  table  containing  the 
proper  motions,  both  in  right  ascension  and 
declination  of  thirty  six  of  the  principal  fixed 
Stan.  We  subjoin  this  table  as  one  of  great  im- 
portance to  the  practical  astronomer. 

209.  Table  of  die  annual  proper  motions  of 
thirty-six  fixed  stars,  in  right  ascension  and  de- 
clination : 


i 

Annaal  Proper  Motion. 

NamM  of  the  Stan. 

In  right 
ascention. 

In  decUna- 
tion. 

y  Pepsi    .    . 

a  Anetes    .     , 

a  Ceti    .     . 

Aldebaran 

Capella   . 

Rigel      . 

0  Tauri 

—  009 
+  010 

—  012 
-h  0-03 
-h  0-21 

—  003 
-h  0-01 

—  015  n; 

-1-  007  S. 

—  008  N. 
-H  0-12  S. 
H-  0-44  S. 

—  016  N. 
-h  0-10  s. 

a  Orion      .  . 

Sirius      .  . 

Castor     .  . 

Procyon 

Pollux     .  . 

a  Hydrte     .  . 

Regiilus  .  . 

P  Leoni      .  . 

p  Virginis  .  . 

Spice  Virgini 

Ajcturus 

2  5  a  libra 

a  Cor.  Borealis 
a  Serpentis 

Antares   .    . 
a  Herculis  .     . 
a  Ophiuchi 
a  Lyra       .    . 

a  >Aqfiile  .     •     •  \ 

1 

ft  I  a  Capricomi    \ 

a  Cygni  .  . 
a  Aquani  .  . 
Fomalhaut  . 
a  Pegasi  .  . 
a  Andromeda 


I  + 


001 
0-42 

—  01 5 

—  0-80 

—  0-74 

—  009 

—  0-22 

—  0-57 
-I-  0-74 

—  0-02 

—  0-26 

—  0*11 

—  0-11 
0-26 
Oil 
0-00 
0-00 
0K)6 
0-23 

—  Oil 
-f  0-48 

—  0-03 
0-00 

+  0-05 

—  0.08 

—  0K)8 
-h  0-35 

—  0-06 
-h  0'08 


—  0.13  N. 
-h  1-04  S. 
-f  0*44  S. 

-H  o-gs'S. 

0-00 

—  0-14  N. 

—  0.08  N. 
4-  0^7  S. 
+  0-24  S. 

—  019  N. 
+  1-72  S. 

—  0-18  N, 

—  0-15  N. 
+  0*03  S. 

—  019  N. 

—  0-26  N. 

—  0-23  N. 

—  005  S. 

—  0*27  N. 

—  6-16  N. 

—  0-54  N. 
-f  0-35  S. 

—  0  20  N. 

—  0-26  N. 

—  0-03  N. 

—  019  N. 

—  0*06  N. 

—  018  N. 
-f  0-06  S. 


PART  II. 

OF  THE  VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF 

ASTRONOMY. 

Sect.  I. — Of  the  most  famous  srsTEiCBy  bt 

WHICH     THE    CELESTIAL     PHENOMENA     HATS 
BEEN    ATTEMPTED    TO    BE    BXPLAINED. 

210.  To  explain  the  motions  an^  anpearances 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  various  hypotneses  have 
been  formed;  and  every  hypothesis  that  ever  was 
firamed,  accounted  fi>r  some  one  or  other  of  them ; 
but  men  being,  in  the  early  ages,  ignorant  of  the 
laws  of  motion,  could  not  be  expected  to  dis- 
cover tlie  true  system,  or  explain  all  the  various 
phenomena  of  the  celestial  orbs. 

211.  In  treating  of  the  systems  which  have 
been  invented  in  different  ages,  we  do  not  mean 
to  give  an  account  of  all  the  various  absurdities 
that  have  been  broached  by  individuals  on  this 
subject;  but  to  confine  ourselves  to  those  sjts- 
tems  which  have  been  of  considerable  note,  and 
been  generally  followed  for  a  number  of  years. 
We  are  as  ignorant  of  the  opinions  of  the  first 
astronomers,  respecting  the  system  of  the  uni- 
verse, as  we  are  of  the  astronomers  themselves. 
Whatever  opinions  are  handed  down  to  us, 
must  be  of  much  later  date  than  the  introduction 
of  astronomy  among  mankind. 

212.  If  we  may  hazard  a  conjecture,  however, 
we  are  inclined  to  think,  that  the  first  opinions 
on  this  subject  were  much  more  just,  than  those 
that  were  held  afterwards  (or  manv  years. 
Pythagoras  maintained  the  motion  of  the  earth, 
which  is  now  universally  believed,  but  at  that 
time  appears  to  have,  been  the  opinion  of  only  a 
few  detached  individuals  in  Greece.  As  the 
Greeks  borrowed  many  things  from  the  Egyp- 
tians, and  Pythagoras  had  travelled  into  Egypt 


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tad  Pliaiida,  It  u  probable  he  might  receiTe  ao 
accooDt  of  this  hyipothesis  from  thence;  but 
whetiier  he  did  or  not,  we  have  now  no  means 
of  knowit^,  neither  is  it  of  any  importance. 
Certain  it  is,  however,  that  this  opinion  did  not 
prenil  io  h^  days,  nor  for  many  ages  afterwards. 
213.  In  the  second  century  the  Pythagorean 
hjpothesis  was  superseded  by  a  system  erected 
by  the  fiunoos  geographer  and  astronomer,  Clau- 
dius Ptoloncus.    This  r^stem,  which  commonly 
goes  by  the  name  of  the  Ptolemaic,  he  seems  not 
to  htve  originally  invented,  but  adopted  as  the 
prevaihog  one  of  that  age;  and  he,  perhaps, 
made  it  somewhat  more  consistent  thui  it  was 
before.    He  supposed  the  earth  at  rest  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe.    Round  the  earth,  and 
the  nearest  to  it  of  aH  the  heavenly  bodies,  the 
ooou  performed  its  nMntblv  revolutions.    Next 
to  the  moon  was  placed  the  planet  Mercuiy ; 
tben  Venus;  and  above  that  the  Sun,  Mars, 
Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  in  their  proper  orbits ;  then 
the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars ;  above  these,  two 
spheres  of  what  be  called  cfarystalline  heavens; 
above  these  was  the  ptimum  mobile,  which,  by 
turamg  round  onee  m  twenty-four  hours,  by 
mne  unaccountable  means  or  other,  carri^  all 
the  rest  along  with  it.     This  primum  mobile 
was  encompassed   by  the   empyrean    heaven^ 
which  was  of  a  cubic  form,  and  the  seat  of 
angeb  and  blessed  spirits.    Besides  the  motions 
of  all  the  heavens  round  the  earth  once  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  each  planet  was  supposed  to  have  a 
particular  motion  of  its  own;  the  moon,  for 
distance,  once  in  a  month,  performed  an  addi- 
tioDal  revolution,  the  sun  in  a  year,  &c.     See 
Hate  VII.  fig.  4. 

214.  It  is  evident,  that  on  this  supposition, 
the  complicated  motions  of  the  planets  already 
described  could  never  be  accounted  for.  Had 
they  circulated  uniformly  round  the  earth,  their 
apparent  motion  ought  always  to  have  been  equal 
and  uniform,  without  appearinff  either  stationary 
or  retrograde  in  any  part  of  their  courses.  In 
couequence  of  this  objection,  Ptolemy  was 
obliged  to  invept  a  great  number  of  circles, 
mteiiering  with  each  other,  which  he  called 
epicydes  and  eccentrics.  These  proved  a  ready 
and  e&ctnal  salvo  for  all  the  defects  of  his  sys- 
tem; as  whenever  a  planet  was  deviating  from 
the  course  it  ou^t  on  his  plan  to  have  foUowed, 
it  was  then  only  moving  in  an  epicycle  or  an 
eccentric,  and  would  in  due  time  &11  into  its 
proper  path.  As  to  die  natural  causes,  by  which 
the  planets  were  directed  to  move  in  tliese  epi- 
cydes and  eccentrics,  it  is  no  wonder  \hat  he 
foond  himself  much  at  a  loss,  and  was  obliged 
to  have  recourae  to  divine  power  for  an  explana- 
tioQ,  or,  m  other  words,  to  own  that  his  system 
was  unintelligible.  It,  however,  continued  to  be 
in  vogue  till  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, when  it  vras  superseded  by  the  Copernican, 
of  which  afterwards. 

215.  The  only  other  systenu  worth  mention- 
ing, besides  the  true  system,  are  the  Tychonic, 
the  aemi-Tychonic,  and  the  Cartesian ;  all  of  which 
have  gained  proselytes,  though  none  of  them 
were  ever  so  universally  received  as  the  Ptole- 
■aic  and  Copernican. 

216.  The  Tychonic  system,  y\AXfi  VII.  fig.  7, 


was  invented  by  Tycho  Brahe,  who  supposed 
that  the  earth  was  at  rest,  and  that  the  moon  and 
sun  revolted  about  it;  the  moon  in  a  month,  and 
the  sun  in  a  year ;  and  at  the  same  time,  that  the 
restof  the  planets,  Mercunr,  Venns^  Mars,  Jupi- 
ter, and  Saturn,  revolved  round  the  sun;  the 
three  last  also  encompassing  the  earth.  Besides 
these  motions,  he  supposed  them  all  to  have  a 
diurnal  motion  round  the  earthy  as  well  as  all 
the  stars, 

*  217.  The  semi-Tychonic  system  supposed  the 
planets  to  revolve  round  the  sun,  while  the  sun 
and  moon  revolve  about  the  earth  as  their  cen- 
tre of  motion;  and  it  supposed  the  earth  to 
move  about  its  axis  from  west  to  east  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  This  system  differs  from  the  Tycho- 
nic only  in  this,  that  it  supposes  a  diurnal  motion 
in  the  earth,  but,  like  the  Tychonic,  denies  an 
annual  one. 

218.  The  Cartesian  system,  so  named  from  its 
author,  Des  Cartes,  supposes  a  variety  of  voi^ 
tices  or  whirlpools,  in  which  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  are  performed,  being  carried 
round  the  sun  in  a  vortex  of  ethereal  matter,  in 
different  times,  proportioned  to  their  distances ; 
and  each  planet  having  also  a  particular  vortex 
of  its  own,  in  which  the  motions  of  its  satel- 
lites are  performed.  From  the  laws  of  motion 
it  will  easily  appear,  that  the  irregular  motions 
of  the  planets  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  these 
vortices;  and  besides,  the  supposition  of  an 
ethereal  matter  to  perform  the  operations,  is 
without  any  foundation,  or  analogy  m  nature. 

Sect.   II. — Or   the  Copeemicah,   oa  Tkue 
System  of  Astronomy. 

219.  The  Ptolemaic  system  had  gained  uni- 
versal credit,  when  Copeinicus  began  to  entertain 
doubts  of  its  truth,  and  to  try  if  a  more  satis- 
factory method  of  accounting  for  the  apparent 
motion  of  the  celestial  bodies,  might  not  be  ob- 
tained. He  had  recourse  to  every  author  upon 
the  subject,  but  obtained  no  satisfaction,  till 
he  found  from  Cicero,  that  Nicetas,  the  Sv- 
racusan,  had  maintained  the  motion  of  the  earth; 
and  from  Plutarch,  that  Pythagoras  and  others 
of  the  ancients  had  been  of  the  same  opinion. 

220.  From  these  small  hints,  this  great  genius 
deduced  a  most  complete  system  of  astronomy, 
capable  of  solving  every  phenomenon  in  a  sa- 
ti^u^tory  manner: — a  system  which  has  been 
more  and  more  confirmed  by  the  discoveries  and 
improvements  that  have  been  made  In  astronomy 
ana  mathematics,  since  his  time ;  as  well  as  by 
the  use  of  telescopes,  which  have  discovered  nu- 
merous celestial  phenomena  formerly  quite  un- 
known. Like  all  important  discoveries,  however, 
when  they  run  counter  to  general  prejudices,  the 
Copernican  system  was  at  first  much  opposed ; 
and  by  none  more  than  the  celebratea  Tycho 
Brahe,  who  could  never  assent  to  the  motion  of 
the  earth,  and  who  invented  the  system  described 
in  the  last  section,  with  a  view  to  supersede  the 
necessity  of  it. 

221.  But  while  philosophers  were  divided  be- 
tween the  Ptolemaic,  the  Tychonic,  the  Carte- 
sian, and  Copernican  systems.  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
laid  down  the  laws  of  nature  and  motion,  and, 


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ASTRONOMY. 


comparing  aU  the  phenomena  in  the  heavens, 
discovered  the  true  system  of  the  universe,  con- 
firmed the  Copemican  system  of  astronomy,  and 
demonstrated  its  truth  by  unanswerable  argu- 
ments, drawn  from  the  most  obvious  laws  of  na- 
ture. This  system,  which  is  founded  on  a  basis 
not  to  be  shaken,  is  as  follows : 

222.  The  sun,  which  to  us  is  the  fountain  of 
light  and  heat,  is  an  immense  spherical  body, 
which  revolves  on  its  own  axis  in  about  twenty- 
five  days ;  and  is  the  centre  round  which  eleven 
other  bodies,  called  planets,  are  known  to  revolve 
at  different  distances  and  in  different  periods. 
The  planes  in  which  the  planets  revolve  all  pass 
through  the  centre  of  the  sun,  and  they  are  in 
general  inclined  to  each  other  in  very  small 
angles.  They  are  called  primary  planets,  and 
some  of  them  are  attended  by  smaller  ones,  called 
satellites,  which  revolve  round  them  in  the  same 
manner  as  they  revolve  round  the  sun.  See 
plate  III. 

223.  The  sun  and  the  planets  are  called  the 
solar  system.  The  orbits  of  the  planets  are  not 
strictly  circular,  but  elliptical  or  oval,  and  the 
sun  is  situated  in  a  focxis  of  the  ellipse ;  so  that 
the  planets,  at  one  period  of  their  revolution,  are 
nearer  to  the  sun  than  at  another. 

224.  Besides  the  periodical  revolution  round 
the  sun,  each  of  the  planets  has  a  uniform  ro- 
tatory motion  round  an  imaginary  line,  called  the 
axis,  passing  through  the  centre;  and,  during 
the  whole  of  any  planet's  revolution,  its  axis  of 
rotation  preserves  the  same  parallel  position.  In 
consequence  of  this  rotation,  the  different  parts 
of  the  surfiures  of  the  planets  are  presented  to  the 
sun  in  succession ;  but  it  has  not  been  observed, 
that  the  axis  round  which  any  planet  rotates,  b 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  in  which  it  revolves 
round  the  sun ;  therenfre,  at  one  period  of  the 
revolution,  one  extremity  of  the  axis  and  the  ad- 
jacent parts  of  the  surnce  will  be  inclined  to- 
wards the  sun,  and  the  other  at  the  opposite  period. 

225.  There  is  a  class  of  bodies  called  cpmets, 
which  also  revolve  round  the  sun,  and  appear  to 
be  governed  in  their  motion  by  the  same  laws 
that  regulate  the  motions  of  the  planets.  Their 
orbits  are  greatly- elongated,  and  they  come  to- 
wards the  sun  from  all  quarters  of  the  heavens, 
differing  in  this  respect  from  the  planets,  which 
revolve  pretty  nearly  in  the  sun's  plane.    They 

are  (iirther  distinguished  from  the  other  stars,  by 
a  luminous  stream  of  light  which  they  emit  when 
they  come  near  the  sun. 

226.  The  earth,  on  which  we  live,  is  one  of 
the  planets ;  it  revolves  round  the  sun  in  a  year, 
and  performs  its  rotation  on  its  axis,  from  west 
to  east,  once  in  a  day.  The  moon  is  a  satellite 
attending  the  earth,  round  which  it  revolves 
from  west  to  east  in  about  twenty-seven  days 
eight  hours, 

227.  The  planets,  in  the  order  of  their  distance 
from  the  sun,  are:  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth, 
Mars,  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
and  Herschel,  Uranus,  or  the  Georgium  Sidus. 
Mercury,  and  Venus,  which  are  nearer  the  sun 
than  the  earth,  are  allied -inferior  planets;  and 
those  which  are  more  distant  are  called  superior 
planets,  as  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Herschel.  lliese 
fatter,  indeed,  arc  also  by  far  the  largest.  Venus, 
Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  which  are  all  neariy  at 


the  same  distance  from  the  sun,  and  all  lately  di» 
covered,  are  so  small  that  they  are  generally  callei 
asteroids.  Jupiter  has  four  satellites;  Saturn  seven; 
apd  Herschel  six :  Saturn  is  besides  surrounded 
with  a  thin,  broad,  and  beautiful  ring,  perfectly 
detached  from  his  body.  When  an  inferior 
planet  is  between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  its  dark 
side  being  turned  towards  the  earth,  it  cannot  of 
course  be  seen  by  us,  except  as  a  spot  apparently 
passing  over  the  sur&ce  of  the  sun;  but  it  can 
only  fa«  so  seen  when  it  passes  the  sun  in  one 
of  those  points  in  which  it«  orbit  enters  into  the 
plane  of  the  earth's  orbit  These  points  are 
called  the  nodes  of  the  planet's  orbit.  For  the 
characteristic  marks  of  me  sun  and  planets,  see 
plate  VIII.  fig.  8. 

228.  The  fixed  stars  are  at  an  immense  dis- 
tance; for  it  has  not  yet  been  determined,  by 
the  nicest  observations,  mat  they  have  any  annual 
sensible  parallax;  that  is,  they  appear  to  the 
earth,  when  on  different  sides  of  its  orbit,  to  be 
exactly  in  the  same  places,  the  earth's  orbit  seen 
from  a  fixed  star,  appearing  only  as  a  point.  Con- 
sequently, the  fixed  stars  all  shine  with  their 
own  native  light :  for  it  would  be  impossible  for 
light,  transmitted  firom  the  sun,  ever  to  render 
them  visible,  as  it  would  be  infinitely  weak  at  so 
immense  a  distance. 

229.  The  distance  of  the  sun  is  immensely  great, 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  moon,  although 
it  is  almost  nothing  with  respect  to  that  of  the 
fixed  stars.  For  the  sun's  diurnal  parallax,  that  is, 
the  apparent  semidiameter  of  the.  earth  seen 
from  the  sun,  is  so  small^  that  no  instruments 
could  be  so  exactly  made  as  to  find  it.  Hence, 
it  is  inferred,  that  the  sun's  magnitude  is  vastly 
greater  than  the  earth's.  For,  supposing  the 
sun's  parallax  to  amount  to  as  much  as  a  minute, 
then,  since  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun  is 
half  a  degree,  this  would  make  the  sun's  dia- 
meter fifteen  times  as  big  as  the  earth's;  but  the 
sun's  parallax  has  been  found  not  to  exceed 
8-7*,  which  will  make  the  sun's  diameter  100 
times  as  great  as  the  earth's.  That  the  sun  is  oi 
a  globular  form,  is  plain  from  the  apparent  mo- 
tion of  the  spots  upon  its  surfaSce ;  for  while  the 
sun  moves  uniformly  about  its  axis,  the  spots  in 
the  middle  of  the  disk  move  very  quickly, 
and  near  the  edges  more  slowly,  agreeably  to  the 
motion  of  a  globe  about  its  axis!  By  observa- 
tions on  these  spots,  the  sun  is  found  to  revolve 
about  its  axis  in  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  days. 

.  230.  None  of  the  celestial  bodies  in  our  pla- 
netary system  shine  with  their  own  native  light, 
except  the  sun ;  so  that  all  the  planets,  hoih 

Erimary  and  secondary,  are  opaque  bodies,  that 
ave  no  other  light  but  what  they  receive  from 
the  sun,  and  reflect  it  back  towards  the  earth  and 
other  planets.  This  is  evident  from  the  moon; 
for  only  that  side  of  her  is  observed  to  shine 
which  is  directly  opposed  to  the  sun ;  but  the 
other  side,  which  is  fiom  the  sun,  is  quite  dark, 
except  so  far  as  it  is  illuminated  bv  the  reflection 
from  the  earth ;  for  the  more  of  the  illuminated 
iiide  that  is  turned  towards  the  earth,  the  more 
we  see  her  enlightened,  the  rest  being  dark ;  and 
the  more  of  her  dark  side  that  b  turned  towards 
the  earth,  the  more  of  her  appears  dark.  Thus, 
at  the  fuU,  she  appears  all  enlightened,  and  at 
her  change,  all  dark. 


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ASTRONOMY. 


121 


231.  MercttiT  and  Venus  eidiibit  similar  phe-' 
aomena,  and  snow  all  the  phases  of  the  moon 
according  to  their  various  situations.  Mars 
likewise  appears  gibbous  when  near  the  qtiadra- . 
tures  with  the  sun.  The  satellites  of  Jupiter 
are  eclipsed  when  they  are  behind  his  body, 
being  then  immersed  in  his  shadow;  they  like- 
wise cast  their  shadows  upon  the  body  of  Jupiter. 


In  Saturn,  the  shadow  of  the  ring  upon  his  body  ^ 

{)roTes  its  opacity.  And  the  weakness  of  the 
ight  of  those  that  are  far  distant  from  the  sun, 
shows  that  it  is  not  innate  but  borrowed. 

232.  The  following  tables  contain  a  synopsis 
of  the  periods,  distances,  &c.  of  the  sun  and 
planets,  according  to  the  latest  and  best  obser- 
vations : 


233.  TABLE  I. 


Periodical  revo- 

Proportional 

Mean  distances 

Mean  distances 

EccentridUes 

lutions  round 

mean    dis- 

from the  seroi- 

from  the  sun 

in  parts  of 

the  eun. 

tances  firom 

diametcrs  of 

in   English 

the  mean 

the  son. 

the  earth. 

miles. 

distances. 

B.   •  H.    M. 

Mercurt   .    . 

87    23  15| 

•3871 

9,210 

37,000,000 

4 

Venus    .    .    . 

224     16  49i 

•72333 

17,210 

68,000,000 

ill 

The  Earth     . 

365       6    9i 

1- 

23,799 

95,000,000 

i 

Mars     .     .    . 

686    23  30| 

1-52369 

36,262 

144,000,000 

A 

Vesta     .    .     . 

1848 

235513 

56,049 

222,000,000 

db 

Juno      .    .    . 

20071  

26-6400 

63,400 

290,000,000 

i 

Pallas       .    . 

1682 

27-6700 

65,804 

265,000,000 

i 

Ceres    .    .    . 

1681 

27-6500 

65,851 

260,000,000 

A 

Jupiter      .    . 

4332       8  51i 

520098 

123,778 

490,000,000 

A 

Saturn        .    . 

10,761     14  36i 

953937 

227,028 

900,000,000 

A 

Herschsl  .    . 

30,445     18  — 

19:03421 

453,000 

1800,000,000 

A 

234.  TABLE  IL 


Greatest  appa. 
rent  diameter 
as  seen  from 
the  earth. 

Diameter  in 

English 
miles. 

Diurnal  rota- 
tions upon 
their  axes. 

Inclinations  of 
their  orbits  to 
the  ecliptic. 

Place  of  the 

ascending 

node. 

TheSitk    . 
Mercury  • 
Venus    .    . 
The  Earth 
Mars    .    . 
Vesta    .    . 
Juno      .     . 
Pallas 
Ceres    .    . 
Jupiter 
Saturn 
Herschel 

32*  36" 
11 
58 

883,217 
3222 
7687 
7964 
4189 
Estimated 
from  eighty 
to  4000 
miles. 
89,170 
79,042 
35,109 

D.  H.  M.  S. 

25  15  16     0 
unknown. 
0  23  22    0 
0  23  56    4 
0  24  39  22 
uncertain. 

r    0' 
3  23i 

1  51 

7     8 

13     4 

34  38 

10  38 

1  19i 

2  30i 
0  48 

1  S  15''  46}' 

2  14     44 

25 
Very  small, 
perhaps 
about 

r 

46 
..0 

1  17     59 
3     13     18 
5     21       4 
5     22     31 

2  21       7 

3  8    50 
3     21     48i 
3     13       1 

0    9  56    0 
0  10  16    0 
unknown. 

235.  TABLE  IIL 


Greatest  elon- 
gation of  infe- 
rior, and  pa- 
rallax of  supe- 
rior planets. 

Proportion  of 
light  and 

Bulk  m  re- 

spect  to  the 

earth. 

Proportion  of 
density. 

Place   of  the 
aphelion. 

TheSuw    .    . 
Mercury  . 
Venus   .     . 
The  Earth 
Mars     .     . 
Vesta    .     . 
Juno      .     . 
Pallas 
Ceres    . 
Jupiter 
Saturn 
Herschel  . 

28**   20* 
47     48 

6-68 
1-91 
1 

•43 

•18 

•16 

•13 

•13 
•037 
•Oil 
•00276 

1,380,000 

1* 

h 
uncertain, 
but  ex- 
ceedingly 
smaH. 
1400 
1000 
96 

i 
2 

li 

1 

unknown. 

8  S  14**  IS* 
10       9  38 

9  9  15i 

5  2     6i 
2       9  42 
7    22  49 

10       4  36 

10  26     9 

6  10  57J 
9       0  45i 

11  23  23 

47     24 

11     51 
6     29 
3       4i 

tft 

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122 


ASTRONOMY. 


Sect.  III.  On  Central  Forces. 


236.  As  the  doctrine  of  central  forces  is  of  the 
greattest  importance  in  the  science  of  astronomy, 
it  will  be  proper  to  explain  here  some  of  the  most 
material  propositions  relative  to  that  subject. 

237.  In  this  doctrine  it  is  supposed,  that  mat^ 
ter  is  equally  indifferent  to  motion  and  rest ;  or 
that  a  body  at  rest  never  moves  itself,  and  that 
a  body  in  motion  never  chang^es  either  the  velocity 
or  direction  of  its  motion,  but  would  move  uni- 
formly forward  in  a  straight  line  for  ever,  unless 
some  external  force  or  resistance  should  stop  or 
change  it. 

238*.  Hence  when  a  body  at  rest  has  a  tendency 
to  move,  or  when  a  body  moving  in  a  straight 
line,  has  its  velocity  continually  increased  or 
diminished,  or  when  the  direction  of  a  motion 
is  continually  changed,  and  thereby  a  curve  line 
described;  it  is  supposed  that  these  circumstances 
proceed  from  the  influence  of  some  power  that 
acts  incessantly,  which  power  may  be  measured 
in  the  first  case  by  the  pressure  of  the  quiescent 
body  against  the  obstacle  that  hinders  it  from 
moving ;  or  by  the  change  made  on  tl)e  velocity 
in  the  second  case ;  or  by  the  flexure  of  the  curve 
described  in  the  third  case;  due  regard  being 
had  to  the  time  in  which  these  efiects  are  pro- 
duced, and  other  circumstances,  according  to  the 
{)rinciples  of  mechanics.  Now  the  power  or 
brce  of  gravity  produces  efiects  of  each  of  these 
kinds,  which  fall  under  our  observation  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth ;  for  the  same  power  that 
renders  bodies  heavy  while  at  rest,  accelerates 
their  motion  when  thev  descend  perpendicularly, 
and  bends  the  path  of  their  motion  into  a  curve 
line  when  they  are  projected  in  a  direction 
oblique  to  that  of  their  gravity.  But  we  can 
judge  of  the  forces  or  powers  that  act  on  the 
celestial  bodies  by  effects  of  the  last  kind  only, 
and  hence  it  is  that  the  doctrine  of  central  force 
is  of  so  much  use  in  the  theory  of  the  planetary 
motions. 

239.  The  following  proposition  is  the  fbunda^ 
tion  of  this  doctrine,  and  is  given  bv  Sir  I.  New- 
ton in  his  Principia.  The  areas  which  revolving 
bodies  describe  by  radii  drawn  to  an  immovable 
centre  of  force,  lie  in  the  same  planes  and  are 
proportional  to  the  times  in  which  they  are  de- 
scribed. Let  the  time  supposed  be  divided  into 
equal  parts,  and  in  the  first  part  let  a  body  be 
supposed,  by  its  own  inert  force,  to  describe  a 
right  line,  AD,  Plate  VIII.  fig.  5.  From  what 
we  have  premised  it  will  appear,  that  in  the 
second  part  of  time  the  body  would  describe  the 
line  D  B  equal  to  A  D,  if  nothing  acted  upon  it 
But  when  the  body  is  come  to  D,  suppose  a 
centripetal  force  tending  to  the  point  C  acts  upon 
it  b]|r  a  single  impulse,  such,  that  it  would  have 
carried  the  body  from  D  to  a  in  the  same  time. 
The  body  being  now  acted  upon  by  two  powers, 
one  in  die  direction  DB,  and  another  in  the 
direction  D  a  passing  through  the  centre  of  force, 
if  the  parallelogram  aDB£  be  completed,  the 
body  will  move  in  the  diagonal  D  E,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  time  will  be  found  at  £,  by  the  prin- 
ciples of  mechanics.  Join  AC, C E ;  the  trian- 
gle AD  £,  D  C  B,  having  equal  bases,  will  there- 
fore be  equal,  and  the  uiangles  CPB,  CDE, 
are  equal,  for  thev  stand  on  the  same  base  C  D, 
and  lie  between  the  parallels  DC,  BE; therefore 


the  triangles  A  CD,  DC  E  are  equal.  By  the 
same  method  of  reasoning,  if  in  the  third  particle 
of  time  the  body  describes  any  other  ri«it  line 
E  G,  it  may  be  proved  that  the  triangle  C  D  E  is 
equal  to  CEG;  and  in  a  fourth  particle  there 
will  be  described  a  triangle  CGI  equal  to  C  EG, 
and  so  on :  it  is  also  obvious  that  uie  lines  AD, 
D  E,  E  G,  G  I,  &c.  lie  in  the  same  plane. 

240.  Thus  it  appears  that  in  equal  tiroes  the 
areas  described  by  radii  drawn  to  the  centre  of 
force  vrill  be  equally  increased,  and  therefore  hy 
composition,  any  sums  of  the  areas  are  to  one 
anotner,  as  the  times  in  which  they  are  described. 
L«t  the  number  of  triangles  be  supposed  to  be 
now  augmented,  and  their  breadth  diminished  ad 
infinitmiy  the  lines  AD,  DE,  EG,  GI,  &c.  will 
now  become  a  curve  line  lying  in  the  same  plane, 
and  the  centripetal  force  which  vras  supposed  to 
act  by  starts,  will  now  act  continually,  deflecting 
the  body  from  the  tangent,  and  thus  cansingitto 
move  in  a  curve. 

241 .  We  may  hence  infer,  that  the  velocity  of 
a  body  attracted  towards  an  immovable  centre, 
in  spaces  void  of  resistance,  is  reciprocally  as  a 
]>erpendicular  let  fall  horn  that  centre  on  the 
right  line  that  touches  the  orbit.  For  draw  C  Y 
perpendicular  to  D  E,  and  suppose  the  body  to 
describe  D  E  in  a  given  time,  hence  the  velocity 
of  the  bodv  will  be  proportional  to  D  E,  and 
from  what  has  been  said,  the  area  of  the  triangle 
CED  will  be  given,  for  it  is  proportional  to  the 
time :  but  when  the  area  of  a  triangle  remains  the 
same,the  base  varies  inversely  as  the  perpendicu- 
lar, therefor^  D  E,  or  the  velocity  of  the  body,  is 
inversely  as  C  Y  the  perpendicular ;  and  the  same 
will  hold  true,  whetner  the  body,  by  successive 
impulses,  moves  bv  a  polygon  in  the  way  here 
described;  or,  by  tne  continual  action  of  the  cen- 
tral force,  moves  in  a  curve  line. 

242.  The  central  force  of  a  body  moving  m 

the  circumference  of  a  circle,  is  as  the  versed 

sine,  A  M  (plate  X.  fig.  7),  of  the  indefinitely 

small  arc  A  E;  or  it  is  as  the  square  of  that  arc 

divided  by  the  diameter  AB.    For  A  M  is  the 

space  through  which  the  body  is  drawn  from  the 

tangent  in  the  given  time,  whence  2AM  is  the 

measure  of  the  intensity  of  the  force.    But  A  £ 

being  very  small,  and  therefore  nearly  equal  to 

AE* 
its  chord,  we  have  'AM  =  -^?r-      If  therefore 

two  bodies  revolve  uniformly  in  different  circles, 
their  central  forces  are  directly  as  the  uquares  of 
their  velocities,  and  inversely  as  the  diameters, 
or  as  the  radii  of  the  circles.  For  the  velocities 
are  as  the  space  uniformly  described  in  the  same 

time.    Hence,  F  •/^*  -TT  •  7    Hence,  if  the 

diameters  are  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the 
velocities,  the  forces  will  be  as  the  fourth  power 
of  the  velocities. 

244.  The  central  forces  are  to  each  other  as 
the  diameters  divided  by  the  squares  of  the  peri- 
odic times.  For  if  C  be  the  circumference 
described  in  the  time  /,  with  the  velocity  v,  then 


C  =  f  r,  or »  n  -•     Hence, 


C»       _c»..   D^     d 
•  •   J3T»  '  d^'"  T«  '7' 
varies  as  the  circumt'ercnce. 


-*;    for  the    diameter 


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A-STKOiyOISIT. 


I'LATE  X 


■^ 


Fiyt. 


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L^d0nFiiM£0ked^7%0mA»Tty^.7\Chemff*uie^h0u2f^eW,  Digitized  bv 


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ASTRONOMY. 


123 


345.  If  two  bodies,  levolTmg  in  diffevent 
drdesy  be  acted  upon  by  the  same  oentia)  force, 
their  periodic  times  are  as  the  square  roots  of 
die  diameters,  or  of  the  nulii  of  those  circles. 
For  when  F  =  /,  the  expression  F  :  /  :  I 

^  :  -j»  gives  ip  =  ^  whence  T  :  <  ::   VD 

:^, 

246.  If  the  velocities  be  inyprsely  as  the  dis- 
tances from  the  centre,  the  forces  will  be  in- 
versely as  the  cubes  of  the  same  distances,  or 
directly  as  the  cubes  of  the  Telodties.    For  F  : 

y  : :  5  =  j ;  "^^^hence,  if  D  vary  as  V,  inversely, 

F  ;/::  V»  :  r»;orF  :/::  (f  :  D». 

247.  If  the  velocities  be  invosely  as  the  8quai« 
roots  of  the  radii,  the  squares  of  the  times  wiH  ' 
be  as  the  cubes  of  \he  radii.    For,  as  has  been 

shewn  above,  T  :/  : :  rrr  :  —  ;  and  F  :  /  :  : 


R 


%;  whence 


iT- 


R 


r 


AndifV* 


R,  this  proportion  becomes  -t:  '  •—' 


R 
T 

V 


When  -71-;  = 


R« 


R» 


f^___ _^ 

R'  :  r'.  Hence,  also,  if  the  forces 
be  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  radii,  the 
squares  of  the  periodic  times  will  be  as  the 

R     r 
cubes  of  the  distances.    For  F  :  /  : :  ?r  :  -^ 

hence,  r«  :  R*  :  ;  -  :  ^,orT»  :  <*  :  :  R» :  r* 

248.  We  shall  now  apply  the  doctrine  of  cen* 
tral  forces,  to  the  circumstances  of  a  planet  re- 
volving in  an  ellipsis,  by  a  force  directed  towards 
the  focus. 

249.  Let  ABHL(plate  VI.  fig.  2)  represent  the 
ellipses,  S  and  A  the  foci, 'and  let  r  be  the  place 
of  the  planet,  and  PT  a  tangent  at  P,  and  let 
Pp  be  an  indefinitely  small  arc  described  by 
the  planet.  Join  PS,£  s,  and  draw  p¥  parallel 
to  SP,  meeting  PT  in  F.  Then  pF  b  the  central 
force  in  the  arc  p  P.  Let  a  =z  the  parameter  of 
the  transverse  AH ;  or  let  a  AC  r:  2  BC*.  From 
p  draw  p  I  parallel  to  PT,  meeting  PK  in  I,  and 
SP  in  i.  Then  the  triangles  PI  i,  PCE  being 
similar,  and  P  i  equal  and  parallel  to  p  F.  P  t 
or  p  F  :  PI  : :  P£,  or  (by  conies)  AC  :  PC. 
When  a-p  P  :•«•  PI ::  AC  :  PC.  And  simi- 
lariy  a-  PI  : :  PI  •  IK  : :  fl  :  KI;  and  by  the 
property  of  the  ellipse  IP  •  IK  :  I;>» : :  PC»  : 
CN».  From  p  draw  p  M  perpendicular  to  SP, 
then  in  the  similar  right  angled  triangles  p  i  M 
PED,  we  have  ip,  orlp  (for  they  differ  by 
quantities  indefinitely  small)  p  M  : :  P£  :  PD. 
But  by  conies  PE  :  PD  : :  CN  :  CB,  whence 
I  p  :  p  M  : :  CN  :  CB,  and  consequently  Ip*  : 
p  M»  :  :  CN«  :  CB*.  Hence,  by  comparing 
these  proportions,  we  have  p  F  •  a  IP  •  IP  •  KI 
•Ip*  :  IP-a-IP-KILp«-pM*::CA-fl. 
PC»CN»  :  PC-KICN«-CB»;  or  by  reduc- 
tion oPF  :pM»  :  a- AC  PC  :  KI- CB«;  or, 
't'  PF  :p  M^  :  2CB»  •  PC  :  CB»  •  KI : :  PC  : 
KI.    But  P  and  I  being  indefinitely  near,  KI 


=  KP=;2PC;  themforea-pF  =pM«.  Now 
the  time  in  P  p  is  represented  by  the  area  of  the 

triangle    SPp  or  by    — 


whence  T*z: 


SP*'pM* 


and    consequently  p  M'  = 


whence  p  F  (the  force)  = 


crements  of  time  are  uniform),  the  force  is  in^ 
versely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  from  the 

fi)CUS. 

250.  We  may  hence  infer,  that  if  several  pla- 
nets revolve  in  different  ellipses  about  a  com- 
mon foeus,  that  the  areas  of  the  sectors  described 
in  the  same  time  are  as  the  square  roots  of  tiie 
parameter  of  the  transverse  axes.    For  by  conies 

a.pF  =  pM';  butpF  varies  as  -^^^  hence 

a  =z  fU.  SP»,  or  J7zz  PM.  SP.  ButPM. 
S  P  IS  proportionate  to  the  area  of  elementary 
sector  S  Pp,  wluch  therefoce  varies  as  t^/a, 

251.  We  may  fiurther  infer,  that  the  velocities 
in  the  different  ellipses,  are  as  the  square  root  of 
the  parameter  of  tne  transverse,  divided  by  the 
perj^ndicular  from  the  focus  on  the  tangents, 
passbg  through  the  places  of  the  planets.  For  the 
velocity,  in  an  indefinitely  small  space  of  time, 
is  as  the  arc  pP;  and  from  the  similar  triangles 
SPT,p  MP,  an  hour  ST  :  SP  ::  PM  :pP. 

Whence p  P=     ST     ^  g 'T 

252.  It  is  frirther  apparent  from  what  has  been 
done,  that  the  areas  ot  the  different  ellipses  are 
to  each  other  as  the  product  of  the  times  by  the 
square  roots  of  tiie  parameters  of  the  transverse 
axes.  For  the  area,  Q,  is  as  the  product  of  the 
sector^  Pp  by  the  time,  /,  and  the  sector  varies 
as  ^/a ;  therefore  Q  varies  as  t^Jal 

253.  Again,  the  squares  of  me  periodic  times 
are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of  the  transverse 
axes.  For  let  6  be  the  less,  d  the  greater  axis, 
and  a  the  parameter;  then  by  conies  a  </  =  6% 
or  ad*  zz  o*  d*.  But  the  whole  areas  are  as  the 
product  of  the  axes;  and  also,  as  has  been  just 
shovm,  as  t^^tT  Hence  6*  d%  or  li"  a  =  ^  a, 
or  d*  varies  as  t\ 

Sect.  IV.  Op  the  Orbits  and  Motions 

OF  THE  PRIMARY   PLANETS. 

254.  For  the  theorems  in  the  preceding  section 
on  the  subject  of  central  forces  we  are  indebted 
to  the  sagacity  of  Newton.  They  had  before  his 
time,  however,  been  found  by  Kepler  to  be  true 
m  the  case  of  the  known  planets  of  the  solar 
system.  Kepler  showed  that  these  laws  did  ob- 
tain in  the  system;  Newton  shewed  that  they 
must  obtain. — ^The  three  fundamental  laws  of 
planetary  motion  which  Kepler  discovered,  and  of 
which  the  demonstrations  given  above,  are  these. 

255.  l.The  primary  planets  and  comets  de- 
scribe round  the  sun,  and  the  secondary  planets 
describe  round  their  respective  primary  planets, 
areas  proportioned  to  the  times. 

256.  2.  The  orbits  described  round  the  su^ 
and  round  the  primary  planets,  are  ellipses,  having 
the  sun  of  the  primaiy  planet  in  the  focus. 


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257.  3.  The  squares  of  the  periodic  times  of 
planets  revolving  round  common  centres,  are 
proportional  to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  dis- 
tances. 

258.  These  laws  are  universal;  they  are  obeyed 
by  all  the  planets  of  our  system,  which  revolve 
nearly  in  the  same  plane,  and  they  are  found  to 
obtain  also  in  the  comets  which  move  round  the 
sun  in  all  directions. 

259.  In  addition  to  what  has  been  said,  the 
following  popular  illustration  may  be  given  of 
the  peculiarities  of  the  motion  of  a  planet  in  the 
different  planets  of  its  orbit.  Let  A  B  and  £  F 
be  the  axis  of  an  ellipse,  of  which  D  is  the 
•centre,  and  C  the  focus. '  See  plate  VlIT.fig.  4. 
■Suppose  that  P  is  the  place  of  a  planet  moving 
in  the  curve  AF  B  £,  (supply  P  in  the  fig.)  and 
that  P  G  is  drawn  touching  the  curve  at  P.  Join 
C  P,  C  E,  and  draw  C  G  perpendicular  to  P  G. 
The  place  of  the  sun  will  be  at  C  the  focus,  and 
the  planet  will  move  in  the  curve ;  so  that  the 
line  C  P  shall  pass  over  equal  areas  in  equal 
times.  Since  tne  velocity  of  the  planet  is  in- 
versely as  the  perpendicular  upon  the  tangent, 
and  the  lines  C  B,  C  A,  are  perpendicular  to 
tangents  at  the  points  B  and  A,  the  velocity  at 
A,  as  C  A  to  C  B,  and  the  velocity  at  B  is  to  the 
velocity  at  P  as  C  O  to  C  B.  Thus  at  B,  which 
is  called  the  periheUon,  tlie  velocity  will  be  the 
greatest,  and  at  A,  the  aphelion,  it  will  be  the 
least;  and  at  any  other  point,  P,  it  will  be 
between  these  two  extremes.  The  line  C  £  is 
equal  to  B  D,  which  is  a  mean  between  B  C  and 
C  A ;  and  when  the  planet  is  at  £,  it  is  said  to 
be  at  its  mean  distance.  The  force,  that,  acting 
upon  the  planet  at  P,  bends  it  from  the  tangent, 
is  to  the  force  that  acts  upon  it  at  £,  any  other 
point,  as  the  square  of  C  £  to  the  square  of 
CP. 

260.  We  have  hitherto  supposed  the  sun  to 
remain  absolutely  at  rest,  and  that  the  planet 
was  urged  towards  it,  as  to  an  immovable  point; 
but  the  tendency  of  the  planets  towards  the  sun, 
arises  from  a  law,  that  not  only  connects  the 
planets  with  the  sun,  but  with  each  individual 
particle  of  matter  in  the  solar  system;  a  par- 
ticular cause  of  this  law  or  fact,  is  the  gravity 
of  bodies  at  the  surface  of  our  earth,  and  the 
general  law  that  includes  all  particular  cases, 
has  been  termed  gravitation.  Hence  it  follows, 
that  not  only  the  planets  gravitate  towards  the 
sun,  but  the  sun  gravitates  towards  tlie  planets  ; 
so  that,  in  strict  truth,  both  the  sun  and  each 
planet  revolve  round  a  point,  which  is  their  com- 
mon centre  of  gravity,  and  which  is  as  much 
nearer  to  the  sun  than  to  the  planet,  as  the  sun 
contains  more  matter  than  the  planet. 

261.  The  truth  of  this  general  law  is  only  to 
be  proved  by  a  careful  examination  of  particular 
cases ;  and,  supposing  it  to  be  true,  the  effects  it 
ought  to  produce  in  the  planetary  motions  round 
the  sun,  are  in  perfect  coincidence  with  the  best 
observations. 

262.  If  all  matter  gravitates  to,  or  is  attracted 
by,  all  other  matter,  it  is  evident  that  the  planets 
must  also  gravitate  towards  each  other;  and 
thus  in  some  measure  the  uniformity  of  their 
motions  round  the  sun  will  be  affected.  Now, 
by  the  most  accurate  observations,  this  is  really 


found  to  be  the  case ;  and  the  effects  produced 
are  precisely  what  they  ought  to  be,  supposing 
that  the  same  law,  which  regulates  the  tendency 
of  the  planets  towards  the  sun,  also  regulates 
their  tendency  to  one  another. 

263.  If  the  planets  were  acted  on  by  a  power 
directed  to  the  centre  of  the  sun  only,  varying 
according  to  the  general  law  of  gravity,  and  that 
centre  were  ouiescent,  their  motions  about  it 
would  be  perfectly  regular ;  but  since  they  aie 
acted  on  by  a  power  directed  to  every  body  in 
the  system,  in  order  to  judge  of  the  effects  of 
these  actions,  Newton  first  supposes  two  bodies 
revolving  about  their  common  centre  of  gravity, 
and  gravitating  tovrards  each  other,  and  since  the 
direction  of  this  mutual  gravitation  passes  always 
through  that  centre,  and  their  distances  from  it 
vary  always  in  the  same  proportion  as  their  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  they  must  describe 
similar  figures  about  that  point  and  about  each 
other,  and  describe  equal  areas  in  equal  times, 
about  that  centre,  and  about  eich  otlier ;  so  that 
there  will  be  no  irregularities  in  the  motion  of 
two  bodies  about  eadi  other,  because  of  their 
mutual  attractions,  whatever  the  law  of  their 
gravity  is  supposed  to  be;  only  they  will  revolve 
in  less  time  about  their  centre  of  gravity,  than 
the  one  would  have  done  about  the  other  quies- 
cent, because  the  orbit  described  about  the 
other  centre  of  gravity  is  less  than  that  which  is 
described  by  any  one  of  them  about  the  other 
quiescent;  their  distance  in  both  cases  being  the 
same,  and  the  orbits  similar. 

264.  If  three  or  more  bodies  mutually  attract 
each  other,  the  gravitation  of  any  one  of  them, 
arising  from  the  attractions  of  the  rest,  may  be 
determined  by  the  rule  for  composition  of  motion; 
and  if  the  law  of  gravity  be  such  as  obtains  in 
the  solar  system,  its  gravitations  will  not  be 
always  directed  to  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
other  bodies,  or  indeed  to  any  fixed  point,  but 
sometimes  to  one  side  of  that  centre  and  some- 
times to  the  other,  and  therefore  equal  areas 
will  not  be  described  in  equal  times  about 
any  point  in  the  system;  and  some  irregu- 
larities will  therefore  arise  in  the  motions  of  the 
bodies. 

265.  But  if  one  of  these  bodies  should  be 
vastly  greater  than  the  others,  so  that  the  actions 
of  the  other  bodies  may  be  neglected,  when 
compared  with  its  action;  and  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  system  be  always  found  near  it, 
the  irregularities  of  such  a  system  will  be  very 
small,  the  areas  described  in  equal  times  about 
the  centre  of  the  great  body  will  be  nearly 
equal,  and  the  orbits  described  will  be  nearly 
elliptic,  having  that  centre  in  their  focus. 

266.  We  have  seen  that  the  determination  of 
the  circumstances  relative  to  two  bodies  in 
motion,  is  a  matter  of  great  simplicity;  but 
when  the  number  of  bodies  is  increased  even 
by  one,  the  general  estimation  of  their  effects 
on  each  other's  motions  is  a  problem  that  has 
hitherto  baffled  the  skill  of  tne  most  eminent 
philosophers.  It  happens  very  fortunately  that, 
m  the  only  case  in  which  it  is  of  much  im- 
portance to  us,  it  admits  of  an  approximate 
solution,  from  the  sun  being  so  much  greater 
than  all  the  other  planets ;  for  in  the  case  of  the 


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moon,  the  iuo«  and  the  earth,  which  -w^  may 
take  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  the  sun  disturbs 
the  motions  of  the  moon  as  seen  from  the  earth, 
only  by  the  difference  of  its  attractions  od  the 
moon  and  the  earth,  which  difference,  when 
compared  with  the  former  by  which  the  moon  is 
attracted  towards  the  earth,  is  always  very  small. 

267.  The  action  of  Jupiter  on  Saturn,  when 
greatest  (that  is,  when  their  distance  is  least),  is 
found  by  calculation  to  be  ^  of  the  action  of 
the  sun  upon  Saturn.  This  produces  an  effect 
which  is  decidedly  perceptible. 

268.  The  whole  action  of  Jupiter  disturbs  the 
motion  of  Saturn  in  their  conjunction,  because 
Jupiter  then  acts  upon  Saturn  and  upon  the  sun 
in  opposite  directions.  But  because  Saturn 
then  acts  upon  Jupiter  and  upon  the  sun  in  tlie 
same  direction,  if  it  acted  also  with  the  same 
force  on  both,  it  would  have  no  effect  on  the 
motion  of  Jupiter  about  the  sun ;  and  it  is  by 
the  excess  of  its  action  on  Jupiter,  above  its 
action  on  the  sun,  that  it  disturbs  the  motion  of 
Jupiter.  This  excess  is  found  to  be  one  1913th 
part  of  the  action  of  the  sun  on  Jupiter ;  and 
tbttefore  is  much  leas  than  the  force  with  which 
Jupiter  disturbs  the  motion  of  Saturn. 

269.  TKe  actions  of  the  other  planets  on  each 
other  are  incomparably  less  than  these,  and  the 
inegularities  proceeding  from  those  actions  are 
always  less  in  any  planet,  as  it  is  nearer  the 
sun ;  but  the  orbit  ot  the  earth  is  a  little  more 
irregular  than  that  of  its  neighbouring  planets, 
from  the  great  comparative  size  of  its  moon, 
round  the  common  centre  of  gravity  of  which, 
and  the  earth,  both  the  earth  and  the  moon  make 
a  monthly  revolution. 

Sect.  V. — ^Op  the  Orbits  and  Motions  of 
THE  Secondary  Planets. 

270.  The  same  general  principle  of  gravita- 
tion which  contains  the  primary  planets  in  their 
orbits,  extends  also  to  the  motions  of  the  se- 
condary planets,  both  in  regard  to  their  motion 
round  the  sun  along  with  their  primaries,  and 
to  their  motions  round  their  primaries  as  a 
centre;  which  furnishes  us  with  an  additional 
proof  of  this  general  law,  that  all  matter  gravi- 
tates to  all  other  matter  with  a  force  reciprocally 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance. 

271.  That  each  secondary  planet  is  kept  in 
its  orbit  by  a  power  directed  towards  its  primary, 
&c.  is  proved  from  the  phenomena  of  the  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter  and  Saturn;  because  they  move 
in  circles,  as  far  as  we  can  observe,  about  their 
respective  primaries  with  an  equal  course,  the 
primary  being  the  centre  of  each  orbit :  and  by 
comparing  the  times  in  which  the  different 
satellites  of  the  same  primary  perform  their 
periods,  they  are  found  to  observe  the  same 
relation  to  Uie  distances  from  their  primary,  as 
the  primary  planets  observe  in  respect  of  their 
mean  distances  from  the  sun.  The  same  thine 
holds  good  also  with  respect  to  the  earth  and 
moon ;  for  she  is  found  to  move  round  the  earth 
in  an  ellipsis  after  the  same  manner  as  the 
primary  planets  do  about  the  sun,  excepting  only 
some  small  irregularities  in  her  motions,  the 
cause  of  which  will  be  particularly  explained 
in  what  follows ;  and  it  will  appear  that  they 


are  no  objections  against  the  earth's  acting  oa 
the  moon  in  the  same  manner  as  the  sun  acts 
on  the  primary  planets ;  that  is,  as  Jupiter  and 
Saturn  act  upon  their  satellites. 

272.  The  power  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  may 
be  measured  to  a  very  considerable  distance,  by 
the  number  of  satellites  which  move  round  them ; 
for  the  distance  of  the  outermost  satellite  of  each 
of  them  exceeds  several  times  that  of  the  inner- 
most. ,  That  the  force  which  retains  the  moon  in 
her  orbit,  bears  precisely  that  relation  which 
accords  -with  its  distance  to  the  known  force  of 
gravity  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  may  be 
shown  by  the  following  very  simple  process. 

273.  Let  A  in  plate  VII.  fig.  5,  represent 
the  earth,  B  the  moon,  B  C  D  the  moon's  orbit ; 
which  differs  litde  from  a  circle  of  which  A  is 
the  centre.  If  the  moon  in  B  were  left  to  itself 
to  move  with  the  velocity  it  has  in  the  point  B, 
it  would  leave  the  orbit  and  proceed  straight 
forward  in  the  line  B  £  which  toudies  the  orbit 
in  B.  Suppose  the  moon  would  upon  this  con- 
dition move  from  B  to  £  in  the  space  of  one 
minute  of  time  :  by  the  action  of  the  earth  upon 
the  moon,  whereby  it  is  retained  in  its  orbit,  the 
moon  will  really  be  found  at  the  end  of  this 
minute  in  the  point  F,  from  whence  a  straight 
line  drawn  to  A  will  make  the  space  B  F  A  in 
the  circle  equal  to  the  triangular  space  B  £  A ; 
so  that  the  moon,  in  the  time  wherein  it  would 
have  moved  from  B  to  £,  if  lefk  to  itself,  has 
been  impelled  towards  the  earth  from  E  to  F. 
And  when  the  time  of  the  moon's  passing  from 
B  to  F  is  small,  as  here  it  is  only  one  minute, 
the  distance  between  £  and  F  scarcely  differs 
from  the  space  through  which  the  moon  would 
descend  in  the  same  time,  if  it  were  to  fall 
directly  down  from  B  towards  A,  without  any 
other  motion.  A  B,  the  distance  of  the  moon 
from  the  earth,  is  about  sixty  of  the  semi- 
diameters  of  the  latter ;  and  the  moon  completes 
her  revolution  round  the  earth  in  about  twenty- 
seven  days,  seven  hours  and  forty-three  minutes : 
therefore  the  space  £  F  will  here  be  found  by 
computation  to  be  about  1 6^  feet.  Consequently, 
if  the  power  by  which  the  moon  is  retained  in 
its  orbit,  be  greater,  near  the  surfrice  of  the  earth, 
than  at  the  distance  of  the  nloon,  in  the  duplicate 
proportion  of  that  distance,  the  number  of  feet 
a  body  would  descend  near  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  by  the  action  of  this  power  upon  it,  in 
one  minute,  would  be  equal  to  the  number  16  J 
multiplied  twice  into  the  number  sixty,  that  is, 
to  58,050. 

274.  Now  bodies  falling  near  the  surface  of 
the  earth  have  ibeen  found,  by  exact  experi- 
menU,  to  descend  16^  feet  in  one  second;  and 
the  spaces  described  by  frdling  bodies  being  as 
the  squares  of  the  times  of  their  frill,  the  number 
of  feet  a  body  would  describe  in  its  fall  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth  in  one  minute  of  time, 
would  be  equal  to  16^  multiplied  by  60' ;  the 
same  as  the  power  which  acts  upon  the  moon 
would  cause. 

275.  We  may  hence  conclude,  that  the  power 
which  retains  the  moon  in  her  orbit  is  the  same 
as  that  which  causes  bodies  near  the  surface  of 
the  earth  to  gravitate ;  for,  since  the  power  by 
which  the  earth  acts  on  the  moon  will  cause 


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bodies  near  the  sorfBice  of  h  to  descend  with  |>re- 
cisely  die  Telocity  they  are  found  to  do,  it  is 
certain  that  no  other  power  can  act  upon  them 
bttides  ;  because,  if  it  did,  they  most  of  neces- 
sity descend  more  swiftly.  It  is  therefore  eri- 
deut,  that  the  power  in  the  earth  which  we  call 
'  gravity,  extends  up  to  the  moon,  and  decreases 
as  the  square  in  the  same  proportion  as  th^  square 
of  dif  distauce  from  the  centre  of  the  earth  in- 
creases. If  to>tbe  motion  of  the  satellite  where- 
by it  would  be  carried  round  its  primary  at  real, 
we  superadd  the  same  motioD,  both  iu  re|g;ard 
to  Telocity  and  direction,  as  the  primary  itself 
has^  it  will  describe  about  the  primary  the  same 
orbit  widi  as  great  r^ularity  as  if  the  orimary 
had  been  indeed  at  rest.  This  proceeas  from 
the  law  of  motion,  which  makes  a  body  near  tlie 
surfiire  of  die  earth  descend  perpendicularly, 
though  the  earth  be  in  a  swift  motion,  of  which 
if  the  falling  body  did  not  partake,  its  descent 
would  be  oblique. 

276.  From  mis  we  learn,  that,  if  die  satdlite 
moved  about  its  primary  widi  perfect  regularitr, 
bendes  its  motion  about  die  primary,  it  would 
have  the  same  progressive  velocity  with  which  the 
primary  is  carried  about  the  sun,  in  a  direction 
parallel  to  that  impulse  of  its  primary ;  and,  on 
the  contrary,  the  want  of  cither  of  these,  in  par- 
ticular of  the  impulse  towards  the  sun,  will 
occasion  great  inequalities  in  the  motion  of  the 
secondary  planet.  The  inequalities  which  would 
arise  froni  the  absence  of  tbis  impulse  towards 
the  sun  are  so  great,  that  by  the  regularity  which 
appears  in  the  motion  of  the  secondary  planets, 
it  IS  proved,  that  the  sun  communicates  to  them 
the  same  velocity  by  its  action  as  it  gives  to  their 
primary  at  the  same  distance. 

277.  The  sun  therefore  acts  upon  the  secondary 
planets  with  the  same  force  as  upon  the  primaries 
at  the  same  distance :  but  the  action  of  the  sun 
upon  bodies  is  reciprocallv  in  the  duplicate  pro- 
portion of  the  distance;  tnerefore  the  seconaaiy 
planets  being  sometimes  nearer  to  the  sun  than 
to  the  primary,  and  sometimes  more  remote,  they 
are  not  always  acted  upon  in  the  same  degree 
with  their  primary,  but  when  nearer  to  the  son 
are  attracted  more,  and  when  ftuther  off  are  at- 
tracted less.  Hence  arise  various  inequalities  in 
the  motions  of  the  secondary  planets.  Some  of 
these  inequalities,  however,  would  take  place, 
though  the  moon,  if  undisturbed  by  the  sun,  Yad 
moved  in  a  circle  concentrical  to  the  earth,  and 
in  the  plane  of  the  earth's  motion ;  others  depend 
on  the  elliptical  figure  and  oblique  situation  of 
the  moon's  orbit  One  of  the  former  is,  diat  die 
moon  does  not  describe  equal  spaces  in  equal 
times,  but  is  continually  accelerated  as  she  passes 
fsom  the  quarter  to  the  new  or  ftiU,  iod  is 
retarded  again  by  the  Hke  degrees  in  returning 
from  the  new  and  full  to  the  next  quarter ;  but 
here  we  consider  not  so  much  the  absolute  as 
the  apparent  motions  of  the  moon  with  resp«ct 
to  us. 

378.  These  two  m^  be  distinguished  in  the 
following  manner  :--Let  S,  in  .plate  X.  fig.  6. 
represent  the  sun,  A  the  earth  moving  in  its 
orbit,  BC,  DEFG  die  moon's  orbit,  and  H 
the  place  of  (he  moon  in  her  orbit.  Suppose 
the  eardi  to  have  moved  ftom  A  to  I.    Because 


it  has  been  shown  that  the  moon  puiakes  of  all 
the  progressive  motiona  of  the  earth,  and  likewise 
that  the  sun  attracts  both  theeardi  and  mooa  e^aal- 
ly  when  tiley  are  at  the  same  distance  fima  it,  or 
that  the  mean  aotion  of  the  sun  upon  the  moon  n 
equal  to  its  action  upon  the  earth ;  we  must  there- 
fore consider  the  esirth  as  canying  about  with  it 
the  moon's  orbit ;  so  that,  when  the  earth  is  re- 
moved fipom  A  to  I,  the  moon's  orbit  shall  like- 
wise be  removed  fi»m  its  former  situation  into 
that  denoted  by  K  L  M  N.  But  now  die  earth 
being  in  I,  if  the  moon  wwe  found  in  0,  so  that 
O I  should  be  parallel  to  HA,  though  the  moon 
would  really  have  moved  from  H  to  O,  yet  it 
would  not  have  appeared  to  a  spectator  upon  the 
earth  to  have  moved  at  all,  because  the  earth  has 
moved  as  much ;  so  that  the  moon  would  still 
appear  in  the  same  place  with  respect  to  the  fixed 
stars.  But  if  the  moon  be  observed  in  P,  it  will 
then  appear  to  have  moved,  its  apparent  motion 
being  measured  by  the.  angle  O I  P.  And  if  the 
angle  PIS  be  leas  dian  the  angle  HAS, the 
moon  will  have  approached  nearer  its  conjono- 
tion  with  the  sun.  Now,  to  explain  particularly 
the  inequality  of  the  moon's  motion  already 
mentioned,  let  S,  plate  VIII.  fig.  9,  represent 
the  sun,  A  the  eartn,  B  C  D  £  tbe  moon*3  orbit, 
C  the  pbice  of  the  moon  when  in  the  Utter 
Quarter.  Here  it  will  be  nearly  at  the  same 
distance  firom  the  sun  as  the  earth  is.  In  this 
case,  therefore,  they  will  be  both  equally  attract- 
ed, die  earth  in  the  direction  AS,  asid  the  moon 
in  that  of  C  S.  Whence,  as  the  earth,  in  moving 
round  the  sun,  is  continually  descending  towards 
it,  so  the  moon  in  this  situation  must  in  any  eaual 
portion  of  time  descend  as  much;  and,  therefore, 
the  position  of  the  line  A  C  in  respect  of  A  S,  and 
the  change  which  the  moon's  motion  produces  in 
the  angle  CAS,  will  not  be  altered  by  the  sun : 
but  as  soon  as  the  moon  is  advanced  from  the 
quarter  toward  the  new  or  conjunction,  suppose 
to  G,  the  action  of  the  sun  upon  it  will  have  a 
different  effect.  Were  the  sun's  action  upon  die 
moon  here  to  be  applied  in  the  direction  G  H  par- 
allel to  A  S,  if  its  action  on  the  moon  were  equal 
to  its  action  on  the  earth,  no  change  would  be 
wrought  by  the  sun  on  the  apparent  motion  of 
the  moon  round  the  earth.  But  the  moon  receiv- 
ing a  greater  impulse  in  G  than  the  earth  receives 
in  A,  were  the  sun  to  act  in  the  direction  G  H. 
yet  it  would  accelerate  the  description  of  die 
space  D  A  G,  and  cause  die  angle  G  A  D  to  de- 
crease flister  dian  it  otherwise  would.  The  sun's 
action  will  have  this  eflect,  upon  account  of  die 
obliquity  of  its  direction  to  that  in  whidi  the 
earth  attracts  the  moon.  For  the  moon  by  this 
means  is  drawn  by  two  forces  oblique  to  one  ano- 
ther :  one  drawing  from  G  towards  A,  the  other 
fiom  G  towards  H ;  therefore  the  moon  most  ne- 
cessarily be  imoelled  towards  D. 

279.  Ajgain,  necause  the  sun  does  not  act  in 
the  direction  G  H  pamllel  tp  S  A,  but  in  the  di- 
rection G  S  oblique  to  it,  the  sun's  action  on  the 
moon  will^  by  reason  of  'this  obliquity,  forther 
contribute  to  the  moon's  acceleration.  Suppose 
the  earth,  in  any  short  space  of  time,  would  have 
moved  from  A  to  I,  if  not  attracted  by  the  sun, 
the  point  I  beinr  in  die  straight  line  C  £,  which 
touches  die  earth's  orbit  in  A.  Suppose  the  moon 


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127 


in  the  same  time  would  have  moTed  in  her  oibit 
from  G  to  K,  and  besides  have  partaken  of  the 
progressive  motion  of  the  earth.  Then,  if  K  L  be 
drawn  parallel  to  A  I,  (the  line  K  L  must  be  sup- 
plied in  the  figure)  and  taken  equal  to  it^  the 
moon,  if  not  attracted  to  the  sun,  would  be  found 
in  L.  But  the  earth,  by  the  sun's  action,  is  re- 
moved from  I.  Suppose  it  were  moved  down  to 
M  m  the  line  IMN  parallel  to  S  A, and  if  the 
moon  were  attracted  but  as  much,  and  in  the 
same  direction  bs  the  earth  is  here  supposed  to 
be  attracted,  so  as  to  have  descended  auring  the 
same  time  in  the  line  L  O  parallel  also  to  AS, 
down  as  fiur  as  P,  till  L  P  were  equal  to  I M,  let 
P  M  be  joined,  the  angle  P  M  N  will  be  equal  to 
LIN;  that  is,  the  moon  will  appear  advanced 
as  much  farther  forward  as  if  neitner  it  nor  the 
earth  had  been  subject  to  the  sun's  action.  But 
this  is  on  the  supposition  that  the  actions  of  the 
sun  upon  the  eartn  and  moon  are  equal ;  where- 
as the  moon  being  acted  upon  more  than  the 
earth,  did  the  sun's  action  draw  the  moon  in  the 
line  LO  parallel  to  AS,  it  would  draw  it  down 
so  fistf  as  to  make  LP  greater  than  I M,  whereby 
the  angle  PMN  will  be  rendered  less  than  LIN. 
But,  as  the  sun  draws  the  earth  in  a  direction 
oblique  to  IN,  the  earth  will  be  found  in  its  or- 
bit, somewhat  short  of  the  point  M.  However, 
the  moon  is  attracted  by  the  sun,  still  more  out 
of  the  line  LO,  than  the  earth  is  out  of  the  line 
IN ;  therefore,  this  obliquity  of  the  sun's  action 
will  yet  farther  diminish  the  angle  under  PMN. 
Thus  the  moon,  at  the  point  G,  receives  an  im- 
pulse from  the  sun,  wherebv  her  motion  is  ac- 
celerated ;  and  the  sun  producing  this  effect  in 
every  place,  between  the  quarter  and  the  con- 
junction, the  moon  will  move  from  the  quarter, 
with  a  motion  continually  more  and  more  ac<>> 
celerated ;  ajid  therefore,  by  acquiring,  from  time 
to  time,  an  additional  degree  of  veloci^  in  its  or- 
bit, the  spaces  which  are  described  in  equal  times 
by  the  line  drawn  from  the  earth  to  the  moon, 
will  not  be  everywhere  equal,  but  those  towards 
the  conjunction  will  be  greater  than  those  towards 
the  qiuu-ter.  But,  in  the  moon's  passage,  from 
the  conjunction  D  to  the  next  quarter,  ue  sun's 
action  will  again  retard  the  moon,  till,  at  the 
next  quarter  at  £,  it  be  restored  to  the  first  velo- 
city which  it  had  in  C. 

280.  When  the  moon  moves  from  £  to  the 
full,  or  opposition  to  the  sun  in  B,  it  is  again  ac- 
celerated ;  the  deficiency  of  the  sun's  action  on  the 
moon  from  what  it  has  upon  the  earth,  produc- 
ing here  the  same  effect  as  before  the  excess  of 
its  action.  Let  us  npw  consider  the  moon  in  Qy 
as  movioff  from  £  towards  B.  Here,  if  she  were 
attracted  by  the  sun  in  a  direction  parallel  to  AS, 
yet  being  acted  on  less  than  the  earth,  as  the  lat- 
ter descends  towards  the  sun,  the  moon  will,  in 
some  measure,  be  left  behiud.  Therefore,  RF 
being  drawn  parallel  to  S  B,  a  spectator  would  see 
the  moon  move  as  if  attracted  from  the  point  Q, 
in  the  direction  RF,  with  a  degree  of  force  equal 
to  that  whereby  the  sim's  action  on  the  moon  mils 
short  of  its  action  on  the  earth.  But  the  obliquity 
of  the  sun's  action  h|^  here  also  an  effect.  In 
the  time  the  earth  would  have  moved  from  A  to 
I,  without  the  influence  of  the  sun,  let  the  moon 
have  moved  in  its  orbit  from  Q  to  R.    Drawing, 


therefoie,  RT  parallel  to  AX,  the  moon,  by  the 
motion  of  its  orbit,  if  not  attracted  bv  the  Ma^ 
must  be  found  in  T ;  and  therefore,  if  attracted 
in  a  direction  parallel  to  S  A,  would  be  in  the  line 
TV  parallel  to  AS ;  suppose  in  W.  But  the 
moon  in  Q  being  frirther  off  the  sun  than  the 
earth,  it  will  be  less  attracted ;  that  is,  T  W  will 
be  less  than  I M  ;  and  if  the  line  NM  be  pro- 
longed towards  X,  the  angle  XMW  will  be  lese 
than  XIT. 

281.  Thus,  by  the  sun's  action^  the  moon's 
passage  from  the  quarter  to  the  full  would  be  ac- 
celerated, if  the  sun  were  to  act  on  the  earth  and 
moon  in  a  direction  parallel  to  AS ;  and  the  obli- 
quity of  the  sun's  action  will  still  increase  this  ac* 
celeration :  for  the  action  of  the  sun  on  the  moon 
is  oblique  to  the  line  SA,  the  whole  time  of  tha 
moon's  passage  from  Q  to  T,  and  will  cariy  her 
out  of  the  line  TV  towards  the  earth.  Here  we 
suppose  the  time  of  the  moon's  passage  from  Q 
to  T  so  short,  that  it  shall  not  pass  beyond  the 
line  S  A.  The  earth  will  also  come  a  little  short 
of  the  line  I N,  as  was  already  mentioned ;  and 
from  these  causes  the  angle  XMW  will  be  still 
fiirther  lessened.  The  moon,  in  passing  from  the 
opposition  B  to  the  next  quarter,  will  be  retarded 
again  in  the  same  manner  as  it  was  accelerated 
before  its  appulse  to  the  opposition ;  and  thus  the 
moon,  by  the  sun's  action  upon  it,  is  twice  acce- 
lerated, and  twice  restored  to  its  first  velocity 
every  circuit  it  makes  round  the  earth ;  and  this 
inequalitv  of  the  moon's  motion  about  the  earth 
is  called  by  astronomers  its  variation. 

283.  The  orbit  of  the  moon  is  dilated  when 
nearer  the  sun,  and  contracted  when  she  is  more 
remote :  for  it  has  been  proved  by  Newton, 
that  the  action  of  the  sub,  bv  which  it  dimi- 
nishes the  earth's  power  over  the  moon  in  the 
conjunction  or  opposition^  is  about  twice  aa 
great  as  the  addition  to  the  earth's  action  by  the 
sun  in  the  quarters;  so  that,  upon  the  whole,  the 
power  of  the  earth  on  the  moon  is  diminished  by 
the  sun ;  and  therefote  is  most  diminished  wbeft 
that  action  is  strongest.  But  as  the  earth,  by  its 
approach  to  the  sun,  has  its  influence  lessened, 
the  moon,  being  less  attracted,  will  gradually  re- 
cede from  the  earth ;  and  as  the  earth,  in  it» 
recess  from  the  sua,  recovers  by  degrees  ita 
former  power,  the  orbit  of  the  moon  must  again 
contract 

284.  Two  consequences  follow  from  hence, 
viz.  that  the  moon  will  be  more  remote  from  tha 
earth,  when  the  latter  is  nearest  the  sun,  and  will 
take  up  a  longer  time  in  performing  its  revolution 
through  the  dilated  orbit,  than  through  the  more 
contracted.  These,  irr^larities  would  be  pro* 
duced,  if  the  moon,  without  being  acted  upon 
unequally  by  the  sun,  should  describe  a  penbct 
circle  about  the  esurth,  and  in  the  plane  of  its  mo- 
tion: but,  though  neither  of  these  circumstances 
take  place,  yet  the  above-mentioned  inequalities 
occur  only  with  some  litde  variation  with  regard 
to  the  degree  of  them ;  but  some  others  are  ob- 
served to  take  place  fi^m  the  moon's  motion  b^ 
ing  performed  in  the  manner  already  described. 
For,  as  the  moon  describes  an  ellipsis,  having  the 
earth  in  one  of  its  foci,  this  curve  will  be  sub- 
jected to  various  changes,  neither  preserving 
constantly  the  same  figure  nor  position;  and, 


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ASTRONOMY 


because  the  plane  of  this  ellipsis  is  not  the  same 
widi  that  of  the  earth's  orbit,  it  follows,  that  the 
former  will  continually  change ;  so  that  neither 
the  inclination  of  the  two  planes  towards  each 
other,  nor  the  line  in  whicn  they  intersect,  will 
remain  for  any  length  of  time  unaltered. 

285.  The  yarious  forces  by  which  the  motion 
of  the  moon  is  disturbed,  and  the  changes  which 
take  place  in  its  orbit,  may  be  investigated  in 
the  following  manner.  See  plate  IX.  fig.  13.  Let 
C  A  B  D  be  the  moon's  orbit,  T  the  earth,  S  the 
sun,  P  the  moon ;  make  SK  !=  ST ;  and  let  SR 
:  S  L :  :  S  P*  :  S  K».  Then  if  SK  or  ST  represent 
the  sun's  force  at  T,  SL  will  represent  his  force  at 
P.  Draw  L  M  parallel  to  PT ;  divide  the  force 
LS  into  the  two  forces  LM  acting  parallel  to  PT, 
and  MS  acting  parallel  to  TS.  But  the  force  LM, 
and  the  part  TM  disturb  the  moon's  motion. — 
The  force  LM  in  its  mean  quantity  is  equal  to 
PT,  and  by  so  mudi  the  force  of  the  earth  is  in- 
creased. Also  TM  in  its  mean  quantity  is  equal 
to  3PK,  acting  in  adirection  PN  parallel  and  equal 
to  T  S ;  and  the  force  M  T  draws  the  moon  out 
of  her  orbit.  Let  P  p  be  the  periodical  times 
of  the  earth  and  moon ;  then  the  sun's  centripe- 
tal force  at  T  (ST) :  tlje  earth's  centripetal  force 

ST    PT 
at  P  :  :  =rx:  — :  therefore  the  earth's  centripetal 

FP    pp  '^ 

PTx  PP 
force  at  P  =z  And  this  is  to  the  ad- 


For the trianf^les  PRTandPQRare  nmilar- 
whence  PK :  PT  :  :  PQ(PT) :  PR  (3PK) ; there- 
fore 3  P  K»  =  P  T*,  or  3»  =  IT,  whence  s  = 

V^^  =  S.  350  16'.  And  when  PQ  =  PT,  tlje 

3 

diminution  of  the  force  is  equal  to  the  addition, 
which  makes  no  alteration. 

The  mean  force  PT  is  =- —  of  the  force 

643410 
of  gravity  of  the  earth. 

For  the  force  of  gravity  is  3600  times  greater 
than  the  force  at  P. 
The  whole  increase  of  the  centrip^al  force  at  P  is 
•    c  •    ^  3jf\ 

171-725^  \  rr/ 

For«d(r):.::PT(.j^):PK  = 


a 


178-725r 


And  PR  =  3PK  = 


3c» 


178-725r 


And 


And  PT  —  PQ  =  whole  additional 


3c» 


178-725rr 


3m 


PP 


ditional  force  PT  ; 


PTxPP. 

PP 


PT  ::PP; 


That  is,  the  force  by  which  the  moon  is  retained 
in  her  orbit :  is  to  the  increase  of  centripetal  force 
by  the  sun's  action  :  :  PP  :  pp  :  :  178*725  :  1. — 
Tlierefore  the  increase  of  the  moon's  centripetal 

^'"^  "178^5  ^^***^^"^- 

286.  Also  force  PT  :  force  3PK  or  PL :  :  PT : 
3  P  K.  Therefore,  ex  sequo,  the  force  by  which 
the  moon  is  retained  in  her  orbit:  disturbing  force 
PL  or  TM  :  :  PT  X  178*725  :  3  PK.  Therefore 

3PK 
thedisturbingforceTMiZp^ ^  ^^^.^^^  X  e^h's 

centripetal  force  on  the  moon=3a  the  sine  of  the 
moon^s  distance  from  the  quadratures  x  earth's 
centripetal  force,  divided  by  178*725  x  radius. 
Let  C,  c,  be  the  centripetal  forces  of  the  sun  and 
earth,  s  =  sine  of  the  moon's  distance  from  the 
quadrature,  radiu^  =  r.  Then  the  additional  force 

(PT)=-;5^..  And  the  disturbing  force  (TM) 
17o  725 

_       Zsc 


178*725r 

Produce  TP,  and  make  PR  =  PL,  or  TM,  and 
draw  RQ  perpendicular  to  TQ.  Then  QR  is 
the  force  <4ihat  accelerates  the  moon,  and  PQ  is 
the  diminution  of  its  centripetal  force. 

For  the  force  PR  is  divided  hito  two  forces, 
P  Q,  and  QR,  of  which  P  Q,  acting  towards  Q, 
diminishes  the  moon's  centripetal  force ;  and  QR 
being  parallel  to  the  tangent  at  P,  accelerates 
the  moon  at  P. 

287.  There  are  therefore  four  points  in  the 
moon's  orbit,  each  35^  16'  from  the  quadratures, 
where  the  moon's  disturbing  force  xnakes  no  al- 
I  in  the  earth's  central  force. 


1— 

^°«*  ^it^tS'- 

If  A  =  sine  of  twice  the  moon's  distance  fitun 
the  quadratures;  then  the  force  QR,  accelerat- 
ing or  retarding  the  moon's  motion  in  its  orbit,  is 

178*725     2r 

"  Let  z  =  S.QPR  or  KPT  =  cos.  PTK;  then 

rad  (r)  :  RP  {-^^-^  : :  S.QPR  (a)  :  QR  = 
^^  \178*725r/  ^ 

3c        X  w  =  (by  trigonometry  J     3c      ^ 

178*725fT  178.725 

A 

2r' 

288.  Hence  the  moon  is  accelerated  in  the 
quadrants  C  A,  D  B ;  and  retarded  in  the  qua- 
drants AD,  BC ;  and  the  force  which  accelerates 
or  retards  the  moon's  motion,  is  greatest  in  the 
octants. 

For  it  is  greatest  when  A  is  greatest,  thai  15, 
when  2  C  P  is  ninety  degrees,  or  C  P  z=  45°. 

The  disturbing  force  TM,  in  the  syiiges  A  and 
B,  is  2  P  T.  And  therefore  the  earth's  force  upon 
the  moon  in  the  syziges,  is  twice  as  much  di- 
minished, as  it  is  increased  in  the  quadratures. 

The  moon's  orbit  is  more  flat  in  the  syziges, 
and  more  curve  in  the  quadratures ;  and  there- 
fore she  goes  farther  from  the  earth  in  the 
quadratures. 

For  the  orbit  will  be  more  curve  where  the 
central  force  is  greater,  that  is  in  die  quadratures. 

289.  The  motion  of  the  moon's  nodes*  sup- 
posing her  orbit  to  be  nearly  circular,  may  be 
thus  found : 

In  fig.  7,  plate  XIII, let  A5 BQ  be  die  moon's 
orbit, T  the  earth,  P  the  moon,  SAB  the  line  of 
die  apsides,  Q,  q  the  quadratures,  mNn  the  line 
of  the  nodes.  P  K,  P  H,  AZ  perpendiculars  upon 
TQ  and  Nn.  The  force  by  which  die  moon  is 
drawn  out  of  her  orbit  has  been  found  to  be 


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A  .1 TM  DN  D  M  Y.  ^RZ^  TEJT 


A^  /' 


/y/ 


^r>  ^.  a 


Z«MiA«.  fktUiltA^^rllkmm^  Ttyt^  73,  /^r4^^4/rJI£iyyif/StS. 


Digitized  by 


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ASTIR  ©IT  OMT. 


rz^TEJon 


IVntaUe  Kaitnmaai^iL  < 


I.»nj0n,rkhh*hmdkr7%»mm*  Tijfj^.  70.  Chftif^ulfJmnei»*i8fe, 


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ASTRONOMY. 


129 


3'„   .-. 


_^  .  c.    Let  PM  be  the  arch 

178-725r         59-575r 

which  the  moon  describes  in  any  small  time; 
and  M  L  a  small  line,  which  the  moon  describes 

in  the  sane  time  by  the  force  -rr-Ar*  ^9  ^  ^^ 

force  is  directed  to  the  sun,  the  line  M  L  will  be 
parallel  to  T  A.  As  M  L  is  the  distance  that  the 
moon  is  drawn  from  the  arch  P  M,  by  the  said 
accelerative  force;  2ML  will  be  the  uniform 
motion  it  has  acquired  in  that  time,  by  the  isud 
force.  Let  M  P  be  continued  back  to  m,  in  the 
moon's  orbit,  to  cut  the  line  of  the  nodes  T  N  in 
iR.  Now  since  M  L  is  parallel  to  the  ecliptic ;  a 
plane  drawn  through  M  L  and  M  Pm,  will  cut  the 
ecliptic  in  a  line  m  /,  which  will  be  parallel  to 
M  L ;  therefore  draw  L  P  /  to  cut  m  /  in  /,  and  the 
triangles  PML  and  Pm/  are  similar,  and  there- 
fore w/  =  *!^^^„—  ;  but  since  M  P  is  given, 

M  P 
and  M  L  is  as  the  force  3PK,  therefore  m  /  is  as 
m  P  X  P  K.  Now  when  the  moon  was  at  P,  the 
line  of  the  nodes  was  at  Tm,  where  the  plane  of 
the  moon's  orbit  TMP  cuts  the  ecliptic.  But, 
when  the  moon  comes  to  L  (instead  of  M),  the 
plane  of  her  orbit  will  then  be  in  the  plane 
TLP ;  and  the  line  of  the  nodes  at  T/,  where 
the  plane  T  LP  /  cuts  the  ecliptic.  Therefore  the 
angular  motion  of  the  nodes  generated  in  that 
time  will  be  =  angle  mTL    But  the  angle  mX  / 

is  as  J^  X  sine  of  Tm/  or  ATN ;  that  is,  as 
Tm 

mP  X  PK  ^  ^2 ;  that  is,  because  by  similar 

*     *",      /mP_PH\  ,,  PHxPK 
tnangles(--p-pp)as_^ 

that  b,  (because  PT  is  given)  as  PH  x  PK  x 
AZ. 

The  line  M  L  is  to  the  versed  sine  of  the  ardi 
PM,  as  the  forces  that  produce  them ;  that  is,  as 

c  to  Cy  o^  as  f  to  59'575r.    That  is 


XAZ, 


59-575r 
PM« 
2MT 


ML: 


;  f :  59*&75r ;  therefore  ML=:. 


PM« 

5mT 


.    When  P  fells  upon  A,  or  the  moon  is 

in  the  syzigy ;  then  <  =  r,  and  the  angle  PML 
is  a  right  angle :  therefore  in  the  triangle  PML, 

PM:ML 
ormP/z:^ 


0 


PM« 


2MT  X  59 
PM 


—- v.:  radius  :S.LPM 
•575/ 

And  if  N  be  at  Q, 


•  2MT  X  59-575' 
or  the  nodes  in  the  quadratures,  and  P  at  A ; 
then  PM  and  PL  being  parallel  to  the  ecliptic, 
n  and  /  will  be  at  an  infinite  distance,  and  then 
the  angle  m  T  /  will  be  equal  to  m  P  /,  whose  sine  is 

P\f 
2N1T  X  59-575'    ^"^  *«  *°«1«  "»T/ answering 
to  >ML  is  the  motion  of  the  node,  whose  sine  is 

PM 
MT  X  59-575'    Suppose  P  M  to  be  described  in 

an  hour,  then  P  M  or  the  mean  horary  motion  is 
32*  56"!,  whose  sine,  as  it  differs  insensibly  from 

the  arch,  we  shall  have  the  arch  =    ,^  ,,, 
'  59-575 

(putting  PM  =  1)  =  33*18",  where  all  the 

Vol.  IIL 


angles  PTR,  PtN,  and  STN  are  right  aisles. 
And  in  other  cases,  the  horary  motion  of  the 
node  will  be  to  33*18*,  as  the  product  of  tlie 
sines  of  the  three  angles  PTK,  PTN,  and  STN, 
to  the  radius  cube ;  and  the  nodes  are  regressive 
when  all  the  sines  are  positive.  But  if  any  sine 
changes  to  be  negative,  the  nodes  will  be  pn>-^ 
gressive. 

290.  Hence  the  nodes  are  progressive,  when 
the  moon  is  between  either  quadrature,  and  the 
node  nearest  that  quadrature;  otherwise  they 
are  regressive.  And  by  the  excess  of  the  regress 
above  the  progress,  they  are  in  the  whole  moved 
forward. 

For  in  the  arches  QAnand  9BN,PK  and  PH 
are  both  affirmative  or  both  negative.  And  in 
the  arches  NQ,  n^,  only  one  is  negative,  the 
other  being  affirmative. 

If  it  were  not  for  the  sun's  perturbating  force, 
the  moon  would  always  descnbe  the  same  ellip- 
sis, and  the  transverse  axis  and  eccentricity  of  the 
orbit  would  remain  unidtered.  But  since  the 
perturbating  force  of  the  sun  always  acts  upon 
ner  more  or  less,  and  causes  all  the  irregularities 
of  her  motion ;  it  is  evident  that  all  these  effects 
will  be  the  greater  as  that  force  is  the  greater. 
But  when  the  transverse  axis,  or  line  of  me  ap- 
sides, is  in  the  syziges,  then  Uie  perturbate  force 
TM  or  3  P K,  fig.  13,  platie  IX.,  is  the  greatest 
possible,  by  whi^  the  moon  is  removed  ferther 
nom  the  earth,  and  consequently  the  transverse 
axis  b  lengthened,  and  the  eccentricity  becomes 
greater.  And  the  contrary  happens  when  the 
transverse  is  in  ^e  quadratures ;  for  by  its  being 
in  the  quadratures,  die  force  L M  is  greater;  and 
the  whole  centripetal  force  towards  T  being 
greater,  the  body  will  be  drawn  nearer  the  earth, 
and  describe  a  less  orbit,  or  one  less  eccentric 
than  before.  Therefore  when  the  apsides  are  ^n 
the  quadratures,  the  eccentricity  is  less;  and 
when  thev  are  in  the  syziges,  it  is  greater.  But 
how  much  it  is  greater  or  less  depends  upon  the 
mean  eccentricity ;  and  that  depends  upon  ob- 
servation. 

292.  Hence  the  eccentricity  continually  in- 
creases, as  the  apsides  move  from  the  quadratures 
to  the  syziges ;  and  decreases  from  the  syziges  to 
the  quadratures.  And  the  eccentricity  of  the 
orbit  continually  increases,  as  the  moon  passes 
from  the  quadratures  to  the  syziges;  and  de- 
creases, in  passing  from  the  syziges  to  the  quad- 
ratures. For  the  perturbating  force  increases 
from  the  quadratures  to  the  syziges,  and  de* 
creases  from  the  syziges  to  the  quadratures. 

Sect.  VI. — Of  the  Nature  and  Motions  op 
Comets. 

293.  It  is  certain  that  comets  are  not  meteors 
in  our  air,  because  they  rise  and  set  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  moon  and  stars.  It  is  long  sioce 
astronomers  had  gone  so  far  in  their  enquiries 
concerning  them,  as  to  prove  by  their  observa- 
tions that  they  moved  in  the  celestial  spaces 
beyond  the  moon ;  but  they  had  no  notion  of  the 
path  which  they  described.  Now  the  power  of 
the  sun  being  reciprocally  in  the  duplicate  pro- 
portion of  the  distance,  every  body  acted  upon 
Dv  him  must  either  foil  directly  down  or  mo?e 
about  him  in  one  of  the  conic  sections.    If  a 

K 


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ASTRONOMY. 


body  which  descends  towards  the  sun  as  low  a^ 
the  orbit  of  any  planet,  move  with  a  swifter  mo- 
tion than  the  planet,  it  will  describe  an  orbit  of 
a  more  oblong  fiprure  than  that  of  the  planet,  and 
have  at  least  a  longer  axis.  The  velocity  of  .the 
body  may  be  so  great,  that  it  shall  move  in  a 
parabola,  so  that  having  once  passed  the  sun,  it 
shall  ascend  for  ever  without  returning,  though 
the  sun  will  still  continue  in  the  focus  of  that 
parabola ;  and  with  a  velocitystill  greater,  they 
will  move  in  a  hyperbola.  The  best  observar- 
tions,  however,  show  that  the  comets  move  in 
very  eccentric  ellipses;  and. hence  those  bodies 
are  sometimes  found  at  a  moderate  distance  from 
the  sun,  and  appear  within  the  planetary  regions ; 
at  other  times  they  ascend  to  vast  distances,  far 
beyond  the  orbit  of  the  most  distant  known 
planet,  and  become  invisible. 

294.  The  analogy  between  the  periodic  times 
of  the  planets,  and  their  distances  from  the  sun, 
discovered  by  Kepler,  of  course  takes  place,  also 
in  the  comets,  at  least  in  those  which  revolve  in 
elliptic  orbits ;  and  consequently,  if  the  periodic 
time  of  a  comet  were  known,  its  mean  distance 
might  be  easily  computed.  Now  the  comet  of 
1759  is  known  to  perform  its  revolution  in  se- 
venty-six years  nearly,  whence  it  appears  that  its 
mean  distance  is  about  eighteen  times  that  of  the 
earth,  or  a  little  less  than  the  mean  distance  of 
Uranus ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the  great  ecceur 
tricity  of  its  orbit,  its  aphelion  point,  or  the 
greatest  distance  from  the  su|i,  is  nearly  double 
that  of  the  above  planet.  The  perihelion  dis- 
tance of  this  comet  is  about  six  of  the  mean  dis- 
tance of  the  earth,  which  being  taken  from  36, 
the  mean  transverse  axis  of  its  orbit,  leaves  35*4 
for  its  aphelion>distance,  which  is  nearly  double 
the  greatest  distance  of  Uranus,  and  about  ibur 
times  that  of  Saturn. 

295.  The  above  is  the  only  comet  whose  pe- 
riodic return  has  been  ascertained,  till  the  recent 
re-discovery  of  Enke's  comet,  and  consequently 
the  only  one  whose  mean  distance  can  be  known; 
but  with  regard  to  the  perihelion  distance  of 
these  bodies,  this  may  be  aetermined  by  observa- 
tions ;  and  accordingly  we  have  an  account  of  this 
element  of  the  orbits  of  about  100  comets,  which 
have  been  observed  with  considerable  accuracy. 
The  greater  number  of  these  have  had  their  pe- 
rihelion point  fall  within  the  terrestrial  orbit,  and 
many  of  them  at  less  than  half  the  mean  distance 
of  the  earth  ;  but  the  comet  of  1680  is  that  of 
all  others  which  approaches  the  nearest  to  the 
sun,  its  perihelion  distance  being  only  *006  of  the 
perihelion  of  the  earth,  that  is,  about  540,000 
miles  from  the  sun's  centre,  and  must,  therefore, 
according  to  Newton,  have  been  involved  in  its 
atmosphere.  This  comet  also  passed  very  near 
the  terrestrial  orbit,  having  been,  according  to 
Dr.  Ilalley's  calculation  on  the  11th  of  November, 
1  h.  6  m.  P.  M.,  not  more  than  one  semi-diameter 
of  the  earth,  or  about  4000  miles  to  the  northward 
of  the  earth's  orbit,  at  which  time  had  we  been 
in  this  part  of  our  track,  the  comet  would  have 
had  a  parallax  exceeding  tliat  of  the  moon ;  and 
the  mutual  gravitation  of  the  two  bodies  must 
have  caused  a  change  in  the  inclination  of  the 
earth's  orbit,  and  in  the  length  of  the  year;  at 
the  same  time  the  waters  on  the  earth  would  have 


been  so  elevated  from  the  same  cause,  as  would 
in  all  probability  have  caused  a  universal  deluge, 
and  reduced  this  beautiful  frame  to  its  original 
chaos. 

-  296.  The  limits  of  a  comet's  distance  may  be 
easily  ascertained  frt)m  its  tail,  it  being  sapposed 
to  be  directed  from  the  sun.  Let  S,  fig.  9,  plate  VI., 
be  the  sun,  E  the  earth,  E  T  the  line  in  which 
tlie  head  of  the  comet  appears,  £  W  the  line  in 
which  the  extremity  of  the  tail  is  observed,  and 
draw  ST  parallel  to  EW';  then -the  comet  is 
within  the  distance  E  T.  For  if  the  comet  were 
at  T,  the  tail  would  be  directed  in  a  line  parallel 
to  E  W,  and  therefore  could  never  appear  in  that 
line.  Now  T  E  W  is  known  from  observation, 
and  consequently  its  equal  E  T  S,  together  with 
T  E  S,  the  angular  distance  of  the  comet  from 
the  sun,  and  ES  to  find  ST,  the  limit  of  the 
comet's  distance. 

On  the  Orbits  op  Comets,  and  their  Perio- 
dica^ Revolutions. 

297.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  determine 
from  computation,  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  comet  to 
any  degree  of  accuracy ;  for  when  this  orbit  is 
very  eccentric,  a  very  small  error  in  the  observa- 
tion will  change  the  computed  orbit  into  a  para- 
bola, or  hyperbola.  Now  from  the  thickness  and 
inequality  of  the  atmosphere  with  which  the  co- 
met is  surrounded,  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
with  any  precision,  when  either  the  limb  or  cen- 
tre of  the  comet  pass  the  wire  at  the  time  of 
observation.  And  this  uncertainty  in  the  obser- 
vations will  subject  the  computed  orbit  to  a  great 
error.  Hence  it  happened,  that  M.  Bouguer 
determined  the  orbit  of  the  comet  in  1729  to  be 
an  hyperbola.  M.  Euler  first  determined  the 
same  for  the  comet  in  1744 ;  but  having  received 
more  accurate  observation,  he  found  it  to  be  an 
ellipse.  The  period  of  the  comet  in  1680  ap- 
pears from  observations  to  be  575  years,  which 
M.  Euler  by  his  computation  determined  to  be 
166i  years. 

298.  The  only  safe  way  to  get  the  period  of 
comets,  is  to  compare  the  elements  of  all  those 
which  have  been  computed,  and  where  you  find 
they  agree  very  well,  you  may  conclude  that 
tliey  are  elements  of  the  same  tx>met ;  it  being  so 
extremely  improbable  that  the  orbits  of  two  dif- 
ferent comets  should  have  the  same  inclinations, 
the  same  perihelion  distance,  and  the  places  of 
the   perihelion  and  node  of  the  same.     Thus, 
knowing  the  periodic  time,  we  get  the  major  axis 
of  the  ellipse,  and  the  perihelion  distance  being 
known,  the  minor  axis  will  be  known.     When 
the  elements  of  the  orbits  agree  the  comets  may 
be  the  same,  although  the  periodic  times  should 
vary  a  little ;  as  that  may  arise  from  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  bodies  in  our  system,  and  which  may 
also  alter  all  the  other  elements  in  a  small  degree. 
The  following  approximating  method  of   deter- 
Ipining  that  part   of  a  comet's  orbit  through 
which  it  moves,  while  it  can  be  observed  from 
the  earth,  is  due  to  Boscovich. 

299.  Having  collected  the  greatest  possible 
number  of  observations,  choose  three  of  them  which 
were  taken  when  the  comet  was  not  too  near  its 
perihelion,  (because  near  the  perihelion  the  orbit 
does  not  differ   sensibly  from  a  circle),   and 


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131 


make  these  the  basis  of  the  operations :  let  S, 
plate  VI.  fig.  6,  be  the  sun,  U  W  the  orbit  of 
the  eartli,  supposed  here  to  be  a  circle,  £  the 
place  of  the  earth  at  the  first,  e  at  the  third,  draw 
fe,C,  e  f ,  to  represent  the  observed  directions  of 
the  comets,  and  let  L,  /,  w,  be  the  longitudes  of 
the  first,  second,  and  third  observations,  m  and  n 
the  geocentric  latitudes  of  the  first  and  third  ob- 
servation, and  tf  T,  the  intervals  of  time  between 
the  first  and  second,  second  and  third  observa* 
tions.  Assume  C  for  the  place  of  the  comet  at 
the  first  observation,  reduced  to  the  ecliptic ; 
then,  to  determine  the  place  of  the  third  observa- 
tion, say  T  X  sine  to — /  :  t  x  sine  I — L  :  : 
£  C  :  e  c,  and  c  will  be  nearly  the  place  required : 
join  C  c,  and  it  will  represent  the  path  of  the 
comet  on  the  ecliptic,  according  to  tnis  assump- 
tion. Draw  CK,ckj  perpendicular  to  the  eclip- 
tic, taking  C  K  :  £  C  :  :  tang  M  :  radius,  and 
ckiec  :  z  tang  n  :  radius  ;  join  K  fc,  and  it 
will  represent  the  orbit  of  the  comet,  if  the  first 
assumption  be  true.  Bisect  C  c  in  :r,  and  draw 
xy  parallel  to  C  K,  and  K  k  will  be  bisected  in 
y;  join  y  s.  Let  S  £=1 ;  then  if  o  be  the  mean 
velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  the  velocity  of 

the  comet  at  y  =:^-=-  (Art.  586),  taking  there* 


forev=:£e,  compute 


V2XP 


and  if  this  be  equal 


to  Kky  the  assumed  point  C  was  the  true  point. 

300.  But  if  these  quantities  be  not  equal,  a 
new  point  must  be  assumed  for  C,  in  choosing 
which  we  must  be  directed  by  the  nature  and 
quantity  of  the  error  arising  from  the  first  assump- 
tion; thus  if  the  computed  value  of  K/c,  oe 
greater  than  its  value  measured  in  the  figure,  and 
the  lines  CK,ck  diverge  from  each  other  as  they 
recede  from  the  sun,  the  point  c  must  be  taken 
farther  from  £  by  how  great  a  quantity  we  must 
conjecture  from  the  magnitude  of  the  error,  and 
from  the  consideration  that  the  comet's  velocity 
diminishes  as  it  recedes  from  the  sun.  Find 
C  K,  c  ^,  as  before,  and  compare  the  measured 
and  computed  value  of  K  /c ;  and  if  a  fresh  as- 
sumption be  necessary,  make  it  in  conformity  to 
the  considerations  above  suggested.  Having  thus 
ascertained  the  position  of  the  points  C,  c,  very 
nearly  produce  c  C,kKto  meet  at  N ;  join  N  S, 
and  it  will  be  the  line  of  the  nodes ;  and  if  C  r, 
c  2,  be  drawn  perpendicular  to  N  S,  either  of  the 
angles  K r  C,  kzc  will  measure  the  inclination 
of  the  orbit.  Also  from  the  two  distances  S  C, 
S  c,  and  the  included  angle  C  S  c,  the  parabola 
may  be  easily  constructed  }  thus,  having  set  off 
S  C,  S  c  (fig.  10,  plate  VI.)  in  their  proper  rela- 
tive position,  with  the  centres  C,c,  and  radii 
equal  to  SC,Sc,  describe  the  arcs  aRo,  ert, 
and  draw  the  line  R  r  d  to  touch  those  arcs,  this 
tine  will  manifestly  be  the  directrix  of  the  para- 
bola: which,  being  known,  together  with  the 
focus  S  and  the  determining  mtio  (that  of  equar 
lity),  the  parabola  may  be  constructed. 

301.  Or,  letting  fall  SD  perpendicularly  upon 
R  D,  and  bisecting  it  in  A,  the  vertex  and  focus  of 
the  parabola  A  c  C  will  be  known  ;  whence  it 
may  be  drawn  by  well-known  methods.  From 
either  of  these  constructions,  the  ratio  of  the  co- 
met's perihelion  distance  S  A  (fig.  1.  plate  IX.) 


to  the  earth's  mean  distance  S  £  (fig.  10.  plate 
VIII.),  will  be  known,  and  consequontly  the 
comet's  velocity  in  perihelion;  the  velocity  in 
eitlier  of  the  points  C,  or  c,  will  be  determined 
by  the  observations  ;  and  since  the  antrular  dis- 
tances are  reciprocally  as  the  squares  of  the  dis- 
tances from  the  centre  of  force,  the  S  C,  S  c,  are 
hence  found  in  terms  of  S  £ :  if  these  agree 
nearly  with  the  construction,  the  assumptions 
have  been  properly  made ;  if  not,  some  farther 
corrections  are  necessary.  The  angles  ASC, 
A  S  c,  may  either  be  measured  or  calculated  from 
the  known  distances ;  then  having  the  perihelion 
distance  and  the  true  anomaly,  the  time  from  the 
perihelion  may  be  determined,  whence,  as  tlie 
observations  will  show,  whether  the  comet  be 
approaching  to,  or  receding  from,  the  perihelion, 
an  epoch  of  the  perihelioiT  will  readily  be  ascer- 
tained. 

302.  When  a  parabola  is  found  to  agree  nearly 
with  the  given  positions,  it  is  needless  to  continue 
the  approximation  farther ;  for  if  the  observations 
are  accurate,  we  cannot  expect  a  parabola  to 
agree  perfectly  with  them ;  it  the  Ixldy  move  in 
an  ellipsis,  as  it  is  highly  probable  that  all  these 
bodies  do.  If  the  observations  are  only  nearly 
accurate,  a  parabola  found  to  agree  with  them, 
might  probaoly  not  agree  with  other  observations 
made  upon  the  comet. 

Sect.  VII. — Of  the  Bodies  of  the  Sun  and 
Planets,  the  Quantity  of  Matter  they  con- 
tain, AND  THEIR  DENSITIES. 

303.  The  primary  planets  and  comets  being 
retained  in  their  orbits  by  a  power  directed 
towards  the  sun,  and  the  secondaries  being  also 
retained  by  a  similar  power  directed  to  the  cen- 
tre of  the  primaries,  the  same  power  is  diffused 
through  their  whole  substance,  and  inherent  in 
every  particle.  This  is  proved  by  showing  that 
each  of  the  heavenly  bodies  attracts  the  rest,  and 
other  bodies,  with  such  different  degrees  of  force, 
as  that  the  force  of  the  same  attracting  body  is 
exerted  on  others,  exactly  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  matter  contained  in  the  body  at- 
tracted. 

304.  The  first  proof  of  this  is  from  the  experi- 
ments made  on  bodies  on  our  earth.  Pendulums 
vibrate  by  the  same  power  which  makes  heavy 
bodies  fall  to  the  ground ;  but  if  the  ball  of  any 
pendulum  of  the  same  length  with  another  were 
more  or  less  attracted  in  proportion  to  the  quan- 
tity of  solid  matter  it  contains,  that  pendulum 
would  vibrate  faster  or  slower  than  the  other. 
Now  the  vibrations  of  pendulums  continue  for  a 
long  time,  and  the  number  of  vibrations  they 
make  may  be  easily  and  correctly  determined ; 
and  Newton  assures  us  that  he  examined  several 
substances,  as  gold,  silver,  lead,  glass,  sand, 
common  salt,  wood,  water,  and  wheat ;  in  all 
which  he  found  not  the  least  deviation  from  the 
theory,  though  he  made  the  experiment  in  such 
a  manner  that,  in  bodies  of  the  same  weight,  a 
difference  in  the  quantity  of  their  matter  less  than 
the  thousandth  part  of  the  whole  would  have  dis- 
covered itself. 

305.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  all  bodies  are 
made  to  descend  here  by  the  power  of  gravity 
w^*h  the  same  degree  of  swiftness.    This  descent 

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ASTRONOMY. 


has  been  detennined  at  16)  feet  in  a  second  from 
the  be^nning  of  their  fell.  If  any  terrestrial 
body  could  be  conveyed  as  high  as  the  moon,  it 
would  descend  with  the  very  same  velocity  as  the 
incremental  deflection  of  the  moon  'towards  the 
earth ;  and  therefore  the  power  of  the  earth  upon 
the  moon  is  in  the'same  proportion  to  its  force  on 
other  bodies  at  the  same  distance  as  the  quantity 
of  matter  in  the  moon  bears  to  the  quantity  in 
those  bodies.    Thus  with  respect  to  the  earth,  its 

Sower  on  every  body  it  attracts  is,  at  the  same 
istance  from  the  earth,  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  solid  matter  in  the  body  acted  upon. 

306.  As  to  the  sun,  the  power  of  his  action 
upon  the  same  primary  planet  is  reciprocally  in 
the  duplicate  proportion  of  its  distance;  and  that 
his  power  decreases  throughout  in  the  same  pro- 
portion, is  testified  by  the  motion  of  the  planets 
traversing  the  whole  planetary  regions.  Hence 
if  any  planet  were  removed  from  the  sun  to  any 
distance  whatever,  its  tendency  towards  the  sun 
would  yet  be  reciprocally  in  the  duplicate  pro- 
portion of  the  distance.  But  the  degree  of  ac- 
celeration given  to  the  planets  by  the  sun  is 
observed  to  be  reciprocally  in  the  dfuplicate  pro- 
portion of  their  respective  distances ;  from  this 
we  may  safely  infer,  that  the  power  of  the  sun 
upon  any  planet  removed  into  the  place  of  any 
other,  would  give  it  the  same  velocity  of  descent 
as  it  gives  that  other ;  and  consequently,  that  the 
sun's  action  upon  different  planets  at  the  same 
distance  would  be  proportionable  to  the  quantity 
of  matter  in  each.  The  sun  attracts  the  primary 
planets  and  their  respective  secondaries,  when  at 
the  same  distance,  in  such  a  maimer  as  to  com- 
municate to  both  the  same  degree  of  velocity ; 
and  therefore  the  force  wherewith  die  sun  acts 
on  the  secondary  planet,  bears  the  same  propor- 
tion to  the  force  wherewith  it  attracts  the  primary, 
as  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  secondaiy  planet 
bears  to  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  primary. 

307.  This  property  therefore  is  found  in  the 
sun  with  regard  to  both  kinds  of  planets ;  so  that 
he  possesses  the  same  quality  found  in  the  earth, 
viz.  that  of  acting  on  bodies  with  a  degree  of 
force  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  matter  diey  , 
contain.  All  the  phenomena  of  the  planetary 
motions  produced  by  their  mutual  attractions 
agree  precisely  with  this  law  of  force;  and  we 
are  thence  warranted  in  concluding,  that  this  is 
the  principle  which  the  great  Author  of  nature 
has  appointed  to  regulate  the  motions  at  least  of 
the  system  to  which  we  belong. 

308.  In  a  word,  the  attractive  power  both  of 
the  sun  and  the  planets  appears  to  be  the  same ; 
for  it  acts  in  each  in  the  same  proportion  to  the 
distance,  and  alike  upon  every  particle  of  matter. 
This  power  therefore  in  the  sun  and  planets, 
is  the  same  in  its  nature  as  the  power  of  gravity 
in  the  earth;  and  hence  the  attracting  power 
lodged  in  the  sun  and  planets  belongs  likewise  to 
every  part  of  them ;  and  their  respective  powers 
upon  the  same  body  are  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  matter  of  which  they  are  composed ; 
for  instance,  the  force  with  which  the  earth  at- 
tracts the  moon,  is  to  the  force  with  which  the 
iun  would  attract  it  at  the  same  distance,  as  the 
Quantity  of  solid  matter  in  the  earth  is  to  that  in 
toe  sun. 


309.  The  rule  that  action  is  equal  to  re-actioD 
holds  good  in  attractive  powers  as  well  as  in  any 
other  powers.  The  most  remarkable  force  of 
this  kind  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  next  to 
that  of  gravity,  is  the  attraction  which  the  load- 
stone has  for  iron.  Now  if  a  loadstone  and  piece 
of  iron  are  both  made  to  swim  on  water,  they 
move  towards  each  other,  and  thus  the  attraction 
b  shown  to  be  mutual ;  and  when  they  meet, 
the^  mutually  stop  each  other ;  which  shows  that 
their  velocities  are  reciprocally  proportioned  to 
the  quantities  of  solid  matter  in  each ;  and  that 
by  the  stone's  attracting  the  iron,  it  receives  as 
much  motion  itself,  in  the  strict  philosophic 
sense  of  the  word,  as  it  communicates  to  the  iron. 

310.  From  this  mutual  action  of  the  sun  and 
planets  upon  each  other,  it  follows,  as  has  been 
already  mentioned,  that  they  both  revolve  about 
their  common  centre  of  gravity.  Thus  let  A  (in 
plate  IX.  fig.  7.)  represent  the  sun,  B  a  planet, 
and  C  their  common  centre  of  gravity.  If  these 
bodies  were  once  at  rest,  they  would  directly  ap- 
proach each  other  by  their  mutual  attraction, 
and  that  with  such  velocities,  diat  their  common 
centre  of  gravity  would  remain  at  rest,  and  they 
would  meet  in  that  point.  Were  the  |>lanet  B 
to  receive  an  impulse,  as  in  the  direction  B  £, 
this  would  prevent  the  two  bodies  from  falling 
together;  but  their  common  centre  of  gravity 
would  be  put  into  motion  in  the  direction  of  the 
line  C  F,  parallel  to  B  £.  In  this  case,  the  sun 
and  planet  would  describe  round  their  common 
centre  of  gravity  similar  orbits,  while  that  centre 
would  proceed  with  an  uniform  velocity  in  the 
line  C  F,  and  so  the  system  of  the  two  bodies 
would  move  on  with  the  centre  of  gravity  without 
end.  In  order  to  keep  the  system  in  the  same 
place,  it  is  necessary,  that  when  the  pkmet  re- 
ceived its  impulse  in  the  direction  B  £,  the  sun 
should  receive  such  another  the  contrary  way,  so 
as  to  keep  the  centre  of  gravity,  C,  without  any 
motion,  m  which  case  it  would  always  remain 
fixed. 

311.  The  action  therefore  between  the  sun  and 
planets  is  mutual.  The  power  which  acts  be- 
tween the  sun  and  primary  planets  is  of  the  same 
nature  with  that  which  acts  between  the  secon- 
dary planets  and  their  primaries,  or  between  the 
earth  and  bodies  near  its  surfece.  In  different 
planets  the  force  of  the  sun's  action  upon  each  at 
the  same  distance,  would  be  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  solid  matter  contamea  in  the  planet : 
therefore  the  re-action  of  the  planet  on  the  sun  at 
the  same  distance,  or  the  motion  which  he  would 
receive  from  each  planet,  would  also  be  pro- 
portional to  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  planet ; 
that  is,  these  planets,  at  the  same  distance,  would 
act  on  the  same  body,  with  the  degrees  of  strength 
proportioned  to  the  quantity  of  solid  matter  con- 
tained in  each. 

312.  From  these  princiolcs  Newton  has  proved 
that  the  particles  oi  which  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets  are  formed,  exert  their  power  of  gravita- 
tion by  ^e  same  law,  and  in  the  same  proportion 
to  the  distance,  as  the  great  bodies  they  compose. 

313.  The  following  propositions  constitute  the 
principal  steps  in  the  process  of  the  investiga- 
Ution.  In  ng.  4,  plate  VI.,  if  A  C  is  perpen- 
dicular to  AB,  and  a  corpuscle  at  C  is  atttacted 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ASTEONOMY. 


towards  erery  particle  of  the  line  A  B,  by  forces 
inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  distances,  then 
the  whole  force  which  the  particles  in  A  B  exert 

upon  C,  in  the  direction  A  C,  is  as  V   r^r^  • 

For  put  AC  =  o,  and  AD,  any  variable  part  oC 
AB  z=  J ;  then  the  force  of  a  particle  at  D  being 

as  CD*  ^'^  ^^  direction  DC,  its  force  in  the 
AC 


_2px2oJ'-^j* 


2&-C  +x 


133 

which    multiplied    by 


direction  AC,  will  be  as  -prr^;  or  as 


Cl?' 


Hence  • 


whole  force,  whose  fluent  is 
AD 


(a«  +  J^i' 
represents  the  fluxion  of  the 


«.(«■  +  :^)ii 


or 


CA  X  CD- 

314.  Again,  let  B  C  D  E,  plate  VI.  fig.  5,  re- 
present a  circular  plane,  and  H  a  corpuscle  per- 
pendicularly over  its  centre,  then  if  the  forces 
with  which  each  particle  in  the  plane  acts  upon  H 
be  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the  distances,  the 
force  with  which  H  will  be  urged  towards  the 

plane  will  be  represented  by  A  —  A^V^,; 

p  being  =  3-14159,  &c.  For  let  A  H  =  a,  and 
H/=:  3f ;  then  A  6»=  g*  —  fl«;  andp .  A  ^  i=  p. 
a:*  — 0*=  the  area  of  the  circle,  Acdbe; 
and  the  fluxion  of  the  area  of  this  circle  \8  2pxx. 
But  the  force  of  a  particle  at  b  in  the  direction 

HA  is  as  -jjy,  or  -^,  by  the  preceding  pro- 
position ;  therefore  the  fluxion  of  the  whole  force 
will  be — ^5 =  —:r-'    The  fluent  of  this 


corrected,  gives  2;?x  1— ?=2pxl  — — 
*  BH 

for  the  whole  force. 

,  ^^^;. "^^  ^PP'y  *^*  *<>  *e  determination  of  the 
law  of  force,  by  which  a  particle  without  a  sphere 
would  be  acted  upon  by  that  sphere,  the  law  of 
force  of  each  particle  in  the  sphere  being  in- 
versely  as  the  squares  of  its  distance ;  let  A  B  E  C 
plate  yi.  fig.  3,  represent  a  section  of  a  sphere 
of  which  the  centre  is  F;  let  H  be  the  particle, 
draw  B  C  perpendicular  to  H  E,  join  H  B  and 
5.A;  PutAF  =  «,  FH  =  6,AH  =  rr^ 
--V>,HD  =  y  and  HB  =  c -|- *;then  AD 

-  y  -  c,  ED  =  2  fl  —5^  +  C,  and  hence 
BD»=AD-DE  =  HB'-HD«,  or7="c 
X  2a  — 5,^.c=c4-^-5^,  an  equation 
from  which  we  get  V -  2  ac -h2c«4- 2cx  4- je« 

.  2ci4-2c 

—  2^c-f2  c  X  +  ac* 

26 »  a*  «  +  c  =  6.    Hence, 

0»e  attractive  force  of  the  particles  on  the  circle 
^hose  diameter  is  B  C  is,  ly  the  last  proportion, 

"^  ^       2bxTTTj 


— r-j —  gives  ^ ^5 for    the 

fluxion  of  the  required  force,  and  the  fluent  of 
this  expresssion,  Pxax'—jj^  j^  ^^  ^^^  ^ 

the  segment  ABC,  and  therefore  when  B  coin- 
cides with  E,  or  X  z=  2  a,  tiiis  expression  be- 

4pa»    , 
coraes  -^  -  the  attraeUve  force  of  the  whole 

sphere. 

316.  If  the  particles,  of  which  the  globe  is 
composed,  acted  upon  those  without  in  the  re- 
ciprocal duplicate  proportion  of  their  distances, 
the  whole  globe  would  hence  act  upon  them  in 
the  same  manner  as  it  does;  but,  if  the  particles 
of  the  globe  have  not  all  of  them  that  property, 
some  must  act  in  a  greater,  and  some  in  a  less 
proportion;  and  if  this  be  the  condition  of  the 
jlobe,  it  is  plain  that  when  the  body  attracted  is 
in  such  a  situation  in  respect  of  the  globe,  that 
the  greater  number  of  the  strongest  particles  are 
nearest  to  it,  the  body  will  be  more  forcibly  at- 
tracted than  when,  by  turning  the  globe  about, 
the  greater  quantity  of  weak  particles  should  be 
nearest,  though  the  distance  of  the  body  should 
remain  the  same  fi-om  the  centre  of  the  globe ; 
which  is  contrary  to  what  was  at  first  remarked, 
that  the  globe  acts  equally  on  all  sides.  If  all 
the  particles  of  the  globe  attract  all  the  particles 
of  another  in  the  proportion  already  mentioned, 
the  attracting  globe  will  act  upon  the  other  in  the 
same  proportion  to  the  distance  between  the  cen- 
tre of  the  globe  which  attracts,  and  the  centre  of 
that  which  is  attracted :  and  the  proportion  holds 
true,  though  either  or  both  of  the  globes  be  com- 
posed of  dissimilar  parts,  some  rarer,  and  some 
more  dense ;  provided  only  that  all  the  parts  in 
the  same  globe,  equally  distant  from  the  centre,, 
be  homogeneous,  and  likewise  if  both  globes  at- 
tract each  other. 

317.  It  is  thus  shown,  that  this  power  iir  the- 
great  bodies  of  the  universe  is  derived  from  the 
same  being  lodged  in  every  particle  of  the  mat- 
ter which  composes  them;  and  consequently  that 
it  is  universal  m  matter,  though  the  power  is  too 
minute  to  produce  any  visible  effects  on  the 
small  bodies  with  which  we  are  conversant,  by 
tlieir  action  on  one  another.  In  the  fixed  star* 
indeed  we  have  no  particular  proof  that  they 
have  tiiis  power,  as  we  find  no  appearance  to 
demonstrate  that  they  either  act  or  are  acted 
upon  by  it.  But  since  this  power  is  found  to 
belong  to  all  bodies  whereon  we  can  make  ob- 
servation, and  we  find  tiiat  it  is  not  altered 
by  any  change  in  the  shape  of  bodies,  but  ac- 
companies them  in  every  form  without  diminu- 
tion, being  ever  proportional  to  the  quantity  of 
solid  matter  in  each,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
such  a  power  belongs  universally  to  all  matter.  ' 

318.  From  the  times  in  which  the  satellites 
perform  their  revolutions,  compared  with  their 
distances  firom  their  respective  primaries,  the 
proportion  between  the  power  with  which  one 
pnmary  attracts  his  satellites,  and  the  force  with 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


134 


ASTRONOMY. 


which  any  other  attracts  his,  may  be  found ;  and 
the  proportion  of  the  power  with  which  any 
planet  attracts  his  secondary  to  the  power  with 
which  it  attracts  a  body  at  its  surface,  is  found 
by  comparing  the  distance  of  the  secondary  planet 
frOm  the  centre  of  the  primary  with  the  distance 
of  the  primary  planet's  surface  from  the  same ; 
and  from  hence  is  deduced  the  proportion  be- 
tween the  power  of  gravity  upon  the  surface  of  one 
planet  to  the  gravity  upon  the  surface  of  another. 

319.  In  a  like  manner  by  comparing  the 
periodical  time  of  a  primary  planet  about  the 
sun,  with  the  revolution  of  a  satellite  about  its 
primary,  may  be  found  the  proportion  of  gravity, 
or  of  the  weight  of  any  body,  on  the  surface  of 
the  sun,  to  the  gravity  or  to  the  weight  of  the 
same  body  upon  the  surface  of  the  planet  which 
carries  about  the  satellite. 

320.  Amongst  the  ancient  mathematicians, 
nothing  eould  have  appeared  more  completely  out 
of  the  reach  of  human  intellect,  than  by  calcula- 
tion to  determine  the  internal  stnicture  of  remote 
and  inaccessible  bodies,  that  is,  than  to  find  the 
densities  of  the  planets.  Such,  however,  has  been 
effected  in  modem  times.  The  density  of  a 
planet  can  be  found  by  comparing  the  velocity 
m  its  orbit  round  the  sun  with  the  velocity  of  its 
'^tellite,  or  by  determining  the  distance  which  it 
deflected  from  its  tangent  in  one  second  of  time, 
comparing  its  angular  velocity  with  the  mean 
radius  of  its  orbit,  and  by  knowing  the  space 
which  a  heavy  body  falk  through  in  one  second 
by  the  force  of  gravity  at  its  surface. 

321.  To  understand  the  principle  upon  which 
diis  determination  rests,  we  may  observe  that  the 
effect  of  attraction  at  equal  distances  will  be  in 

Log.  D  =  log.  95000000  =  79777236 
Log.  m  =  log.       883217  ==  5-9460674 


proportion  to  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  at- 
tracting body ;  and  at  different  distances,  as  the 
quantity  of  matter  and  the  inverse  square  of  the 
distance  conjointly.  The  quantity  of  matter  b 
also  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  body 
and  its  density  conjointly.  If  therefore  we  know 
the  effects  of  the  attraction  of  dififerent  bodies, 
together  with  their  magnitudes,  we  can  find  their 
densities,  and  thence  their  quantities  of  matter. 

To  find  their  densities,  put 

<f  ^  the  density  of  the  celestial  object, 

in  =  its  diameter, 

a  =  its  quantity  of  matter, 

P  =  the  periodic  time  of  the  revolving  body, 

D  =  the  mean  distance  of  the  revolving  body 
from  its  central  body, 

s  =  the  sine  of  the  angle  under  which  m  ap- 
pears at  the  distance  D,  to  radius  unity. 

D* 

Then  a  varies  as  dm',  and  P'  varies  as  — ,or 


hence,  d  varies  as 


ly 

fii»  p» 


but  I  =: 


— rr- ;  hence,  d  varies  as  -rr^- 
D  '  f*  P* 

From  this  we  conclude  that  the  logarithm  of  the 

density  varies  as  3  x  log.^ — —  2  log.  P.    But, 

in  order  to  make  the  comparison  between  dif- 
ferent planets  as  simple  as  possible,  we  shall 
suppose  the  density  of  the  sun  to  be  1,  and  find  a 
logarithm,  which,  taken  from  the  above  formula, 
will  make  it  so.  For  this  purpose  we  shall  take  the 
diameter  of  the  sun  =  683,217  miles,  its  distance 
from  the  earth  95,000,000  miles,  and  the  earth's 
periodic  time  365*2564  days.   Hence,  we  have  — 


20316562  X  3  =:  6*0949686 


Log.  P  =  log.    365-2564  =  25625978  X  2:  zz  51251956 


the  logarithm  of  the  sun's  density.     But  the  lo- 
garithm of  1  is  0 ;  hence  the  logarithm  of  the  den- 


p-9697730 
325.  To  find  the  density  of  Saturn,  if  we  Uke 

D 


sity  of  a  planet  is  to  that  of  the  sun,  considered  as    ^»«  second  satellite  we  shall  have  —    =  3-75, 


unity,  as  1  to  3  X  log.  ^-..- 2 log P--9697730.  andPzz2-7368, therefore 3  X  log.  ^    -2log-. 

323.  To  find  the  density  of  the  earth,  we  take  n       .n* A-r-ro/*  ;„  ^^  ..i  *^       *  Af^nfrr^o^  *i.    i 

the  moon  as  the  revolving,  and  the  ea;th  as  the  Ff^pfr     ?1?  ITv^  thr^ih  Th.^'  '^V''^* 

central  body.-   D  =  240000,  m  =  7955,  and  P  ^J^^^'^'    I^t  us  take  thefifUi;  then  we  have 

z=  27-32167  ;  and  3  X  log.  ?   -  2  log.  P-      „7  =  ^^'  *"*^  ^  =  79'3196.     Hence  3  x  log. 

*"         -9697730  is   equal  to  — 


•9697730  is  then  equal  to  •  5959255,  the  log.  of  ~     — .  2  loe  P 

3-94S9.  .  "» 

To  find  the  density  of  Jupiter.    If  we  take  the  1*5255573  the  log.  of  -3354. 

first  satellite  as  the  revolving  body,  we  shall  have  '  326.  To  find  the  density  of  Uranus,  if  we  take 

-=2-8385  and  P  =:  1-7691 ;  hence  3  x  log.  the  third  satellite  we  shall  have    —  =  9*5,  and 

*w  tft 

-  —  2  log.  -9697730  b  then  equal  to  1-8916918  P=  10*9611, then  3  X  log  -     —  2  log  of  P  — 

the  log.  of -7793.  9697730  is  equal  td— 1*8836886,  the  log.  of 

324.  Again,  if  we  take  the  fourth  satellite,  we  7650. 


D 


shall  have  —    z=    1265   and   P  =  16-68898, 

Ml  ' 


D 


therefore  3  x  log    ~     —  2  log.  P  —  '9697730 
is  the  equal  to  —  1'801C330  the  log.  of -7792. 


Again,  let  us  take  the  sixth  satellite,  and  we 
shall  have  —  =  44, and  P  =:  1076944 ;  hence, 

3  X  log.  -    —  2  log.  P  —  -9697730  is  equal  to 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ASTRONOMY. 


135 


— 1-8961985  the  log.  of  -7874.  A  trifling  dif- 
(erence,  either  in  tire  periodic  Ume,  or  the  dis- 
tance of  the  satellite,  will  make  a  considerable 
difference  in  the  density  of  the  primary ;  and 
hence,  if  these  be  not  very  correct,  the  density 
cannot  be  depended  on  with  any  degree  of  ac- 
curacy. 

327.  The  abbve  are  the  only  planets  whose 
densities  can  be  found  by  this  method.  Those 
which  have  no  satellite,  have  obliged  astrono- 
mers to  have  resource  to  a  method  much  less 
accurate,  depending  on  the  effect,  which  by  ob- 
servation the  planet  is  found  to  produce  in  dis- 
turbing the  motions  of  the  other  planets.  Dr. 
Maskelyne  makes  the  density  of  Venus  1-024, 
and  M.  de  la  Lande  1-038,  that  of  the  earth  being 
1 .  Laplace  concludes  the  density  of  Mars  to  be 
•6563,  and  of  Mercury  2*5833,  the  earth  being 
1.  The  density  of  the  moon  has  been  estimated 
at  1-456  times  the  density  of  the  earth. 

If  the  density  of  the  earth  be  taken  equal  to 
4}  times  that  of  water,  we  shall  have  the  densi- 
ties, or  specific  gravities,  of  the  planets  in  the 
following  proportions : — 
Sun  1-1410  nearly  ^  to  the  specific  gra- 

vity of  opaque  copal 
Mercury  11-6250    .     .     .    lead 
Venus        4'6395    .     .     .    molybdsna 
Earth         4-5000    .     .    .    ponderous  spar 
Moon         6*5520    .     .     .    cast  antimony 
Mars  2*9533     .     .     .    flint  glass 

Jupiter       0*8891     .    .•    .    mulberry  tree 
Saturn        0-3612    .     .     .    poplar 
Uranus      0*8856    .    .     .    oeech  txee. 

PART  III. 

EXPLANATIOK  OP  THE  CELESTIAL,  PHE- 
KOMENA,  ACCORDING  TO  THE  NEW- 
TONIAN DOCTRINE. 

Sect.  I. — Of   the   Circles,  Nodes,  Aspects, 
Conjunctions,  &c..  of  the  Planets. 

328.  To  a  spectator  placed  in  the  sun  all  the 
planetfl  would  appear  to  describe  circles  annually 
m  the  heavens;  for,  though  their  motions  are 
really  elliptical,  the  eccentricity  is  so  small,  that 
the  difference  between  them  and  true  circles  is 
not  easily  perceived,  even  on  earth ;  and  at  the  sun, 
whether  great  or  tinall,  it  would  entirely  vanish. 
These  circles,  which  in  such  a  sitoalion  would  ap* 
pear  to  be  annually  described  luftong  the  fixed 
stars,  are  called  the  heliocentric  circles  of  the 
planets.  To  ai  spectator  in  the  sun,  the  comets, 
though  moving  in  the  most  eccentric  orbits,  would 
idso  appear  to  describe  circles  in  the  heavens :  for, 
thougn  their  oibits  are  in  reality  very  long  ellipses, 
the  planes  of  them  extended  to  the  heavens  would 
mark  a  great  circle  of  which  the  eye  would  be  the 
centre ;  only,  at  the  real  motion  is  in  an  ellipsis, 
the  body  would  appear  to  move  much  more  slow- 
ly in  some  part  or  the  circle  than  another,  and 
to  differ  excessively  in  magnitude. 

329.  To  an  inhabitant  of  any  planet,  however, 
the  sun  appears  to  go  round  in  its  own  heliocen- 
tric circle,  or  to  describe  in  the  heavens  that  same 
curve,  which  the  planet  would  appear  to  do  if  seen 
from  the  sun.     Thus,  in  plate  A  VL  fig.  8,  when 


the  earth  is  at  a,  if  we  draw  a  line  from  a  through 
the  sun  at  S,  the  point  G,  in  the  sphere  of  tl^e 
heavens  where  the  line  terminates,  is  the  place 
where  the  sun  then  appears  to  an  inhabitant  of  th^ 
earth.  In  a  month's  time  the  earth  will  go  from 
ato  b;  draw  a  line  then  through  the  sun,  and  its 
extremity  at  H  will  point  out  his  apparent  place 
at  that  time.  In  like  manner,  if  we  draw  lines 
from  the  earth  in  twelve  several  'situations,  in 
which  it  is  represented  for  the  twelve  mouths  ot 
the  year,  the  sun*s  apparent  place  will  be  found 
as  above ;  and  so  it  would  be  found  by  a  speo 
tator  placed  in  Venus,  or  any  other  planet. 

330.  The  heliocentric  circle  of  the  earth  is  call- 
ed the  ecliptic ;  because  eclipses  of  the  sun  or 
moon  can  only  happen  when  the  latter  is  in  or 
near  it.  By  some  ancient  writers  it  has  been 
called  the  circle  of  the  sun,  or  the  oblique  circle, 
because  it  cuts  the  equator  at  oblique  angles.  It 
is  also  called  by  Ptolemy  the  circle  which  passes 
through  the  midst  of  the  animals ;  because  the 
twelve  constellations  through  which  it  passes, 
were  anciently  all   represented  by  animals,  or 

Cof  them,  though  now  the  balance  is  intro- 
d  in  place  of  the  claws  of  the  scorpion.  For 
this  reason  a  belt,  taken  in  the  concave  sphere 
of  the  heavens,  about  ten  degrees  on  each  side  of 
the  ecliptic,  is  called  the  zodiac,  from  (wov,  an 
animal,  and  the  constellations  through  which  the 
ecliptic  is  drawn,  are  called  the  constellations  o( 
the  zodiac. 

3S1.  Although  the  sun  apparendy  goes  round 
the  earth  annually  in  this  circle,  we  cannot  deter- 
mine his  place  by  mere  inspection,  as  we  can  do 
that  of  any  other  heavenly  body ;  for  the  fixed 
stars  are  the  only  marks  by  which  we  can  deter- 
mine the  place  of  any  of  the  celestial  bodies ;  and 
the  superior  brightness  of  the  sun  renders  them 
totally  invisible,  except  in  the  time  of  a  great 
eclipse,  when  his  light  is  for  a  time  totally  ob- 
scured. But  though  we  cannot  know  the  place 
of  the  sun  directly,  it  is  easily  found  from  a 
knowledge  of  those  fixed  stars  which  are  opposite 
to  him. 

332.  Thus,  in  plate  IX.  fig.  9,  suppose  it  tlie 
time  of  the  year  m  which  the  earth  is  at  g,  il 
we  know  that  the  point  G  is  then  diametrically 
opposite  to  the  sun,  we  know  that  A,  its  opposite, 
is  the  sun's  place,  and  consequently,  by  finding 
the  places  throughout  the  year  diametrically  op- 
positetothesun,asGHIKLMABCDEF,we 
may  be  assured  that  in  these  times  the  sun's  place 
was  in  the  points  ABCDEFGHIKLM.  The 
point  in  the  heavens  diametrically  opposite  to  the 
sun  may  be  known  every  night  at  twelve  o'clock 
when  the  stars  are  visible ;  for  the  star  which  has 
an  elevation  above  the  horizon,  at  that  time  equal 
to  the  sun's  depression  below  it,  is  directly  op- 
posite to  him. 

333.  When  the  position  of  the  ecliptic  is  thus 
determined,  the  latitude  of  the  moon,  or  any 
star,  is  measured  by  its  distance  from  the  eclip- 
tic, in  the  same  manner  as  the  latitudes  of  places 
on  the  earth  are  reckoned  by  their  distance  from 
the  equator,  and  circles  passing  through  the  poles 
of  the  ecliptic  at  right  angles  to  its  plane,  are 
called  circles  of  latitude.  *  The  declination  of  any 
celestial  body  is  its  deviation  from  the  equaior 
towards  the  pole  nearest  to  it. 


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334.  The  latitude  of  anv  planet  is  either  he- 
liocentric or  geocentric.  Tne  heliocentric  btitude 
b  its  distance  from  the  ecliptic  as  seen  from  the 
sun,  and  its  geocentric  as  seen  from  the  earth.  As 
the  orbits  of  the  planets  are  inclined  in  different 
angles  to  the  ecliptic,  the  heliocentric  latitude  of 
any  planet,  is  almost  always  different  from  its  geo- 
centric latitude.  Thus,  let  AB,  plate  VII.  fig. 
1 1,  be  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  C  D  the  orbit  of  Ve- 
nus, viewed  with  the  eye  in- their  common  section, 
wherein  they  appear  straight  lines;  let  £  and  F 
be  two  opposite  points  of  the  ecliptic ;  and  sup- 
pose «Venus  to  be  in  the  point  C.  If  she  were  at 
that  time  viewed  from  the  sun  S,  she  would  ap- 
pear in  the  point  of  the  heavens  marked  H,  and 
her  heliocentric  latitude  is  then  FH;  but  if 
viewed  from  the  earth  in  B,  she  will  appear  at 
g ;  and  her  geocentric  is  only  Fg. 

335.  The  planets  Mercury  ai^  Venus,  whose 
orbits  are  included  in  that  of  the  earth,  are  called 
inferior;  and  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  the 
Georgium  Sidus,  are  called  superior  planets. 
The  two  points  where  the  heliocentric  circle  of 
any  planet  cuts  the  ecliptic,  are  called  its  nodes; 
and  that  which  the  planet  passes  through  as  it 
goes  into  north  latitude,  is  called  the  ascending 
node,  and  is  marked  thus  ^  ;  and  the  opposite 
to  this  is  called  the  descending  node,  and  is 
marked  Q .  A  line  drawn  from  one  node  to  the 
other  is  called  the  line  of  the  nodes  of  the  pla- 
net, which  is  the  common  section  of  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic,  and  that  of  the  planet  produced  on 
each  side  to  the  fixed  stars. 

336.  The  zodiac  is  either  astral  or  local. 
The  astral  is  divided  into  twelve  unequal  parts, 
1>ecause  it  contain;;  twelve  celestial  constellations, 
some  of  which  are  larger  than  others.  The  local 
zodiac  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,  called 
signs,  each  containing  thirty  degrees.  These  are 
counted  from  the  point  where  the  equator  and 
ecliptic  intersect  each  other  at  the  time  of  the 
vernal  equinox ;  and  are  denoted  by  particular 
marks,  according  to  the  apparent  annual  motion 
of  the  sun.  See  plate  V.  fig.  6.  A  motion  in 
die  heavens  in  the  order  of  uese  signs,  as  from 
Aries  to  Taurus,  is  said  to  be  a  motion  in  conse- 
quence; and  such  are  the  true  motions  of  all  the 
planets,  though  their  apparent  motions  are  some- 
times contrary,  and  then  they  are  said  to  move  in 
antecedence.  The  local  zodiac  is  not  always  in- 
variably the  same  as  to  the  places  of  the  several 
signs,  though  the  whole  always  takes  up  the  same 
place  in  the  heavens,  viz.  ten  degrees  on  each 
side  the  ecliptic.  The  points  where  the  celestial 
equator  cuts  the  ecliptic,  are  found  to  have  a  mo- 
tion in  antecedence  of  about  fifty  seconds  a 
year. 

337.  This  change  of  place  of  the  first  point  of 
the  ecliptic,  from  whence  the  signs  are  counted, 
oc<»sions  a  like  change  in  the  signs  themselves; 
which,  though  scarcely  sensible  for  a  few  years, 
has  now  become  very  considerable.  Thus,  since 
astronomy  was  first  cultivated  among  the  Greeks, 
which  is  about  2000  years  ago,  the  first  point  of 
the  ecliptic  is  removed  backward  above  a  whole 
sisn  :  and,  though  it  was  then  about  the  middle 
of  the  constellation  Aries,  is  now  about  the  mid- 
dle of  Pisces.  Notwithstanding  this  alteration, 
however,  the  signs  still  retain  their  ancient  names 


and  marks.    When  die  zodiac  is  mentioiMd  by 
astronomers,  the  local  zodiac  is  generally  meant 

338.  The  longitude  of  a  phenomenon  in  the 
heavens  is  in  the  number  of  degrees  counted 
from  the  first  point  of  Aries  on  the  ecliptic  to  the 
place  where  a  circle  of  latitude  drawn  throueh 
the  phenomenon  would  cut  the  ecliptic  at  ri^t 
angles.  Every  phenomenon  in  tne  heavens, 
whether  in  the  zoaiac  or  not,  is  thus  referred  to 
the  ecliptic  by  its  circle  of  latitude,  or  great  circle^ 
passing  through  the  phenomenon,  and  cutting 
the  ecliptic  at  right  angles ;  and  whatever  sign 
the  circle  of  latitude  passes  through,  the  pheno- 
menon is  said  to  have  its  place  in  that  sign^ 
though  ever  so  far  distant  firom  it. 

339.  Some  astronomers  make  the  local  zodiac 
invariable ;  for  which  purpose  they  imagine  a  cir- 
cle of  latitude  drawn  tnrough  the  first  star  of  the 
constellation  Aries,  marked  in  Bayer's  catalogue 
by  the  Greek  letter  y ;  and  reckon  their  longitude 
from  the  point  where  that  circle  cuts  the  ecliptic. 
This  star  is  called  the  first  star  of  the  Ram ;  and, 
when  this  method  is  made  use  of,  the  longitude 
of  any  phenomenon  is  said  to  be  so  many  signs, 
degrees,  minutes,  &c.  from  the  first  star  of  the 
Rsun.    Thus,  in  Street's  Caroline  Tables,  the 
longitude  of  Jupiter's  ascending  node  is  two 
signs  eight  degrees  from  the  first  star  of  Aries, 
which  is  thus  marked :  Long. '}{.  Q  a  1*  op  2>  8^. 
The  common  way  of  reckoning  the  longitude  of 
a  phenomenon,  is  to  take  qp  for  the  first  point  of 
the  ecliptic,  and  not  to  number  the  degrees  quite 
round  tnat  circle  as  a  continued  series,  but  to 
make  a  new  beginning  at  the  first  point  of  every 
sign,  and  to  reckon  from  thence  only  the  length 
of  30^.    When  this  method  b  made  use  of,  the 
longitude  of  any  phenomenon  is  expressed  by 
saying  it  is  in  such  a  degree,  and  sucn  a  minute 
of  a  sign :  and  thus  we  may  express  the  longi- 
tude of  the  ascending  node  of  Mercury,  g  Q  8 
13°  40',  and  so  of  any  odier.    The  place  of  a 
phenomenon  in  the  heavens  is  expreaited  by  set- 
ting down  its  longitude  and  latitude. 

340.  Every  planet,  like  the  moon,  is  sometimes 
in  conjunction  with  the  sun,  and  sometioies  in 
opposition.    Its  conjunction  is  when   the  geo- 
centric place  of  the  planet  is  the  same  with  that 
of  the  sun ;  though  an  exact  or  central  conjunc- 
tion can  only  take  place  when  the  line  of  its 
nodes  passes  through  the  earth,  and  the  planet 
itself  is  in  one  of  its  nodes  at  the  dme.     It  is 
however,  in  general,  called  a  oonjunction  or  op- 
position, when  the  same  circle  of  latitude  passes 
through  the  sun  and  planet  at  the  same  time. 
When  the  geocentric  place  of  a  planet  is  90^,  or 
a  quarter  of  a  cirole  from  the  sun's  place,  the 
planet  is  said  to  be  in  quadrature  or  in  a  quar- 
tile  aspect  with  the  sun ;  and  these  terms  are 
used  in  a  like  sense  when  applied  to  any  two 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.    Thus  tne  sun  and  moon» 
or  the  moon  and  any  planet,  or  any  two  planets, 
may  be  in  conjunction,  opposition,  or  quaarature. 

341.  Besides  these,  the  ancients  reckoned  two 
other  aspects,  the  trine  and  the  sextile;  the  for- 
mer when  the  bodies  were  distant  120<>,  and  the 
latter  when  only  half  that  distance.  Theae  as- 
pects are  marked  thus : 

Conjunct.  Opposition   Qaadra«  Trine    Sextile 
6  S  a  i^  4t 


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13? 


The  aspects  were  Ibimerly  mpposed  to  inflaence 
the  afiurs  of  mankind ;  but  astrology^  which 
treated  of  tfaeie  influences,  is  now  justly  le- 


342.  The  inferior  planets  have  two  kinds  of 
conjunction  with  the  sun ;  one  in  the  inferior  part 
of  their  semicircles,  the  other  in  the  superior  part. 
In  the  former  the  pfanet  is  between  the  earth 
and  the  sun ;  and  in  the  latter  the  sun  is  between 
the  earth  and  planet.  The  inferior  planets  can 
never  be  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  nor  even  ap- 
pear at  a  great  distance  from  him.  The  length 
they  go  is  called  their  elongation.  Thus,  in 
plate  IX.  fig.  11,  let  OPQRT  be  part  of  the 
ecliptic ;  S  the  sun ;  and  the  three  circles  round 
him  the  orbits  of  Mercury,  Venus,  and  the  earth. 
Suppose  the  earth  to  be  at  A,  the  sun's  geocen- 
tric place  will  be  at  Q.  If  Mercury  be  then  at 
I,  his  geocentric  place  is  likewise  at  Q ;  so  that 
he  is  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  in  his  inferior 
semicircle :  if  at  M,  his  geocentric  place  is  like- 
wise at  Q;  so  that  he  is  in  conjunction  in  his 
superior  semicircle. 

%  343.  In  like  manner,  Venus  at  £  is  in  con- 
junction in  her  inferior  semicircle,  at  G  in  her 
superior :  but  if  we  suppose  the  earth  to  be  at  A, 
and  Venus  at  H,  her  geocentric  place  is  T,  and 
her  elongation  QT,  which  in  this  figure  is  the 
greatest  possible;  for  this  always  takes  place 
when  a  straight  line  firom  the  earth  touches  the 
orbit  of  the  planet,  as  is  evident  from  the  figure ; 
that  is,  provided  the  planet  be  in  its  aphelion  at 
the  time.  Thus  the  greatest  possible  elongation 
of  Mercury  is  Q  P  when  he  is  in  bis  aphelion  at 
L;  and  the  quantity  of  this  is  found  by  astrono- 
mical observations  to  be  about  twenty-eight 
degrees,  and  that  of  Venus  about  forty-ei^t 
The  inferior  planets  in  their  elongations  are 
sometimes  eastward  and  sometimes  westward  of 
the  sun ;  in  the  former  case  they  appear  in  the 
evening,  and  in  the  latter  in  the  morning.  The 
smallness  of  Mercury  and  his  nearness  to  the  sun 
prevent  him  from  being  often  taken  notice  of; 
but  the  largeness  and  beauty  of  Venus  have 
made  her,  in  all  ages,  celebrated  as  the  evening 
and  morning  star. 

344.  The  planets  sometimes  appear  to  go 
forward,  sometimes  backward,  and  sometimes  to 
stand  still.  These  difierent  conditions  are  by 
astronomers  called  direct,  retrograde,  and  station- 
ary. Were  they  to  be  viewed  from  the  sun  they 
would  always  appear  direct;  but  when  viewed 
from  the  earth,  the  inferior  planets  appear  direct 
while  moving  in  their  upper  semicircles,  and 
retrogade  when  in  their  lower  ones.  Thus  in 
plate  IX.  fig.  11,  suppose  the  earth  at  rest  at  A, 
while  Mercury  is  going  on  his  orbit  from  N  to  I, 
and  from  I  to  L,  his  motion  appears  to  an  ob- 
server at  A  to  be  retrograde,  or  contrary  to  the 
order  of  the  signs,  namely  from  R  to  Q  and 
from  Q  to  P ;  but  when  in  that  part  of  his  orbit 
which  lies  between  Land  N,  his  motion  appears 
direct,  or  from  P  to  Q  and  from  Q  to  R. 

345.  When  the  earth  is  in  the  line  of  nodes  of 
an  inferior  planet,  the  apparent  motion  of  the 
former  is  then  in  a  straight  line,  because  the 
plane  of  it  passes  through  the  eye ;  if  in  a  con- 
junction in  nis  upper  semicircle,  he  passes  b^ind 
the  sun ;  if  in  his  lower  semicircle,  he 


before  it,  and  will  then  be  seen  by  an  observer 
on  the  earth  to  pass  over  the  sun's  disk  like  a 
lonnd  and  very  black  spot.  Were  the  plane 
of  his  orbit  coincident  with  the  ecliptic,  this 
appearance  would  be  seen  every  year;  but  by 
reason  of  the  obliquity  of  the  two  planes  to  each 
other,  it  is  much  more  rare. 

346.  Mercury,  however,  was  seen  in  this  man- 
ner November  12th,  1782,  at  3h.44m.  in  the 
afternoon;  May  4th,  1786,  at  6h.57m.  in  the 
morning;  and  December  6th,  1789,  at  3  h.  55 m. 
in  the  afternoon ;  but  was  not  seen  again,  in  this 
island  at  least,  until  the  year  1799,  May  7th,  at 
2  h.  34  m.  in  the  afternoon.  In  like  manner, 
Venus  sometimes  appears  as  a  black  spot  on  the 
sun,  but  more  seldom  than  Mercury.  She  was 
thus  seen  firrt  in  1639 ;  afterwards  in  the  years 
1761  and  1769 ;  but  will  not  again  be  visible  in 
this  manner  till  the  year  1874. 

347.  When  the  earth  is  out  of  the  line  of  the 
nodes  of  an  inferior  planet,  its  orbit  appears  an 
^lipsis,  more  or  less  eccentric,  according  to  the 
situation  of  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  In  these 
cases  the  motion  of  Mercury  is  unequal ;  fester 
near  the  inferior  conjunction,  but  most  unequal 
in  the  inferior  semicircle,  going  through  the  un- 
equal spaces  into  which  the  ellipsis  b  divided. 
The  motions  of  the  inferior  planets,  both  direct 
and  retrograde,  are  very  unequal ;  and  this  ine- 
ouality  proceeds  not  firom  the  eccentricity  of 
their  orbits,  but  from  the  projection  of  their 
orbits  into  long  ellipses,  and  is  therefore  a  mere 
optical  deception. 

348.  These  planets  appear  stationary  while 
changing  their  motion  from  direct  to  retrograde, 
or  from  retrograde  to  direct.  If  the  earth  stood 
still,  the  times  of  their  appearing  stationary  would 
be  at  their  greatest  elongation ;  for  though  it  be 
a  pTopertT  of  the  circle,  that  a  straight  Une  can 
only  touch  it  in  one  point,  yet  when  the  circle  is 
very  large,  the  recess  from  the  tangent  is  not  per- 
ceptible for  a  considerable  time.  Thus  in  ptate 
IX.  fig.  11,  suppose  the  earth  to  be  at  rest  in  A 
Venus  would  i^pear  stationary,  her  geocentric' 
place  continuing  at  T  all  the  while  she  is  going 
m  her  orbit  from  a  to  6 ;  because  her  deviation 
firom  the  visual  line  AT  would  scarcely  be  per- 
ceptible so  near  the  point  of  contact  H. 

349.  The  inferior  planets,  therefore,  to  an  in  > 
habitant  of  the  earth,  appear  always  near  the  sun  ^ 
alternately  going  from  and  returning  to  him, 
sometimes  in  straight  lines,  at  others  in  elliptical 
curves,  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other ; 
sometimes  so  near  as  to  be  rendered  invisible  by 
his  stronger  light  Sometimes,  when  in  or  near 
their  nodes,  Siey  pass  behind  the  sun  in  their 
superior  semicircles,  or  pass  between  him  and 
us;  in  which  case  they  appear  like  black  spots 
on  his  disk,  as  above-mentioned.  For  the  better 
comprehending  of  these  motions,  however,  we 
have  hi&erto  supposed  the  earth  to  stand  sdll  in 
some  part  of  its  orbit,  while  they  go  round  the 
sun  in  theirs ;  but  as  this  is  not  the  case,  it  now 
remains  to  consider  the  changes  which  take  place 
in  consequence  of  the  earth's  motion. 

350.  Were  the  earth  to  stand  still  in  any  part 
of  its  orbit,  as  at  A,  the  places  of  conjunction, 
both  in  the  superior  and  inferior  semicircle,  as 
also  of  the  greatest  elongation ;  and.  consequently. 


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tlie  places  of  direct  and  retrograde  motion,  and 
of  tne  stations  of  an  inferior  planet,  would 
always  be  in  the  same  part  of  the  heavens.  Thus, 
in  plate  IX.  fig.  11,  upon  this  supposition,  the 
places  of  Mercury's  stations  would  always  be  the 
points  P  and  R,  the  arc  of  his  direct  motion  PR, 
and  of  his  retrograde  motion  R  P ;  whereas,  on 
account  of  tlie  earth's  motion,  the  places  where 
these  appearances  happen  are  continually  adranc- 
ing  forward  in  the  ecliptic,  according  to  the  ordet 
of  the  signs.  In  fig.  10,  plate  VIII.,  let  A  B  C  D 
be  the  orbit  of  the  earth ;  €fg  h  that  of  Mercury, 
0  tbe  sun;  GFKI  an  arc  of  the  ecliptic  ex- 
tended to  the  fixed  stars.  When  the  earth  is  at 
A,  the  sun's  geocentric  place  is  at  F ;  and  Mer- 
cury, in  order  to  a  conjunction,  must  be  in  the 
line  AF;  that  is,  in  his  orbit  he  must  be  at/ or 
k.  Suppose  him  to  be  at/,  in  his  inferior  semi- 
circle; if  the  earth  stood  still  at  A,  his  next 
conjunction  would  be  when  he  is  in  his  superior 
•emicirdes  at  A ;  the  places  of  his  greatest  elongsb- 
tion  also  would  be  at  e  and  gf  and  in  the  ecliptic 
«t  £  and  G;  but  supposing  itke  earth  to  go  on  in 
its  orbit  from  A  to  B>  the  sun's  geocentric  place 
is  now  at  K ;  and  Mercury,  in  order  to  oe  in 
conjunction,  ought  to  be  in  the  line  B  K  at  m. 
As  bv  the  motion  of  tbe  earth,  the  places  of  Mer- 
cury s  conjunctions  with  the  sun,  are  thus  con- 
tiniudly  carried  round  in  the  ecliptic,  in  conse- 
quence, so  the  places  of  his  utmost  elongations 
must  be  carried  in  consequence  also.  Thus, 
when  the  earth  is  at  A,  the  places  of  his  greatest 
elongation  from  tbe  sun  are  m  the  ecliptic  £  and 
G ;  the  motion  of  the  earth  from  A  to  B  ad- 
vances them  forward  from  G  to  L,  and  from  £ 
to  I. 

351.  The  geocentric  motion  of  Venus  may  be 
explained  in  a  similar  manner ;  only  as  the  mo- 
tion of  Venus  is  much  slower  than  that  of  Mer- 
cury, his  conjunctions,  oppositions,  elongations, 
and  stations,  all  return  much  more  frequently 
than  those  of  Venus. 

352.  To  exphun  the  stationary  appearances  of 
the  planets,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit,  and  even  of  that  of 
Saturn,  are  but  mere  points  in  comparison  of  the 
distance  of  the  fixed  stars;  and,  therefore,  any 
two  lines,  absolutely  parallel,  Uiough  dmwn  at 
the  distance  of  the  diameter  of  Saturn's  orbit 
from  each  other,  would  if  continued  to  the  fixed 
Stan,  appear  to  us  to  terminate  in  the  same  point 
Let  the  two  circles,  plate  IX.  fig.  4,  represent  the 
orbits  of  Venus  and  of  the  eartfi;  let  the  lines 
A£,  BF,  C  G,DH,beparaUel  to  SP;  wemay 
nevertheless  affirm  that,  if  continued  to  the  dis- 
tance of  the  fixed  stars,  Uiey  would  all  terminate 
in  the  same  point  with  the  line  S  P.  Suppose, 
then,  Venus  at  £,  while  the  eardi  is  at  A,  the  vi- 
sual ray,  by  which  she  is  seen,  is  in  the  line  A  £. 
Suppose  again,  that  while  Venus  goes  from  £  to 
F,  the  earth  goes  from  A  to  B,  the  visual  ray,  bT 
which  Venus  is  now  seen,  is  B  F,  parallel  to  A 
£;  and  therefore,  Venus  will  be  all  that  time 
stationary,  appearing  in  that  point  of  the  hea- 
vens where  S  P  extended  would  terminate ;  this 
station  is  at  her  changing  from  direct  to  retro- 
grade. Again,  suppose,  when  the  earth  is  at  Cy 
Venus  is  at  G,  and  the  visual  line  C  G ;  if,  while 
the  earth  goes  from  C  to  D,  \  enus  goes  from  G 


to  H,  so  that  she  is  seen  in  the  line  GH,  parallel 
to  CG,  she  will  be  all  that  time  stationary,  ap- 
pearing in  the  point  where  a  line  drawn  from  S 
through  P  would  terminate.  This  station  is  at 
her  changing  from  retrograde  to  direct ;  and  both 
are  in  her  inferior  semicircle. 

353.  An  inferior  planet,  when  in  conjunction 
with  the  sun,  in  its  inferior  semicircle,  is  said  to 
be  in  perigee,  and  when  in  the  other,  to  be  in 
apogee,  on  account  of  its  different  distances  from 
the  eardi.  Their  real  distances  from  Ae  earth 
When  in  perigee  are  variable,  partly  owing  to 
the  eccentricities  of  their  orbits,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  earth;  and  partly  owing  to  the  motions  of 
the  different  bodies,  by  whidh  it  happens  that 
they  are  in  perigee,  in  different  parts  of  their 
orbits.  The  least  possible  distance  is  when  the 
perigee  happens  at  the  time  diat  the  earth  b 
in  its  perihelion,  and  when  the  planet  is  in  its 
aphelion. 

354.  The  difference  of  distance  between  the 
earth  and  inferior  planets,  at  difi^rent  times, 
makes  a  considerable  variation  in  their  apparent 
diameters,  which  indeed  is  very  observable  in  all 
the  planets ;  and  thus,  they  sometimes  look  con- 
siderably larger  than  at  others.  This  difiierence 
of  magnitude  in  Mercury  is  nearly  as  5^  to  1 ; 
and  in  Venus,  no  less  than  32  to  1 .  Any  person, 
unassisted  by  instruments,  may  observe  an  in- 
ferior planet  altematdy  approach  nearer  and 
nearer  the  sun,  until  at  last  it  comes  into  con- 
junction with  him,  and  then  recedes  ferther  and 
ferther,  till  it  is  at  its  greatest  elongation,  which 
will  be  first  on  one  side,  and  then  on  the  other; 
but,  if  we  observe  the  ap{)arent  change  of  place, 
of  an  inferior  planet,'  in  the  sphere  of  Uie  heavens, 
its  direct  motions,  stations,  and  retrogradations, 
measuring  its  diameter  frequently  with  the  mi- 
crometer, we  shall  find,  by  its  decrease  at  some 
times,  and  increase  at  others,  that  its  distance 
from  us  is  very  considerably  varied. 

355.  As  the  superior  planets  move  in  a  larger 
orbit  than  the  earth,  they  can  only  be  in  con- 
junction with  the  sun,  when  they  are  on  that  side 
opposite  to  the  earth;  as/  on  the  other  hand, 
they  are  in  opposition  to  him,  when  the  earth  is 
between  the  sun  and  them.  They  are  in  qna- 
dratnre  with  him,  when  the  geocentric  places 
are  90^  distant  from  that  of  the  sun.  In  order 
to  understand  their  apparent  motions,  we  shall 
suppose  them  to  stand  still,  in  some  part  of 
their  orbit,  while  the  earth  makes  a  complete 
revolution  in  hers ;  in  which  case,  any  superior 
placet  vronld  then  have  the  following  appear- 
ances: 

356.  1.  While  the  earth  is  in  her  most  distant 
semicircle,  the  motioii  of  the  planet  will  be 
direct  2.  While  the  earth  is  m  her  nearest 
semicircle,  the  planet  vrill  be  retrograde.  3. 
While  the  earth  is  near  those  places  oi  its  orbit, 
where  a  line  drawn  finom  the  planet  vrould  be  a 
tangent,  it  would  appear  to  be  stationary.  Thus, 
in  plate  VIII.  fig.  6,  lei  abed  represent  the  orbit 
of  the  earth ;  S  the  sun ;  £  F  G  an  arc  of  the 
orbit  of  Jnpiter;  ABC  an  arc  of  the  ecliptic, 
projected  on  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars.  Sup- 
pose Jupiter  to  continue  at  F,  while  the  earth 
goes  round  in  her  orbit,  according  to  the  order 
of  Uie  letters  abed.     While  the  eardi  is  in  the 


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semicircle  most  distant  from  Jupiter,  going  from 
a  to  5  and  from  b  to  c,his  motion  in  the  heavens 
would  appear  direct,  or  from  A  to  B,  and  from 
B  to  C ;  but,  while  the  earth  is  in  its  nearest 
semicircle  cde,  the  motion  of  Jupiter  would  ap- 
pear retrograde  from  C  to  B,  and  fit)m  B  to  A; 
for  a,  b,  c,  d,  may  be  considered  as  so  many  dif- 
ferent stations,  from  whence  an  inhabitant  of  the 
earth  would  view  Jupiter  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year,  and  a  straight  line  drawn  from  each  of 
these  stations,  through  P  the  place  of  Jupiter, 
and  continued  to  the  ecliptic,  would  show  his 
apparent  place  there  to  be  successively  at  A,  B, 
C,  B,  A.  While  the  earth  is  near  the  points  of 
contact,  a  and  c,  Jupiter  would  appear  stationary, 
because  the  visual  ray  drawn  through  both  pla- 
nets, does  not  sensibly  differ  from  the  tangent 
Ffl  or  Fc.  When  the  earth  is  at  b,  a  line  drawn 
from  b  through  S  and  F  to  the  ecliptic,  shows 
Jupiter  to  be  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  at  B. 
When  the  earth  is  at  </,  a  line  drawn  from  d 
through  S,  continued  to  the  ecliptic,  would  ter- 
minate in  a  point  opposite  to  B ;  which  shows 
Jupiter  then  to  be  in  opposition  to  the  sun ;  and 
thus,  it  appears,  that  his  motion  is  direct  in  the 
conjunction,  but  retrograde  when  in  opposition 
with  the  sun. 

357.  The  direct  motion  of  a  superior  planet  is 
swifter  the  nearer  it  is  to  a  conjunction,  and 
slower  as  it  approaches  to  a  quadrature  with  the 
the  sun.  Thus,  in  fig.  9,  plate  XIII.,  let  ©  be 
the  sun ;  the  little  circle  round  it  the  orbit  of  the 
earth,  whereof  abed  efg  is  the  most  distant 
semicircle ;  O  P  Q,  an  arc  c^  the  orbit  of  Jupiter ; 
and  ABCDEFG,  an  arc  of  the  ecliptic  m  the 
sphere  of  the  fixed  stars.  If  we  suppose  Ju- 
piter to  stand  still  at  P,  by  the  earth's  motion 
nom  a  to  gf  he  would  appear  to  move  direct- 
from  A  to  U,  describing  the  unequal  arcs  AB, 
BC,  CD,  DE,  EF,  FG,  in  equal  times.  When 
the  earth  is  at  d,  Jupiter  is  in  conjunction  with 
the  sun  at  D,  and  there  his  direct  motion  is 
swiftest.  When  the  esurth  is  in  that  part  of  her 
orbit  where  a  line  drawn  from  Jupiter  would 
touch  it,  as  in  the  points  e  or  g,  Jupiter  is 
neariy  in  quadrature  with  the  sun;  and  the 
nearer  the  earth  is  to  any  of  these  points,  the 
slower  is  the  geocentric  motion  of  Jupiter ;  for 
the  arcs  CD  and  DE  are  greater  than  BC  or 
£F,  and  the  arcs  BC  and  EF  are  greater  than 
AB  or  FG. 

358.  The  retrograde  motion  of  a  superior 
planet  is  swifter  the  nearer  it  is  to  an  opposition, 
vhd  slower  as  it  approaches  to  a  quadrature 
with  the  sun.  Thus,  let  0,  fig.  10,  plate  XIII. 
be  the  sun,  the  little  circle  round  it  ttie  orbit  of 
the  earth,  whereof  g  hik  ImnisihQ  nearest  se- 
micircle; OPQ,  an  arc  of  the  orbit  of  Jupiter, 
N KG  an  arc  of  the  ecliptic:  if  we  suppose  Ju- 
piter to  stand  still  at  P,  by  the  earth's  motton 
from  g  to  n,  he  would  appear  to  move  retro- 
grade ftY>m  G  to  -N,  describing  the  unequal  arcs 
Gil,  UI,  IK,  KL,  LM,  MN,  in  equal  times. 
When  the  earth  is  at  k,  Jupiter  appears  at  K,  in 
opposition  to  the  sun,  and  there  his  retrograde 
motion  is  swiftest.  When  llie  earth  is  either  at 
g  or  n,  the  points  of  contact  of  the  tangents  Pg 
ami  P «,  Jupiter  is  nearly  in  quadrature  with 
ttic  sun ;  and  tho  nearer  he  is  to  either  of  these 


points,  the  slower  is  his  retrogradation ;  for  the 
arcs  IK  and  KL  are  greater  than  HI  or  LM; 
and  the  arcs  HI  and  KM  are  greater  than  GH  or 
M  N.  Since  the  direct  motion  is  swifter  when 
the  earth  is  at  d,  and  continues  diminishing  till 
it  changes  to  retrograde,  it  must  be  insensible 
near  the  time  of  change ;  and,  in  like  manner, 
the  retrograde  motion  being  swiftest  when  the 
earth  is  m  k,  and  diminishing  gradually  till  it 
changes  to  direct,  must  also  at  &e  time  of  that 
change  be  insensible ;  for  any  motion  gradually 
decreasing  till  it  changes  into  a  contrary  one 
gradually  increasing,  must  at  the  time  of  the 
change  be  altogether  insensible. 

359.  The  same  changes  in  the  apparent  mo- 
tions of  this  planet  ^U  also  take  place,  if  we 
suppose  him  to  go  on  slowly  in  his  orbit ;  only 
they  will  happen  every  year  when  the  earth  is  in 
different  parts  of  her  orbit,  and  consequently  at 
different  times  of  the  year.  Thus,  fig.  6,  plate 
VIII.,  let  us  suppose  that  while  the  eardi  goes 
round  her  orbit  Jupiter  goes  from  F  to  G,  the 
points  of  the  earth's  orbit  from  which  Jupiter 
will  now  appear  to  be  stationary,  will  be  a  and 
y ;  and  consequently  his  stations  must  be  at  a 
time  of  the  year  different  from  the  former.  The 
conjunction  of  Jupiter  with  the  sun  will  now  be 
when  the  earth  is  at/,  and  his  opposition  when 
it  is  at  e ;  for  which  reason  these  also  will  hap- 
pen at  times  of  the  year  different  from  those  of 
the  preceding  opposition  and  conjunction.  The 
motion  of  Saturn  is  so  slow^  that  it  makes  but 
little  alteration  either  in  the  times  or  places  of 
his  conjunction  or  opposition ;  and  no  doubt  the 
same  will  take  place  in  a  more  eminent  degree 
in  Herschel;  but  the  motion  of  Mars  is  so  much 
swifter  than  even  that  of  Jupiter,  that  both  the 
times'  and  places  of  bis  conjunctions  and  op- 
positions are  thereby  very  much  altered. 

360.  A  superior  planet  is  in  apogee  when  in 
conjunction  with  the  sun,  and  in  perigee  when 
in  opposition;  and  every  one  of  the  superior 
planets  is  at  its  least  possible  distance  from  the 
earth  where  it  is  in  perigee  and  perihelion  at  the 
same  time.  Their  apparent  diameters  are  va- 
riable, according  to  their  distances,  like  Uiose  of 
the  inferior  planets;  and  this,  as  might  natu- 
rally be  expected,  is  most  remieu-kable  in  the 
planet  Mars,  who  is  nearest  us.  In  his  nearest 
approach,  this  planet  is  twenty-five  times  larger 
than  when  farthest  off,  Jupiter  twice  and  a  half, 
and  Saturn  once  and  a  naif.  As  the  times  of 
conjunction,  utmost  elongation,  direct  or  re* 
trograde  motions  of  the  inferior  planets,  depend 
on  the  combinations  of  their  motions  in  their 
orbits  with  the  motion  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit, 
any  of  these  appearances  will  be  more  firequent 
in  Mercury  than  in  Venus,  because  the  former 
moves  with  a  swifter  motion  in  his  orbit,  and 
consequently  must  more  frequently  pass  through 
those  places  where  he  is  in  conjunction,  &c. 

361.  The  time  in  which  any  of  the  inferior 
planets  will  return  into  a  given  situation,  may  be 
easily  known.  Compute  the  diurnal  heliocentric 
motions  of  Venus  and  of  the  earth ;  the  differ- 
ence of  these  motions  is  the  diurnal  motion  of 
Venus  from  the  earth,  or  the  quantity  by  which 
Venus  would  be  seen  to  recede  from  the  earth 
every  day  by  a  spectator  placed  in  the  sun :  thus 


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the  mean  motion  of  Venus  is  every  day  about 
59  m.  and  8  s. ;  the  difference  is  37  m.  There- 
fore, as  37  m.  is  to  360*',  or  to  21,600  m.  so  is 
one  day  to  the  time  wherein  Venus,  having  left 
the  earth,  recedes  from  her  360^;  that  is,  to  the 
time  wherein  she  returns  to  the  earth  again,  or 
the  time  between  two  conjunctions  of  the  same 
kind. 

362.  The  calculations  of  the  times  are  here 
made  according  to  the  mean  or  equable  mo- 
tions of  the  planets;  and  is  therefore  called  a 
mean  conjunction :  but  because  Venus  and  the 
earth  are  really  carried  in  elliptic  orbits,  in 
which  their  motions  are  sometimes  swifter  and 
sometimes  slower,  the  true  conjunctions  may 
happen  some  days  either  sooner  or  later  than 
what  these  rules  will  give.  The  time  of  the  true 
conjunction  is'  to  be  computed  from  that  of  the 
mean  conjunction  in  the  following  manner.  Find 
by  astronomical  tables  the  places  of  Venus  and 
the  earth  in  the  ecliptic,  m)m  which  we  shall 
have  the  distance  of  the  two  as  seen  from  the 
sun;  compute  also  for  the  same  time  the  an- 
gular motions  of  these  two  planets  for  any  given 
time,  suppose  six  hours ;  the  difference  of  these 
two  motions  will  give  the  access  of  Venus  to  the 
earth,  or  her  recess  from  it  in  six  hours.  As  this 
difference  is  to  the  arc  between  the  places  of 
Venus  and  the  earth  at  the  time  of  a  mean 
conjunction,  so  is  six  hours  to  the  time  between 
the  mean  conjunction  and  the  tru^.  This  time 
added  to,  or  subtracted  from,  the  time  of  the 
mean  conjunction,  according  as  Venus  is  in  an- 
tecedence or  consequence  from  the  earth,  shows 
the  time  of  their  true  conjunction. 

363.  As  to  the  conjunctions,  oppositions,  di- 
lect  and  retrograde  motions,  &c.  of  the  superior 
planets,  they  depend  on  tiie  combinations  ot  their 
motions  wifii  that  of  the  earth,  and  are  more  fre- 
auent  in  Saturn  than  in  Jupiter,  and  in  Jupiter 
than  in  Mars,  but  most  frequent  of  all  in  Uers- 
chel ;  because  the  slower  the  motion  of  the  pla- 
net is,  the  sooner  the  earth  will  overtake  it,  so  as 
to  have  it  again  in  any  given  situation. 

364.  Thus,  suppose  Saturn  to  be  in  coniunc- 
tion  with  the  sun  m  qp,  if  he  were  to  stand  still 
for  one  year,  then  he  would  again  be  in  con- 
junction in  qp ;  but  as  he  goes  on  slowly,  ac- 
cording to  the  order  of  the  signs,  about  12°  an- 
nually, the  earth  must  go  through  almost  13° 
more  than  an  entire  revolution ;  so  that  there  will 
be  almost  a  vear  and  thirteen  days  between  any 
conjunction  between  the  sun  and  Saturn  and  the 
conjunction  immediately  following.  As  Jupiter 
moves  in  his  orbit  with  greater  velocity  than 
Saturn,  the  earth  must  have  a  proportionably 
larger  space  added  to  the  year;  and,  as  Mars 
moves  swifter  still,  the  time  betwixt  any  two  of 
bis  conjunctions  must  be  still  longer.  The  time 
when  a  superior  planet  will  return  into  any 
given  situation  may  be  found  by  the  methods 
Already  laid  down  for  the  inferior  planets ;  and 
the  true  conjunctions,  &c.  may  be  found  in  the 
superior  planets  as  in  the  inferior. 

Sect.  II.  Op  the  Velocity,  Figure,  Motions, 
&c.  OF  THE  Earth. 

365.  The  earth  is  95,173,000  miles  frt>m  the  sun, 
and  goes  round  in  365  days,  five  hours,  forty- 


nine  minutes,  from  any  equinox  or  solstice  to  the 
same  again ;  but  from  any  fixed  star  to  the  same 
again,  as  seen  from  the  sun,  in  365  days,  six 
hours,  nine  minutes;  the  former  being  the  length 
of  the  tropical  year,  and  the  latter  the  length  of 
the  sideraf.  It  traveb  at  the  rate  of  68,000  miles 
every  hour;  a  motion  which,  though  upwards  of 
140  times  swifter  than  that  of  a  cannon  ball,  is 
little  more  than  half  as  swift  as  Mercury*s  mo- 
tion in  his  orbit.  The  earth's  diameter  is  7970 
miles;  and  by  turning  round  its  axis  every 
twenty-four  hours,  from  west  to  east,  it  causes  an 
apparent  diurnal  motion  of  all  Uie  heavenly 
bodies  from  east  to  west.  By  this  rapid  motion 
of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  die  inhabitants  about  the 
equator  are  carried  1042  miles  every  hour,  whilst 
those  on  the  paralld  of  London  are  carried  only 
about  580,  besides  the  68,000  miles  by  the  an- 
nual motion  above-mentioned,  which  is  com- 
mon to  all  places  whatever. 

366.  A  variety  of  circumstances  afford  the 
clearest  evidence  that  the  earth  is  of  a  globular 
figure.  1.  When  we  are  at  sea  on  board  a  ship, 
we  maybe  out  of  sight  of  land,  when  the  land  is 
near  enough  to  be  visible,  if  it  were  not  hid  from 
our  eye  by  the  convexity  of  the  water.  Thus, 
let  A  B  C  D,  fig.  1 1,  plate  VIII.,  represent  a  por- 
tion of  the  globe  of  the  earth.  Let  M  be  the 
top  of  a  mountain,  this  cannot  be  seen  by  a  per- 
son on  board  the  ship  at  B,  because  a  line  drawn 
from  M  to  his  eye  at  £,  is  intercepted  by  the 
convexity  of  the  water ;  but  let  the  snip  come  to 
C,  then  the  mountain  will  be  visible,  oecause  a 
line  may  be  drawn  from  M  to  his  eye  at  £.  2. 
The  higher  the  eye  the  farther  the  view  will  be 
extended.  It  is  very  common  for  sailors  from 
the  top  of  the  mast  of  a  ship,  to  discover  land  or 
ships  at  a  much  greater  distance  than  they  can 
do  when  they  stand  upon  deck.  3.  When  we 
stand  on  shore,  the  highest  part  of  a  ship  is 
visible  at  the  greatest  distance.     If  a  ship  is 

Sdng  from  us  out  to  sea,  we  shall  continue  to  see 
e  mast  after  the  hull  or  body  of  the  ship  disap- 
pears, and  the  top  of  the  mast  will  continue  to 
be  seen  the  longest.  If  a  ship  is  coming  to- 
wards us,  the  top  of  the  mast  comes  first  in  view, 
and  we  see  more  and  more  till  at  last  the  bull 
appears.  If  the  surface  of  the  sea  were  a  flat 
plain,  a  line  might  be  drawn  from  any  object  si- 
tuated upon  it,  aji  the  ship  D,  fig.  12,  plate  VIII. 
to  the  eye,  whether  placed  high  or  low,  at  A  oi 
B.  In  this  case,  any  object  upon  the  earth  oi 
sea  would  be  visible  at  any  distance  which  wa? 
not  so  great  as  to  make  the  appearance  of  it  toe 
faint,  or  the  angle  under  which  it  appears  too 
small,  to  be  seen  by  us.  An  object  would  be 
visible  at  the  same  distance,  whether  the  eye  were 
high  or  low.  Not  the  highest,  but  the  largest, 
objects  would  be  visible  to  the  greatest  distance, 
so  that  we  should  be  able  to  see  the  hulk  of  a 
ship  fiurther  ofi*  than  the  mast. 

367.  4.  Several  navigators,  such  as  Fer- 
dinand Magellan,  Sir  Francis  Drake,  Lord 
Anson,  Captain  Cook,  &c.  have  sailed  round 
the  globe;  not  in  an  exact  circle,  the  land  pre- 
venting them,  but  by  going  in  and  out  9»  the 
shores  happened  to  lie.  5.  All  the  appear- 
ances in  the  heavens  are  the  same,  whether  at 
land  or  sea.     6.  Eclipses  of  the  moon  arise 


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from  the  shadow  of  the  earth,  which  it  alivays 
circular.  Although  the*  earth  presents,  during 
several  hours,  different  portions  of  its  sur&ce  to 
the  moon,  yet  still  the  shadow  is  round.  The 
small  inequalities  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth 
hear  no  kind  of  proportion  to  its  magnitude,  suf- 
ficient to  alter  the  appearance  of  its  shadow. 

368.  7.  The  globular  figure  of  the  earth  is 
also  inferred  from  the  operation  of  levelling,  in 
which  it  is  found  necessary,  to  make  an  allow- 
ance for  the  difference  between  the  apparent  and 
true  level. 

369.  The  earth's  axis  makes  an  angle  of  23|^ 
widi  the  axis  of  its  orbit,  and  its  position  at  any 
time  is  parallel  to  its  position  at  any  other  time. 
Thus  it  points  always  to  the  same  quarter  of  the 
heavens,  throughout  its  annual  course.  That  the 
earth  moves  round  the  sun  may  be  proved, 
beyond  a  doubt,  by  the  following  arguments. 

370.  I.  The  sun  is  found  by  ti^e  most  accurate 
observations,  to  be  immensely  larger  than  the 
earth;  for  his  diameter,  as  seen  by  us,  subtends 
an  angle  of  more  than  30',  but  it  is  certain  that 
the  earth,  were  it  seen  from  the  sun,  would  not 
subtend  a  greater  angle  than  about  17''.  If, 
therefore,  tlie  sun  be  formed  of  materials  not 
very  much  rarer  than  the  earth,  the  quantity  of 
matter  in  the  sun,  must  fer  exceed  the  whole 
mass  of  matter  in  all  the  planets;  and  to  sup- 
pose, that  gravity  retains  all  the  other  planets  m 
their  orbits,  vnthout  affecting  the  earth,  would 
be  as  absurd  as  to  suppose,  that  six  cannon  bul- 
lets might  be  projected  up  to  different  heights  in 
the  air,  and  that  five  of  them  should  fall  to  the 
ground,  but  thUt  the  sixth,  though  neither  the 
highest  nor  the  lowest,  should  remain  suspended 
io  the  air  without  falling,  and  the  earth  move 
round  it. 

371.  There  is  no  such  thing  in  nature  as  a 
heavy  body  moving  round  a  li^t  one  as  its  cen- 
tre of  motion.  A  pebble  fiutened  to  a  mill-stone 
by  a  string,  may,  by  an  easy  impulse,  be  made 
40  circulate  round  the  mill-stone:  but  no  impulse 
can  make  a  mill-stone  circulate  round  a  loose 
pebble;  for  the  mill-stone  would  go  off,  and 
carry  the  pebble  along  with  it.  The  sun  is  so 
very  much  bigger  and  heavier  than  the  earth, 
that,  if  he  were  moved  out  of  his  place,  not  only 
the  earth,  but  all  the  other  planets,  if  they  were 
united  into  one  mass,  would  oe  carried  along  with 
him  as  the  pebble  would  be  with  the  mill-stone. 

372.  II.  If  the  earth  revolve  round  the  sun, 
then  the  analogy  between  the  squares  of  the 
periodic  times  and  the  cubes  of  the  distances, 
will  obtain  in  all  the  bodies  which  circulate 
round  a  common  centre ;  whereas,  this  will  not 
be  the  case  with  respect  to  the  sun  and  moon,  if 
both  turn  round  the  earth. 

373.  III.  Besides  these,  other  proofs  might  be 
^ven ;  but  the  most  complete  proof  of  all,  and 
which  indeed  amounts  to  a  demonstration  is,  the 
aberration  of  the  fixed  stars,  arising  from  the 
progressive  motion  of  light,  combined  with  the 
earth's  annual  motion  round  the  sun :  a  discovery 
made  by  Dr.  Bradley,  and  one  of  the  finest  in 
modem  astronomy. 

374.  By  frequent  observations  of  the  eclipses 
of  Jupiter's  satellites,  it  is  found,  that  light  is 
about  eig^t  minutes  in  moving  firom  the  sun  to 
the  earth.  .  And  since  the  earth  describes  ajbout 


one  degree,  or  3600*,  in  a  day,  or  1440*,  in 

eight  minutes  it  will  describe   20-25"    in  its 

orbit;  therefore  the  velocity  of  light  is  to  the 

velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  as  radius  to  an 

arch  of  twenty  seconds,  or  the  third  part  of  a 

'0002909 
minute,  that  is,  as  one  to r or  -00009697, 

or  as  10300  to  one.  That  is,  the  velocity  oi 
light  is  10300  times  greater  than  the  velocity  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit.  Now  if  AN,  plate  VIII. 
fig.  15,  be  the  way  or  path  of  a  body  in  free 
space,  as  of  a  ray  of  light;  its  apparent  way  on 
a  movable  plane  will  be  different.  For  it  will 
be  that  whicn  is  made  by  the  composition  of  the 
two  motions  of  tlie  body  and  plane.  Thus,  if 
AN  be  described  in  any  time  by  the  body,  and 
N  F  be  described  by  (a  point  in)  the  plane,  in 
the  same  time  as  the  plane  moves  forward  in 
the  direction  N  F  or  AB,  it  leaves  all  the  points 
of  the  fixed  line  AN  behind  it,  all  which  will 
therefore  seem  to  move  backwards  in  the  plane. 
Therefore  make  ND=:NF,  being  taken  back- 
VTards  or  contrary  to  the  motion  of  the  plane; 
and  the  body,  instead  of  going  to  N  in  the  free 
space,  will  seem  to  go  to  D,  in  the  same  time, 
upon  the  movable  plane;  and  therefore  AD  will 
be  the  apparent  path  of  the  body  in  that  plane. 

375.  It  will  be  the  same  thing,  if  we  suppose 
the  plane  fixed,  and  the  body  to  have  the  plane's 
motion  communicated  to  it,  in  a  contrary  direc- 
tion, so  as  the  relative  motion  be  the  same  as 
before.  Thus,  if  the  body  moves  from  B  to  A,  in 
the  same  time  that  it  would  also  move  from  A  to 
N,  then  by  that  compound  motion  it  would  move 
along  the  diagonal  B  N  of  the  parallelogram  whose 
sides  are  B  A,  A  N,  and  in  the  same  time.  There- 
fore rays  of  light  emitted  firom  a  star  in  the  direc- 
tion A  N,  will  fall  upon  the  point  D  of  the  mov- 
ing plane;  that  is,  upon  the  eye  of  the  observer, 
in  the  direction  A  D :  and  an  observer  at  D  will 
suppose  the  star  situated  in  the  line  DA.  If  B N 
be  parallel  to  AD,  and  the  point  D  translated  to 
N  in  the  same  time;  an  observer  at  N  will  sup- 
pose the  star  situated  in  the  line  BN;  making  the 
angle  BN F  or  AD F  less  than  AN  F,  the  angle 
it  would  appear  under  if  the  plane  were  at  rest. 
So  that  the  angle  of  elevation  BNF,  above  the 
line  of  direction  N£,  of  the  observer,  is  less 
than  before,  being  taken  on  the  side  of  F,  towards 
which  the  observer  moves.  The  observer,  in- 
stead of  seeing  the  star  at  A,  its  real  place,  wiir 
see  it  at  B,  its  apparent  place;  but  if  the  ob- 
server moves  from  F  to  N  and  D,  and  B  be  the 
real  place  of  the  star,  its  apparent  place  would 
be  at  A  to  an  observer  at  N. 

376.  The  apparent  place  B  is  always  in  the 
plane  of  aberration,  drawn  through  the  way  of 
the  observer  NF,  and  the  line  N  A  drawn  from 
the  observer  to  the  real  place  of  the  star;  for  AB 
being  parallel  to  NF,  is  in  the  plane  AD NF. 
The  angle  B  N  A  or  N  A  D  is  the  angle  of  aberra- 
tion; by  the  quantity  of  this  angle  the  star  is 
depressed,  in  going  towards  it;  or  raised  in 
gomg  from  it.  In  the  triangle  AN  D ;  AN  :  N  D 
: :  S.ADN  :  S.NAD;  and  AN  and  ND  being 
given;  the  S  .NAD  the  aberration  will  be  as  the 
S.ADN.  Because  AN  is  10,300  times  greater 
than  ND:  the  S.NAD  does  not  differ  from  its 
■  arch  or  angle;  whence,  the  angle  of  aberration 
NAD  or  ANB  is  always  as  the  nne  of  the  angle 


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ADN,  or  ANFy  which  are  nearly  equal,  and 
which  may  be  called  the  angle  of  the  earth's 
way.  Hence  the  angle  of  aberration  ANB  is 
greatest,  when  AN  is  perpendicular  to  ND;  and 
becomes  nothing  when  AN  F  is  nothing.  Since 
AN  is  to  N  D,  as  radius  to  20";  when  AN  is  per- 
pendicular to  N  Dy  the  angle  N  A  D  or  A  N  B  will 
be  20*25",  which  is  the  gr&test  it  can  be.  In 
other  cases,  as  radius  to  S,  angle  of  the  earth's 
way  AN  F : :  so  20*25",  to  the  aberration,  answer- 
ing to  that  angle;  which  angle  is  always  taken  in 
the  plane  of  aberration  ADNF. 

377.  In  Plate  VIII.  fig.  7,  let  BCD E  be  the 
earth's  orbit,  S  the  sun,  A  or  Q  a  star,  N  any 
place  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit.  Through  the  star 
A  draw  the  circle  AH  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic,  and  draw*  KSBH,  and  ESC  per- 
pendicular to  it,  or  parallel  to  the  tangent  at  B. 
Draw  the  tangent  N  d,  and  draw  N I  towards  the 
star,  and  make  NI  to  Ncf  as  the  velocity  of  light 
to  that  of  the  earth,  or  as  10,300  to  one,  and  draw 
d  I  which  leads  to  the  apparent  place  of  the  star; 
and  suppose  D  A,  S  A  parallel  to  <f  I,  N I ;.  then 
DA  will  also  lead  to  the  apparent  place  of  the 
star.  Draw  SFG  perpenaicular  to  SN,  or  par- 
allel to  N  d.  Then  will  I N  cf  be  the  plane  of  aber- 
ration. This  plane  continually  changes  its  situ- 
ation, revolving  round  the  sun  in  a  year  along' 
with  the  tangent  'Sd.  .  Since  AS,  SF  are  par* 
allel  to  IN,  N/,  ASF  is  equal  to  I N/,  and  ASF 
is  equal  to  the  angle  of  the  eardi's  way.  Hence  the 
plane  ASF  may  be  taken  for  the  plane  of  aber- 
ration, which  continually  turns  round  the  line 
AS,  as  the  earth  revolves  about  the  sun;  the  line 
S  F  being  always  in  quadrature  with  the  earth  at  N. 

378.  Let  the  earth  be  at  E,  then  the  plane  of 
aberration  ASB  will  be  perpendicular  to  the 
ecliptic ;  and  the  angle  of  the  earth's  way  A'S  B 
is  tne  least  that  it  can  be,  and  the  angle  of'  the 
aberration  the  least.  Whilst  the  earth  moves  to 
B,  the  angle  of  the  earth's  way,  and  of  aberra- 
tion increases,  and  at  B  the  plane  of  aberration 
is  AC  S,  and  the  angle  of  the  earth's  way  A  S  C, 
a  right  angle,  which  is  the  greatest  it  can  be; 
therefore  the  angle  of  aberration  is  the  greatest 
possible.  While  the  earth  moves  to  C,  the  an- 
gles of  the  earth's  way  and  aberration  decrease 


again,  and  at  C  are  the  l«>ast;  and  in  moving  to 
K  they  increase  again  to  K,  where  they  are  great- 
est. From  K  to  E  they  diminish  again,  where 
they  are  least 

379.  It  is  evident  then,  that  whilst  the  earth 
is  at  E  moving  towards  N,  the  star's  apparent 
place  is  at  c  lower  than  A ;  at  B  moving  towards 
r ,  it  appears  at  b  forward.    When  the  earth  is  at 
C,  the  star  appears  at  c  above  A.  And  when  the 
esirth  is  at  K,  the  star  is  seen  at  k,  having  gone 
backward.    Hence  the  apparent  place  of  a  star 
describes  a  small  ellipsis  in  a  year,  about  the 
true  place  of  the  star  in  its  centre,  whose  trans- 
verse axis  is  parallel  to  the  ecliptic;  and  lesser 
axis  perpendicular  to  it.    This  ellipsis  is  bckCj 
answering  to  places  of  the  earth  at  B,  C,  K,  E. 
And  the  points  /c,  c,  ky  e,  answer  respectively  to 
the  points  C,  K,  E,  B,  where  the  plane  of  aber- 
ration cuts  the  ecliptic,  being  ninety  degrees 
before  the  earth,  or  ninety  degrees  behind  the  sun. 

380.  This  phenomenon,  the  apparent  change 
of  place  in  celestial  objects,  arising  from  the  com- 
bined motions  of  the  earth  and  the  light  from 
those  objects,  is  one  of  the  most  curious  and  im- 
portant discoveries  of  modem  times.  We  are 
mdebted  for  it  to  Bradley,  who,  as  has  been  well 
observed,  ^  swept  the  ground  of  astronomicaL 
discovery,  and  left  little  to  be  gathered  by  those 
that  followed  him.' 

381.  The  following  formulas  represent  the  effect 
of  aberration  on  any  fixed  stars,  ooth  in  right  as- 
cension and  declination,  /i  representing  20-25"  the 
quantity  found  above  for  the  maximum  effed  of 
aberration,  a  and  d  the  right  ascension  and  declv* 
nation  of  Uie  star,  w  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  < 
and  0  the  sun's  longitude. 

Aberration  in  right  ascension  :=  ^  /«. 

{sin.  0  sin.  a  •{-  cos.  0 cos  a  cos  w  sec.  i,  \ 

Aberration  in  declination  =  ^  fi« 

Isin.  0  COS.  a  .  sin.  2— cos.  0  (sin.  a  .  cos. «». 

sin.  J— sin.  w.cos.  i.)\ 

By  the  following  tables,  deduced  firoxn  these 
formulae,  the  effect  of  the  aberration  on  the  right 
ascension  and  declination  of  any  fixed  star  may 
readily  be  computed. 


382.  TABLE  I. 

383 

1.  TABLE 

IL 

ARGUMENT. 

ARGUMENT. 

For  Abcr.  in  R.  A. 

, 

For  Aber.  in  R.  A. 

*-R.A.  —  0-long. 

*.R.A.  H-©.long. 

For  Aber.  in  Declin. 

For  Aber.  in  Declin. 

*'  R.  A.  -f-  90°— 0Mong. 

*-R.A. -h  30° -f- 0' long. 

Signs. 

Signs.                                            1 

0.     VI. 

I.   vn. 

n.  VIII. 

0.     VI. 

I.    VII.    j    II    VIII. 

1 
1 

-     -h 

-    + 

-    + 

+     - 

+     - 

+    — 

0° 

19-ir 

16-60* 

9-59" 

30° 

0° 

0-83" 

0-72" 

0-41- 

30^ 

5 

19-10 

15-71 

810 

25 

5 

0-82 

0-67 

0-35 

25 

10 

18.88- 

14-69 

6-56 

20 

10 

0-83 

0-63 

0-28 

20 

15 

18-52 

13-56 

4-96 

15 

15 

0-80 

0-58 

0-^9 

15 

1 

20 

1802 

12-32 

3-33 

10 

20 

0-78 

0-53 

0-14 

lO 

25 

17-38 

11-00 

1-67 

5 

25 

0-75 

0-47 

0-O7 

5   \ 

30 

16-60 

9.59 

0-00 

0 

30 

0-72 

0-41 

OOO 

O 

-, 

-     + 

-     + 

-     + 

+     - 

+     - 

+      — 

xr.   V. 

X.    IV. 

I 

IX.   III. 

XI.    V. 

X.     IV. 

IX.    ni. 

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384 

I.  TABLE 

in. 

ARGUMENT. 

For  part  2d  of  Aber.  in  Dedin. 

0«  long.  +  *•  Declin. 

For  part  3d  of  Aber.  in  Declin. 

0»  Long.  —  *  •  Declin. 

Signs. 

0.     VI. 

I.    VII. 

II.  VIII. 

-     + 

-     + 

-   + 

0° 

3-98" 

3-45'' 

i'9r 

30° 

6 

3-97 

3-26 

1-68 

85 

10 

3-92 

305 

1-36 

20 

15 

3-85 

2-82 

1-03 

15 

20 

3-74, 

2-56 

0-69 

10 

25 

3-61 

2-28 

0-35 

5 

30 

3-45 

1-99 

000 

0 

-     + 

-     -f 

-     +. 

' 

xr.  V. 

X.     IV. 

IX.  in. 

385.  To  find  from  theie  tablet  the  aberration 
oj  a  $tar  at  right  aacentUm4 — ^To  the  Ipgahthms  of 
the  turn  or  difference  of  the  equations  from 
tables  I  and  II,  answering  to  the  proper  argu- 
ments, add  the  longitude  east  of  the  starts  de> 
clination,  and  the  sum  will  be  the  logarithms  of 
the  aberration  in  right  ascension. 

386.  To  find  the  aberration  of  a  star  in  decli^ 
nation. — Find  the  sum  or  difference  of  the  equa- 
tions answering  to  the  former  arguments,  in- 
creased by  90^,  to  the  logarithm  of  which  add 
the  logarithm  sine  of  the  star's  declination,  and  the 
sum  will  be  the  logarithm  of  the  first  part  of  the 
aberration.  Take  parts  second  and  third  from 
table  III,  and  these  applied  to  the  former,  will 
give  the  aberration  in  declination.  If  the  de- 
clination is  south,  change  the  sign  of  parts  2d 
and  3d. 

387.  The  strongest  objection  that  can  be  made 
against  the  earth's  moving  round  the  sun  like  the 
other  planets,  is,  that,  in  opposite  points  of  the 
earth's  orbit,  its  aiis,  which  always  keeps  a  paral- 
lel direction,  would  point  to  different  fued  stars; 
which  is  not  found  to  be  £eu^.  But  this  objec- 
tion is  easily  removed,  by  considering  the  im- 
mense distance  of  the  stars  in  respect  of  the  dia- 
meter of  the  earth's  orbit;  the  latter  being  no 
more  than  a  point  when  compared  to  the  former. 
If  we  lay  a  ruler  on  the  side  of  a  table,  and  along 
the  edge  of  the  ruler  view  the  top  of  a  spire  at 
ten  miles  distance;  then  lay  the  ruler  on  tne  op- 
posite side  of  the  table  in  a  parallel  situation  to 
what  it  had  before,  and  the  spire  will  still  appear 
along  the  edge  of  the  ruler;  because  our  eyes, 
even  when  assisted  by  the  best  instruments,  are 
incapable  of  distinguishing  so  small  a  change 
at  so  great  a  distance.  As  the  apparent  places 
of  the  stars,  therefore,  correspona  with  this  the- 
ory, the  motion  of  the  earth  and  the  motion  of 
light  are  both  determined. 

388.  In  fact,  we  find  that  the  sun,  and  those 
planets  on  v^hich  there  are  visible  spots,  turn 
round  their  axes :  for  the  spots  in  general  move 


regularly  over  their  disks,  allowing  for  the  vari- 
ations already  taken  notice  of.  Hence  we  may 
reasonably  conclude,  that  the  other  planets,  on 
which  we  see  no  spots,  and  the  earth,  which  is 
likewise  a  planet,  have  such  rotations.  But 
being  incapable  of  leaving  the  earth  to  view  it  at  a 
distance,  and  its  rotation  being  smooth  and. uni- 
form, we  can  neither  see  it  move  on  its  axis,  as 
we  do  the  planets,  nor  feel  ourselves  affected 
by  its  motion.  Yet  there  is  one  effect  of  such 
motion,  which  will  enable  us  to  judge  with 
certainty  whether  the  earth  revolves  on  its  axis 
or  not. 

389.  All  globes  which  do  not  turn  round  their 
axes,  vrill  be  perfect  spheres,  on  account  of  the 
equality. of  tne  weight  of  bodies  on  their  sur- 
faces; especially  of  the  fluid  parts.  But  all 
globes,  which  turn  on  their  axes  will  be  oblate 
spheroides;  that  is,  their  surfaces  will  be  higher 
or  forther  from  <he  centre  in  the  equatorial  than 
in  the  polar  regions :  for,  as  the  equatorial  parts 
move  quickest,  they  will  recede  farthest  from  th^ 
axis  of  motion,  and  enlarge  the  equatorial  dia- 
meter. That  our  earth  is  really  of  this  figure,  is 
demonstrable  from  the  unequal  vibrations  of  a 
pendulum,  and  the  unequal  lengths  of  degrees  in 
different  latitudes.  Since  then,  the  earth  is 
higher  at  the  equator  than  at  the  poles,  the  sea, 
which  natiually  runs  downward,  or  towards  the 
places  which  are  nearest  the  centre,  would  run 
towards  the  polar  regions,  and  leave  the  equa- 
torial parts  dry,  if  the  centrifugal  force  of  these 
parts,  by  which  the  waters  were  carried  thither, 
did  not  keep  them  from  returning.  The  earth's 
equatorial  diameter  is  thirty  six-miles  longer  than 
its  axis. 

390.  One  phenomenon,  called  the  precession 
of  the  Equinoxes,  depending  on  this  peculiarity 
of  form  in  the  figure  of  the  earth,  has  been 
noticed  from  the  early  ages  of  astronomy.  The 
pole  of  the  celestial  equator  appears  to  move 
with  a  slow  and  nearly  uniform  motion  round 
the  pole  of  the  ecliptic ;  while  the  intersections 
of  the  equator  and  ecliptic  move  backward  on 
die  ecliptic,  with  a  motion  neariy  uniform. 
This  motion  is  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  in  seventy- 
tWQ  years,  or  more  accurately  50*2'  in  a  year; 
consequently  the  su^  returns  again  to  the  same 
equinoctial  point  before  he  has  completed  his 
revolution  in  the  ecliptic,  whence  the  origin  of 
the  term  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  In  con^ 
sequence  of  this  apparent  motion  all  the  fixed 
stars  increase  their  longitude  50*2"  in  a  year, 
and  also  change  their  rig^t  ascensions  and  de-» 
clinations,  but  their  latitudes  are  not  affected. 
The  period  of  the  revolution  of  the  celestial 
equinoctial  pole,  round  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic, 
is  nearly  26,000  years. 

391.  The  north  celestial  pole  therefore,  about 
13,000  years  hence,  will  be  nearly  49°  firom  the 
present  polar  star ;  and  about  10000  years  hence 
the  bright  star  a,  Syrac,  will  be  within  5®  of  the 
north  pole.  This  star  therefore,  which  now  in 
these  latitudes  passes  the  meridian  within  a  f^w 
degrees  of  the  zenith,  will  then  remain  nearly 
stationary  with  respect  to  the  horizon.  This 
motion  of  the  celestial  pole  arises  from  the  at- 
traction of  the  sun  and  moon  on  the  excess  of 
matter  at  the  equatorial  parts  of  the  earth. 


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ASTRONOMY. 


392.  The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  b  not 
entirely  unifonn,  for  a  small  inequality  in  the 
precession,  and  change  in  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  depends  on  the  position  of  the  moon's 
nodes.  The  intersections  of  its  orbit  with  the 
ecliptic  were  discovered  by  Bradley,  and  have  since 
been  confirmed  by  Physical  Astronomy.  The 
precession  of  the  equinoxes  was  first  discovered 
by  Hipparchus.  As  the  quantity  of  it  is  so 
perceptible  in  a  hundred  years,  a  comparison  of 
the  positions  of  the  circles  of  the  sphere  as  re^ 
corded  in  early  times,  and  of  their  positions  now, 
has  been  used  to  assbt  chronology. 

393.  Even  the  inclination  of  the  equator  and 
ecliptic  have  been  shovm  by  observation  to  be  va- 
riable, and  it  is  remarkable  that  from  the  date  of 
the  earliest  observations  that  inclination  has  been 
diminishing.  If  it  should  continue  to  do  so  till  the 
two  circles  coincided,  a  most  important  change 
would  be  effected  in  the  phenomenon  attending 
the  earth's  annual  and  aiumal  revolutions,  as 
the  days  would  everywhere  be  of  the  same 
length,  and  the  seasons  would  not  alter  with  the 
times  of  the  year.  But  we  learn  from  the  prin- 
ciples of  physical  astronomy,  that  this  change  in 
the  obliouity  will  never  exceed  a  certain  limit, 
which  when  it  reaches,  it  will  return  again,  os- 
cillating by  a  small  quantity  on  each  side  of 
Its  mean  state.  We  learn  from  physical  as- 
tronomy too,  that  by  this  action  the  ecliptic  is 
progressive  on  the  equator,  about  14*  in  a 
century.  The  sun  also  according  to  his  place 
in  the  ecliptic  produces  a  small  inequality  in 
the  precession,  never  amounting  to  more  than 

ir. 

394.  If  d  =  the  declination  of  a  star,  and  a  = 
its  right  ascension,  then  the  following  formuln 
will  express  neariy  the  annual  variations  of  a 
and  6,  arising  from  precession  :  20-084"  x  cos. 
a  ^  the  annual  precession  in  declination,  and 
460619  +  20-084" X  sin. a  x  tan.  <2  =  the  an* 
nual  precession  in  right  ascension. 

395.  From  these  expressions,  the  following  table 
has  been  constructed  for  determining,  by  inspec- 
tion, the  annual  precession  for  any  star. 


Rt.A8cenBionof 

Ann.  Prec«wion. 

RU  Aicension  of 

* 

* 

+       - 

+       - 

(f     180* 

•70" 

180*     360* 

10       190 

3-47 

170    •  350 

20       SOO 

6-84 

160       340 

30      210 

10-00 

150      330 

.     40      220 

12-85 

140       320 

1     50       230 

15-31 

ISO       310 

1     60      240 

17-31 

120       300 

70       250 

18-78 

110       290 

80      260 

19-69 

100       280 

90      270 

19-99 

90       270 

1 

USS   OF  THE   ABOVE  TaBLES. 

396.  Take  the  number  opposite  the  star*s  right 
ascension,  multiply  it  by  the  natural  tangent  of 
die  star's  declination,  and  add  the  product  to 
46*0619  for  the   annual   precession    in   ri^ 


ascension.  Again  add  90*  to  the  star's  right 
ascension,  and  with  the  sum  as  an  argumeit 
enter  the  table,  and  the  corresponding  number 
will  be  the  annual  precession  in  declination 
If  tne  declination  is  south,  the  signs  of  the 
numbers  in  the  table  must  be  changed,  both  in 
finding  the  precession  or  right  ascension  and 
declination. 

397.  It  is  found  that  bodies  near  the  poles  are 
heavier  than  those  towards  the  equator,  because 
they  are  nearer  the  earth's  centre,  where  the  whole 
force  of  the  earth's  attraction  is  accumulated. 
They  are  also  heavier,  because  their  centrifugal 
force  is  less,  on  account  of  their  diurnal  motion 
being  slower.  For  both  these  reasons,  bodies  car- 
ried from  the  poles  towards  the  equator  gradually 
lose  their  weight.  Experiments  prove  that  a 
pendulum,  which  vibrates  seconds  near  the  poles, 
vibrates  slower  near  the  equator,  which  shows 
that  it  b  lighter  or  less  attracted  there.  To  make 
it  oscilbite  in  the  same  time,  it  is  found  necessary 
to  diminish  its  length.  By  comparing  the  different 
lengths  of  peudulums  swinging  seconds  at  the 
equator  ana  at  London,  it  is  found  that  a  pendu- 
lum must  be  2^  lines  (or  12th  parts  of  an  inch) 
shorter  at  the  equator  than  at  the  poles. 

398.  A  person  on  the  earth  can  no  more  be 
sensible  of  its  undisturbed  motion  on  its  axis,  than 
one  in  the  cabin  of  a  ship  on  smooth  water  can  be 
sensible  of  the  ship's  motion,  when  it  turns  gently 
and  uniformly  round.  It  is  therefore  no  argu- 
ment against  the  earth's  diurnal  motion,  that  we 
do  not  feel  it ;  nor  are  the  apparent  revolutions 
of  the  celestial  bodies  every  day,  a  proof  of  the 
reality  of  these  motions;  for  whether  we  or  they 
revolve,  the  appearance  is  the  very  same.  A  per- 
son looking  through  the  cabin  windows  of  a  snip, 
as  strongly  fancies  the  objects  on  land  to  go  round 
when  the  ship  turns,  as  if  they  actually  did  so. 

399.  The  other  common  objections  against  the 
'earth's  motion  on  its  axis,  are  easily  answered. 

Some  imagine,  that  if  the  earth  turns  eastward, 
as  it  certainly  does  if  it  turns  at  all,  a  ball  fired 
perpendicularly  upward  in  the  air  should  foil 
considerably  westward  of  the  place  it  was  pro- 
jected from.  This  objection  will  be  found  toha?e 
no  weight,  if  we  consider  that  the  gun  and  ball 
partake  of  the  earth's  motion ;  and  therefore  the 
iNdl  being  carried  forward  with  the  air  as  quick 
as  the  ea^  and  air  turn,  must  fall  down  on  the 
same  place.  A  stone  let  fidl  from  the  top  of  a 
main-mast,  if  it  meets  with  no  obstacle,  falls  oa 
the  deck  as  near  the  foot  of  tlie  mast  when  the 
ship  sails  as  when  it  does  not. 

400.  As  for  those  scriptural  expressions  which 
seem  to  contradict  the  earth's  motion,  this  gene- 
ral answer  may  be  made  to  them  all,  ^at  the 
scriptures  were  never  intended  to  instruct  us  in 
philosophy  or  astronomy;  and  therefore,  on  these 
subjects,  expressions  are  not  always  to  be  taken 
in  me  literal  sense,  but  for  the  most  part  as  ac- 
commodated to  the  common  apprehensions  of 
mankind.  Men  of  sense  in  all  ages,  when  not 
treating  of  the  sciences  purposely,  have  used 
common  language ;  and  it  would  be  absurd  to 
adopt  any  other  in  addressing  the  majority  of 
mankmd. 

401.  We  have  said  above,  that  die  axis  of  the 
earth  preserves  always  the  same  parallel  position ; 


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145 


but  this  must  be  understood  with  a  slight  limita- 
tion. Bradley  foand  that  the  axis  of  the  earth 
made  a  sort  of  conical  revolution  round  the  mean 
place  of  the  pole,  the  earth's  centre  being  the 
apex  of  the  cone,  and  the  diameter  of  the  base 
about  18*.  With  that  admirable  sagacity  for 
which  he  was  not  less  remarkable  than  for  his 
accuracy  and  &ithfulness  as  an  obsenrer,  he 
clearly  traced  this  most  curious  phenomena  to  its 
cause,  which  is  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
when  out  of  the  equator,  and  the  protuberant 
equatorial  parts  of  the  earth.  This  correction, 
which  is  called  the  Nutation  of  the  earth's  axis, 
goes  through  all  its  variations  with  respect  to  the 
moon  in  about  eighteen  years,  the  period  of  the 
revolution  of  the  moon's  nodes,  ana  with  respect 
to  ^e  sun  in  a  year ;  but  the  maximum  effect 
of  the  sun's  action  nearly  amounts  to  half  a  se> 
cond. 

402.  In  strictness,  however,  the  curve  of  nu- 
tation is  not  a  circle  but  an  ellipse,  whose  axes 
according  to  the  best  observations,  are  about  18* 
and  13-4".  If  Q  denote  the  longitude  of  the 
moon's  node,  r  the  right  ascension  of  a  star  or 
planet,  and  d  its  declination ;  then  the  effect  of 
the  sun's  nutation  on  the  right  ascension  and  de- 
clination will  be  expressed  by  the  following  for- 
mulae ;  viz.  the  nutation  and  declination : 

rzT-eS*  X  sin.r—  ^  4-  115*  X  sin  r  +  ft, 
and  the  nutation  in  right  ascension.  :=  (7*85*  X 

sin.  r—  ft  —  90"  -h  116"  sin.  r  4-  ft— 90**) 
+  tan  d^lS'AZ'  sin  ft. 

403.  From  these  expressions,  the  following 
tables  have  been  computed  for  finding  the  effect 
of  the  lunar  nutation  on  the  right  ascension  and 
derlination  of  any  celestial  object : 


404. 

TABLE  I 

A 
For  Ntttati 

For  Kal 

LR6UMENT. 
on  in  Right  A 

•oenaion. 
nation. 

tation  in  Decll 

r  +  90°-ft 

Signs. 

0.    VI. 

I.     VU. 

-     + 

II.  VIII. 

-     + 

0** 

5 
10 
15 
20 

30 

8-30 
8-20 
805 
7-83 
7-55 
7*21 

7-21" 

6-82 

6-38 

5-89 

5-35 

4-78 

416 

416" 

3-52 

2-85 

215 

1-45 

0-73 

000 

30° 

25 

20 

15 

10 
5 
0 

XI.    V. 

X.    IV. 

IX.  in. 

Vo 

I.  III. 

405.  TABLE  II. 


ARGUMENT. 

For  Nutation  in  Right  Ascension. 


r-ft 

For  Nutation  in  Declination. 


r+  90°  4-  8 


Signs. 


O.    VI. 

-     -h 


I.    VII. 


II.  VIII. 


1-22" 

1-21 

1-20 

118 

115 

111 

106 


XI.    V. 


106" 
100 
0-93 
0-86 
0-78 
0-70 
0-61 


X.    IV. 


0-61" 

0-52 

0-42 

0-32 

0-21 

Oil 

000 


IX.  III. 


30° 
25 
20 
15 
10 
5 
0 


406. 

TABLE  III. 

Equation  of  Equinoxes  in  Right  Ascension. 

ARGUMENT. 

S^ 

Signs. 

\ 

0.     VI. 

I.    VII. 

II.  VIIL 

-    4- 

-     + 

-     + 

0° 

0-0" 

8-2" 

14-2" 

30° 

5 

1-4 

9-4 

14-8 

25 

10 

2-8 

10-5 

15-4 

20 

15 

4-2 

11-6 

15-8 

15 

20 

5-6 

12-5 

161 

10 

25 

6-9 

13-4 

16-3 

5 

30 

8-2 

14-2 

16-2 

0 

•f      1 

•f      1 

+      1 

XI.    V. 

X.     IV. 

IX.   III. 

Use  OF  THE  ABOVE  Tables. 
407.  To  the  logarithm  of  the  sum  or  differ- 
ence of  the  equations  from  tables  I.  and  II.,  an- 
swering to  their  proper  arguments,  add  the  loga- 
rithm tangent  of  the  star's  declination,  and  the 
sum  will  be  the  logarithm  of  part  first  of  the  nu- 
tation, or  right  ascension  it  the  declination  is 
north.  If  it  is  south,  change  the  sign  and  apply 
the  equation  from  table  III.,  and  tlie  sum  or  ait- 
ference  will  be  the  nutation  or  right  ascension. 
Increase  the  arguments  in  tables  I.  and  II.  each 

L 


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ASTRONOMY. 


by  90!^,  and  the  sum  or  difference  of  the  corres- 
ponding difference  of  the  equations  taken  from 
those  tables,  will  be  the  nutation  or  declination. 

408.  The  annual  motion  of  the  earth  has  been 
effectually  confirmed  by  an  argument  drawn  from 
the  progressive  motion  of  light;  and  from  the 
same  consideration  the  truth  of  the  diurnal  mo- 
tion may  be  completely  established. 

409.  In  consequence  of  the  progressive  motion 
of  light,  the  apparent  place  of  a  &ed  star  is  east 
of.  its  true  place,  and  the  difference  is  proporti- 
onal to  the  cosine  of  the  star's  declination ;  this 
displacement  of  the  fixed  stars  has  changed,  be- 
cause of  the  precession  of  the  equinoctial  points. 
Therefore,  if  the  diurnal  revolution  of  the  heavens 
were  a  real  motion,  the  whole  heavens  must  have 
changed  their  appearance;  and  the  respective 
positions  of  the  stars  must  be  very  different  now, 
from  what  they  were  in  the  time  of  Hipparchus. 
A  star  which  is  now  near  the  vernal  equinox,  must 
have  changed  its  apparent  distance,  at  least  5** 
from  another  ecliptical  star  which  is  60°  east  from 
it  Nay,  it  is  highly  probable  that  no  zodiacal 
star  could  be  ever  visible ;  such  would  have  been 
the  direction  that  the  rays  of  light  must  have 
taken,  because  of  their  own  proper  motion  being 
compounded  with  that  of  the  star,  whose  velocity 
must  have  been  exceedingly  great,  by  reason  of 
its  distance  from  the  poles  of  the  motion.  But 
since  no  such  remarkable  displacement  of  the 
stars  has  been  observed,  we  may  conclude,  that 
the  cause  which  would  have  produced  it,  has  no 
existence;  and  that  the  revolutions  of  the  heavens 
is  not  a  real,  but  only  an  apparent  motion. 

410.  The  annual  and  diurnal  motions  of  the 
earth,  together  with  the  different  lengths  of  days 
and  nights,  and  all  the  beautifiil  variety  of  sea- 
sons, depending  on  those  motions,  may  be  thus 
illustrated. 

411 .  In  plate  X,  fig.  5.  let  FG  H I  be  the  earth, 
O  its  centre;  and  let  it  revolve  about  an  axis 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  figure,  in  the 
order  I F  G  H  ;  that  is,  from  west  to  east  Let 
A  be  the  sun,  draw  AF  O  H  C,  and  G  O  I  per- 
pendicular to  it :  let  a  spectator  be  at  I ;  then 
since  the  tangent  at  I  (which  represents  the  ho- 
rizon) will  be  parallel  to  A  F  H,  and  A  at  an  im- 
mense distance,  they  will  nearly  meet  in  A,  and 
the  sun  at  A  will  be  rising  in  the  horizon  at  I. 
As  the  earth  moves  round,  the  spectator  is  car- 
ried towards  F,  and  the  sun  at  A  seems  to  rise 
higher  and  higher ;  and  when  the  spectator  is 
arrived  at  F,  then  the  sun  is  at  the  highest.  As 
the  earth  still  turns  round,  and  the  spectator  is 
carried  from  F  towards  G,  the  son  appears  to  de- 
scend, as  if  it  moved  towards  D ;  and  when  the 
spectator  is  arrived  at  G,  then  the  snn  appears  in 
the  tangent  at  G;  that  is,  in  the  horizon  at  G; 
and  therefore  the  sun  is  setting.  Afterwards,  all 
the  time  the  spectator  is  moved  through  G  H  I, 
the  sun  appears  under  the  horizoD,  till  it  comes 
at  I,  where  the  sun  seems  to  rise  again. 

412.  Thus  it  is  evident,  that  while  the  specta- 
tor is  carried  through  the  illuminated  half  of  the 
earth  I  F  G,  it  is  day  light ;  at  the  middle  point 
F,  it  is  noon  day ;  at  the  dark  hemisphere  G  H  I, 
it  is  niglit ;  and  at  H,  it  is  midnight  And  thus 
the  vicissitude  of  day  and  night  appears,  by  the 
rotation  of  the  earth  about  its  axis.    What  has 


been  said  of  the  sun  is  equally  true  of  the  moon, 
or  any  star  placed  at  A.  And  therefore  all  the 
celestial  booies  seem  to  rise  and  set  by  turns,  one 
after  another,  according  to  their  various  situations. 
For  let  A,  B,  C,  D  be  four  stars ;  when  the  spec- 
tator is  atl,  the  star  A  rises ;  and  when  at  G,  it 
sets.  When  the  spectator  is  at  F,  B  rises;  and 
when  he  is  at  H,  it  sets.  When  he  is  at  G,  C 
rises ;  and  when  at  I,  it  sets.  When  the  spec- 
tator is  at  H,  D  rises;  and  when  at  F,  it  sets. 

413.  Henoe  it  is  the  very  same  thing,  as  to 
the  diurnal  motions,  whether  the  earth  moves 
uniformly  about  its  axis,  while  the  heavens  stand 
still;  or  whether  the  heavens  move  uniformly 
round,  while  the  earth  stands  still ;  the  pheno- 
mena being  exactly  the  same  either  way.  For 
whether  the  spectator  move  uniformly  in  the  arch 
I  F,  fit>in  west  to  east,  whilst  A  is  fixed ;  or  A 
moves  uniformly  in  the  arch  A  D,  from  east  to 
west,  whilst  J  is  fixed  ;  the  same  angle  will  be 
described,  and  therefore  the  altitude  of  A,  above 
the  horizon,  will  be  tlie  same  either  way. 

Sect.  III. — Of  the  Seasons. 

414.  To  explain  the  causes  of  the  various  sea- 
sons in  plate  Vll.  fig.  10,  let  (^  ®  ^  Vf  ^  ^^ 
earth's  orbit,  and  S  the  sun.  This  orbit  is  so 
small  with  respect  to  the  distance  of  the  fixed 
stars,  that  the  same  aspect  of  the  heavens  will 
appear,  whether  a  nan  be  placed  in  the  earth  or 
in  the  sun.  If  the  earth  be  at  qp,  a  spectator  will 
see  the  sun  in  ^  ;  when  the  earth  comes  to  ^ , 
he  will  see  the  sun  in  m  ;  and  the  sun  will  appear 
to  have  moved  through  ^  m-  Whilst  the  earth 
is  moving  to  n,  the  sun  will  seem  to  pass  through 
ni  t ;  and  a  person  in  the  earth  observes  the 
sun  to  go  through  the  same  space  in  the  heavens, 
that  a  spectator  at  the  sun  would  see  the  earth 
go  through ;  and  as  he  is  not  sensible  of  the 
earth's  motion,  he  ascribes  that  motion  to  the  sun, 
which  in  reality  is  unmoved.  Hence,  because  the 
relative  motion  is  the  same,  whether  of  the  two 
is  moved,  and  all  effects  are  the  same  as  to  their 
places ;  astronomers  generally  suppose  the  sun  to 
move  along  the  ecliptic^  describing  its  orbit 
round  the  earth  at  rest. 

415.  Let  N  £  A  Q  be  the  earth,  N  A  be  iu 
axis,  N  the  north  pole,  A  the  souUi ;  £  Q  the 
equinoctial,  and  P  n,  a  parallel  of  latitude  pass- 
ing through  any  place.    Draw  a  plane  G  np  I 
perpendicular  to  Vj'  S  q^,  which  divides  the  illu- 
minated hemisphere  from  the  dark  one.  The  axis 
N  A  is  inclinea  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  or 
earth's  orbit,  in  an  angle  of  66|*^ :  and  during 
the  earth's  motion  in  its  orbit  the  axis  always 
remains  in  a  parallel  position,  or  pointing  to  the 
same   star.     The  earth  also  moves  unifonnly 
round  this  axis ;   and  describes  equal  arches  in 
equal  times.    Now  let  the  earth  be  at  ^  ;  in 
this  position,  the  circle  dividing  the  light  and 
dark  hemispheres  passes  through  the  poles  N  and 
A,  and  divides  all  the  parallels  as  P  R  into  two 
equal  parts ;  therefore  any  point  in  that  parallel, 
as  the  earth  revolves  round,  will  stay  as  long  in 
the  light  hemisphere  as  in  the  dark;  that   is, 
the  days  and  nights  are  equal.    As  it  moves  to 
nif  the  pole  N  comes  into  the  light  hemisphere, 
by  reason  of  the  oblique  position  of  the  axis  N  A  ; 
and  as  it  proceeds  to  f  and  yf,  the  light. hem  is- 


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phere  reaches  farther  and  farther  beyond  N,  till 
coming^  to  yf ,  it  is  at  the  fertbest.  reaching  to  G, 
and  making  the  arch  N  G  23|^  the  complement 
of  N  yf  S,  or  66^''.  Then  the  opposite  pole  A 
is  as  £ur  involved  in  the  dark  hemisphere ;  whence 
in  nordi  latitudes,  or  in  the  hemisphere  £  N  Q, 
the  days  have  been  increasing  from  ^  to  yf » 
where  they  are  at  their  longest;  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  parallel  P  R  is  in  the  illuminated 
hemisphere,  and  the  smaller  part  in  the  dark. 

416.  In  the  opposite  or  southern  hemisphere 
the  days  have  been  decreasing,  and  are  at  their 
shortest  when  the  earth  is  at  yf :  for  all  parallels 
to  £  Q  have  their  greater  part  in  the  dark  hemis- 
phere. If  through  the  pomt  G  a  parallel  be  de- 
scribed, this  parallel  is  called  the  arctic  circle; 
and  all  the  space  contained  therein  is  illuminated, 
and  there  is  no  night,  when  the  earth  is  at 
yf .  For  the  same  reason,  the  space  within  a  pa- 
rallel drawn  through  I,  will  be  alt  dark,  and  all 
b  night  there.  If  a  parallel  be  drawn  through  B, 
where  S  yf  cuts  the  arch  N  £,  that  parallel  is 
called  the  tropic  of  Cancer ;  and  then  the  sun 
will  shine  perpendicular  upon  the  inhabitants  in 
that  parallel,  l^is  is  the  summer  season  for 
those  that  are  in  the  hemisphere  £  N  Q,  and  the 
winter  for  those  that  live  in  £AQ;  and  since 
£  Q  is  equally  divided  by  the  circle  of  light  and 
darkness  G  I,  the  days  and  nights  are  always 
equal  under  the  equinoctial. 

417.  While  the  earth  moves  through  Sff  and 
X  to  <r»  the  circle  of  light  and  daritneas  comes 
nearer  and  nearer  to  the  pole  N,  the  angle  N  yf 
G,  and  consequently  B  yf  £  grows  less  and  less, 
till  they  vanish  in  cf  ;  then  the  circle  of  light  and 
darkness  passes  again  through  the  poles  N  and  A, 
bisecting  all  the  parallels  as  P  R ;  and  the  days 
and  nights  are  again  equal  all  over  the  earth. 

418.  While  the  earth  moves  through  cy^,  ^, 
n,  to  ® ,  the  sun  seems  to  go  through  ^, m,  / , 
to  yf ;  and  the  circle  separating  light  and  dark* 
ness,  ^lls  short  more  and  more  of  the  north  pole 
N,  and  goes  further  and  further  beyond  the  south 
pole  A ;  whence  the  parallels  cut  by  that  circle 
will  have  the  greater  part  in  the  dark  in  the  north 
hemisphere ;  but  in  the  south  hemisphere,  the 
greater  part  will  be  in  the  light :  and  it  is  winter 
to  the  northern  hemisphere  £  N  Q,  the  davs  being 
at  the  shortest ;  and  summer  to  the  southern  he- 
misphere £  A  Q,  their  days  being  at  the  longest 
Within  the  parallel  drawn  through  G,  there  will 
be  no  dav  whilst  the  earth  is  at  ^  ;  and  in  the 
parallel  drawn  through  I,  there  will  be  no  night. 
At  the  pole  A  it  will  be  day  for  six  months,  and 
at  the  pole  N  it  will  be  night  for  six  mopths ;  just 
the  contrary  of  what  happens  when  the  earth  is 
at  yf .  In  this  position,  if  a  parallel  be  drawn 
through  B,  the  sun  will  shine  perpendicular  to 
the  earth  in  that  parallel,  and  it  is  called  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn;  and  a  parallel  drawn 
through  I  is  called  the  antarctic  circle. 

419.  W*hen  the  earth  moves  from  03  through 
Si  and  ftfi  io  €^  again ;  it  is  evident  the  circle 
separating  light  and  darkness  draws  nearer  and 
nearer  to  the  poles  N  and  A,  by  which  the  light 
and  dark  parts  of  the  parallels  become  nearer  an 
equality,  and  so  to  Uie  days  and  nights.  Tliere- 
fore  in  the  north  hemisphere  £  N  Q,  the  days  are 
increasing ;  and  in  the  south  hemis^re  they  are 


decreasing:  and  the  days  and  nights  become 
equal  in  every  place,  waen  the  earth  arrives  at  •^. 
420.  In  this  manner  are  the  several  seasons 
caused,  being  owing  to  the  obliquity  of  the  axis 
of  rotation  of  the  earth,  to  the  plane  of  the  earth's 
orbit.  But  if  the  axis  was  perpendicular  to  it, 
there  could  be  no  variety  in  Che  length  of  days 
in  whatever  part  of  the  orbit  the  earth  was ;  and 
all  seasons  would  be  alike.  Thus  the  obliquity  of 
the  earth's  axis  to  the  ecliptic,  or  which  is  the 
same  thing,  of  the  equinoctial  to  the  ecliptic ;  is 
the  cause  of  the  different  seasons,  summer,  win- 
ter, spring,  and  autumn,  during  U^e  year.  With- 
out this,  there  could  be  no  difference  of  seasons ; 
and  consequently  it  could  not  be  easy  to  know 
the  length  of  the  year,  without  observations  of  the 
stars.  For  the  length  of  the  year  is  known  froai 
finding  the  time  by  observation,  when  the  sun  is 
in  the  equinoctial  points;  and  there  being  no 
sudi  points  to  observe  by,  there  could  be  no  me- 
thod out  to  observe  by  Uie  position  of  the  stars, 
when  the  same  star  was  again  in  opposition  to 
the  sun,  which  none  but  an  astronomer  could  do. 

421.  The  sun  appears  47°  higher  in  the  sum- 
mer tropic  than  it  does  in  the  winter  tropic ;  for 
in  summer  it  seems  to  have  ascended  through 
the  arch  B  £ ;  and  in  winter  to  have  descended 
through  the  arch  B  Q  equal  to  B  £;  and  their 
sum  is  470. 

422.  All  these  phenomena  may  be  thus  repre- 
sented :  Take  a  small  globe  that  has  the  equinoc- 
tial and  parallels  drawn  on  it ;  and,  placfag  a 
candle  upon  a  table,  move  the  globe  round  the 
candle  in  a  circle  parallel  to  the  table,  so  that 
the  axis  of  the  equator  may  be  oblique  to  that 
circle,  and  be  kept  always  in  a  parallel  position 
whilst  it  moves  aoout  The  candle  will  illumi- 
nate the  globe  as  it  is  carried  round,  just  as  the 
sun  does  the  earth  in  its  orbit ;  and  the  poles 
and  the  parallels  will  be  the  same  way  affected 
wi&  light  and  darkness  as  the  globe. 

423.  The  orbit  of  the  earth  being  elliptical,  and 
the  sun  constantly  keeping  in  its  lower  focus, 
which  is  1,617,941  miles  from  the  middle  point 
of  the  longer  axis,  the  earth  approaches  tvnce  as 
near,  or  3,235,883  miles  nearer  the  sun  at  one 
time  of  the  year  than  at  another ;  for  the  sun  ap- 
pearing under  a  larger  angle  in  our  winter  than 
summer,  proves  that  the  earth  is  nearer  the  sun  in 
winter.  But  here  this  question  naturally  arises, 
Why  have  we  not  the  hottest  weather  when  the 
earm  is  nearest  the  sun  ?  In  answer  it  must  be  ob- 
served, that  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit, 
or  1,617,941  miles,  bears  no  greater  proportion 
to  the  earth's  mean  distance  from  the  sun,  than 
seventeen  does  to  1000 ;  and  therefore  this  small 
difference  of  distance  cannot  occasion  any  great 
difference  of  beat  or  cold. 

424.  But  the  principal  cause  of  this  difference 
is,  that  in  winter  the  sun's  rays  fall  so  obliquely 
upon  us,  that  any  given  number  of  them  is  spread 
over  a  much  greater  portion  of  the  earth's  sur- 
&ce  where  we  live ;  and  each  point  must  then 
have  fewer  rays  than  in  summer.  There  comes 
also  a  greater  degree  of  cold  in  the  long  winter 
nights  than  there  can  return  of  heat  in  so  short 
days ;  and  on  both  these  accounts  the  cold  must 
increase.  In  summer  the  rays  fall  more  perpen- 
dicularly upon  us ;  come  with  greater  force,  and 

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ASTRONOMY 


in  greater  numbers,  on  the  same  place ;  and  by 
their  long  continuance,  a  much  greater  degree  of 
heat  is  imparted  by  day  tlian  can  fly  off  by 
night. 

425.  Besides,  those  parts  which  are  once  heat- 
ed, retain  the  heat  for  some  time ;  which,  with 
the  additional  heat  daily  imparted,  makes  it  con- 
tinue to  increase  though  the  sun  declines  towards 
the  south.  This  is  the  reason  why  July  is  hotter 
than  June;  and  often,  in  our  cold  climate,  Au- 
gust hotter  than  both,  although  the  sun  has  with- 
drawn from  the  summer  tropic;  as  we  find  it  is 
generally  hotter  at  three  in  the  afternoon,  when 
die  sun  has  gone  towards  the  west,  than  at  noon 
when  he  is  in  the  meridian.  Those  places  too 
which  have  been  well  cooled  require  time  to  be 
heated  again;  for  the  sun's  rays  do  not  heat  even 
the  surface  of  any  body,  till  they  have  been  some 
time  upon  it.  Hence  we  find  January  for  the 
most  part  colder  than  December,  although  the 
sun  has  witlidrawn  from  the  winter  tropic,  and 
begins  to  dart  his  beams  more  perpendicularly 
upon  us.  An  iron  bar  is  not  heated  immediately 
upon  being  put  into  the  fire,  nor  grows  cold  till 
some  time  after  it  has  been  taken  out. 

426.  If  we  suppose  the  degree  of  heat  to  be  as 
mth  power  of  the  sun's  altitude,  into  the  nth 
power  of  the  time  of  his  continuance  above  the 
Horizon,  that  s  and  c  are  the  sine  and  cosine  of 
any  given  latitude ;  5'  and  <f  the  sine  and  cosine 
of  the  sun's  declination  at  the  semidiurnal  one ; 
T  the  time  in  the  afternoon,  when  the  heat  is  the 
greatest ;  and  x  and  y  the  sine  and  cosine  of  T* 
Then  c<f  -{■  tt^y  will  be  the  sine  of  the  sun's  altS- 
tude ;  and  consequently  (c C'  -f  ««/)  * + A  4-  T" 
must  be  a  maximum ;  whence  its  fluxion  m  5  5y 
X  A+T  +  nT  +  («!'  +*«30  =  0.     But  by 

the  property  of  the  circle  -^  =  T,  and  conse- 


^y. 


nc€ 


quently  A  +  T — * ^  =  -^^ ;  an  equation 

from  whence  the  relation  between  x  and  y  may 
be  determined. 

427.  The  sun  completes  what  is  called  a  tro- 
pical year,  when  he  arrives  at  the  same  equinoc- 
tial or  solstitial  point  This  he  does  in  365d. 
5h.  48'  57^.  >^en  he  arrives  at  the  same  fixed 
star  again,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  he  completes 
the  siderial  year,  which  contains  365d.  6h.  9^. 
14i".  The  siderial  year  is  therefore  20'  Vt\*' 
longer  than  the  solar  or  tropical  year,  and  9'  14}'' 
longer  than  the  Julian  or  the  civil  year,  which 
we  state  at  365d.  6h. ;  so  that  the  civil  year 
is  almost  a  mean  between  the  siderial  and  tro- 
pical. 

428.  As  die  sun  describes  the  whole  ecliptic, 
or  360**,  in  a  tropical  year,  he  moves  59'  8"  of  a 
degree  every  day  at  a  mean  rate;  and  con- 
sequently 50"  of  a  degree  in  20'  17^"  of  time ; 
therefore  he  will  arrive  at  the  same  equinox  or 
solstice,  when  he  is  50"  of  a  degree  short  of  the 
same  star,  or  fixed  point  in  the  heavens,  from 
which  he  set  out  the  year  before.  So  that,  with 
respect  to  the  fixed  stars,  the  sun  and  equinoctial 
points  fJeOl  back,  as  it  were,  30®  in  2160  years, 
which  will  make  the  stars  appear  to  have  gone 
30®  forward  with  respect  to  the  signs  of  the  eclip- 


tic in  that  time :  for  the  same  signs  always  keep 
in  the  same  points  of  the  ecliptic  without  regard 
to  the  constellations. 

429.  The  sun  returrj  to  the  equinox  again  in 
365d.  5h.  48'  and  57" ;  and  thU  is  the  period 
in  which  the  seasons  complete  their  revolution. 
But  as  it  is  convenient  in  civil  life  to  make  the 
year  consist  of  an  exact  number  of  days,  three 
years  in  succession  are  made  to  consist  of  365 
days,  and  a  fourth  of  366  da3rs ;  making  the  aver- 
age length  of  a  civil  year  to  be  365d.  6h.  or  11 
3''  too  little. 

430.  These  11'  3",  by  which  the  civil  or  Julian 
year  exceeds  the  solar,  amount  to  1 1  days  m 
1433  years ;  and  so  much  our  seasons  had  Men 
back,  with  respect  to  the  days  of  the  months, 
since  the  time  of  the  Nicene  council  in  A.  D. 
325.  In  order,  therefore,  to  bring  back  all  the 
fasts  and  festivals  to  the  days  then  settled,  it  was 
requisite  to  suppress  11  nominal  days;  and, 
that  the  same  seasons  might  be  kept  to  the  same 
times  of  the  year  in  future,  to  leave  out  the  bis- 
sextile day  in  February,  at  the  end  of  every  cen- 
tury of  years  not  divisible  by  4 ;  to  reckon  them 
only  common  years;  as  the  17th,  18th,  and  19th 
centuries,  viz.  the  years  1700, 1800,  1900,  &c. 
because  a  day  intercalated  every  fourth  year  was 
too  much ;  and  to  retain  the  bissextile  day  at  the 
end  of  those  centuries  of  years  which  are  divisible 
by  4,  as  the  16th,  20th,  and  24th  centuries,  viz. 
the  years  1600, 2000,  2400,  &c. 

431.  Without  these  changes,  the  seasons  in 
length  of  time  would  be  quite  reversed  with  re- 
gard to  the  months  of  the  year;  though  it  would 
have  required  near  23,783  years,  to  have  brought 
about  such  a  total  change.  If  the  earth  had  made 
exacdy  365^  diurnal  rotations  on  its  axis,  while 
it  revolved  from  any  equinoctial  or  solstitial 
point  to  the  same  again,  the  civil  and  solar  years 
would  sdways  have  kept  pace  together  and  the 
style  would  never  have  needed  any  alteration. 

Sect.  IV.  Of  tbe  Phenomena  of  the  Moov. 

432.  The  moon  is  not,  a  primary  planet,  but 
only  a  satellite,  or  attendant  of  the  earth,  circu- 
lating around  it  in  29d.  12h.  and  44',  and  round 
the  sun  along  with  it  every  year.  The  moon's 
diameter  is  2180  miles;  and  her  distance  from 
the  earth's  centre  about  240,000  miles.  She  goes 
round  her  orbit  in  27d.  7h.  43'.  moving  about 
2290  miles  every  hour;  and  turns  round  her 
axis  exacdy  in  the  same  time  that  she  goes  round 
the  earth,  which  is  the  reason  of  her  keeping  al- 
ways the  same  side  towards  us,  and  that  ber  day 
and  night  takto  together  is  as  long  as  our  lunar 
month. 

433.  The  moon  is  an  opaque  globe  like  the 
earth,  and  shines  only  by  refl€A.*ting  the  light  of 
the  s\in ;  dierefore,  whilst  diat  half  of  her  which 
is  towards  the  sun  is  enlightened,  the  other  half 
must  be  dark  and  invisible.  Hence  she  disap- 
pears when  she  comes  between  us  and  the  sun ; 
because  her  dark  side  is  then  towards  us.  When 
she  is  gone  a  litUe  way  forward,  we  see  a  litUe 
of  her  enlightened  side ;  which  increases  to  oar 
view  as  she  advances,  until  she  comes  to  be  op- 
posite to  the  sun ;  when  her  whole  enlightened 
side  is  towards  the  earth,  and  she  appears  a 
round  illuminated  orb,  which  we  call  the  full 


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moon ;  her  dark  side  being  then  turned  away 
from  the  earth.  From  the  full  she  seems  to  de- 
crease gradually  as  she  goes  through  the  other 
half  of  her  course;  showing  us  less  and  less 
of  her  enlightened  side  every  day,  till  her  next 
change  or  conjunction  with  the  sun^  when  she 
disappears  as  before. 

434.  The  moon  has  scarcely  any  difference  of 
seasons ;  her  axis  being  almost  perpendicular  to 
the  ecliptic.  What  is  very  singular,  one  half  of 
her  has  no  darkness  at  all;  the  earth  constantly , 
affording  it  a  strong  light  in  the  sun's  absence; 
while  the  other  half  has  a  fortnight's  darkness 
and  a  fortnight's  light  by  turns. 

435.  Our  earth  appears  as  a  moon  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  moon;  waxing  and  waning 
regularly,  but  appearine  thirteen  times  as  big, 
and  affording  them  thirteen  times  as  much 
light  as  she  does  to  us.  When  she  changes 
to  us,  the  earth  appears  full  to  her;  and  when 
she  is  in  her  first  quarter  to  us,  the  earth  is 
in  its  third  quarter  to  her ;  and  vice  versa.  But 
from  one  half  of  the  moon  the  earth  is  never 
seen  at  all:  from  the  middle  of  the  other  half 
it  is  always  seen  over  head ;  turning  round  al- 
most thirty  times  as  quick  as  the  moon  does. 
From  the  circle  which  limits  our  view  of  the 
moon,  only  one  half  of  the  earth's  side  next 
her  is  seen ;  the  other  half  being  hid  below  the 
horizon  of  all  places  on  that  circle.  To  her  in- 
habitants the  earth  appears  the  largest  body  in 
the  universe;  for  it  appears  thirteen  times  as 
large  as  she  does  to  us. 

436.  While  the  earth  turns  round  its  axis,  the 
several  continents,  seas  and  islands,  appear  to  the 
moon's  inhabitants  like  so  many  spots  of  different 
forms  and  brightness,  moving  over  its  sur&ce; 
but  much  fainter  at  some  times  than  others,  ac- 
cording as  our  clouds  cover  them.  By  these  spots 
the  Lunarians  can  determine  the  time  of  the 
earth's  diurnal  motion,  just  as  we  do  tlie  motion 
of  the  sun :  and  they  may  measure  their  time 
by  the  motion  of  the  earth's  spots,  for  they  can- 
not have  a  more  true  dial. 

437.  The  axis  of  the  moon  is  so  neatly  per- 
pendicular  to  the  ecliptic,  that  the  sun  never  re- 
moves sensibly  from  her  equator ;  and  the  obli- 
quity of  her  orbit,  which  is  next  to  nothing  as 
seen  from  the  sun,  cannot  cause  the  sun  to  decline 
sensibly  from  her  equator.  Yet  her  inhabitants 
are  not  destitute  of  means  for  ascertaining  the 
length  of  their  year,  though  their  method  must 
differ  from  ours.  We  know  the  length  of  our 
year  by  the  return  of  our  equinoxes ;  but  the  Lu- 
narians, having  always  equal  day  and  night,  must 
have  recourse  to  another  method; and,  we  may 
suppose,  they  measure  their  year  by  observing 
when  either  of  the  poles  of  our  earth  begins  to  be 
enlightened,  and  the  other  to  disappear,  which 
is  always  at  our  equinoxes;  they  being  conveni- 
ently situated  for  observing  great  tracts  of  land 
about  our  earth's  poles,  whidi  are  entirely  un- 
known to  us.  Hence  we  may  conclude,  that  the 
year  is  of  the  same  absolute  length  to  the  inhabi- 
tant* of  the  earth  and  moon>  though  very  differ- 
ent as  to  the  number  of  days ;  we  having  365^ 
natural  days,  and  the  Lunarians  only  122,  ^very 
day  and  night  in  the  moon  being  as  long  as  29| 
on  the  earth. 


438.  The  inhabitants  of  the  moon,  on  the  side 
next  the  earth,  may  find  the  longitude  of  their 
places  as  easily  as  we  can  find  the  latitude  of 
ours.  For  the  earth  keeping  constantly,  or  very 
nearly  so,  over  one  meridian  of  the  moon,  the 
east  or  west  distances  of  places  from  tliat  meri- 
dian are  as  easily  found  as  we  can  find  our  dis- 
tance from  the  equator  by  the  altitude  of  our 
celestial  poles. 

439.  As  the  sun  only  enlightens  that  half  of 
the  earth  which  is  towards  him,  and  leaves  the 
opposite  half  in  darkness,  he  does  the  same  to 
ihe  moon ;  but  wi&  this  difference,  that  as  the 
earth  is  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere,  we  have 
tvriligfat  after  the  sun  sets;  but  if  the  moon  has 
neither  an  atmosphere  of  her  ovm,  nor  is  in- 
cluded in  that  of  the  earth  (as  is  supposed),  the 
Lunarians  must  have  an  immediate  transition 
from  the  brightest  sunshine  to  the  blackest  dark- 
ness. 

440.  The  moon  being  an  opaque  spherical 
body  (for  her  hills  take  off  no  more  from  her 
roundness  than  the  inequalities  on  the  surface  of 
an  orange  take  of  firora  its  roundness,)  we  can 
only  see  that  part  of  the  enlightened  half  which 
is  towards  the  earth.  And  therefore,  when  the 
moon  is  at  A,  see  plate  IV.  fig.  3,  in  conjunction 
with  Uie  sun  S,  ner  dark  half  is  towards  the 
earth,  and  she  disappears,  as  at  a,  there  being 
no  light  on  that  halt  to  render  it  visible.  When 
she  comes  to  her  first  octant  at  B,  or  has  gone 
an  eighth  part  of  her  orbit  from  her  conjunction, 
a  quarter  of  her  enlightened  side  is  towards  the 
earth,  and  she  appears  homed,  as  at  6.  When 
she  has  gone  a  quarter  of  her  orbit  from  between 
the  earth  and  sun  to  C,  she  shows  us  one-half  of 
her  enlightened  side,  as  at  c,  and  we  say  she  is  a 
quarter  old.  At  D  she  is  in  her  second  octant ; 
and  by  showing  us  more  of  her  enlightened  side, 
she  appears  gibbous,  as  at  d.  At  £  her  whole 
enlightened  side  is  towards  the  earth;  and  there- 
fore she  appears  round,  as  at  e,  when  we  say  it  is 
full  moon.  In  her  third  octant  at  F,  part  of  her 
dark  side  being  towards  the  earth,  she  again  ap> 
pears  gibbous,  and  is  on  the  decrease,  as  at  /. 
At  G  we  see  just  one-half  of  her  enlightened 
side ;  and  she  appears  half  decreased,  or  in  her 
third  quarter,  as  at  g.  At  H  we  only  see  a 
quarter  of  her  enlightened  side,  being  in  her 
fourth  octant,  where  she  appears  homed,  as  at  A. 
And  at  A,  having  competed  her  course  from  the 
sun  to  the  sun  again,  she  disappears,  and  we  say 
it  is  new  moon.  Thus,  in  gomg  from  A  to  £, 
the  moon  seems  continually  to  increase ;  and  in 
going  from  £  to  A,  to  decrease  in  the  same  pro- 
portion; having  like  phases  at  equal  distances 
trom  A  to  £,  but  as  seen  from  the  sun  S,  she 
b  always  full. 

441.  The  moon  does  not  appear  perfectly 
round  ¥^en  she  is  full  in  the  highest  or  lowest 
part  of  her  orbit,  because  we  have  not  a  full 
view  of  her  enlightened  side  at  that  time.  When 
fiill,  in  the  highest  part  of  her  orbit  a  small  de^ 
ficiency  appears  on  her  lower  edge;  and  the 
contrary  when  full  in  Ihe  lowest  part  of  her 
orbit. 

442.  From  the  figure  it  is  evident,  that  when 
the  moon  changes  to  the  earth,  the  earth  appears 
full  to  die  moon ;  and  vice  versa.    For  when  the 


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ASTRONOMY. 


moon  is  at  A,  new  to  the  earth,  the  whole  en- 
lightened side  of  the  earth  is  towards  the  moon; 
and  when  the  moon  is  at  £,  full  to  the  earth,  its 
dark  side  is  towards  her.  Hence  a  new  moon 
answers  to  a  full  earth,  and  a  full  moon  to  a  new 
earth.  The  quarters  are  also  reversed  to  each 
other. 

443.  The  position  of  the  moon's  cusps,  or  a 
right  line  touching  the  points  of  her  horns,  is  very 
differently  inclined  to  the  horizon  at  different 
hours  of  the  same  days  of  her  age«  Sometimes 
she  stands,  as  it  were,  upright  on  her  lower  horn, 
and  then  such  a  line  is  perpendicular  to  the  ho- 
rizon :  when  this  happens,  she  is  in  what  the  as- 
tronomers call  the  nonagesimal  degree,  which  is 
the  highest  point  of  the  ecliptic  above  the  ho- 

'  rixon  at  that  time,  and  is  90°  from  both  sides  of 
the  horizon,  where  it  is  then  cut  by  the  ecliptic. 
But  this  never  happens  when  the  moon  is  on  the 
meridian,  except  wnen  she  is  at  the  very  begin- 
ning of  Cancer  or  Capricorn. 

444.  It  is  easy  to  demonstrate  that  the  moon 
turns  round  her  axis  in  the  time  that  she  goes 
round  her  orbit;  for  a  spectator  at  rest,  without 
the  periphery  of  the  moon's  orbit,  would  see  all 
her  sides  turned  regularly  towards  him  in  that 
time.  She  turns  round  her  axis  from  any  star 
to  ^e  same  star  again,  in  27d.  7h. ;  from  the 
sun  to  the  sun  again  in  29id.;  the  former  is 
the  length  of  her  siderial  day,  and  the  latter  the 
length  of  her  solar  day.  A  bod^r  moving  round 
the  sun  would  have  a  solar  da^  in  every  revolu- 
tion, without  turning  on  its  axis ;  the  same  as  if 
it  had  been  at  rest,  and  the  sun  moved  round  it; 
but  witliout  turning  round  its  axis  it  could  never 
have  one  siderial  day,  because  it  would  always 
keep  the  same  side  towards  any  particular  star. 

445.  If  the  earth  had  no  annual  motion,  the 
moon  would  go  round  it  so  as  to  complete  a  lu- 
nation, a  siderial,  and  a  solar  day,  all  in  the  same 
time.  But  because  the  earth  goes  forward  in  its 
orbit,  while  the  moon  goes  round  the  earth  in 
her  orbit,  the  moon  must  go  as  much  more  than 
round  .her  orbit,  from  change  to  change,  in  com- 
pleting a  solar  day,  as  the  earth  has  gone  forward 
m  its  orbit  during  that  time,  i.  e.  almost  a  twelftii 
part  of  a  circle.  If  the  earth  had  r*o  annual  mo- 
tion, the  moon's  motion  round  the  earth,  and  her 
track  in  o^en  space,  would  always  be  the  same. 
But,  as  the  eartn  and  moon  move  round  the  sun, 
the  moon's  real  path  in  the  heavens  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  her  visible  path  round  the  earth ;  the 
latter  being  in  a  progressive  circle,  and  the  for- 
mer in  a  curve  of  different  degrees  of  concavity ; 
which  would  always  be  the  same  in  the  same 
parts  of  the  heavens,  if  the  moon  performed  a 
complete  number  of  lunations  in  a  year  without 
any  fraction. 

446.  Newton  ascribed  the  equality  between 
the  periods  of  rotation  and  revolution  of  the 
moon  to  her  being  of  an  oval  form,  and  being 
denser  on  one  side  than  the  other;  but  La 
Grange  has  shown  that  though,  from  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  centrifugal  force,  the  moon  ought  to 
be  elevated  at  the  equator,  yet  the  aberration  is 
four  times  as  great  in  the  direction  of  the  equa- 
torial diameter,  which  is  directed  towards  the 
earth;  and  he  has  proved  that,  in  consequence 
of  the  attraction  of  the  earth  on  this  elevated 


portion,  the  moon's  motion  is  alternately  acce- 
lerated and  retarded;  and  that  this  attraction 
tends  to  produce  an  equality  between  the  rota- 
tion and  revolution  of  the  moon,  and  to  occa- 
sion a  coincidence  both  in  the  position  and  mo- 
tion of  the  nodes  of  the  moon's  orbit. 

447.  The  motion  of  the  moon  in  her  orbit 
not  being  equable,  if  her  rotation  on  her  axis  be 
uniform  tliere  must  be  parts  on  her  eastern  and 
western  edges  which  are  only  occasionally  seen. 
These  changes,  called  her  libration  in  longitude, 
are  found  to  agree  with  an  equable  motion  of 
rotation,  There  are  parts  also  about  her  poles 
only  occasionally  visiole.  This,  called  her  li- 
bration in  latitude,  arises  from  her  axis  being 
constantly  inclined  to  the  plane  of  her  orbit,  in 
an  angle  of  about  86°.  A  diurnal  libration  also 
takes  place ;  at  rising  a  part  of  the  western  edge 
is  seen,  which  is  invisible  at  setting,  and  the 
contrarjr  takes  place  with  respect  to  the  eastern 
edge.  This  is  occasioned  bv  tne  change  of  place 
in  the  spectator,  occasioned  by  the  earth's  rota- 
tation.  Having  found  by  any  mean%the  moon's 
angular  distance  from  the  sun,  the '  appearance 
>of  her  disk  for  that  time  may  be  easily  deli- 
neated in  the  following  manner :  Let  the  arch 
C  O  B  P,  Plate  IV.  figs.  6  and  8,  represent  the 
disk  of  the  moon  which  is  turned  towards  the 
earth,  and  let  O  P  be  cut  by  the  diameter  B  C 
at  right  angles,  take  LP  to  LF  as  radius  to 
cosine  of  the  moon's  angular  distance  from  the 
sun,  and  upon  B  C  as  the  greater  and  L  F  the 
less  axis  describe  the  semi-ellipse  BFC;  then 
B  F  C  P  will  represent  tiiat  portion  of  the  moon's 
illumined  face  which  is  visible  from  the  earth. 

448.  To  illustrate  this,  let  the  nail  in  the 
end  of  the  axle  of  a  chariot-wheel  represent  the 
earth,  and  a  pin  in  the  nave  the  moon :  if  the 
body  of  the  chariot  be  propped  up  so  as  to  keep 
that  wheel  from  touching  the  ground,  and  the 
wheel  be  then  turned  round  by  hand,  the  pin 
will  describe  a  circle  both  round  the  nail  and  in 
the  space  it  moves  through.  But  if  the  props  be 
taken  away,  the  horses  put  to,  and  the  chariot 
driven  over  a  piece  of  ground  which  is  circularly 
convex,  the  nail  in  the  axle  will  describe  a  cir- 
cular curve,  and  the  pin  in  the  nave  will  still 
describe  a  circle  round  the  progressive  nail  in 
the  axle,  but  not  in  the  space  through  which  it 
moves.  In  this  case,  the  curve  described  by  the 
nail  will  resemble  in  miniature  as  much  of  the 
earth's  annual  part  round  the  sun,  as  it  describes 
whilst  the  moon  goes  as  often  round  the  earth 
as  the  pin  does  round  the  nail ;  and  the  curve 
described  by  the  pin  will  have  some  resemblance 
to  the  moon's  path  during  so  many  lunations.  * 

449.  The  surface  of  the  moon  being  uneven, 
some  are  surprised  thai  her  edge  does  not  ap- 
pear jagged,  as  well  as  the  curve  bounding  the 
light  and  dark  places.  But  if  we  consider  that 
what  we  call  the  edge  of  the  moon's  disk  is  not  a 
single  line  set  round  with  mountains,  in  which 
case  it  would  appear  irregularly  indented,  but  a 
large  zone,  having  many  mountains,  lying  behind 
one  another  from  the  observer's  eye,  we  shall 
find  that  the  mountains  in  some  rows  will  be  op- 
posite to  the  vales  in  others ;  and  thus  fill  up  the 
inequalities  so  as  to  make  her  appear  quite 
round;  just  as  when  one  looks  at  an  orange^ 


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151 


although  its  roughness  be  very  discernible  on 
the  side  next  the  eye,  espemllv  if  the  sun  or  a 
candle  shines  obliquely  upon  that  side,  yet  the 
line  tenninating  the  ybible  part  still  appears 
smooth  and  even. 

Sect-  V.  Of  the  Tid«s. 

450.  The  tides  are  found  to  follow  periodi- 
cally th<;  course  of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  hence 
it  has  been  suspected,  in  all  ages,  that  -the  tides 
were  somehow  produced  by  the  influence  of  these 
luminaries.  Of  this,  Pliny,  Ptolemy,  Macrobius, 
and  others,  seem  to  have  had  some  knowledge. 
The  celebrated  Kepler  formed  some  conjectures 
long  ago,  as  to  the  true  cause  of  the  tides.  '  If/ 
says  he,  *  the  earth  ceased  to  attract  its  waters 
towards  itself,  all  Ae  water  in  the  ocean  would 
rise  and  flow  into  the  moon.  The  sphere  of  the 
moon's  attraction  extends  to  our  earm  and  draws 
up  the  water.'  What  Kepler  only  sunhised,  has 
been  completely  verified  in  the  theory  laid  down 
by  Newton,  and  by  Halley  from  his  principles. 
Ttie  principal  phenomena  of  the  tides  are  as 
follows : 

451.  I.  The  sea  is  observed  to  flow  for  about 
six  hours  from  south  to  north,  gradually^  swell- 
ing ;  and  after  a  flux  of  about  six  hours,  it  seems 
to  rest  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  and  then  to 
ebb  or  retire  back  again  from  north  to  south  for 
sue  hours  more.  Then,  after  a  seeming  pause  of 
about  i  of  an  hour,  the  sea  again  begins  to  flow ; 
and  so  on  alternately. 

452.  II.  Hence  the  sea  ebbs  and  flows  twice 
a-day,  but  falling  every  day  later  and  later  by 
about  forty-eight  minutes,  the  period  of  a  flux 
and  reflux  being  on  an  average  about  12  h.  24  m. 
and  the  double  of  each  24  h.  48  m.  which  is 
the  period  of  a  lunar  day,  or  the  time  between 
flie  moon's  passing  a  meridian  and  coming  to  it 
again.  So  that  the  sea  flows  as  often  as  the 
moon  passes  the  meridian,  both  the  arch  above 
the  horizon,  and  that  below  it;  and  ebbs  as 
often  as  she  passes  the  horizon,  both  on  the 
eastern  and  western  side.  These  are  the  most 
obvious  appearances ;  the  other  phenomena  are 
as  follows : 

453.  in.  The  elevation  towards  the  moon 
exceeds  the  opposite  one  a  little,  and  the  quan- 
tity of  the  ascent  of  the  water  is  diminished  from 
the  equator  to  the  poles. 

454.  IV.  The  sun  raises  and  depresses  the 
sea  twice  every  day,  in  the  same  manner  that 
the  moon  does;  but  the  solar  tides  are  much 
less  than  the  lunar  ones,  although  subject  to  the 
same  laws. 

455.  V.  The  tides  which  depend  upon  the 
actions  of  the  sun  and  moon  are  not  distin- 
guished but  compound ;  and  thus  they  form  to 
appearance  one  united  tide  which,  increasing 
and  decreasing,  produce  neap  and  spring  tides. 

456.  VI.  In  tne  syzygies  the  elevations  flrom 
the  actions  of  both  luminaries  concur,  and  the 
sea  is  more  elevated ;  but  the  sea  ascends  less  in 
the  quadratures;  for  where  the  water  is  elevated 
by  the  action  of  the  moon,  it  is  depressed  by 
that  of  tiie  sun,  and  vice  versa.  Therefore,  while 
the  moon  passes  from  the  syzygy  to  the  qua- 
diature,  the  daily  elevations  are  continually  di- 
minished ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  increased 


while  die  moon  passes  from  the  quadrature  to 
the  sy^gy.  At  tne  new  moon  also  ceteris  pa- 
ribus the  elevations  are  greater;  and  those  that 
follow  one  another  the  same  4ay,  are  more  dif- 
ferent than  those  at  full  moon.' 

457.  VII.  The  greatest  elevations  and  depres- 
sions take  place  on  the  2d  or  3d  day  after  the 
new  or  full  moon ;  and  they  are  the  greater,  the 
nearer  the  luminaries  are  to  the  plane  of  the 
equator;  being  greatest  in  the  syzygies,  near  the 
equinoxes. 

458.  VIII.  Tlie  actions  of  the  sun  and  moon 
are  greater  the  nearer  those  bodies  are  to  the 
earth ;  and  the  greatest  tides  happen  when  the 
sun  is  a  littie  to  the  south  of  die  equator :  but 
this  does  not  happen  reguUirly  every  year,  be- 
cause some  variation  may  arise  from  the  situa- 
tion of  the  moon's  orbit,  and  the  distance  of  the 
syzygy  from  the  equinox. 

459.  IX.  The  mean  force  of  the  mooa  to 
move  the  sea,  is  to  that  of  the  sun  nearly  as  4^ 
to  1 ;  and  therefore  if  the  action  of  the  sun  alone 
produce  a  tide  of  two  feet,  which  it  is  said  to  do, 
then  that  of  the  moon  will  be  nine  feet ;  from 
which  it  follows,  that  the  spring-tides  will  be 
eleven  feet,  and  the  neap-tides  seven  feet.  But 
such  elevations  as  for  exceed  these,  happen  from 
the  motion  of  the  water  against  some  obstacles, 
and  from  the  sea  violentiy  entering  straits  or 
gulfi,  where  the  force  is  not  broken  till  the 
water  rises  higher.  - 

460.  The  preceding  phenomena  take  place  in 
the  open  sea,  where  the  ocean  is  extended  enough' 
to  be  subject  to  their  motions.  But  the  parti- 
cular situations  of  places,  as  to  shores,  capes, 
bays,  &c.  disturb  in  a  considerable  degree  these 
general  rules.  We  are  now  to  show  how  these 
phenomena  maybe  explained,  from  the  prin- 
ciple of  universal  gravitation.  9" 

461.  If  the  eartii  were  entirely  fluid  and  qui- 
escent, its  particles,  by  their  mutual  gravity 
towards  each  other,  would  form  the  whole  mass 
into  the  figure  of  an  exact  sphere.  If  a  power 
were  to  act  on  all  the  particles  of  this  sphere, 
vrith  an  equal  force,  and  in  parallel  directions, 
the  whole  mass  would  be  moved  together;  but 
no  change  would  be  produced  on  its  spherical 
figure,  and  its  centre  would  have  the  same 
motion  as  each  particle. 

462.  Upon  this  hypothesis,  if  the  motion  of 
the  earth  round  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  earth 
and  moon,  were  destroyed,  and  the  earth  left  to 
the  influence  of  its  gravitation  towards  the  moon, 
as  the  power  above  mentioned,  then  the  earth 
would  fall  or  move  straight  towards  the  moon, 
without  changing  its  spherical  figure. 

463.  But  tiie  fact  is,  that  the  efiects  of  the 
moon's  action,  as  well  as  the  action  itself  on  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  earth,  are  not  equal ;  those 
parts,  by  the  general  rules  of  gravity,  being  most 
attracted  that  are  nearest  to  the  moon,  and  those 
being  least^ttracted  that  are  &rthest  from  her ; 
while  the  parts  that  are  at  a  middle  distance  are 
attracted  by  a  mean  degree  of  force.  Besides,  all 
the  parts  are  not  acted  upon  in  parallel  lines,  but 
in  lines  directed  towards  the  centre  of  the  moon, 
on  both  which  accounts  the  spherical  figure  of 
the  fluid  earth  must  sufier  some  change  from  the 
action  of  the  moon ;  so  that  in  falling,  as  we  have 


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ASTRONOMY. 


supposed,  the  nearer  parts  bein^  most  attracted, 
would  fall  quickest,  me  farther  parts  being  least 
attracted,  would  fall  slowest,  and  the  fluid  mass 
would  he  lengthened  out,  and  take  a  kind  of 
spheroidical  form. 

464.  Hence  it  appears  (which  must  be  care- 
fully obsenred),  that  it  is  not  the  action  of  ihe 
moon  itself,  but  the  inequalities  in  that  action, 
that  cause  any  variation  from  the  spherical  figure; 
and  that  if  this  action  were  the  same  in  aU  the 
particles,  as  in  the  central  parts,  and  operating  in 
the  same  direction,  no  such  change  would  ensue. 

465.  Let  us  now  admit  the  parts  of  the  earth 
to  gravitate  towards  its  centre,  then  as  this  gravi- 
tation far  exceeds  the  suction  of  the  moon,  and 
much  more  exceeds  the  differences  of  her  actions 
on  different  parts  of  the  earth,  tlie  effect  which 
results  from  the  inequalities  of  these  actions  of 
the  moon,  will  be  only  a  small  diminution  of  the 
gravity  of  those  parts  of  the  earth,  which  it 
endeavoured  in  the  former  supposition  to  sepa- 
rate from  its  centre;  that  is,  those  parts  of  the 
earth  which  are  nearest  to  the  moon,  and  those 
that  are  farthest  from  her,  will  have  Uieir  gravity 
towards  the  earth  somewhat  abated,  to  say  no- 
thing of  the  lateral  parts ;  so  that  supposing  the 
earth  fluid,  the  columns  from  the  centre  to  the 
nearest,  and  to  the  ferthest  parts  must  rise,  till, 
by  their  greater  height,  they  are  able  to  balance 
the  other  columns,  whose  gravity  is  less  altered 
by  the  inequalities  of  the  moon's  action,  and 
thus  the  figure  of  the  earth  must  be  an  oblong 
spheroid. 

466.  Let  us  now  consider  the  earth,  instead  of 
falling  tovrards  the  moon  by  its  gravity,  as  pro- 
jected in  any  direction,  so  as  to  move  round  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  earth  and  moon,  it  is  evi- 
dent, that  in  this  case  the  several  parts  of  the 
fluid  earth  will  still  preserve  that  relative  posi- 
tion, and  the  figure  of  the  earth  vrill  remain  the 
same  as  if  it  fell  freely  towards  the  moon ;  diat 
is,  the  earth  will  still  assume  a  spheroidal  form, 
having  its  longest  axis  directed  toward  the  moon. 

467.  From  the  preceding  Reasoning,  it  appears, 
that  the  parts  of  the  earth  directly  under  the  moon, 
as  at  Ii,  plate  X.  fig.  4,  and  also  the  opposite 
parts  at  D,  will  have  the  flood  or  high-water  at 
the  same  time,  whilst  the  parts  at  B  and  F,  at 
90°  distance,  or  where  the  moon  appears  in  the 
horizon,  will  then  have  the  ebbs,  or  lowest  waters. 

Hence  as  the  earth  turns  round  its  axis  from 
(he  moon  to  the  moon  again  in  '24h.  48m. 
this  oval  of  water  must  shift  with  it,  and  thus 
there  will  be  two  tides  of  flood,  and  two  of  ebb 
in  that  time.  It  farther  appears,  that  by  the 
motion  of  the  earth  on  her  axis,  the  most  ele- 
vated part  of  the  water  is  carried  beyond  the 
moon,  in  the  direction  of  the  rotation ;  so  that 
the  water  continues  to  rise  after  it  has  passed 
directly  under  the  moon,  though  the  immediate 
action  of  the  moon  there  begins  to  decrease;  and 
comes  not  to  its  greatest  elevation,  till  it  has  got 
about  half  a  quadrant  farther.  It  continues  to 
descend  after  it  has  passed  at  90®  from  the  point 
below  the  moon,  to  a  like  distance  of  half  a 
quadrant. 

468.  The  greatest  elevation,  therefore,  is  not  in 
the  line  drawn  through  the  centres  of  the  earth 
and  moon,  nor  the  lowest  points,  where  the  moon 


appears  in  die  horizon,  but  all  these  are  removed 
about  half  a  quadrant  eastward  from  these  points 
in  the  direction  of  the  motion  of  rotation .  Thus, 
in  open  seas,  where  the  water  flows  freely,  the 
moon,  M,  is  generally  past  the  north  and  south 
meridian,  as  atp,  when  the  high  water  is  at  Z, 
and  at  n;  the  reason  of  which  is  plain,  because 
the  moon  acts  with  the  same  force  after  she  has 
passed  the  meridian,  and  thus  adds  to  the  libra- 
tory  or  waving  motion  vrhich  the  water  acquired 
when  she  was  in  the  meridian. 

469.  Besides,  the  tides  answer  not  always  to 
the  distance  of  the  moon  firom  the  meiidian,  at 
the  same  places,  for  the  action  of  the  sun  brings 
them  on  sooner  when  the  moon  is  in  ber  first  aod 
third  (quarters,  and  keeps  them  back  later  when 
she  is  m  her  second  and  fourth :  because,  in  the 
former  case,  the  tide,  raised  by  the  sun  alone, 
would  be  earlier  than  that  raised  by  the  moon, 
and  in  the  latter  case,  later. 

470.  We  have  hitiierto  adverted  only  to  the 
action  of  the  moon  in  producing  the  tides ;  but 
it  is  evident,  that  for  the  same  reasons,  the  ine- 
quality of  the  sun's  action  on  different  parts  of 
the  earth,  would  produce  a  like  effect,  ana  a  like 
deviation  fiom  an  exact  spherical  figure ;  so  that 
in  reality,  there  are  two  tides,  every  natural  day, 
from  the  action  of  the  sun,  as  there  are  in  a  lunar 
day,  from  the  action  of  the  moon,  subject  to  the 
same  laws;  and  the  lunar  tide,  as  has  been  ob- 
served, is  somewhat  changed  by  the  action  of  the 
sun,  the  change  varying  every  day,  on  account 
of  the  inequality  between  the  natural  and  lunar 
day. 

471.  Although  the  gravitation  of  the  earth, 
towards  the  sun,  is  much  greater  than  its  gravi- 
tation towards  the  moon,  yet,  by  reason  of  the 
sun's  immense  distance,  to  which  the  earth's  dia- 
meter bears  a  small  proportion,  his  action  upon 
the  side  of  the  earth  next  to  him  differs  but  litde 
from  that  which  is  exerted  on  the  side  farthest 
from  him,  and  it  is  only  the  inequalities  in  that 
action  that  produce  the  tide.  However,  the  effect 
of  the  sun  is  still  veiy  sensible,  but  that  of  the 
moon  is  much  more  so;  for,  by  its  proximity  to 
the  earth,  there  is  a  considerable  inequality, 
both  in  the  direction  of  its  action,  and  in  the  in- 
tensity of  that  action  upon  different  parts  of  the 
earth. 

472.  Hence  it  is  easy  to  see,  that  the  tides 
must  be  greatest  at  new  and  at  full  nxK)n,  because 
the  actions  of  the  sun  and  moon  are  then  exerted 
in  the  same  directions.  These  are  called  spring 
tides;  whereas,  when  the  sun  and  moon  are  90^^ 
distant,  the  action  of  the  one  luminaiy  raises  the 
tides,  just  where  that  of  the  otiier  depresses  them, 
and  thus  are  produced  what  are  called  neap  tides. 
Newton  has  calculated  the  effects  of  the  sun  and 
moon  respectively  upon  the  tides  from  their  at- 
tractive powers,  the  former  he  finds  to  be  to  the 
force  of  gravity,  as  one  to  12,868,200.  To  find 
the  force  of  the  latter  upon  the  water,  he  com- 
pares the  spring  tides  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Avon,  below  Bristol,  with  the  neap  tides,  and 
finds  the  prop6rtion  as  nine  to  five;  whence,  after 
several  necessary  corrections,  he  concludes,  that 
the  force  of  the  moon,  in  moving  the  waters,  is  tu 
that  of  the  sun,  as  4*4815  to  one. 

473.  Dr.  Horsley,  however,  in  his  edition  of 


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ASTRONOMY. 


163 


Newton's  Prineipia,  estimates  the  force  of  the 
moon  to  that  of  the  sun,  as  5*0469  to  one,  and 
other  authors  have  given  different  proportions; 
but  Newton  computes,  from  his  proportion,  that 
the  moon  may  raise  the  waters  nine  feet,  1^  inch, 
and  the  sun  and  moon  together  may  produce  an 
elevation  of  about  eleven  feet,  two  inches ;  and 
about'  12f  feet,  when  the  moon  is  at  her  nearest 
distance.  Now  this  is  found  by  observation,  to 
be  nearly  the  height  to  which  the  water  rises,  on 
the  coasts  of  the  open  and  deep  ocean. 

474.  It  must  be  observed,  that  the  spring  tides 
do  not  happen  precisely  at  new  and  tuU  moon, 
nor  the  neap  tides  precisely  at  the  quarters,  but 
a  day  or  two  after ;  because,  as  in  other  cases> 
so  in  this,  the  effect  is  not  greatest  or  least  when 
the  immediate  influence  of  the  cause  is  greatest 
or  least ;  for  if  the  actions  of  the  sun  and  moon 
were  to  cease,  yet  the  tides  would  continue  for 
some  time ;  as  Uie  waves  of  the  sea  continue  their 
motion  after  a  storm. 

475.  The  different  distances  of  the  moon  from 
the  earth  produce  a  sensible  variation  in  the  tides; 
and  Newton  has  shown,  that  they  increase  as  the 
cubes  of  the  distances  decrease ;  so  that  the  moon 
at  half  her  distance,  would  produce  a  tide  eight 
times  greater.  The  moon  describes  an  ova} 
round  the  earth;  and  at  her  nearest  distance, 
produces  a  tide  sensibly  greater  than  at  her 
rarthest  distance.  Hence  two  great  spring  tides 
never  succeed  each  other,  at  the  distance  of  four- 
teen days ;  for  if  the  moon  be  at  her  least  di&tance 
at  the  change,  and  therefore  produce  a  great  spring 
tide,  she  -mil  be  at  her  greatest  distance  at  the 
full,  and  therefore  the  spring  tide  will  be  less. 

476.  The  spring  tides  are  highest,  and  the 
neap  tides  lowest,  about  the  time  of  the  equi- 
noxes; because,  were  the  sun  or  moon  in  the 
pole  of  the  world,  there  would  be  no  tide;  for 
their  action  would  raise  the  water  at  the  equator 
or  any  parallel,  equally  round  the  earth :  there- 
fore, the  nearer  they  are  to  the  equator,  the 
greater  must  be  the  effect  When  the  sun  and 
moon  traverse  the  equator,  the  tides,  which  are 
under  them,  will  traverse  the  greatest  circle,  and 
the  waters  will  be  put  into  the  greatest  agitation. 
They  will  also  be  the  greater  at  these  times,  be- 
cause the  earth  is  nearer  to  the  sun,  about  the 
beginning  of  March  and  end  of  September,  than 
in  the  summer  months. 

477.  As  the  greatest  of  the  two  tides,  happen- 
ing in  every  diurnal  revolution  of  the  moon,,  is 
that  in  which  the  moon  is  nearest  the  xenith  or 
Badir,  therefore,  while  the  sun  is  in  the  northern 
signs,  the  greater  of  the  two  diurnal  tides,  in  our 
climate,  will  be  that  arising  from  the  moon  when 
above  the  horizon;  and  when  the  sun  is  in  the 
southern  signs,  the  greatest  is  that  arising  from 
the  moon  below  the  horizon.  Thus,  the  evening 
tides  in  summer  exceed  the  morning  tides,  and 
the  morning  tides  in  winter  exceed  the  evening 
tides.  This  difference  is  found  at  Bristol  to  be 
fifteen  inches^  and  at  Plymouth  twelve  inches. 

478.  Such  would  the  tides  regularly  be,  if  the 
earth  were  all  covered  over  with  the  sea^  to  a 
ereat  depth,  so  that  the  waters  might  freely  fol- 
low the  mfluence  of  the  sun  and  moon ;  but,  as 
the  tides  pass  over  shoals,  and  run  through 


straits  into  bays  of  the  sea,  their  motion  he* 
comes  more  various,  and  their  height  depends 
upon  a  great  many  circumstances.  That  the 
tides  may  have  their  full  motion,  the  ocean,  in 
which  they  are  produced,  ought  to  he  at  least  90** 
extended  from  east  to  west;  because  that  is  the 
distance  between  the  greatest  elevation,  and  the 
greatest  depression,  produced  in  the  waters  by 
me  moon. 

479.  Hence  it  appears,  that  it  is  only  in  the 
great  oceans  that  such  tides  as  we  have  described 
can  be  produced,  and  why  in  the  larger  Pacific 
Ocean  tney  exceed  those  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Hence  it  is  obvious  why  the  tides  are  not  so 
great  in  the  torrid  zone,  between  Africa  and 
America,  where  the  ocean  is  narrower,  as  in  the 
temperate  zones  on  either  side ;  and  hence,  also, 
we  see  why  the  tides  are  so  small  in  islands,  at 
great  distances  from  the  shores.  It  likewise  ap- 
pears, that  the  waters  cannot  rise  on  one  shore  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  but  by  descending  on  the 
other,  so  that  at  the  intermediate  islands  it  must 
remain  at  a  mean  height,  between  its  elevations 
on  those  two  shores. 

480.  The  tides  that  enter  the  mouths  of  ri- 
vers from  the  ocean,  are  greatly  retarded  in  their 

Progress,  by  the  currents  of  the  rivers.  Mr. 
londamine,  while  in  South  America,  observed, 
that  in  the  river  Amazons,  there  were  five  high 
waters,  and  four  intermediate  low  waters  at  once; 
and  a  similar  circumstance  takes  place  in  the 
Thames.  For  the  tide  propagated  by  the  moon 
in  the  German  Ocean,  wheti  she  is  three  hours 
past  the  meridian,  takes  twelve  hours  longer  to 
come  to  London  Bridge,  so  that  when  it  is  hiffh 
water  there,  a  new  tide  is  already  come  to  its  hei^t 
in  the  ocean;  and  in  some  intehnediate  place,  it 
must  be  low  water  at  the  same  time. 

481.  At  several  places,  it  is  high  water  three 
hours  before  the  moon  comes  to  her  meridian ; 
but  that  tide,  which  the  aioon  pushes  as  it  were 
before  her,  is  only  the  tide  opposite  to  that  which 
was  raised  by  her,  when  she  was  nine  hours  past 
the  opposite  meridian. 

482.  There  are  no  sensible  tides  in  the  Baltic, 
the  Mediterranean,  or  the  Black  Seas ;  for  they 
communicate  with  the  ocean  by  such  narrow 
inlets,  and  are  of  so  immense  an  extent,  that 
they  cannot  speedily  receive  and  empty  water 
enough,  to  raise  or  depress  their  surfaces  sen- 
sibly. In  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  in  lakes,  &c. 
the  moon's  attraction  is  nearly  the  same  upon  all 
parts  of  their  surface,  so  that  no  sensible  swelling 
can  take  place  in  their  waters. 

483.  We  may  also  conclude,  that  by  reason 
of  the  fluidity  of  the  atmosphere,  it  must  have 
tides  similar  to  those  of  the  ocean ;  and  hence, 
there  will  be  a  general  current  from  east  to  west, 
both  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  and  of  the  air; 
but  the  changes  produced  in  the  state  of  the  at- 
mosphere, from  chemical  causes,  will  so  much 
affect  the  general  current,  as  to  prevent  it  from 
being  perceived. 

484.  We  shall  conclude  this  subject  with  a 
table,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  time  of  high 
water  may  be  found  with  great  ease  and  cor- 
rectness. 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


154  ASTRONOMY. 

TMefirfauting  the  Time  of  High  Water ;  beimg  the  Correction  of  the  Mxm't  mutkag. 


Moon's 

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485.  To  find  the  time  of  lugb  wditer  by  thb 
table,  seek  in  the  Nautical  Almianack,  White's 
Ephemeris,  or  any  other  similar  astrooomical 
work,  for  the  time  of  the  moou*s  passing  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich;  with  which  enter  the 
table,  and  take  out  the  corresponding  correction 
of  the  said  time  of  the  moon's  meridian  passage, 
and  apply  it  by  addition  or  subtraction  as  di- 
rected in  the  table,  and  add  the  result  to  the  time 
of  .iigh  water  at  the  proposed  place  on  the  full 
and  change  days,  and  the  sum  rejecting  twenty- 
four  hours  if  necessary,  will  be  the  hours  and  mi- 
nutes past  noon,  when  it  willbe  high  water. 

Sect.  VI. — Op  the  Habtbst  Moon. 

486.  It  is  remarkable,  that  the  moon,  during 
the  week  in  which  she  js  full  about  the  time  of 
harvest,  rises  sooner  after  sun-tet,  than  she  does 
in  any  otlier  full  moon  week  throughout  the 
year.  By  this  means,  she  affords  an  immediate 
supply  of  light  af^r  sun-set,  which  is  very 
beneficial  for  those  employed  in  the  harvest,  and 

Sthering  in  the  fruits  of  the  earth.    Hence  this 
1  moon  is  distinguished  from  all  others  in  the 
year,  by  calling  it  the  Harvest  Moon. 

487.  To  conceive  the  reason  of  this  pheno- 
menon, it  may  first  be  considered,  that  the  moon 
is  always  op]posite  to  the  sun  when  she  is  full, 
and  therefore,  in  the  harvest  months,  she  is  full 
in  Pisces  and  Aries,  which  are  opposite  to  Virgo 
and  libra,  the  signs  occupied  by  the  sun  about 
the  same  season.  Now  the  si^  Pisces  and 
Aries  rise  in  a  shorter  space  of  tmie  than  others, 


as  is  easily  shown  and  illustrated  by  a  celestial 
fflobe ;  and  the  same  thing  may  be  conceived 
from  this  circumstance,  that  in  northern  lati- 
tudes,  the  smallest  angle  made  by  the  ecliptic 
and  horizon,  is  when  Aries  rises,  at  which  time 
Libra  sets';  and  it  is  obvious,  that  the  smaller 
the  angle  contained  by  the  ecliptic  and  horizon, 
the  greater  portion  of  the  ecliptic  will  rise  by 
the  earth's  rotation  in  a  given  time.  Conse- 
quently, when  the  moon  is  full  in  harvest,  she 
rises  with  less  difference  of  time,  or  more  im- 
mediately after  sunset,  than  at  any  other  season 
of  the  year. 

488*.  In  our  winter  the  moon  is  in  Pisces 
and  Aries,  about  the  time  of  her  first  quarter, 
when  she  rises  about  noon,  and  therefore,  her 
rising  is  not  then  noticed. 

489.  In  spring  the  moon  is  in  Pisces  and 
Aries  about  me  time  of  her  change,  but  as  she 
then  gives  no  light,  and  rises  with  the  sun,  her 
rising  cannot  be  perceived. 

490.  In  summer  the  moon  is  in  Pisces  and 
Aries  at  the  time  of  the  last  quarter,  and  then, 
as  she  does  not  rise  till  midnight,  her  rising 
usually  passes  unobserved. 

491.  but,  in  autumn,  the  moon  is  in  Pisces 
and  Aries  at  the  time  of  her  full,  and  rises  soon 
after  sun-set,  for  several  evenings  successively ; 
which  makes  her'reeular  risings  very  con- 
spicuous at  that  time  of  the  year. 

492.  AU  this  would  happen,  if  the  moOn's 
orbit  lay  in  the  ecliptic ;  but  her  orbit  makes 
with  the  ecliptic  an  angle  of  5^  18',  and  crosses 


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ASTRONOMY. 


165 


it  in  two  po'iDts,  called  her  nodes ;  so  that  her 
rising,  when  in  Pisces  and  Aries,  will  sometimes 
not  differ  above  an  hour  and  forty  minutes, 
through  a  whole  week;  and  at  other  times,  in 
tne  same  two  signs  she  will  differ  in  a  week  3| 
hours  in  the  time  of  her  rising,  according  to  the 
different  positions  of  the  nodes  with  respect  to 
the  signs ;  which  positions  are  always  changing, 
because  the  nodes  go  backward  through  the 
ecliptic  in  eighteen  years,  325  days. 

493.  This  revolution  of  the  nodes  causes  the 
harvest  moons  to  go  through  a  whole  course  of 
the  most  advantageous  and  least  beneficial  state^ 
with  respect  to  the  harvest,  every  nineteen  years. 
They  were  least  beneficial  in  1796,  and  a>nti- 
nued  so  until  1197 ;  after  which,  they  became 
most  beneficial  from  that  neriod  to  1806.  In 
1807  iSbej  again  became  least  beneficial,  and 
continued  so  till  1815.  Their  most  advantageous 
period  began  agaih  hi  1816,  and  lasted  till  1825, 
when  the  opposite  period  commenced,  and  will 
last  until  the  year  1834;  then  again  they  will 
be  most  beneficial  fix>m  1835  to  1843 ;  and  so  on. 

Sect.  VII^— Of  the  Horizontal  Suk   avd 
Moon. 

494.  Philosophers  have  been  much  at  a  lots 
to  account  for  tne  apparent  magnitude  of  the  sua 
and  faioon,  being  gteater  when  they  are  in  the 
horizon,  than  when  elevated  above  it.  For,  ac* 
cording  to  the  laws  of  vision,  they  should  appear 
least,  when  nearest  the  horizon,  because  they 
are  tlien  farthest  from  the  eye ;  and  yet,  it  is 
found,  that  the  contrary  is  true,  in  fact.  Thus, 
although  the  diameter  of  the  moon,  when  hi  the 
horizon,  as  measured  by  an  instrument,  is  not 
found  to  be  greater  than  when  measured  at  her 
greatest  elevation  in  the  meridian,  yet  her  ap- 
parent diameter,  when  in  the  horizon,  seems  to 
the  eye  two  or  three  tines  greater  than  when 
she  is  considerably  elevated  above  it. 

495.  According  to  Alhazen,  one  of  the  ear- 
liest writers  on  optics,  the  sight  apprehends  the 
surface  of  the  heavens  as  flat,  and  judges  of  the 
stars,  as  it  would  of  ordinary  objects  extended 
upon  a  vride  plain.  The  eye  sees  them  indeed 
under  equal  angles,  but  at  the  same  time  per- 
ceives a  difference  in  their  distances,  and  (on 
account  of  the  semi-diameter  of  the  earth,  which 
is  interposed  in  the  one  case,  but  not  m  the  other) 
it  is  hence  induced  to  judge  those  that  appear 
more  remote  to  be  greater. 

496.  Des  Cartes,  and  from  him  Dr.  Wallis 
and  most  other  authors,  account  for  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  different  distance  under  the  same 
angle,  from  the  long  series  of  objects  interposed 
between  tiie  eye  and  the  extremity  of  the  horizon, 
which  makes  us  imagine  it  is  more  remote  than 
when  in  the  meridian,  where  the  eye  sees  nothing 
in  tlie  way  between  itself  and  the  object.  This 
id(^  of  a  great  distance  makes  us  imagine  the 
luminary  larger;  fi>r  an  object  being  seen  under 
any  certain  angle,  and  believed  at  the  same  time 
more  remote,  we  naturally  imagine  it  to  be  very 
hrge,  to  appear  under  such  an  angle  at  such  a 
distance,  and  thus  a  pure  judgment  of  tlie  mind 
makes  \fs  see  the  sun  or  the  moon  larger  in  the 
\orizon  than  in  the  meridian,  notwithstanding 
their  diameters,  when  measured,  are  really  less 
in  the  foxiyer  situation  thaji  in  the  latter. 


497.  This  opinion,  however  ^ems  hardly  te- 
nable, although  it  be  sanctioned  by  the  authority 
of  very  eminent  men  ;  for  it  is  daily  seen,  that 
the  sun  and  moon,  when  near  the  horizon,  very 
suddenly  change  their  magnitude  as  they  ascend 
and  descend,  uough  all  the  intervening  objects 
remain  the  same  as  before ;  and  the  luminaries 
appear  largest  of  all,  when  fewest  objects  appear 
on  the  eartfi,  as  in  a  thick  fog  or  mist. 

498.  Dr.  Desaguliers  has  endeavoured  to  ex- 

8 lain  the  appearance  of  the  horizontal  moon,  on 
le  supposition  that  we  imagine  the  visible  heavens 
to  be  only  a  small  portion  of  a  spherical  surface, 
and  consequently  suppose  the  moon  to  be  fiuther 
from  us  in  the  horizon  than  near  the  zenith ; 
and  he  has  shown  how  liable  we  are  to  such  de- 
ceptions. 

499.  Upon  this  idea,  Dr.  Smith  has  determi- 
ned, in  his  optics,  that  the  centre  of  the  appa- 
rent spherical  segment  of  sky,  lying  much 
below  the  eye,  the  apparent  distance  of  its  parts, 
near  the  horizon,  is  about  three  or  four  times 
greater  tnan  the  apparent  distance  of  its  parts 
over  head ;  for  whicti  reason  it  is,  he  infers,  ♦hat 
the  moon  always  appears  larger  as  she  is  lower, 
and  also  that  we  always  think  the  height  of  a 
celestial  object  to  be  greater  than  it  really  is. 

500.  Of  the  apparent  figure  of  the  sky,  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  treat  more  fully  under 
optics;  and  shall  only  observe  here,  that  if  it  be' 
allowed,  that  we  judge  of  the  apparent  mag- 
nitude of  the  heavenly  bodies,  by  tne  arc  which 
they  cover  of  the  concave  sky,  it  is  evident,  since 
the  sky  appears  to  us  as  a  segment  less  than  a 
hemisphere,  that  the  horizon  will  appear  farther 
distant  than  the  zenith ;  and  therefore  the  sun 
and  moon,  while  in  the  horizon,  will  cover  a 
larger  portion  of  the  apparent  sky,  ^n  when 
more  elevated,  and  thus  their  apparent  diameter 
will  be  greater. 

Sect-  VIII.— Of  the  Refraction  op  Lxoht 
BT  thb  Atmosphere. 

501  •  If  it  were  not  for  the  atmosphere,  the 
rays  of  light  that  come  from  the  heavenly  bodies, 
and  by  which  they  are  seen,  would  enter  the  eye 
in  the  direction  of  a  straight  line  joining  the  lu« 
minous  body  and  the  eye.  But  Uie  earth  being 
covered  to  a  considerable  height  with  an  atmos- 
phere of  unequal  density,  a  ray  of  light  fidling 
obliquely  upon  its  surfitce>  instead  of  continuing 
to  move  forward  in  the  same  rectilineal  direction, 
is  bent  downwards  mto  a  curve,  in  its  future 
progress;  and  enters  the  eye  in  a  direction 
differing  more  or  less  from  its  original  one,  ac- 
cording as  it  fiUls  upon  the  atmosphere,  with  a 
greater  or  less  degree  of  obliquity. 

502.  This  effect  may  be  thus  illustrated: 
Suppose  Z  Y,  plate  IV.  fig.  7,  a  quadrant  of  a 
vertical  circle  described  from  the  centre  of  the 
earth  T,  under  which  is  A  B  a  quadrant  of  a 
circle  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  G  H  a 
quadrant  of  the  tuifiice  of  the  atmosphere. 
Then  suppose  S  £  a  ray  of  light  emitted  irom  a 
star  at  S,  and  fidling  on  the  atmosphere  at  £ ; 
because  the  ray  passes  out  of  a  rare  medium 
(and  most  probably  a  perfect  vacuum)  into  a 
denser  medium ;  by  the  laws  of  optics,  it  will 
be  refracted  towardls  the  perpendicular,  or  more 
inchned   towards  the    earth;    and  since    the 


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ASTRONOMY. 


farther  tliat  a  lay  descends  in  the.  atmosphere, 
the  more  dense  is  the  medium  through  which  it 
passes,  it  will  move  in  the  curve  £  A,  and  at  last 
enter  the  eye  in  the  direction  of  A  F  Q,  a  tangent 
to  the  curve.  Therefore  the  star  will  appear  at 
Q  instead  of  S,  and  thus  its  apparent  place  Q 
will  be  nearer  the  zenith  than  its  true  place. 

503.  The  nearer  the  star  S  is  to  the  horizon, 
the  greater  will  be  the  refraction  as  well  as  the 
distance  between  the  apparent  and  true  place  of 
the  star.  Hence  the  heavenly  bodies  appear  to 
be  above  the  horizon,  by  reason  of  the  refraction, 
when  they  are  really  below  it.  There  is  no  re- 
fraction in  the  zenith,  for  a  ray,  coming  from  Z, 
will  fell  perpendicularly  on  the  surface  of  the  at- 
mosphere at  G,  and  continue  its  rectilinear 
course  to  the  eye  at  A. 

The  following  neat  and  elegant  method  of 
computing  the  atmospherical  refraction  has  been 
given  by  Dr.  Brinkley,  the  present  learned  and 
active  professor  of  astronomy  at  Dublin : 

504.  Let  LI,  fig.  7,  plate  VI,  be  a  ray  of  light 
falling  on  the  atmosphere  at  I,  and  refracted  in 
the  curvineal  course  I S.  The  object  appears  to 
a  spectator  at  S  in  the  direction  S  T,  a  tangent  to 
the  curve,  VST  is  the  apparent  zenith  distance. 
The  space  in  the  figure  between  the  concentric 
circles  represents  all  the  atmosphere  which  has 
any  effect  on  the  ray  of  Ught,  so  that  the  light 
may  be  considered  as  passing  out  of  a  vacuum 
into  this  space. 

505.  If  the  surface  of  the  earth  were  a  plane,  the 
different  strata  of  air  might  be  considered  as 
parallel  thereto ;  and  by  the  principles  of  optics, 
the  refraction  would  be  the  same  as  would  take 
place  were  the  ray  of  light  to  pass  from  a  vacuum 
mto  air  of  the  same  density  with  that  at  the  sur- 
^e.  It  is  therefore  evident,  that  if  we  take  into 
account  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth  and  at- 
mosphere, the  error  resulting  from  the  supposition 
of  an  uniform  atmosphere  will  necessarily  be 
very  small,  compared  with  the  diange  occasioned 
by  considering  the  atmosphere  spherical,  pro- 
vided that  change  be  small. 

506.  Let  m  :  1  : :  sin.  of  incidence  :  sin.  of  re- 
fraction, when  a  ray  of  light  passes  from  a  vacuum 
into  air  of  the  density  of  that  at  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Suppose  all  the  air  contracted  into  an 
i4Kform  atmosphere,  then  SI  is  a  right  line. 
Let  HIL  =  i,  SIC  =  r,  VSI  =  z,  SC  =  a, 
the  height  of  the  uniform  atmosphere  =  /,  or 
CI  =  fl  +  /. 


1      :m  \ 
Hence 


sm.  z  :  sm.  r 
sin.  r  :  sin.  t. 


.     .       masm.z                   / .        l\       , 
sm.  t  =  — -^-r-  =:  m  sm.  ill jnearly. 

a  sin.  X  /  .        l\       , 

sm.r  z:  — ^^  n  sm.  «  (  I  —  ^  1  nearly. 

Let  t  =2  r  +  R,  then  R  is  the  quantity  of  re- 
fraction. Sin.  (r  +  R)  =:  sin.  i. 
Or,  because  R  is  small,  sin.  r  +  cos.  r  sin.  R  = 
sin.  i,  or  sin  r  +  R  sin.  1"  cos.  r  =  sin.  i,  sub- 
stituting in  this  equation  for  sin.  r  and  sin. »,  as 
above.    Also  for  cos.  r. 

v/l  —  sin.»«'^l-  '  )  = 


v/- 


Zl 


COS.  •*  +  -^^  sin.  *i  = 
a 

COS. «  M  +  —  tan.  Hy 
nearly,  we  obtain 

m—  1  •  sin . « •  (  I  —  —  ^ 
I. — sm.  r ^ a_/ 

sin.r.cos.sM+£  taD.•^^ 

(m  —1)  tan.  1      (m  —  1)  /.  tan.  »i 
sin.  1"  a  sin.  1"    cos.  H 


R 


^sm. 

"sin.r'xcosr" 


nearly. 


507.  Taking  z  =s  80^,  2  =  5  and  a  .=  4000 
miles,  the  second  term  (arbing  from  die  spheri- 
cal figure  of  the  atmosphere)  =  10^  nearly. 
If  a  were  indefinite,  that  is,  if  the  surface  of  the 
earth  were  a  plane,  this  second  term  would 
vanish.  Hence  we  may  safely  conclude,  that  as 
far  as  80  zenith  distance,  the  error  arising  from 
supposing  the  atmosphere  of  uniform  density 
must  be  much  less  than  10",  and.  that  conse- 
quently the  above  expression  gives  the  refraction 
as  ^  as  80  from  the  zenith  with  sufficient  ac- 
curacy. If  we  neglect  the  second  term,  the  le- 
firaction  will  vary  as  the  tangent  of  the  zenith 
distance. 

508.  The  exact  experiments  of  M.  M.  Biot  and 
Aiago,  have  determined  the  value  of  m  —  1  =, 
'0002946,  when  the  barometer  is  at  29,93  (in 
metre)  and  Fah.  therm,  at  32°.  From  their  ex- 
periments, and  the  law  of  expansion  of  air,  il 

may  be  inferred   that  -: — p-= 

^>Q375 t>      ^  ^^0  32,  neatly 

1+,  002083(^-32)^  29,60  ^  ^'    *»  '  ^ 

where  h  is  height  of  the  barometer,  and  t  that  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer.     When  t  ;=  50®  and 

h  =  29,60  inches,  this  expression  gives  *"  *"" 
'  '  *^  sin  1 

=  57*82,  a  result  independent  of  astronomical 

observations. 

509.  The  French  tables  of  refraction,  by  De- 
lambre,  founded  on  astronomical  observalioBS, 

give  ^-Hl  =57-72';    and  from  upwards  of 
500  observations  made  by  himself.  Dr.  Brinkley 


finds 


m— 1 


=  57-56'. 


sin.  r 

510.  Mr.H.Atkinson,inamemoirrecentlyread 
before  the  Astronomical  Society  of  London,  and 
printed  in  the  forth-coming  part  of  the  Society's 
Memoirs,  has  treated  the  subject  of  refractions 
in  a  manner  altogether  new ;  and  has  evinced 
talents  for  scientific  investigation  which  place 
him  in  a  high  rank  among  the  philosophers  of 
the  present  day.  He  treats  the  question  alto- 
gether as  one  depending  on  the  optical  proper- 
ties of  air,  by  dividing  the  whole  atmosphere 
into  various  concentric  strata,  and  computes  the 
deviation  produced  by  refraction  on  each  stratum. 
We  should  be  glad,  did  our  limits  permit  us,  to 
quote  very  largely  from  this  most  elaborate  and 
instructive  essay,  but  we  must  content  ourselves 
with  extracting  one  of  the  results  of  his  labors 
in  a 


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ASTRONOMY.  167 

■511.  TaMe  of  Mem  Refnttkn,  adapted  to  5ff  Fahrenheit,  and  29-6  inchet  of  Barometne  prtttta-r 


Zenith  dist. 

Refraction. 

Zenith  ditt. 

RefrwAkm. 

Zenith  d»t. 

Refraction. 

Zenith  diat. 

Refraction. 

7 

1^ 

0* 

0'  101" 

58*30' 

l'33-8r 

76*20' 

3' 52-93" 

84  40"' 

9'  15-59" 

2 

0 

0  201 

59  0 

1  35-72 

76  30 

3  55-80 

84  45 

9  22-86 

3 

0 

0  302 

59  30 

1  37-64 

76  40 

3  58-74 

84  50 

9  30-32 

4 

0 

0  403 

60  d 

1  39-60 

76  50 

4  1-75 

84  55 

9  37-95 

5 

0 

0  505 

60  20 

1  40-93 

77  0 

4  4-83 

85  0 

9  45-77 

6 

0 

0  606 

60  40 

1  42-30 

77  10 

4  800 

85  5 

9  53-79 

7 

0 

0  7-08 

61  0 

1  43-70 

77  20 

4  11-23 

85  10 
65  15 

10  201 

8 

0 

0  811 

61  20 

1  4513 

77  30 

4  14-55 

10  10-44 

9 

0 

0  914 

61  40 

1  46-59 

77  40 

4  17-95 

85  20 

10  19-09 

10 

0 

0  101 7 

62  0 

1  4808 

77  50 

4  21-43 

85  25 

10  27-96 

11 

0 

0  11-21 

62  20 

1  49-60 

78  0 

4  25-00 

85  30 

10  3700 

12 

0 

0  12-26 

62  40 

1  51-16 

78  10 

4  28-66 

85  35 

10  46-41 

18 

0 

0  13-32 

63  0 

1  52-75 

78  20 

4  32-41 

85  40 

10  50-01 

14 

0 

0  14-38 

63  20 

1  54-37 

78  30 

4  36-27 

85  45 

11  5-87 

15 

0 

0  15-46 

63  40 

1  56-03 

78  40 

4  40-23 

85  50 

11  1600 

10 

0 

0  16-54 

64  0 

1  57-73 

78  50 

4  44-30 

85  55 

11  26-40 

17 

0 

0  17-64 

64  20 

1  59-48 

79  0 

4  48-48 

86  0 

11  3709 

18 

0 

0  18-74 

64  40 

2  1-26 

79  10 

4  52-79 

86  5 

11  4809 

19 

0 

0  19-86 

65  0 

2  3-10 

.79  20 

4  57-21 

86  10 

11  59-41 

20 

0 

0  21-00 

65  15 

2  4-50 

79  30 

5  1-76 

86  15 

12  11-05 

21 

0 

0  22-14 

65   30 

2  5-92 

79  40 

5  6-43 

86  20 

12  2303 

22 

0 

0  23-31 

65  45 

2  7-38 

79  50 

5  11-25 

86  25 

12  35-36 

23 

0 

0  24:49 

6(6  0 

2  8-86 

80  0 

5  16-21 

86  30 

12  48-05 

24 

0 

0  25-68 

66  15 

2  10-76 

80  10 

5  21-31 

86  35 

13  1-13 

25 

0 

0  26-90 

66  30 

2  11-91 

80  20 

5  26-57 

86  40 

13  14-61 

26 

0 

0  28-13 

66  45 

2  13-48 

80  30 

5  3200 

86  45 

13  28-50 

27 

0 

0  29-39 

67  0 

2  15-08 

80  40 

5  37-59 

86  50 

13  42-82 

28 

0 

0  30-67 

67  15 

2  16-71 

80  50 

5  43;37 

86  55 

13  57-59 

29 

0 

0  31-97 

67  30 

2  18-38 

81  0 

5  49-33 

87  0 

14  12-83 

30 

0 

0  33-30 

67  45 

2  20-08 

V  10 

5  55-50 

87  5 

14  28-55 

31 

0 

0  34-66 

68  0 

2  21-82 

81  20 

6  1-87 

87  10 

14  44-78 

32 

0 

0  36-04 

68  15 

2  23-60 

81  30 

6  8-46 

87  15 

15  1-54 

33 

0 

0  37-45 

68  30 

2  25-41 

.81  40 

6  15-27 

87  20 

15  18-86 

34 

0 

0  38-90 

68  45 

2  27-27 

81  50 

6  22-32 

87  25 

15  36-75 

35 

0 

0  40-38 

69  0 

2  29-17 

82  0 

6  29-63 

87  30 

15  55-24 

36 

0 

0  41-89 

69  15 

2  31-12 

82  5 

6  33-37 

87  35 

16  14-36 

37 

0 

0  43-45 

69  30 

2  3311 

82  10 

6  37-19 

87  40 

16  34-14 

38 

0 

0  4505 

69  45 

2  3514 

82  15 

6  41-7 

87  45 

16  54-60 

39 

6 

0  46-69 

70  0 

2  37-21 

82  20 

6  4503 

87  50 

17  15-78 

40 

0 

0  48-38 

70  15 

2  39-32 

82  25 

6  4907 

87  55 

17  37-69 

41 

0 

0  5012 

70  30 

2  41-49 

82  30 

6  5318 

88  0 

18  0-41 

42 

0 

0  51-91 

70  45 

2  43-72 

82  35 

6  57-37 

88  5 

18  2406 

43 

0 

0  53-76 

71  0 

2  4600 

82  40 

7  1-65 

88  10 

18  48-57 

44 

0 

0  55-66 

71  15 

2  48-36 

82  45 

7  6-01 

88  15 

19  13-95 

45 

0 

0  57-63 

71  30 

2  50-77 

82  50 

7  10-45 

88  20 

19  40-24 

» 

46 

0 

0  59-67 

71  45 

2  53-25 

82  55 

7  14-98 

88  25 

20  7-39 

47 

0 

1  1-79 

72  0 

2  55-75 

83  0 

7  19-60 

88  30 

20  35-58 

48 

0 

1  3.98 

72  15 

2  58-33 

83  5 

7  24-31 

88  35 

21  4-88 

49 

0 

1  6-27 

72  30 

3  0-98 

83  10 

7  29-12 

88  40 

21  35-31 

50 

0 

1  8-64 

72  45 

3  3-71 

83  15 

7  34-02 

88  45 

22  7-02 

50  30 

1  9-87 

73  0 

3  6-51 

83  20 

7  39-03 

88  50 

22  39-92 

51 

0 

1  11-12 

73  15 

3  9-40 

83  25 

7  44-13 

88  55 

23  14-05 

51 

30 

1 .  12-40 

73  30 

3  12-36 

83  30 

7  49-35 

89  0 

23  49-49 

52 

0 

1  13-71 

73  45 

3  15-41 

83  35 

7  54-67 

89  5 

24  26-42 

52  30 

1  15-04 

74  0 

3  18-56 

83  40 

8  0-11 

89  10 

25  4-66 

53 

0 

1  16-41 

74  15 

3  21-79 

83  45 

8  5-66 

89  15 

25  44-26 

53  30 

1  17-81 

74  30 

3  25-13 

83  50 

8  11-34 

89  20 

26  25-25 

54 

0 

1  19-24 

74  45 

3  20-56 

83  55 

8  1713 

89  25 

27  7-36 

54  30 

1  20-71 

75  0 

3  3209 

84  0 

8  2306 

89  30 

27  51-22 

55 

0 

1  22-21 

75  10 

3  34-51 

84  5 

8  29- 12 

89  35 

28  36-89 

55  30 

1  23-75 

75  20 

3  36-97 

84  10 

8  35-31 

89  40 

29  24-47 

66 

0 

1  25.33 

75  30 

3  39-49 

84  15 

8  41-65 

89  45 

30  14-05 

56  30 

1  26-95 

75  40 

3  42-06 

84  20 

8  48-13 

89  50 

31  5-72 

57 

0 

1  28-61 

75  50 

3  44-69 

84  25 

8  54-73 

89  55 

31  59-57 

57  30 

1  30-31 

76  0 

3  47-38 

84  30 

9  1.54 

90  0 

32  55-72 

58 

0 

1  32-07 

76  10 

3  5012 

84  35 

9  8-48 

1 

, 

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ASTRONOMY. 


512.  This  refiactioD  of  tUe  light  by  the  atmos- 
phere produces  the  twilight ;  for  while  the  sun  is 
less  than  18^  below  the  horiioo,  his  rays,  al- 
though prevented  from  reaching  us  directly,  by 
reason  oT  the  interposed  body  of  the  earth,  yet 
fall  upon  the  supenor  regions  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  are  so  refracted  and  reflected  by  its  particles 
as  to  produce  a  brightness  over  the  norizon, 

^  which  continues  through  the  whole  night  during 
the  summer  months,  in  the  regions  of  the  earth 
towards  the  poles.      ^ 

513.  The  subject  of  twilights  has  given  rise  to 
a  problem  which,  from  the  talents  of  the  mathe- 
maticians who  have  applied  themselves  to  its 
investigation,  has  obtained  considerable  celebrity. 
Tlie  problem  is,  to  find  the  day  in  any  given 
latitude  in  which  the  twilight  is  the  shortat.  It 
might  be  imagined  that  the  twilights  would  in- 
crease fipom  midsummer  to  midwinter ;  but  this 
both  observation  and  theory  show  not  to  be  the 
case ;  for  though  the  twilights  continue  to  increase 
in  duration  for  some  time  after  the  sun's  decli- 
nation, allowed  a  denomination  different  from  the 
latitude,  ^et  they  reach  a  maximum,  after  which 
they  again  increase. 

514.  In  fig.  11,  plate  VI,  let  P  be  the  pole,  Z 
the  zenith,  HO  the  horizon,  AL  the  boundary 
of  twilight,  S  f  the  places  of  the  sun  at  the  be- 
ginning and  end  ot  twilight.  Draw  the  great 
circles  PS,  Pf,  ZS,  and  Zf,  also  PR  =  ZP, 
making  the  angle  ZPR  =:  2.  SPs,  .and  com- 
plete the  triangle  Z  Rf  with  great  ciroles  Z  R,  RS. 
Then  as  the  Z.  ZPR  =  ^  SP«,  we  have  the  Z. 
RPf  =  /_  ZPS;  also,  since  P*  =  PS,  and 
PR  =  PZ,  the  triangles  RP«,  ZPS,  are  simi- 
lar and  equal :  therefore  Rs  =  ZS,  and  in  the 
triangle  Z  Rs  we  have  given  Z  S  and  Rs,  and  as 
ZP,RP,  are  equal  and  given,  and  the  Z.  ZPR  = 
Z.  SP<  a  minimum,  we  shall  have  ZR  the  least 
possible,  which  by  the  writers  on  spherics  it  is 
shewn  to  be  when  =  Zi-^R<,  Rs  coincide: 
hence  the  following 

CoNSTRucrroN.— With  ZP,r  P,  each  =  oolat 
of  the  place,  and  Zr  =  Zi  —  Rs  (Z  S)  =  18°; 
describe  the  isosceles  triangle  ZPr  prolong  Z  r 
making  r  s  =  Z  S  =  90,  draw  P  t,  which  i»  the 
co-declination  of  the  sun  on  the  required  day. 

515.  Calculation. — Draw  P'z  perpendicular 
and  bisecting  Z  r  in  Z,  then,  bv  spherical  trig- 
onometry, we  have  cos.  z  r  :   rad.  1   : :  cos.  Pr 

:  COS.  P 3r,  or  cos.  Pa=  S?!lZl ;  and  in  the 

cos.  zr 
triangle  *P«,  asrad.  1  ;  cos.zi  :  :  cos.  Pi  =^ 
"^tlLv  cos.  P.,  or  sin.  Ho.i  _cos.^fXcos.Pr 
oos.jfr  cos.  zr 

COS.  99*  X  sine  lat.        —  sine  9°  x  sine  lat. 


COS.  9°. 


COS.  9*. 


=  —  tong.  9**  X  sine  lat.  A  simple  and  general 
theorem,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  declina- 
tion and  latitude  are  of  contrary  names.  From 
this  theorem  it  appears,  that  the  shortest  twilight 
at  Petersburgh  is  about  October  14th ;  at  Lon- 
don, October  11th,  and  at  Rome,  October  9th. 

516.  The  rays  of  light  are  equally  refracted 
by  the  atmosphere,  whether  they  come  from  the 
sun,  the  moon,  or  the  stars ;  but  the  quantity  of 
the  refraction,  and  therefore  the  duration  of  the 
twilight,  are  influenced  by  the  changes  which  are 


perpetually  taking  place  with  respect  to  the  heat 
and  cold,  the  moisture  and  dryness,  &c.  of  the 
atmosphere. 

PART  IV. 
ASTRONOMICAL   OPERATIONS  AND 

CALCULATIONS. 
Sect.  I. — Of  Drawing  a  Meridian  Line. 

517.  Upon  a  plain  board,  set  parallel  to  the 
horizon,  describe  a  circle  A  B  F,  as  in  plate  VIII. 
fig.  2.  And  upon  the  centre  C,  erect  a  stile  or 
gnomon,  exactly  perpendicular  to  it,  and  so 
high,  that  the  top  of  the  shadow  thereof  may 
fall  upon  the  ciroumference  of  the  circle  about 
the  middle  of  the  forenoon.  Mark  the  point  B 
exactly  where  the  top  of  the  shadow  &lls  in  the 
forenoon,  and  the  point  F  where  the  top  of  the 
shadow  falls  on  the  circumference,,  in  the  middle 
of  the  af^moon.  Then,  through  the  centre  C, , 
draw  the  line  A  CD,  bisecting  the  arch  BF. 
The  AD  is  the  meridian  required. 

518.  It  is  proper  to  draw  several  concentric 
circles,  and  to  make  observations  with  them  all, 
that  they  may  confirm  one  another.  If  the  sun 
happens  to  be  clouded  in  one,  it  may  be  clear  in 
another.  It  is  best  to  make  these  obser?atiobs 
about  the  solstices,  when  the  sun  does  not  alter 
his  declination  sensibly ;  and  the  summer  sol- 
stice is  to  be  preferred. 

519.  The  sun  is  evidently  highest  when  in  the 
meridian ;.  and  at  equal  distances  therefrom  has 
equal  altitudes.  Therefore,  when  the  distances 
D  B,  D  F,  are  equal,  the  shadows  C  B,  C  F,  will 
be  equal,  and  therefore  the  altitudes  equal.  And 
vice  versa. 

530.  2.  Hang  up  two  threads  and  plummets 
AB,  CD,  plate  VIII.  fig.  13,  at  a  good  dis- 
tance, in  vessels  of  water,  to  keep  them  steady ; 
of  which  C  D  is  movable  towards  the  leil  and 
right,  upon  a  pin  C.  Wait  till  the  polar  star, 
£,  and  the  star  Alioth,  F,  (in  the  great  bear's 
rump),  come  into  the  same  plumb  line,  A  B,  to 
an  eye  placed  at  I.  At  that  instant  (or  ratiier 
before)  move  the  thread  C  D  also  into  the  same 
line ;  so  that  the  thread  C  D  may  hide  the  thread 
A  B,  and  the  polar  star  £  from  the  eye  at  I. 
Then  the  plane  ABCD  is  the  plane  of  the 
meridian ;  and  where  it  intersects  tne  horizontal 
plane,  is  the  meridian  line.  And  the  same  may 
be  done  with  the  star,  called  Cassiopeia*s  hip. 
To  take  away  the  star's  rays,  look  through  a 
amall  hole  in  a  thin  plate.  This  must  be  per- 
formed in  a  calm  place. 

521.  If  it  is  wisned  to  have  a  meridian  drawn 
in  some  other  place,  let  the  threads  and  plum- 
mets A  B,  C  D,  remain ;  and  hang  up  two  others 
abfcd,  in  the  place  proposed,  as  in  fig.  14,  let- 
tmg  a  6  be  movable  upon  a  pin  at  a.  Then 
wait  till  any  star,  as  G,  comes  into  the  plane 
abed  to  the  eye,  at  h;  and  at  that  instant, 
move  the  thread  a  b,  till  the  same  star  G  fall  in 
the  plane  abcd^  to  the  eye  at  h;  then  abed  is 
the  plane  of  the  meridian.  Tlus  is  best  done  by 
the  nelp  of  an  assistant.  This  method  will  in 
time  deviate  a  little  from  the  truth,  occasioned  by 
the  stars  changing  their  places ;  but  that  change 
is  very  inconsiderable  for  several  years. 

522.  3.  Having  a  clock  or  watch,  with  mi- 
nutes and  seconds,  find  the  northing  of  the  star, 
Alioth,  F,  fig.  13,  by  the  astronomical  cables ;  and 


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wait'tfll  the  polar  star  £  u  in  a  plamb  line  with 
F.  Attfaat  instant,  set  the  dock  to  the  said  time 
of  northing.  And  next  day  at  twelve  o'clock, 
draw  a  meridian  line,  by  the  shadow  of  a  phimb 
line  hnng  in  the  sun.  Or  find  the  time  of  south- 
ini(  of  any  other  star,  as  G,  and  the  clock  remain- 
ing as  before,  when  she  shows  the  time  of  south- 
ing, place  the  direads  ab,  ed,  fig.  14,  so  that  the 
line  GA  may  pass  through  them  both.  Then 
abed  will  be  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian. 

523.  These  methods  are  only  to  be  considered 
as  affording  a  first  and  very  rough  approximation 
to  the  meridian,  and  may  assist  in  placing  a  tran- 
sit instrument  nearly  in  its  position  with  respect 
to  the  meridian,  previously  to  the  application  of 
the  more  exact  methods  by  which  the  final  ad- 
justment is  made. 

Sect.  II. — Of  Finding  Time,  and  the  Equa- 
tion OF  Time. 

524.  Having  drawn  a  meridian  line,  as  directed 
in  the  last  article,  the  time  when  the  sun,  or  any 
other  celestial  body  is  exactly  in  the  meridian, 
may  be  found  by  a  common  quadrant,  placing 
the  edge  of  it  along  the  line,  and  observing  when 
the  sun  or  other  luminary  can  be  seen  exactly 
through  its  two  sights,  and  noting  exactly  the 
time ;  which,  supposing  the  luminary  viewed  to 
be  the  sun,  will  be  precisely  noon,  or  twelve 
o'clock :  but,  as  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun 
is  pretty  large^  it  ought  to  be  known  exactly  when 
his  centre  is  in  the  meridian,  which  will  be  some 
short  space  after  his  eastern  limb  has  arrived  at 
it,  and  before  his  western  limb  comes  thither. 
It  will  be  proper,  therefore,  to  observe  exactly 
the  time  of  the  two  limbs  being  seen  through  the 
sights  of  the  quadrant ;  and  the  half  of  the  dif- 
ference between  these  times,  added  to  the  one  or 
subtracted  firom  the  other,  will  give  the  exact 
time  when  the  sun's  centre  is  in  the  meridian. 

525.  The  same  method  is  equally  applioable  to 
the  moon;  but  not  to  the  stars,  which  have  no 
sensible  diameter.  It  is  found,  by  observation, 
that  the  stars  appear  to  go  round  the  earth  in 
twentv-three  houxs,  fifty-six  minutes,  four  seconds, 
and  the  sun  in  twenty-^ur  hours;  so  that  the 
stafs  gain  three  minutes,  fifty-six  seconds  upon 
the  sun  every  day,  which  amounts  to  one  diurnal 
revolution  in  a  year ;  and  therefore,  in  365  days, 
as  measured  by  the  returns  of  the  sun  to  the  me- 
ridian, there  are  366  days  as  measured  by  the 
stars  returning  to  it :  the  former  are  called  solar 
days,  and  the  latter  siderial. 

526.  These  may  be  considered  as  first  steps  in 
the  determination  of  this  important  element 
With  the  aid  of  a  transit  instrument,  the  time 
can  always  be  determined  with  the  greatest  nn^ 
plicity  and  exactness.  But  supposing  the  lati- 
tude of  the  place  of  observation  to.be  known,  the 
time  may  be  deduced  with  great  ease  and  pre- 
cision from  the  altitude  of  any  celestial  object 
observed  with  a  quadrant  or  sextant,  taken  by 
reflection  from  a  basin  of  water  or  Quicksilver. 
Equal  altitudes  of  stars,  peihaps,  nimish  the 
most  ready  and  convenient  method  of  deter- 
mining the  time,  as  the  use  of  trigonometrical 
formuUe  is  not  required ;  and  there  is  besides  no 
fojther  dependence  on  the  goodness  of  the  in- 
strument, than  that  it  shall  be  in  the  same  state 
at  both  c^rvations. 


527.  As  we  shall  have  occasion,  when  treating 
of  Nautical  Astronomy  (which  we  shall  do  under 
the  article  Navigation),  to  explain  the  various 
ways  by  which  time  may  be  found,  and  conse- 
quently, how  clocks  may  be  regulated,  we  shall 
here  merely  give  the  practical  method  of  finding 
the  error  of  a  clock  by  equal  altitudes  of  fixed  stars. 

528.  Take  the  altitude  of  a  star  when  east- 
ward of  the  meridian,  and  mark  the  time  by  the 
dock  when  the  observation  is  made ;  wait  till  the 
star  when  west  of  the  meridian  comes  to  the  same 
altitude,  and  mark  the  time  by  the  clock.  Half 
the  sum  of  these  times  will  be  the  time  by  the 
clock  when  the  star  is  on  the  meridian.  Now 
the  siderial  time  at  which  a  star  is  on  the  me- 
ridian is  equal  to  the  star's  right  ascension ;  and 
the  solar  or  apparent  time  is  obtained  by  sub- 
tracting the  fun's  right  ascension  from  the  star's. 
Hence  the  error  of  the  dock,  either  for  mean  or 
siderial  time,  is  obtained  at  once.  In  practice, 
however,  it  is  preferable  to  take  several  sdtitudes^ 
and  their  corresponding  times,  both  eastward 
and  westward  of  the  meridian,  and  to  take  half 
the  sum  of  the  mean  of  the  times  for  the  time 
by  the  chronometer  at  which  the  star  passes  the 
meridian. 

529-  For  example,  suppose  that  on  Februaiy 
20th,  1826,  the  time  at  which  Regulus  had  the 
following  altitudes,  was  as  under: 


Times  B.  of 

Alt». 

Times  W.of* 

the  mend. 

the  mend. 

h.    m.    •• 

h.     m.     s. 

9    4    26    . 

38*'0'    . 

16    43     14 

5    14    . 

IC 

42    26 

6      7     . 

20'    , 

41     31 

6    58     . 

30' 

40    43 

9    5    41'25  mean. 


16  41  58-5 

9  5  41-25 

25  47  39-75 

12  53  4987  Time 


by  the  chronometer  when  the  star  is  on  the  m^ 
ridian.  Hence  by  comparing  this  with  the  slar'a 
right  ascension  on  the  same  day  (9  h.  59  m.  8*8  s.), 
it  is  found  that  the  watch  is  2h.  54m.  41*07  s. 
&st  for  siderial  time. 

530.  If  the  earth  had  no  annual  motion,  but 
only  a  diurnal,  any  given  meridian  would  revolve 
from  the  sun  to  the  sun  again,  in  the  same  quan^ 
tity  of  time  as  firom  ^ny  star  to  the  same  star 
again ;  because  the  sun  would  never  change  his 
place  with  respect  to  the  stars.  But,  as  the 
earth  advances  almost  a  degree  eastward  in  its 
orbit,  in  the  time  that  it  turns  eastward  round  its 
axis,  whatever  star  passes  over  the  meridian  on 
any  day  with  the  sun,  will  pass  over  the  same 
meridian  on  the  next  d^y,  wnen  the  sun  is  almost 
a  degree  short  of  it;  that  is,  three  minutes,  fiftv- 
six  seconds  sooner.  If  the  year  contained  only 
360  days,  as  the  ecliptic  does  360  degrees,  the 
sun's  apparent  place,  so  for  as  his  motion  is 
equable,  would  coange  a  degree  every  day;  and 
then  the  siderial  days  would  be  just  four  minutes 
shorter  than  the  solar. 

531 .  As  the  motion  of  the  earth  round  its  axis 
is  perfectly  uniform  and  equal  at  all  times  of  the 
year,  the  siderial  days  are  always  precisdy  of  an 


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ASTRONOMY. 


equal  length ;  and  so  would  the  solar  or  natural 
days  be,  if  the  earth's  orbit  were  a  perfect  circle, 
and  its  axis  perpendicular  to  its  oroit  But  the 
earth's  diurnal  motion  on  an  inclined  axis,  and  its 
annual  motion  in  an  elliptic  orbit,  cause  the  sun*8 
apparent  motion  in  the  heavens  to  be  unequal : 
ibr  sometimes  he  revolves  firom  the  meridian  to 
the  meridian  again  in  somewhat  less  than  twenty- 
four  hours,  shewn  by  a  well-regulated  clock; 
and  at  other  times  in  somewhat  more :  so  that  the 
time  shewn  by  a  good  clock  and  a  true  sun-dial  is 
never  exactly  the  same,  excepting  on  the  15th  df 
April,  the  16th  of  June,  the  31st  of  August,  and 
the  24dk  of  December.  The  clock,  if  it  goes 
equably  and  true  all  the  year  round,  will  be 
before  the  sun  from  the  24th  of  December  till  the 
15di  of  April;  from  that  time  till  the  16th  of 
June,  the  sun  will  be  before  the  clock ;  from  the 
16th  of  June  till  the  31st  of  August,  the  clock 
will  be  again  before  the  sun ;  and  from  thence  to 
the  24th  of  December,  the  sun  will  be  fiister  than 
the  clock. 

532.  The  equation  of  time,  therefore,  or  di^ 
ference  between  the  time  shewn  by  a  well-regu- 
lated clock  and  a  true  sun-dial,  depending  upon 
two  causes,  viz.  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and 
the  unequal  motion  of  the  earth  in  it,  the  united 
effects,  resulting  from  their  combination,  may 
be  explained  in  the  following  manner : — 

533.  Let  Z  T  s  ^,  in  plate  V ,  fig.  1,  be  the 
earth;  ZFRjs,  its  axis;  abcde,  &c.  the  equa- 
tor; ABCDE,  &c.  the  northern  half  of  the 
ecliptic  from  qp  to  ^  on  flie  side  of  the  globe 
next  the  eye;  and  MNOP,  &c.  the  southern 
half  on  the  opposite  side  from  ^  to  (y^.  Let  us 
suppose  a  fictitious  sun  to  set  out  from  fy*,  at  the 
same  instant  with  the  real  sun.  Let  the  points  at 
ABCDEFG,  &c.  quite  round,  from  y*  to 
qp  again,  bound  equal  portions  of  the  ecliptic, 
gone  through  in  equal  times  by  the  real  sun; 
and  those  Bi  abcdefe^  &c.  equal  portions 
of  the  equator  described  in  equal  times  by  the 
fictitious  sun ;  and  let  Z  ty^  jt  be  the  meridian. 

534.  As  the  real  sun  moves  obliquely  in  the 
ecliptic,  and  the  fictitious  sun  directly  in  the 
equator,  with  respect  to  the  meridian ;  a  degree, 
or  any  number  of  degrees,  between  y*  and  F  on 
the  edintic,  must  be  nearer  the  meridian  Z  (y^  f  , 
than  a  aegree,  or  any  corresponding  number  of 
degrees,  on  the  equator  from  t  to  f ;  and  the 
more  so,  as  they  are  the  more  oblique:  and 
therefore  the  true  sun  comes  sooner  to  the  me- 
ridian every  day,  whilst  he  is  in  the  quadrant  t 
F,  than  the  fictitious  sun  does  in  the  quadrant 
qp/f  for  which  reason,  the  solar  noon  precedes 
noon  by  the  clock,  until  the  real  sun  comes  to'F, 
and  the  fictitious  to/;  which  two  points,  being 
equidistant  from  the  meridian,  both  suns  will 
come  to  it  precisely  at  noon  by  the  clock. 

535.  While  the  real  sun  describes  die  second 
quadrant  of  the  ecliptic  F  G  H I K  L,  from  Cancer 
to  d!&,  he  comes  later  to  the  meridian  every  day, 
than  the  fictitious  sun  moving  through  the  second 
quadrant  of  the  equator,  fix>m  /to  -Q: ;  for  the 
points  at  GH I K,  and  L,  being  farther  from 
the  meridian,  their  corresponding  points  at  g  A 
t  k  and  /,  must  be  later  in  coming  to  it :  and  as 
both  suns  come  at  the  same  moment  to  the  point 
si^,  they  come  to  the  meridian  at  the  moment  of 
noon  by  the  dock. 


536.  In  departing  from  Libra,  thiougb  <be 
third  quadrant,  the  real  sun  going  through  M  N 
O  P  Q  towards  vj'  ^  Rf  ^  the  fictitious  sun 
through  mnopq  towards  r,  the  former  oomes  to 
the  meridian  every  day  sooner  than  the  latter 
until  the  real  sun  oomes  to  yf ,  and  the  fictitious 
to  r,  and  then  they  come  both  to  the  meridian  at 
the  same  time.  Lastly,  as  the  real  sun  moves 
equably  through  STUVW,  from  yj>  towards 
rp ;  and  the  fictitious  sun  through  ttuvwy  from  r 
towards  qp,  the  former  comes  later  every  day  to 
the  meridian  than  the  latter,  until  they  both 
arrive  at  the  point  qp,  and  then  they  make  it 
noon  at  the  same  time  with  the  clock. 

537«  We  now  proceed  to  explain  the  other 
cause  of  this  difference,  viz.  the  inequality  of  the 
sun's  apparent  motion,  which  is  slowest  in  sum- 
mer, when  the  sun  is  ferthest  from  the  earth,  and 
swiftest  in  winter  when  he  is  nearest  to  it. 

538.  As  the  real  sun  moves  unequably  in  the 
ecliptic,  let  us  suppose  a  fictitious  sun  to  move 
equably  in  a  cirole  coinddent  with  the  plane  of 
the  ediptic.  Let  A  B  C  D  in  plate  V.,  ^.  2,  be 
the  ediptic  or  orbit  in  which  the  real  sun  moves, 
and  the  dotted  circles  a6cd  the  imaginary  orbit 
of  the  fictitious  sun :  each  going  round  in  a  year 
according  to  the  order  of  letters,  or  finom  west  to 
east.  Let  H I K  L  be  the  earth  turning  round 
its  axis  the  same  wa]r  every  twenty-four  hours ; 
and  suppose  both  suns  to  start  fiN>m  A  and  a,  in 
a  rieht  line  with  the  plane  of  the  meridian  £  H, 
at  tbe  same  moment :  the  real  sun  at  A,  being 
then  at  his  greatest  distance  from  the  earth,  at 
which  time  his  motion  is  slowest ;  and  the  fic- 
titious sun  at  0,  whose  motion  is  always  equable, 
because  his  distance  from  the  earth  is  supposed 
to  be  always  the  same.  In  the  time  that  the 
meridian  revolves  from  H  to  H  again,  acoordiog 
to  the  order  of  the  letters  H I K  L,  the  real  sun 
has  moved  from  A  to  F ;  and  the  fictitious  with  a 

3uicker  motion  from  a  to/,  through  a  large  arc : 
lerefore,  the  meridian  £  A  will  revolve  sooner 
from  H  to  A  under  the  real  sun  at  F,  than  from 
H  to  ft  under  the  fictitious  sun  at  /;  and  conse- 
quently it  will  then  be  noon  by  the  sun-dial 
sooner  than  by  the  clock. 

539.  As  the  real  sun  moves  from  A  towards 
C,  the  swifbess  of  his  motion  increases  all  the 
way  to  C,  where  it  is  at  the  (quickest.  But  not- 
withstanding this,  the  fictitious  sun  gains  so 
much  upon  tlie  real,  soon  after  his  departing 
from  A,  that  the  increasing  velodty  of  tne  real 
sun  does  not  bring  him  up  with  the  equally 
moving  fictitious  sun,  till  the  former  oomes  to  C, 
and  the  latter  to  c,  when  each  has  gone  half 
round  its  respective  orbit;  and  then  being  in 
conjunction,  tne  meridian  £H,  revolving  to  £K, 
comes  to  both  suns  at  the  same  time,  and  there- 
fore it  is  noon  by  them  both  at  the  same  moment. 

'  540.  But  the  increased  velocitjr  of  the  real 
sun,  now  bdng  at  the  Quickest,  cames  him  before 
the  fictitious  one;  and  therefore,  the  same  me- 
ridian will  come  to  the  fictitious  sun  sooner  than 
to  the  real :  for  whilst  the  fictitious  sun  moves 
from  c  to  f ,  the  real  sun  moves  through  a  greater 
arc  from  C  to  G :  consequently,  the  point  K  has 
its  noon  by  the  clock  when  it  comes  to  ft,  but 
not  its  noon  by  the  sun  till  it  comes  to  /.  And 
although  the  velocity  of  the  real  sun  diminishes 
dU  the  way  from  C  to  A,  and  the  fictitious  sun 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ASTRO  NO  M  Y. 


161 


by  an  equable  motion  is  still  coming  nearer  to  at  the  same  moment  Upon  these  principles 
the  real  sun,  yet  they  are  not  in  conjunction  till  tables  for  the  equation  of  time  are  calculated, 
the  one  comes  to  A  and  the  other  to  a,  and  then    the  one  giying  the  difference  between  the  sun's 


it  is  noon  by  them  both  at  the  same  moment. 

541.  Thus,  it  appears,  that  the  solar  noon  is 
always  later  than  noon  by  the  clock,  whilst  the 
sun  goes  from  C  to  A;  sooner,  whilst  he  goes 
from  A  to  C ;  and  at  these  two  points  the  sun 
and  clock  being  equal,  it  is  noon  by  them  both 


true  and  mean  motion ;  the  other  the  difference 
between  the  sun's  longitude  and  light  ascension ; 
from  which  the  arc  is  calculated  by  addition  or 
subtraction.  But  the  calculation  cannot,  from 
the  precession  of  the  equiuoxes,  be  depended 
upon  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 


542.  By  means  of  the  following  Table,  however,  of  the  Equation  of  Time  for  1824,  and  the 
subjoined  auxiliary  Table,  the  Equation  of  Time  may  be  found  for  any  subsequent  year  in  the 
present  century,  with  sufficient  exactness  for  regulating  clocks  and  watches  for  the  practical 
purposes  of  civil  life. 

543    Eqtuitum  of  Time,  when  the  Sun  is  on  the  Meridian  of  Greenwich,  for  every  day  in  the 

year  1824. 


0) 

< 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mab. 

April 

May. 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Add 

Add 

Add 

Add 

Sab. 

Sab. 

Add. 

Add. 

Sab. 

Sab. 

Sab. 

Sab. 

M. 

S. 

M.  S. 

M.  S. 

M. 

S. 

M. 

S. 

M. 

s. 

M. 

S. 

M.  S. 

M. 

S. 

M. 

S. 

M. 

S. 

M.  S. 

1 

3 

35 

13  52 

12  36 

3 

55 

3 

5 

2 

33 

3 

25 

5  58 

0 

12 

10 

23 

16 

15 

10  37 

2 

4 

4 

14   1 

12  24 

3 

37 

3 

13 

2 

24 

3 

37 

5  54 

0 

31 

10 

41 

16 

16 

10  14 

3 

4 

32 

14   8 

12  11 

3 

19 

3 

19 

2 

14 

3 

48 

5  50 

0 

51 

11 

00 

16 

16 

9  51 

4 

5 

0 

14  14 

11  58 

3 

1 

3 

25 

2 

5 

3 

59 

5  45 

1 

10 

11 

18 

16 

15 

'  9  26 

5 

5 

27 

14  20 

11  44 

2 

44 

3 

31 

54 

9 

5  39 

1 

30  11 

36 

16 

14 

9   2 

6 

5 

54 

14  25 

11  30 

2 

26 

3 

36 

44 

19 

5  33 

1 

50  11 

54 

16 

11 

8  36 

7 

6 

21 

14  29 

11  15 

2 

9 

3 

41 

33 

29 

5  26 

2 

10  12 

11 

16 

8 

8  10 

8 

6 

47 

14  32 

11  00 

1 

51 

3 

45 

22 

39 

5  19 

2 

30  12 

28 

16 

4 

7  44 

9 

7 

13 

14  34 

10  45 

1 

34 

3 

48 

11 

48 

5  10 

2 

51  12 

44 

15 

59 

7  17 

10 

7 

38 

14  36 

10  29 

1 

18 

3 

51 

0 

59 

56 

5   2 

3 

1213 

0 

15" 

53 

6  50 

11 

8 

2 

14  36 

10  30 

1 

1 

3 

53 

0 

47 

5 

4 

4  53 

3 

32  13 

15 

15 

46 

6  22 

12 

8 

26 

14  36 

9  57 

0 

45 

3 

55 

0 

35 

5 

12 

4  43 

3 

53 

13 

30 

15 

38 

5  54 

13 

8 

49 

14  35 

9  40 

0 

29 

3 

56 

0 

23 

5 

19 

4  32 

4 

14 

13 

44 

15 

30 

5  26 

14 

9 

11 

14  34 

9  23 

0 

14 

3 

57 

0 

10 

5 

26 

4  22 

4 

35 

13 

58 

15 

21 

4  57 

15 

9 

33 

14  31 

9   6 

0 

2 

3 

57 

0 

2 

5 

32 

4  10 

4 

56  14 

11 

15 

10 

4  28 

Sub. 

Add  1 

16 

9 

54 

14  28 

8  48 

0 

16 

3. 

56 

0 

15 

5 

38 

3  58 

5 

17 

14 

24 

14 

59 

3  58 

1  17 

10 

15 

14  24 

8  30 

0 

31 

3 

55 

0 

28 

5 

44 

3  46 

5 

38 

14 

36 

14 

47 

3  29 

18 

10 

34 

14  20 

8  Id 

0» 

45 

3 

54 

0 

40 

5 

49 

3  33 

5 

59 

14 

47 

14 

35 

2  59 

19 

10 

64 

14  15 

7  54 

0 

59 

3 

51 

0 

53 

5 

53 

-3  20 

6 

20 

14 

58 

14 

21 

2  29 

20 

11 

12 

14   9 

7  36 

1 

12 

3 

48 

6 

5 

57 

3   6 

6 

41 

15 

8 

14 

6 

1  59 

21 

11 

30 

14   2 

7  18 

1 

25 

3 

45 

19 

6 

0 

2  52 

7 

2 

15 

18 

13 

51 

1  29 

22 

U 

46 

13  55 

7  00 

1 

37 

3 

41 

32 

6 

3 

2  37 

7 

23 

15 

26 

13 

35 

0  59 

23 

12 

3 

13  47 

6  41 

1 

49 

3 

46 

45 

6 

5 

2  22 

7 

44 

15 

35 

13 

18 

0  28 

24 

12 

18 

13  39 

6  23 

2 

00 

3 

31 

58 

6 

6 

2   6 

8 

4 

15 

42 

13 

1 

0   2 
Add 

25 

12 

33 

13  30 

6   4 

2 

11 

3 

26 

2 

11 

6 

8 

1  50 

8 

24 

15 

49 

12 

42 

0  32 

26 

12 

46  13  20 

5  46 

2 

21 

3 

20 

2 

24 

6 

8 

1  34 

8 

45 

15 

55 

12 

23 

1   2 

27 

12 

59  13  10 

5  27 

2 

31 

3 

13 

2 

37 

6 

8 

1  17 

9 

5 

16 

0 

12 

3 

1  31 

28 

13 

12,12  59 

5   9 

2 

40 

3 

6 

2 

49 

6 

7 

1   0 

9 

24 

16 

5 

11 

43 

2   1 

29 

13 

23 

12^  48 

4  50 

2 

49 

2 

58 

3 

1 

6 

6 

0  42 

9 

44 

16. 

8 

11 

22 

2  30 

30 

13 

34 

4  32 

2 

58 

2 

50 

3 

13 

6 

4 

0  24 

10 

3 

16 

12 

10 

0 

2  59 

31 

13 

44 

4  13 

2 

42 

6 

1 

0   6 

16 

14 

3  28 

544.  Auxiliary  Table,  for  finding  the  Equation  of  Time  when  the  Sun  is  on  the  Meridian  of 
Greenwich,  on  any  day  from  the  year  1824  till  the  year  1900. 


1^ 

1824 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

64 

68 

72 

76 

80 

84 

88 

92 

96 

1900 

ite 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

Sec. 

5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

10 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

i^.S" 

20 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

9 

9 

10 

10  11 

11 

S'^l 

30 

0 

^1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

15  16 

16 

Add  the  Seconds  from  this  Table,  when  the  Eqaation  on  the  corresponding  day  is  increaang. 

Subtract        , decrearing. 

Vol.  III.  M 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


162 


ASTRONOMY. 


Use  op  the  preceding  Tables. 

545.  Take  from  the  fiist  table  the  equation  of 
time  for  the  giren  day  in  the  year  1824,  and  the 
daily  difference  of  the  equation,  with  this  dif- 
ference, or  the  nearest  second  to  it  in  the  side 
column  of  the  Auxiliary  Table,  and  below  the 
leap  year  preceding  the  given  year,  will  be  found 
a  correction,  which  applied  to  the  equation  be- 
fore taken  from  the  first  Table,  will  give  the 
equation  on  the  given  day  of  the  leap  year  pre- 
ceding the  given  year. 

546.  Then  take  i,  ^,  or  f ,  of  the  daily  diffe- 
rence of  the  equation  of  time,  according  as  the 
given  year  is  the  1st,  2d,  or  3d  after  leap  year, 
and  add  it  to  the  previously  found  equation  on 
the  same  day  of  the  preceding  leap  year,  when 
that  equation  is  decreasing;  but  subtract  it  when 
increasing ;  and  the  sum  or  remainder  will  be  the 
equation  at  noon,  Greenwich  time,  of  the  given 
day. 


547.  If  the  day  proposed  is  in  leap  jmr,  tht 
correction  for  that  year  in  the  Auxiliary  TMe, 
applied  to  the  equation  of  time  on  tho  proposed 
day  in  1884,  will  give  the  required  equalMUi. 

EsoampU, — Required  the  equation  of  time, 
Sept.  12, 1867,  at  noon,  Greenwich  time  ? 

548.  Equation,  see  the  first  table*  3  min.  53  sec. 
subtmctive ;  daily  diiferenoe  21  sec.  nearly.  In 
table  2,  opposite  20  sec.  and  below  1864,  stands 
6  sec. ;  which,  added  to  3  min.  53  sec.,  gives 
3  min.  59  sec.  the  equation  of  time  on  Sept.  12, 
1864.  Now,  1867  is  the  third  year  after  leap 
year;  therefore,  take  | of  21  sec.  or  15  sec.  and 
as  the  declination  is-  increasing,  subtract  it  from 
3  min.  59  sec. ;  and  the  remainder  3  min.  44  sec. 
is  the  required  equation  at  Greenwich  noon  of 
the  given  day,  at  noon. 

549.  By  means  of  the  following  tables  and 
rules,  the  sun's  declination  also,  at  noon,  Green- 
wich time,  may  be  found  for  any  day  in  the  pre- 
sent century,  to  within  a  few  seconds. 


TABLE  I. 


550. 


The  Sun*8  Declination  at  Noon^  Greenwich  time,  far  every  Day  in  the  Year  1824. 


Javvary. 

February. 

Mabcb. 

A?RIL. 

May 

June 

. 

Days. 

South.* 

Soath. 

South. 

North. 

North. 

North 

1 

23« 

4' 

43' 

17^ 

18' 

20* 

r 

28* 

50* 

4* 

38' 

14' 

15« 

8* 

49^ 

22« 

5' 

42* 

2 

22 

59 

51 

17 

1 

18 

7 

5 

57 

5 

1 

19 

15 

26 

47 

22 

13 

37 

3 

22 

54 

30 

16 

43 

58 

6 

42 

58 

5 

24 

18 

15 

44 

30 

22 

21 

8 

4 

22 

48 

43 

16 

26 

20 

6 

19 

54 

5 

47 

12 

16 

1 

58 

22 

28 

15 

5 

22 

42 

28 

16 

8 

26 

5 

56 

45 

6 

9 

59 

16 

19 

9 

22 

34 

59 

6 

22 

35 

46 

15 

50 

16 

5 

33 

31 

6 

32 

40 

16 

36 

5 

22 

41 

19 

7 

22 

28 

37 

15 

31 

49 

5 

10 

12 

6 

55 

14 

16 

52 

43 

22 

47 

16 

8 

22 

21 

2 

15 

13 

6. 

4 

46 

50 

7 

17 

41 

17 

9 

5 

22 

52 

48 

9 

22 

13 

1 

14 

54 

8 

4 

23 

24 

7 

40 

0 

17 

25 

10 

22 

57 

57 

10 

22 

4 

33 

14 

34 

55 

3 

59 

55 

8 

2 

12 

17 

40 

57 

23 

2 

41 

11 

21 

55 

40 

14 

15 

28 

3 

36 

23 

8 

24 

15 

17 

56 

26 

23 

7 

1 

12 

21 

46 

21 

13 

55 

47 

3 

12 

49 

8 

46 

10 

18 

11 

38 

23 

10 

56 

13 

21 

36 

36 

13 

35 

52 

2 

40 

13 

9 

7 

57 

18 

26 

31 

23 

14 

27 

14 

21 

26 

27 

13 

12 

43 

2 

25 

35 

9 

29 

34 

18 

41 

5 

23 

17 

34 

15 

21 

15 

53 

12 

55 

22 

2 

1 

56 

9 

51 

1 

18 

55 

21 

23 

20 

16 

16 

21 

4 

54 

12 

34 

49 

1 

38 

15 

10 

12 

20 

19 

9 

18 

23 

22 

33 

17 

20 

53 

32 

12 

14 

3 

1 

14 

34 

10 

33 

28 

19 

22 

55 

23 

24 

26 

18 

20 

41 

45 

11 

53 

6 

0 

50 

52 

10 

54 

26 

19 

36 

13 

23 

25 

53 

19 

20 

29 

35 

11 

31 

57 

0 

27 

11 

11 

15 

13 

19 

49 

11 

23 

26 

57 

20 

20 

17 

2 

11 

10 

37 

0 

3 

29  S 

11 

35 

49 

20 

1 

49 

23 

27 

35 

21 

20 

4 

5 

10 

49 

7 

0 

20 

12N 

11 

56 

14 

20 

14 

6 

23 

27 

48 

22 

19 

50 

47 

10 

27 

27 

0 

43 

51 

12 

16 

27 

20 

26 

3 

23 

27 

37 

23 

19 

37 

6 

10 

5 

37 

1 

7 

30 

12 

36 

29 

20 

37 

39 

23 

27 

1 

24 

19 

23 

3 

9 

43 

37 

1 

31 

6 

12 

5$ 

18 

20 

48 

54 

23 

26 

O 

25 

19 

18 

39 

9 

21 

29 

1 

54 

41 

13 

15 

54 

20 

59 

47 

23 

24 

34 

26 

18 

53 

53 

8 

59 

13 

2 

18 

13 

13 

35 

18 

21 

10 

19 

23 

22 

43 

27 

18 

38 

47 

8 

36 

48 

2 

41 

43 

13 

54 

28 

21 

20 

29 

23 

20 

28 

28 

18 

23 

21 

8 

14 

16 

3 

5 

9 

14 

13 

25 

21 

30 

17 

23 

17 

48 

29 

18 

7 

34 

7 

51 

36 

3 

28 

31 

14 

32 

7 

21 

39 

42 

23 

14 

44 

30 

17 

51 

28 

3 

51 

50 

14 

50 

35 

21 

48 

45 

23 

11 

15 

31 

17 

35 

3 

4 

15 

5 

21 

51 

21 

Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ASTRONOMY. 

TABX.E  l.—(Contumed). 


163 


July 

Auorai. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

Days. 

J 

North. 

North 

North. 

South. 

SoaUu 

South. 

1 

23** 

r 

22' 

18* 

0' 

0' 

8*  13' 

41" 

3° 

16 

6" 

14° 

31'  21" 

21« 

52'  6*^ 

2 

23 

3 

4 

17 

44 

41 

7  51 

48 

3 

39 

24 

14 

50  26 

22 

1   7 

3 

22 

58 

23 

17 

29 

5 

7  29 

48 

4 

2 

39 

15 

9  17 

22 

9  43 

4 

22 

53 

17 

17 

13 

12 

7   7 

40 

4 

25 

52 

15 

27  53 

22 

17  53 

5 

22 

47 

28 

16 

57 

2 

6  45 

25 

4 

49 

1 

15 

46  13 

22 

25  36 

6 

22 

41 

55 

16 

40 

36 

6  23 

3 

5 

12 

7 

16 

4  18 

22 

32  54 

7 

22 

35 

38 

16 

23 

54 

6   0 

35 

5 

35 

9 

16 

22   7 

22 

39  45 

8 

22 

28 

58 

16 

6 

56 

5  38 

2 

5 

58 

6 

16 

39  39 

22 

46  10 

9 

22 

21 

54 

15 

49 

43 

5  15 

22 

6 

20 

59 

16 

56  54 

22 

52   7 

10 

22 

14 

28 

15 

32 

14 

4  52 

38 

6 

43 

46 

17 

13  52 

22 

57  38 

11 

22 

6 

38 

15 

14 

31 

4  29 

48 

7 

6 

29 

17 

30  32 

23 

2  41 

12 

21 

58 

26 

14 

56 

32 

4   6 

53 

7 

29 

5 

17 

46  54 

23 

7  17 

13 

21 

49 

51 

14 

38 

19 

3  43 

54 

7 

51 

36 

18 

2  58 

23 

11  25 

14 

21 

40 

53 

14 

19 

53 

3  20 

51 

8 

14 

0 

18 

18  43 

23 

15   6 

.15 

21 

31 

54 

14 

1 

12 

2  57 

44 

8 

36 

18 

18 

34   9 

23 

18  19 

16 

21 

21 

52 

13 

42 

16 

2  34 

33 

8 

58 

28 

18 

49  15 

23 

21   3 

17 

21 

11 

49 

13 

23 

11 

2  11 

19 

9 

20 

31 

19 

4   1 

23 

23  20 

18 

21 

1 

24 

13 

3 

51 

1  48 

3 

9 

42 

25 

19 

18  26 

23 

25   9 

19 

20 

50 

37 

12 

44 

18 

1  24 

44 

10 

4 

12 

19 

32  31 

23 

26  29 

20 

20 

39 

29 

12 

24 

33 

1   1 

22 

10 

25 

49 

19 

46  15 

23 

27  21 

21 

20 

28 

1 

12 

4 

36 

0  37 

59 

10 

47 

17 

19 

59  36 

23 

27  45 

22 

20 

16 

11 

11 

44 

28 

0  14 

35  N 

11 

8 

36 

20 

12  36 

23 

27  40 

23 

20 

4 

2 

11 

24 

8 

0   8 

50S 

11 

29 

45 

20 

25  14 

23 

27   7 

24 

19 

51 

32 

11 

3 

37 

0  32 

16 

11 

50 

43 

20 

37  28 

23 

26   6 

25 

19 

38 

42 

10 

42 

56 

0  55 

43 

12 

11 

SO 

20 

49  20 

23 

24  36 

26 

19 

25 

32 

10 

22 

5 

1  19 

0 

12 

32 

6 

21 

0  48 

23 

22  38 

27 

19 

12 

4 

10 

1 

3 

1  42 

35 

12 

52 

31 

21 

11  53 

23 

20  12 

28 

18 

58 

16 

9 

39 

53 

2   6 

0 

13. 

12 

43 

21 

22  33 

23 

17  17 

29 

18 

44 

9 

9 

18 

33 

2  29 

24 

13 

32 

42 

21 

32  49 

23 

13  55 

30 

18 

29 

44 

8 

57 

4 

2  52 

46 

13 

52 

29 

21 

42  40 

23 

10   5 

31 

18 

15 

1 

8 

35 

27 

14 

12 

2 

23 

5  47 

551.  TABLE  II. 

Ibrafacc^  the  Sm's  DecUnaHon  from  Table  I,  to  the  Noon  of  ony  Day,  Greemokh  Ttme^  till  the 

Fear  1900. 


1  Periods  of  4  Ym. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

191 

LeapYxs. 

1824 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

64 

68 

72 

76 

80 

84 

88 

92 

96 

19001 

BiUy  IKff. 

of  Son> 

Correction.  Subtraction. 

Oedw. 

• 

1' 

O' 

2'  4' 

6' 

8' 

10' 

12' 

14' 

16' 

18' 

20' 

22' 

24' 

26' 

26' 

30- 

32« 

34' 

36' 

38' 

7 

0 

2  4 

6 

7 

9 

11 

13 

15 

17 

19 

21 

24 

26 

27 

29 

31 

33 

35 

37 

13 

0 

1 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

11 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

21 

23 

24 

26 

27 

28 

19 

0 

1 

2 

3 

5 

6 

7 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

21 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

15 

16 

2^ 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

6 

7 

M9 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


164 


ASTRONOMY. 


Use  of  the  preceding  Tables. 

552.  To  find  the  sun's  declination  on  any  day. 
Take  from  table  I.  the  declination  for  the  noon 
of  the  corresponding  day  in  the  year  1824,  and 
the  daily  change  of  the  declination.  Opposite 
that  daily  change,  in  table  II.  and  below  the  leap- 
year  preceding  the  given  one,  will  be  found  the 
first  correction  of  the  declination. 

553.  Multiply  the  seconds  in  the  daily  changes 
of  declination,  by  the  period  of  four  years  iu 
table  II.  and  parts  of  a  period  from  1824,  to  the 
given  year,  and  the  product  multiplied  by  '0308 
will  give  the  seconds,  in  the  second  correction 
of  the  declination. 

554.  Lastly,  take  |,  ^,  or  f,  of  the  daily 
change  of  declination,  according  as  the  year  is 
the  first,  second,  or  third  after  leap-year,  and  the 
result  will  be  the  third  correction  of  the  decli- 
nation. 

555.  Subtract  the  first  correction  from  the  de- 
clination on  the  corresponding  day  of  1824,  add 
the  second  correction,  when  the  declination  is 
increasing,  and  subtract  it  when  decreasing ;  and 
apply  the  third  in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  se- 
cond, and  the  result  will  be  the  declination  at 
noon,  Greenwich  time,  of  the  proposed  day. — 


Note, — ^If  the  given  year  be  leap-year,  the  ibini 
correction  is  nothing; 

Example, — Required  the  sun's  decliDation  at 
noon,  Greenwich  time,  Oct  18,  1875  ? 

556.  By  table  I.  the  sun's  declination  on  Oct. 
18,  1824,  is  9°  42*  25'  S.,  and  daily  change 
21'  47',  increasing.  Now  the  leap-year  pre- 
ceding the  given  one,  is  1872,  below  which,  in 
table  II.  and  opposite  22'  (the  nearest  minute  to 
the' daily  change)  stands  7',  the  first  correction.  As 
the  given  year  is  the  third  after  leap-year,  and  there 
are  (see  table  II.)  12  periods  of  4  years  from  1824 
to  1872,  there  are  12}  periods  firom  1824  to  1875. 
Hence,  12f  x  0308  X  130^(21'  47')=5ir=: 
S'Z^y  the  second  correction,  addition,  because 
the  declination  is  increasing.  As  die  given 
year  is  the  third  after  leap-year,  we  have  f  of 
21'  47"=  16'  19",  the  third  correction,  subtrac- 
tion, because  the  second  is  addition.  Hence, 
the  declination  at  the  proposed  time,  is  9^  42'  25" 
—7"  -f  8'  33"— 16'  igf'=9**  34'  34". 

557.  As  immediately  connected  with  this  sub- 
ject, we  add  a  table  of  the  sun's  right  ascension 
for  the  year  1824,  with  a  method  of  adapting  it 
to  any  subsequent  instant  in  the  present  century, 
with  sufficient  exactness  for  ordinary  purposes. 


558.  Table  of  the 

Sun*  s  Right  Atcensiony  at 

JVixm,  Greemoick  Time,  for  every  Dayin  the  Year  1824. 

January. 

February. 

Marcb. 

April. 

Mat. 

June. 

Days. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M. 

8. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M.  S. 

1 

18 

43 

58 

20 

56 

30 

22 

49 

34 

0 

43 

5 

2 

34 

20 

4 

37   5 

H 

18 

48 

24" 

21 

0 

35 

22 

53 

18 

0 

46 

43 

2 

38 

9 

4 

41  11 

3 

18 

52 

48 

21 

4 

39 

22 

57 

2 

0 

50 

22 

2 

41 

59 

4 

45  17 

4 

18 

57 

13 

21 

8 

42 

23 

0 

45 

0 

54 

0 

2 

45 

49 

4 

49  24 

5 

19 

1 

3r 

21 

12 

44 

23 

4 

28 

0 

57 

39 

2 

49 

40 

4 

53  31 

6 

19 

6 

1 

21 

16 

46 

23 

8 

11 

1 

18 

2 

53 

32 

4 

57  38 

7 

19 

10 

.24 

21 

20 

46 

23 

11 

52 

4 

57 

2 

57 

24 

5 

1  45 

8 

19 

14 

47 

21 

24 

46 

23 

15 

34 

8 

37 

3 

1 

16 

5 

5  53 

9 

19 

19 

9 

21 

28 

45 

23 

19 

15 

12 

16 

3 

5 

9 

5 

10   1 

10 

19 

23 

30 

21 

32 

43 

23 

22 

56 

15 

5Q 

3 

9 

3 

5 

14   9 

11 

19 

27 

51 

21 

36 

40 

23 

26 

36 

19 

36 

3 

12 

57 

5 

18  17 

12 

19 

32 

12 

21 

40 

37 

23 

30 

16 

23 

16 

3 

16 

52 

5 

22  26 

13 

19 

36 

31 

21 

44 

32 

23 

33 

56 

26 

57 

3 

20 

48 

5 

26  35 

14 

19 

40 

50 

21 

48 

27 

23 

37 

36 

30 

38 

3 

24 

43 

5 

30  44 

15 

19 

45 

9 

21 

52 

21 

23 

41 

15 

84 

19 

3 

28 

40 

5 

34  53 

16 

19 

49 

27 

21 

56 

15 

23 

44 

54 

38 

1 

3 

32 

37 

5 

39   2 

17 

19 

53 

44 

22 

0 

7 

23 

48 

33 

41 

43 

3 

36 

35 

5 

43  11 

18 

19 

58 

0 

22 

3 

59 

23 

52 

11 

45 

25 

3 

40 

33 

5 

47  21 

19 

20 

2 

16 

22 

7 

51 

23 

55 

50 

49 

8 

3 

44 

32 

5 

51  30 

20 

20 

6 

31 

22 

11 

41 

23 

59 

28 

52 

52 

3 

48 

31 

5 

55  40 

21 

20 

10 

45 

22 

15 

31 

0 

3 

6 

56 

35 

3 

52 

31 

5 

59  50 

22 

20 

14 

59 

22 

19 

21 

0 

6 

44 

2 

0 

20 

3 

56 

32 

6 

3  59 

23 

20 

19 

11 

22 

23 

9 

0 

10 

22 

2 

4 

4 

0 

33 

6 

8   9 

24 

20 

23 

23 

22 

26 

57 

0 

14 

0 

2 

7 

49 

4 

35 

6 

12  18 

25 

20 

27 

34 

22 

'30 

45 

0 

17 

38 

2 

11 

35 

8 

37 

6 

16  28 

26 

20 

81 

45 

22 

34 

32 

0 

21 

16 

2 

15 

21 

12 

39 

6 

20  37 

27 

20 

35 

55 

22 

38 

18 

0 

24 

54 

2 

19 

8 

16 

43 

6 

24  46 

28 

20 

40 

3 

22 

42 

4 

0 

28 

32 

2 

22 

55 

20 

46 

6 

28  55 

29 

20 

44 

11 

22 

45 

49 

0 

32 

10 

2 

26 

43 

24 

50 

6 

33  14 

30 

20 

48 

19 

0 

35 

48 

2 

30 

31 

28 

55 

6 

37  13 

31 

20 

52 

25 

1 

' 

0 

39 

27 

33 

0 

Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ASTRONOMY. 

Tabk  of  Sun'*  Bight  Auxtision — (Continued). 


166 


July 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

December. 

Days. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

H.  M. 

S. 

1 

6 

41 

21 

8 

46 

8 

10 

42 

10 

12 

30 

14 

14 

26 

34 

16  SO 

29 

2 

6 

45 

29 

8 

50 

1 

10 

45 

47 

12 

33 

52 

14 

30 

30 

16  34 

49 

3 

6 

49 

37 

8 

53 

53 

10 

49 

25 

12 

37 

30 

14 

34 

26 

16  39 

9 

4 

6 

53 

45 

8 

57 

44 

10 

53 

2 

12 

41 

8 

14 

88 

24 

16  43 

30 

5 

6 

57 

52 

9 

1 

33 

10 

56 

38 

12 

44 

47 

14 

42 

28 

16  47 

52 

6 

7 

1 

58 

9 

5 

25 

11 

0 

15 

12 

48 

26 

14 

46 

21 

16  52 

14 

7 

7 

6 

5 

9 

9 

15 

11 

8 

51 

12 

52 

5 

14 

50 

21 

16  66 

36  1 

8 

7 

\(y 

11 

9 

13 

4 

11 

7 

27 

12 

55 

45 

14 

54 

22 

17   0 

39  1 

9 

7 

14 

16 

9 

16 

53 

11 

11 

3 

12 

59 

25 

14 

58 

23 

17   5 

23  1 

10 

7 

18 

22 

9 

20 

40 

11 

14 

39 

13 

3 

6 

15 

2 

26 

17   9 

47 

11 

7 

22 

26 

9 

24 

28 

11 

18 

15 

13 

6 

47 

15 

6 

29 

17  14 

11 

12 

7 

26 

31 

9 

28 

14 

11 

21 

50 

13 

10 

29 

15 

10 

33 

17  18 

86 

13 

7 

30 

34 

9 

32 

1 

11 

25 

26 

13 

14 

11 

15 

14 

38 

17  23 

1 

14 

7 

34 

38 

9 

35 

46 

11 

29 

1 

13 

17 

54 

15 

18 

44 

17  27 

•26 

15 

7 

38 

41 

9 

39 

32 

11 

32 

37 

13 

21 

37 

15 

22 

51 

17  31 

58 

16 

7 

42 

43 

9 

43 

16 

11 

36 

12 

13 

25 

21 

15 

26 

58 

17  36 

18 

17 

7 

46 

45 

9 

47 

0 

11 

39 

48 

13 

29 

5 

15 

31 

7 

17  40 

44 

18 

7 

50 

47 

9 

50 

44 

11 

43 

23 

13 

32 

50 

15 

35 

*16 

17  45 

11 

19 

7 

54 

47 

9 

54 

27 

11 

46 

59 

13 

36 

36 

15 

39 

27 

17  49 

37 

20 

7 

58 

48 

9 

58 

10 

11 

50 

34 

13 

40 

23 

15 

43 

38 

17  54 

4 

21 

8 

2 

48 

10 

1 

52 

11 

54 

10 

13 

44 

10 

15 

47 

50 

17  58 

31 

22 

8 

6 

47 

10 

5 

34 

11 

57 

46 

13 

47 

57 

15 

52 

2 

18   2 

58 

23 

8 

10 

46 

10 

9 

15 

12 

1 

21 

13 

51 

46 

15 

56 

16 

18   7 

24 

24 

8 

14 

44 

10 

12 

56 

12 

4 

57 

13 

55 

35. 

16 

0 

30 

18  11 

51 

25 

8 

18 

42 

10 

16 

37 

12 

8 

34 

13 

59 

25 

16 

4 

45 

18  16 

18 

26 

8 

22 

39 

10 

20 

17 

12 

12 

16 

14 

3 

15 

16 

9 

1 

18  20 

44 

27 

8 

26 

35 

.10 

23 

57 

12 

15 

46 

14 

7 

6 

16 

13 

17 

18  25 

11 

28 

8 

30 

31 

10 

27 

36 

12 

19 

23 

14 

10 

58 

16 

17 

34 

18  29 

87 

29 

8 

34 

26 

10 

31 

15 

12 

23 

0 

14 

14 

51 

16 

21 

52 

18  34 

3 

30 

8 

38 

21 

10 

34 

53 

12 

26 

37 

14 

18 

45 

16 

26 

10 

18  88 

29 

31 

8 

42 

15 

11 

38 

32 

14 

22 

39 

18  42 

54 

559.  To  fiDd  the  sun's,  higher  ascension  at 
the  noon  of  any  day,  Greenwich  time,  till  the 
year  1900. 

Take  the  right  ascension  for  the  corresponding 
day  of  the  year  1824  from  the  above  table,  and 
multiply  7- 3s.  by  the  periods  of  four  years,  and 
parts  of  a  pehod  from  1824  till  the  given  period, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  period  in  the  first 
conection,  always  tobe  addea.  Take  i,  i,  or  | 
of  the  daily  change  of  right  ascension,  according 
as  the  given  year  is  the  first,  second,  or  third 
after  leap-year ;  for  the  second  correction  always 
to  be  subtracted.  Apply  these  corrections  to 
the  right  ascension  taken  for  the  correspond- 
ing day  of  1824,  and  the  result  will  be  the 
right  ascension  at  the  Greenwich  noon  of  the 
proposed  day.  % 

rioie. — ^If  the  given  year  is  a  leap-year,  the 
second  correction  is  nothing. 

Example. 

Required  the  sun's  right  ascension.  May  4,  1853. 

560.  The  sun's  right  ascension.  May  4,  1824, 
is  2h.  45m.  49s.  and  daily  increase  3m.  51s. 
Now  there  are  7^  periods  of  four  years  from 
1824  till  1853 ;  when  7-3s.  X  7i  =  53s.  the  first 
correction;  and  Jh.  of  3m.  51s.  in  58s.,  the 
second  correction.    Then  2h.  48m.  55d.  x  53s. 


— 58s.  :=  2h.  45m.  408.  the  right  ascension  at 
the  proposed  time. 

Sect.  III. — Of  calculating  the  DlSTA^X£S, 
Magnitudes,  &c.  of  the  Celestial  Bodies. 

56K  One  of  the  first  objects  of  an  observer  is 
to  ascertain  the  latitude  of  his  place  of  observa- 
tion. There  are  many  methods  by  which  this 
may  be  effected.  If  the  declination  5  of  any 
celestial  object  be  known,  and  its  distance  z  from 
the  zenith  be  observed,  then  the  latitude  /  will  be 
either  :^  5  -|-  z,  or  ^  —  z,  according  as  ^  and  z 
are  of  the  same  or  different  denominations.  But 
the  latitude  may  be  determined  from  altitudes  of 
circumpolar  stars,  independently  of  any  previous 
knowledge  of  the  places  of  those  stars,  for  it  i? 
always  equal  to  half  the  sum  of  their  greatest  and 
least  altitudes.  The  pole  star  is  most  conve- 
niently situated  for  observations  of  this  kind,  and 
it  is  generally  observed  for  that  purpose. 

562.  Considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to 
the  simplification  of  the  method  by  which  the 
latitude  may  be  found  from  altitudes  of  this  star 
when  it  is  out  of  the  meridian.  Mr.  F.  Bailey, 
the  present  learned  president  of  the  Astronomical 
Society  of  London,  has  given  the  following  for- 
•nula,  in  which  ^  is  the  colatitude,  p  the  sur\ 


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polar  distance,  and  t  its  meridian  distance,  and  z  its 
observed  zenith  distance,  ^  =  j  —  ^  m*  ^  cot. 

z  -^  pcos,t  -^  ^s  in  *t  COS.  L    This  formula 

may  be  put  under  the  form  if^  =  ^r  +  (p  -f  C) 
COS.  t  —  B  cot.  z ;  whence,  the  coefficients  p  + 
C  and  B  being  computed  and  arranged  in  tables, 
^  may  easily  be  determined. 

563.  The  latitude  being  determined,  it  becomes 
next  of  importance  to  determine  the  inclination 
of  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit  to  the  plane  of 
the  equator,  or  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic. 
This  is  the  difference  between  the  sun's  greatest 
altitude  and  the  colatitude  of  the  plan  of  obser- 
vation. If  the  sun  was  in  the  solstice  at  the  mo- 
ment at  which  he  was  on  the  meridian,  the  dif- 
ference between  his  meridian  altitude  and  the 
colatitude,  would  be  the  obliquity.  This,  how- 
ever, is  unlikely  to  happen,  and,  on  the  ground 
of  utility,  not  at  all  to  oe  desired ;  as,  from  me- 
ridional observations  made  near  the  solstice,  the 
obliquity  may  be  determined  with  a  degree  of 
accuracy  to  which  no  single  observation  could 
justify  us  in  pretending. 

564.  If  1(7  be  the  obliquity,  d  the  sun's  decli- 
nation, and  0  his  longitude,  <t  the  greatest  de- 
clination, and  Q'  the  corresponding  longitude; 
then, 

sin.  d  =r  sin.  0.  sin.  w 

sin.  <f  z=  sin.  0'.  sin.  w. 

When  sin.  <f  —  sin.  </  =  sin.  w  (sin.  90**  —  sin.  0) 

Or,  if  tr  =  90O  —  0  and  w  (=£  (T)  =  rf  +  d, 

sin.     cos.  (to  —  -)  =  sin.  tc.  sin.*  -.    And  ex- 
2  2  2 

S  i 

panding  and  substituting  for  m  -  and  cos.  -  their 

approximate  values  in  terms  of  ^,  we  obtain 
.        tan.  uu  sin.  ^.  tf* 

i=  — 

from  which,  with  the  greatest  ease,  the  correction 
of  the  declination  d  deduced  from  the  altitude 
may  be  obtained,  and  hence  from  a  series  of  me- 
ridional altitudes,  observed  on  each  side  of  the 
solstice,  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  may  be  ob- 
tained to  a  very  great  degree  of  nicety. 

565.  The  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  being  ob- 
tained, the  next  step  in  this  department  of  en- 
quiry is  to  ascertain  the  place  of  the  equinoctial 
point,  or  that  point  on  tne  ecliptic  in  which  it 
crosses  the  equator.  Now  the  point  in  which 
the  sun  is  when  his  meridional  altitude  is  equal 
to  the  colatitude,  will  be  the  equinoctial  point. 
Let  a  =:  his  meridional  altitude  less  than  the 
colatitude  /,  a*  =:  his  meridional  altitude  greater 
than  /,  and  ti  =r  the  days  between  the  two  obser- 
vations, then  as  near  the  equinox  a  maybe  consi- 
dered as  varying  uniformly,  we  have  ^  "" »'  -  = 

a  — a 

the  time  after  the  sun  had  the  altitude  a  when  he 
was  on  the  equator,  whence  his  place  at  the  time 
on  the  portion  of  the  equinoctial  point,  with  re- 
ference to  the  meridian  of  any  known  fixed  star 
may  be  determined. 

566.  The  distances  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are 
obtained  by  finding  the  horizontal  parallax  of  the 
body  whose  distance  is  desired  to  be  known; 
tliat  is,  tlie  an^le  under  which  tlie  semidiameter 


of  the  earth  would  appear  provided  we  could  see 
it  from  that  body.  In  general  the  parallax  of  a 
planet  is  the  difference  ^tween  the  real  and  ap- 
parent place  of  a  planet;  that  is,  between  itf 
place  seen  from  some  part  of  the  sur&ce,  and 
from  the  centre  of  the  euth ;  so  that  the  parallax 
is  the  angle  under  which  the  semidiameter  of  the 
earth,  terminated  by  the  place  of  an  observer,  is 
seen  at  the  planet;  and  to  find  this  parallax 
many  methods  have  been  devised. 

567.  I.  Let  AD,  plate V.  fig.  3,  be  the  earth, 
C  its  centre,  P  the  planet;  and  let  the  planet's 
distance  C  P  fi!om  Uie  centre  of  the  earth  be 
given.  Then  Z  A  P  is  the  complement  of  the 
apparent  altitude,  ZCPthe  complement  of  the 
true  altitude.  As  the  planet's  distance  from  the 
centre  of  the  earth  C  P :  to  the  earth's  radius 
AC : :  so  is  the  cosine  of  the  apparent  altitude^ 
S.Z  A  P  :  to  the  sine  of  the  parallax.  For  draw 
AF  parallel  to  C  P.  The  angle  F  AP  is  equal 
to  the  angle  APC.  But  ZAF  is  equal  to 
ZCP,  the  true  zenith  distance,  and  Z  A  Pis  the 
apparent  zenith  distance;  and  their  difference 
r  A  P,  or  its  equal  A  P  C,  b  the  parallax.  But  in 
thetriangleCAP,itisCP:S.CAPorZAP:: 
C  A:  S.CP  A,  or  PAF,  the  parallax. 

568.  II.  If  the  distances  of  two  planets  or  stars, 
having  the  same  apparent  altitude,  be  known, 
and  the  parallax  of  one  of  them,  let  P  and  G  be 
the  planets  in  the  line  A  P  G ;  then  A  P  Cisthe 
pandlax  of  P,  and  AG  C  the  parallax  of  G. 
Therefore  in  the  triangle  C  P  C,  we  have  C  P, 
C  G,  and  an  angle  opposite,  suppose  G,  to  find 
the  other  opposite  angle.  Therefore  distance  C  P : 
distance  CG::SGGP:SCPGorCPA;  that 
is,  the  sines  of  the  parallaxes  are  reciprocally  as 
the  distances  from  the  earth's  centre. 

569.  III.  Let  S  be  the  star  or  planet  whose 
parallax  b  sought.  See  plate  V.  fig.  7.  Observe 
It  when  it  is  in  the  same  vertical  circle  with^any 
two  fixed  stars.  A,  B.  Observe  again  when  the 
same  two  stars  come  into  a  position  parallel  to 
the  horizon  at  a  and  b ;  ana  let  the  planet  be 
come  tp  <.  Then  with  an  instrument  measure 
the  altitude  of  a  or  6,  and  likewise  the  altitude  of 
< ;  and  the  difference  of  these  altitudes  b  the  pa- 
rallax. For  the  real  place  of  the  star  S,  b  some- 
where in  the  line  A  B,  and  therefore  it  b  also 
somewhere  in  the  line  a  6,  and  therefore  its  alti- 
tude is  the  same  as  that  of  a  or  b.  Therefore  the 
parallax  is  the  difference  of  the  altitudes  of  a  aad 
$y  or  of  b  and  t. 

570.  IV.  Lets  be  the  star  or  planet;  observe 
its  distance  from  any  fixed  star  B,  which  b  in  the 
same  vertical  circle  Z  S  B ;  and  measure  the  dis- 
tance S  B  with  an  instrument.  Then  observe 
again  when  the  same  two  stars  have  equal  altitudes 
above  the  horizon  at  b  and  s,  and  uien  take  the 
distance  b  s.  This  dbtance  will  be  very  near  the 
true  distance  of  the  stars  B  and  S ;  therefore  the 
first  dbtance  B  S  subtracted  from  the  latter  dis- 
tance b  f,  when  B  b  below  S,  gives  the  pafallax  ; 
or  Ae  latter  distance  subtracted  from  the  former, 
when  B  is  above  S,  gives  the  parallax. 

571.  V.  The  parallax  may  be  found  by  observ- 
ing the  azimuth  and  altitude  of  the  star  or  planet. 
Let  H  Z  O,  plate  V.  fig,  4,  be  the  meridian,  E  Q 
the  equinoctial,  H  O  the  horizon,  Z  the  zenith, 
P  the  pole,  S  the  sUr,  Z  S  B  a  vertical  circle  pass- 


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167 


inftthfoiigh  il.    OUerfe  the  altitude  BS,  and  V.  fig.  6,  requires  two  obsenrers  in  different 

the  aiitnuth  B  O,  aad  mark  the  moment  of  time  places  of  the  ear^i  and  can  be  applied  to  none 

when  these  obsemtioBS  are  made ;  then  obsenre  of  the  planets  but  Mart  in  opposition  to  the  5un» 

the  moment  ef  time  that  <he  star  comes  to  the  or  to  Venus  on  the  sun's  disk.    It  is  best  per- 

meridiaB)  and  you  then  have  the  distance  of  time  formed  when  the  sun  is  about  the  equinox.    Let 

from  the  obserTatioiis«  Convert  this  into  degrees^  P  £  R  Q  be  the  earth,  P  R  its  axis,  £  Q  the  equi- 

aUowing  only  tt3h.  56m.  to  360^,  (which  is  the  noctial,  S  the  planet  Mars  in  opposition  to  the 

time  of  the  esjth's  rotation  to  the  same  star),  and  sun,  and  if  near  the  perihelion,  it  is  better.    Let 

yon  have  the  arch  £  D  or  angle  £  P  A«  suppos-  two  places  F  Q,  be  taken,  the  one  in  north  lati- 

ing  P  iWJ>  aA  hour  cirele.     Therefore  in  the  tude,  the  other  in  south  latitude,  the  further  from 


spherical  triangle  ZPA^we  have  the  angle 
ZPA,  and  angle  P  Z  A  equal  to  BO,  and  the 
aide  Z  P  the  oo-latitude»  to  find  the  side  Z  A  the 
complement  of  the  altitude ;  this  subtracted  from 
Z  S»  kaown  by  observation^  the  remainder  A  S 
is  theparalli 


the  equinoctial  the  better;  and  nearly  in  the 
same  meridian,  or  rather  so  placed,  that  the  line 
F  G,  drawn  from  the  one  to  the  other,  may  be 
nearly  perpendicular  to  the  orbit  of  Mars.  By 
this  mere  IS  a  greater  base  to  work  upon.  Then 
let  the  two  observers  pitch  upon  some  fixed  star 


5TH*  Vli  Another  method  ik  performed  by  a  as  A,  whidi  Mars  comes  very  near  at  that  time ; 
telescope,  with  cross  hairs  in  the  ibcus.  Direct  and  the  nearer  the  better.  Having  two  good  in- 
the  teleaco^  to  the  planet,  and  turn  it  round  till  struments  perfectly  alike,  furnished  with  micro- 
its  motion  is  along  one  of  the  cross  hairs^  which  meiers,  ana  being  situated  at  F  and  G;  let  them 
represents  part  of  the  planet's  parallel  cire(e ;  and  observe  for  several  nights  successively  about  mid- 
the  other  Iwur  perpendicular  to  it,  will  represent  night,  the  places  of  Mars  at  B  and  C,  as  he  passes 
its  hour  circle.  Observe  the  time  when  the  planet    by  the  star  A;   and  take  the  distances  A  B  and 

AC  every  night,  during  his  transit  by  this  star. 
These  observations  are  to  be  continued  till  the 
distances  b^n  to  increase,  and  no  longer ;  for 
then  he  is  past  the  star. 

576.  From  these  observations,  the  nearest  dis- 
tance of  Mars  from  the  star  A  may  be  found,  as 
observed  from  the  places  F  and  G ;  at  least  they 
may  be  found  by  interpolation.  Let  these  nearest 
distances  be  A  B  and  A  C ;  then  we  have  the  dif- 
ference B  C,  or  the  angle  B  S  G  ot  F  S  G.  And 
from  the  situation  of  the  places  F  and  G,  the 
length  and  position  of  F  G  will  be  known  <  and 
bv  these  F  S  may  be  found.  And  lastly,  the  an- 
gle which  the  radius  of  the  earth  subtends  at  the 
distance  F  S>  or  the  horizontal  parallax  of  Mars 
will  be  known.  If,  instead  of  Mars  in  opposition, 

_  _    Venus  be  observed  on  the  body  of  the  sun ;  then 

let  H  O,  plate  V.  fig.  S,  be  the  horizon,  H  Z  O  her  nearest  distances  from  either  limb  of  the  sun 
the  meridian,  Z  the  zenith,  P  the  pole,  A  the  must  be  taken,  whose  difference  will  give  the 
true  place  of  the  planet,  S  its  apparent  place,  angle  at  Venus, subtended  by  F  G;  the  rest  as 
Z  S  B  a  vertical  circle ;  then  in  the  triangle  Z  P  S,  before.  Thus  the  parallax  of  Venus  will  be  ob- 
we  have  Z  P^  Z  S,  and  angle  Z  P  S  to  find  the  tained.  The  parallax  of  Mars,  when  nearest  the 
angle  P  Z  S.  In  the  triangle  Z  P  A,  we  have  Z  P,    earth,  has  been  found  25",  27*',  and  30"  at  differ- 


( to  this  hour  oirele,  there  fix  the  telescope, 
and  then  take  its  altitude ;  then  observe  the  time 
when  some  fixed  star^  whose  right  ascension  is 
known,  comes  to  the  moe  hour  circle.  The  dif- 
ference of  time  between  the  plaaet  and  star  com- 
ing lo  this  hour  drde^  turned  into  degrees 
(allowing  360^  to  23h.  56m.),  gives  the  difference 
of  right  ascensions  of  the  planet  and  star ;  and  so 
the  apparent  sight  ascension  of  the  planet  is 
kaowa. 

673.  When  the  planet  comes  to  the  meridian^ 
observe  it  with  the  telescope,  and  note  the  time ; 
and  when  the  star  comes  to  the  meridian^  note 
the  time  of  that :  then  the  difference  of  the  times 
radoeed  to  degrees  as  before,  gives  the  true  diffe- 
rence of  right  ascensions,  whence  the  true  right 
ascension  of  the  planet  will  be  known.  Therefore 


aaglesZPA,  PZ  A;  to  find  Z  A,  which  taken 
from  ZS>  gives  AS  the  parallax. 

574.  If  the  planet  have  a  proper  motion  of  its 
own,  its  true  place  will  be  always  changing ;  and 
therefore  the  change  of  place  must  be  computed 
for  the  time  of  the  observations.  This  is  done  by 
observing  its  place  when  in  the  meridian,  twice ; 
and  thence  toe  change  of  place  is  had  for  24 


ent  times. 

577.  Besides  these  methods  of  computing  the 
parallax,  there  is  another  depending  on  observa- 
tions made  out  of  the  meridian,  which  may  be 
thus  explained  :  let  M,  plate  IV.  fig.  5,  be  the 
true  place,  and  m  the  apparent  place  of  a  planet, 
Z  the  zenith,  and  P  the  pole,  then  M  P  m  will  re- 
present the  apparent  change  in  the  right  ascen- 


hours :  and  therefore  the  place  at  the  times  of    sion  of  the  planet  arising  from  parallax.    This 
^i^^ *:— .-^11  u>  u^j  u_. l:— : —  *v^    changemay  be  thus  estimated '.make  PnnPM, 

and  join  Mn,MPn=:  Mncosect  MP=Mm 
sin.ZMPoosectPM  =  Asin.  ZM.sin.ZMP 
cosect  PM  (A  representing  the  horizonlal  par- 
alha)  =  A  sin.  Z  P  sin.  Z  P  M  cosect  P  M. 
MPncos.  declin. 


observations  will  be  had  by  proportioning  the 
motion  according  to  the  times.    Here  the  angle 
Z  PS  should  be  about  90°,  to  have  AP  S  the 
greatest  possible. 
575.  VII.  The  operation  represented  in  plate 

MPn 


Hence  A  = 


sin. Z P' sin. zPM' cosect  PM  ""  cos.  lat.  sin.  hour  angle 


r^       «t.       «« n         A  .^    « COS.  declin. 
Or,  tsafitbg  M  P  m.t,  A  :^  — >     •  .  -^ 


COS.  lat.  sin  hour  angle.* 
We  should  have  a  similaf  expression  for  it,  if  the  object  were  observed  on  the  o  liur  side 
of  the  meridfsin,  and  therefore 

f  cos.  declin.  i  cos.  declin. 


A:i= 


coi.  lat.  X  (*!"•  ^  +  *^-  '*   ^ 


2  COS.  lat.  sin. 


h-\-  h' 


h' 


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This  method  serves  tolerably  well  to  find  the 
parallax  of  the  moon ;  and  it  has  been  applied 
successfully  to  find  the  parallax  of  Mars;  but  it 
requires  observations  of  much  too  great  nicety  to 
determine  by  it  the  parallaxes  of  the  two  planets. 
Those  are  chiefly  deduced  from  the  parallax  of 
the  sun,  as  determined  by  the  transit  of  Venus. 

578.  In  the  above  investigations,  the  earth  has 
been  considered  as  a  spherical  body;  but  in 
computing  the  parallax  of  the  moon,  from  obser- 
vations, me  peculiarity  of  the  form  of  the  earth 
becomes  very  apparent ;  and  it  is  a  striking  cir- 
cumstance mat  from  the  eclipses  of  the  moon, 
we  shew  in  a  general  way  that  the  earth  is  round, 
and  from  her  parallaxes  that  it  is  not  spherical. 

579.  A  star  or  planet  appears  lower  than  it 
really  is,  by  the  quantity  of  the  parallax,  which 
is  greater  the  lower  the  star  is ;  and  therefore  the 
horizontal  parallax  is  the  greatest.  The  paral- 
laxes of  two  planets  are  as  the  cosines  of  the 
apparent  altitudes  directly,  and  their  distances 
from  the  earth's  centre  reciprocally.  For  when 
the  distance  is  given,  the  parallax  is  as  the  sine 
of  the  zenith  distance  (by  method  1),  and  if  the 
apparent  altitude  be  given,  the  parallax  is  reci- 
procally as  the  distance,  (by  method  2),  and  there- 
fore is  in  a  compound  ratio,  when  neither  is  given. 
Here  the  parallax  being  very  ^mall,  one  may 
take  the  parallax  itself  for  the  sine  of  the  pa- 
rallax. 

580.  The  parallax  of  a  planet  being  known, 
its  distance  may  be  founds  For  this  is  only 
working  backward,  saying,  as  sine  of  the  paral- 
lax, to  the  earth's  radius;  so  S  zenith  distance 
to  the 'planet's  distance. 

581.  Having  the  parallax  of  any  of  the  pla- 
nets, the  distances  of  all  the  planets  from  the 
sun  may  be  known,  in  diameters  of  the  earth, 
or  any  sort  of  measure.  For  the  distances  of  the 
planets  from  the  sun  and  from  one  another,  are 
known  in  .some  assumed  measure ;  and  by  the 
parallax  of  a  planet,  the  true  distance  of  the  earth 
nrom  it  is  known ;  and  therefore  all  the  other 
distances  will  be  l^nown  by  proportion. 

582.  The  seventh  of  these  methods  has  been 
practised  in  determining  the  parallax  of  Venus, 
from  observations  made  at  different  parts  of  the 
earth,  upon  what  is  called  her  transit  over  the 
sun's  disk,  a  phenomenon  that  rarely  happens : 
but  when  it  does  happen,  it  affords  the  best,  and 
indeed  the  only  accurate  method  of  determining 
that  most  important  problem  in  astronomy,  the 
sun's  parallax,  or  the  angle  under  which  the 
earth's  semi-diameter  appears  from  the  sun. 

583.  The  first  transit  or  passage  of  Venus  over 
the  sun's  disk,  that  ever  was  observed,  happened 
in  1639,  but  perhaps  the  only  mortals  who  saw  it 
were  Mr.  Horrox  and  his  friend  Mr.  Crabtree. 
Two  transits  have  happened  since ;  the  first  in 
1761,  and  the  last  in  1769.  There  will  be  no  more 
before  1874,  and  the  next  to  that  will  happen 
in  1996.  The  two  last  transits  were  carefully 
observed.  From  the  first  of  these  Mr.  Short  has 
computed  the  sun's  parallax  to  be  8*69" ;  and 
from  the  last  the  best  astronomers  have  concluded 
it  to  be  8-6".  This  is  an  observation  of  the  greatest 
consequence,  because  it  is  only  by  a  knowledge 
of  the  sun's  distance  from  the  earth,  in  some 
known  measure,  that  we  can  acquire  a  knowledge 


of  the  true  dimensioos  of  the  solar  tysCem.  For 
an  account  of  the  principles  of  this  method  of 
finding  the  solar  pmllax,  see  Vekus,  transit  of. 

584.  As  to  the  fixed  stars,  no  meUiod  of  as- 
certaining their  distance  has  hitherto  been  found 
out.  Those  who  have  formed  conjectures  con- 
cerning them,  have  thought  that  they  were  at 
least  400,000  times  farther  from  us  thsm  we  are 
from  the  sun. 

585.  Dr.  Herschel  has  proposed  a  meAod  of 
ascertaining  the  parallax  ot  the  fixed  stars,  some- 
thing similar,  but  more  complete,  than  that  men- 
tioned by  Galileo  and  others ;  for  it  is  by  the 
parallax  of  the  fixed  stars  that  we  should  be 
nest  able  to  determine  their  distance.  The  me- 
thod  pointed  out  by  Galileo,  and  fint  attempted 
by  Hooke,  Flamsteed,  Molineox,  and  Bradley, 
of  taking  the  distances  of  stars  from  the  zenith 
that  pass  very  near  it,  has  given  us  a  mudi  juster 
idea  of  the  immense  distance  of  the  stars,  and 
furnished  us  with  an  approximation  to  the  know- 
ledge of  their  parallax,  that  is  much  nearer  the 
trum  than  we  ever  had  before. 

586.  But  Herschel  mentions  the  insufficiency 
of  their  instruments,  which  were  similar  to  die 
present  zenith  sectors,  the  method  of  zenilh  dis- 
tances beinff  liable  to  considerable  errors  on  ac- 
count of  redaction,  the  change  of  position  of  the 
earth's  axis  arising  fix)m  nutation,  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  and  other  causes,  ana  die  aberra- 
tion of  light.  The  method  of  his  ovm  is  by  means 
of  double  stars;  which  is  exempted  from  these 
errors,  and  of  such  a  nature  that  the  annual  pa- 
rallax, even  if  it  should  not  exceed  die  tenth  part 
of  a  second,  may  still  become  more  visible,  and 
be  ascertained,  at  least  to  a  much  greater  degree 
of  approximation  than  it  has  ever  been  done. 

587.  This  method  is  capable  of  every  improve- 
ment which  the  telescope  and  mechanism  of 
micrometers  can  furnish  ;  but  as  it  goes  on  pre- 
sumptions which  can  hardly  lead  to  any  firm  con- 
viction, we  are  not  likely  to  gain  any  farther 
knowledge,  than  that  the  stars  are  at  too  great 
distance  to  be  subjected  as  yet  to  our  calculations. 
He  supposes  that  the  stars  are,  one  with  another, 
about  tne  size  of  the  sun ;  and  that  the  difiierence 
of  their  apparent  magnitudes  is  owing  to  their 
apparent  distances ;  both  of  which  suppositions 
being  only  hypothetical,  it  is  evident  that  the 
conclusions  founded  on  them  cannot  be  depended 
on  with  absolute  certainty. 

588.  Considerable  discussion  has  fecendy 
taken  place  between  Mr.  Pond,  the  present  as- 
tronomer royal,  and  Dr.  Brinkley,  respecting  the 
annual  parallax  of  a  Lyrs,  which  parallax  Dr. 
B.  conceives  his  instrument  shews  clearly  to 
be  about  112''.  Mr.  Pond,  asserts,  diat  die 
Greenwich  circle  is  a  better  instrument  than  the 
Dublin  circle,  and  that  observations  made  with 
it  give  no  indications  of  parallax  either  in  a  Lyrs, 
or  in  any  other  fixed  star.  Dr.  Brinkley,  how- 
ever, has  endeavoured  to  shew  that,  if  the  place 
of  the  pole-star  can  be  relied  on,  the  Greenwich 
observations  do  indicate  a  parallax  in  a  Lyr»  very 
nearly  equal  to  that  shewn  by  his  instrument ; 
but  Sf  r.  Pond,  in  a  recent  communication  to 
the  astronomical  society  of  London,  states,  that 
observations  on  the  pole-M&r  are  on  the  whole 
more  unsatisfactory  than  any  other  star.    What 


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ASTRONOMY. 


seems  to  go  far  towards  setting  this  delicate 
question  is,  that  there  are  now  two  circles  in 
constant  use  at  Greenwich ;  and  that  they  agree 
together  in  a  manner  that  must  be  gratifying  to 
their  distinguished  makers,  Mr.  Troughton 
and  Mr.  Thomas  Jones ;  they  bear  steady  and 
united  testimony  against  l^e  parallax  of  the  fixed 
stars,  and  shew  even  in  some  instances  a  ten- 
dency to  exhibit  a  deviation  of  an  opposite 
character. 

Sect.  IV.— Of  the  Divisions  ov  the  Starkt 
Heavens. 

589.  The  stars,  from  their  apparently  various 
magnitudes,  have  been  distributed  into  several 
classes^  or  orders.  Those  which  a(>pear  largest, 
are  called  stars  of  the  first  magnitude ;  the  next 
to  them  in  lustre,  stars  of  the  second  magnitude ; 
and  so  on  to  the  sixth,  which  are  the  smallest  that 
are  visible  to  the  bare  eye.  This  distribution 
having  been  made  long  oefore  the  invention  of 
telescopes,  the  stars  which  cannot  be  seen  with- 
out the  assistance  of  these  instruments,  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  telescopic  stars. 

590.  The  ancients  divided  the  starry  spheve 
into  particular  constellations,  or  clusters  of  stars, 
according  as  they  lay  near  one  another,  so  as  to 
occupy  those  spaces  which  the  figures  of  diffe- 
rent sorts  of  animals  or  tilings  would  take  up, 
if  they  were  there  delineated.  And  those  stars 
which  could  not  be  brought  into  any  particular 
constellation,  were  called  unformed  stars. 


591.  By  this  division,  the  stars  are  so  distin- 
guished from  one  another,  that  any  particular 
star  may  be  readily  found  in  the  heavens,  by 
means  of  a  celestial  globe  ;  on  which  the  con- 
stellations are  so  delineated,  that  the  most  re- 
markable stars  are  placed  in  such  parts  of  the 
figures,  as  are  most  easily  distinguished.  See 
plates  I,  and  II. 

592.  The  number  of  the  ancient  constellations  if 
forty-eight,  and  upon  our  present  globes  about 
seventy.  On  Senex's  globes  are  inserted  Bayer's 
letters ;  the  first  in  the  Greek  alphabet  being  put 
to  the  largest  star  in  each  constellation,  the  se- 
cond to  the  next,  and  so  on;  by  which  means 
every  star  is  as  easily  found  as  if  a  name  were 
given  to  it.  Thus  if  the  star  y  in  the  constelr 
lation  of  the  ram  be  mentioned,  every  astronomer 
knows  as  well  what  star  is  meant,  as  if  it  were 
pointed  out  to  him  in  the  heavens. 

593.  The  starry  heavens  are  also  divided  into 
three  parts,  viz.  1.  The  Zodiac,  which  extends 
quite  round  the  heavens ;  is  about  16^  broad,  so 
that  it  takes  in  the  orbits  of  all  the  planets,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  moon;  and  along  me  middle 
of  which  is  the  ecliptic.  2.  All  that  region  of 
the  heavens  which  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  zo* 
diac,  containing  twenty-one  constellations;  and, 
3.  That  on  the  south  side,  containing  fifteen. 

594.  The  following  tables  exhibit  the  names 
of  the  ancient  and  modem  constellations,  and  the 
number  of  stars  observed  in  each  of  them  by 
different  astronomers : 


595.  TABLE  I. 
THE  ANCIENT  CONSTELLATIONS. 


• 

NUMpER 

of  Stars  in 

Each,  according  to 

Names. 

Engiisb  Names. 

Ptolemy. 

T.  Brake. 

Hevelius. 

Flamst. 

Ursa  Minor        .     . 

The  Little  Bear 

8 

7 

12 

24 

Ursa  Major        .     . 

The  Great  Bear  .    . 

35 

29 

73 

87 

Draco        .... 

The  Dragon   .     .     . 

31 

32 

40 

80 

Cepheus         .     .     . 

Cepheus    .... 

13 

4 

51 

35 

Bootes,  or  Arctophilax 

23 

18 

52 

54 

Corona  Borealis 

The  Northern  Crown 

8 

8 

8 

21 

Hercules,  or  Engonasin 

Hercules  Kneeling  . 

29 

28 

45 

113 

Lyra 

TlieHarp  .     . 

10 

11 

17 

21 

Cygnns,  or  Gallina 

The  Swan      .    .     . 

10 

18 

47 

81 

Cassiopeia      .    .     . 

The  Lady  in  her  Chair 

13 

26 

37 

55 

Perseus      .... 

Perseus      .... 

29 

29 

46 

59 

Auriga      .... 

The  Waggoner    .    . 

14 

9 

40 

66 

Serpentaritts,     or  i 
Ophiuchus     .      S 

Serpentarius  ... 

29 

15 

40 

74 

Serpens     .... 

The  Serpent  .    .    . 

18 

13 

22 

64 

Sagitta       .... 

The  Arrow     .    .    . 

5 

5 

5 

18 

Aquila,  or  Vultur    . 

The  Eagle      .    .    . 

15 

12 

23 

71 

Antinous   .... 

Antinous   .... 

15 

3 

19 

71 

Delphinus      .     .    . 

The  Dolphin       .    . 

10 

10 

14 

18 

Equulus,  or  Equi  sectio 

The  Horse's  Head  . 

4 

4 

6 

10 

Pegasus,  or  Equus  . 

The  Flying  Horse    . 

20 

19 

38 

89 

Andromeda    .    .     . 

Andromeda    .     .     . 

23 

23 

47 

66 

Triangulum    .    .    . 

The  Triangle       .    . 

4 

4 

12 

16 

Aries 

The  Ram   .... 

18 

21 

27 

66 

Taurus      .... 

TheBuU   .    .    .    . 

44 

43 

51 

141 

Gemini      .... 

The  Twins     .    .    . 

25 

25 

38 

85 

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ASTRONOMY. 

TABLE  l^Qmtktutd). 


NuMBBftof  Stars  in 

Bach,  MMrding  to 

KAMftS. 

£H(3Ll8n  Names. 

PTOLEMY. 

T.  Beahb. 

HbteliOs. 

Plamst. 

G&ticer      .... 

TheCtab       .    .    . 

23 

16 

29  . 

63 

Leo 

The  Lion  .... 

35 

30 

49 

96 

Coma  Betenicfes 

Berenice's  Hair  .    . 

35 

14 

21 

43 

Virgo 

The  Virgin     .    .    . 
The  Scales     .    .    . 

32 

33 

50 

110 

Libra,  or  Chete 

17 

10 

20 

61 

Scorpius    .... 

The  Scorpion      .    . 

24 

10 

20 

44 

Sagittsirius      .    .    . 

The  Archer    .    .    . 

31 

14 

22 

69 

C^pnconaus   .    .    . 

The  Goat  .... 

28 

28 

29 

51 

Aquarius  .... 

Thfe  Water-Bearer  . 

45 

41 

47 

106 

Pisces 

The  Fishes     ...    . 

38 

36 

39 

113 

Cctus    ..... 

The  Whale    .    .    . 

22 

21 

45 

97 

Orion 

Orion , 

38 

42 

62 

78 

Eridanus,  or  FluTios 

Eridanus,  or  the  River 

94 

10 

27 

84 

Lepus 

TTie  Hare  .... 

12 

13 

16 

19 

Canis  Major  .    .    . 

The  Great  Dog  .    . 

2d 

13 

21 

31 

Canb  Minor  .    .    . 

The  LitUe  Dog  .    . 

2 

2 

13 

14 

Argo  Nans    .    .    . 

The  Ship  .... 

45 

3 

4 

64 

Hydra 

The  Hydra    .     .     . 

27 

19 

31 

60 

Crater 

The  Cup  .... 

7 

3 

10 

31 

Corvus      .... 

The  Chow      .    .    . 

r 

4 

9 

Centattins      .    .    . 

The  Centaur  .    .    . 

37 

35 

Lupus       .... 

The  Wolf.    ... 

Id 

24 

Ara      .         ... 

The  Altar       .    .    . 

7 

9 

Corona  Australis 

The  Southern  Crown 

13 

12 

Piscis  AuBtralis 

The  Southern  Fish  . 

18 

24 

596.  TABLE  IL 
THE  NEW  SOUTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS. 


Columba  Noachi 
Robur  Catoiinum 
Grus  .... 
Phoenix  .  .  . 
Indus  .  .  . 
Pavo  .... 
Apus,  or  Avis  Indica 


Noah's  Dove 
The  Royal  Oak 
The  Crane      .    . 
The  Phoenix  .    . 
The  Indian    .    . 
The  Peacock 
The  Bird  of  Paradise 


11 


Apis,  or  Musca  .    . 
Cnamaeleon    .     .    . 
Trianguhim  Australb 
Piscis  volans,  or  Passer 
Dorado,  or  Xiphias 


10 
12 
13 
13 
12 
14  Toucan 


Hydrus 


The  Bee  or  Fly    . 
The  Cameleon 
The  South  Triangle 
The  Flying  Fish  . 
The  Sword  Fish  . 
The  American  Goose 
The  Water  Snake 


597.  TABLE  III. 
HEVELIUS'S  CONSTELLATIONS  MADE  OUT  OF  THE  UNFORMED  STARS. 


Lynx 

Hevblios. 

Flanbtead. 

The  Lynx 

19 

44 

Leo  Minor 

The  Little  Lion      . 

— 

53 

Asterion  and  Chara    .    .     . 

The  Greyhounds     . 

23 

25            1 

Cerberus 

Cerberus       .... 

4 

—            1 

Vulpecula  and  Anser  .    .    . 

the  Fox  and  Goose 

27 

35 

Scutum  Sobieski     .... 

Sobieski's  Shield    .    . 

7 

— 

The  Lizard    .    .    . 

10 

16 

Camelopardalus      .... 

The  Camelopard    . 

32 

58 

Monocerot 

Tlie  Unicom      .    .    . 

19 

32 

Sextans     .    * 

The  Sextant  .    .     . 

11 

41 

1 

Sect.  V. — Op  Calculatiito  the  Periodical 
Times,  Places,  &c.  of  the  Celestial  Bo- 
dies; COMSTBUCTING  AsTEOVOMIGAL  TaBLES, 

AND  Delineating  the  Phases  op  the  Moon. 
598.  This  section,  if  treated  fully,  would  com- 
prehend almost  the  whole  of  practical  astronomy, 


a  subject  so  extensive,  that  the  whole  space 
which  we  can  devote  to  the  subject  of  astromymy 
would  not  suffice  to  do  it  jusUce.  We  shall^ 
however,  we  hope,  give  an  alntract  of  the  Kwriing 
points  in  this  department  of  the  science,  which 
may  at  once  gratify  the  wishes  of  the  amatear^ 


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ASTRONOMY. 


171 


and  stimulate  die  fiirdier  CDcpiines  of  those  who 
may  be  inclined  to  pursue  the  subject. 

599.  Indeed  the  elements  of  the  chief  bodies 
in  our  system  have  long  been  tabulated,  and  the 
mere  practical  astronomer  may,  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  causes  of  the  planetary  mo- 
tions, compute  from  the  tables  where  any  planet 
in  the  sjrstem  will  be  found  at  any  given  instant. 
The  tables  in  the  third  volume  of  Vince's  Astro- 
nomy are  a  treasure  to  the  astronomer,  though 
those  of  the  moon  have  been  superseded  by 
the  improved  ones  of  Burkhardt 

600.  We  have  already  shown  how  an  observer 
who  knows  his  own  iatitude  may  find  the  posi- 
tion of  the  ecliptic  with  respect  to  the  equator, 
and  that  point  of  the  heavens  in  which  the  celes- 
tial equator  and  the  ecliptic  intersect.  We  now 
proceed  to  the  solution  of  Kepler's  problem,  or 
to  the  method  of  finding  the  place  of  a  planet  in 
an  elliptical  orbit. 

601.  Let  AP  B,  fig.  12,  plate  VI.,  be  an 
ellipse,  E  the  sun  in  the  focus,  round  which  the 
earth,  P,  or  any  other  planet  revolves.  Let  the 
planet's  motion,  and  the  time  of  its  motion,  be 
dated  fit)m  the  extremity  of  the  major  onis,  A, 
called  the  aphelion  or  apside.  Now  we  are  sup- 
posed to  have  given  the  time  of  the  planet's 
ouitting  it,  to  find  the  position  of  the  pomt  P  in 
the  ellipse,  either  by  finding  the  value  of  the  an- 
gle A  £  P,  or  by  cutting  ofi*  from  the  whole 
ellipse  and  area  A  £  P,  which  is  to  the  area  of 
the  whole  ellipse  as  the  time  from  A  to  P  brais 
to  the  whele  time  of  revolution.  The  line  £  P 
is  called  a  radius  rector. 

602.  Let  a  circle  A  M  B  be  described  on  A  B 
as  its  diameter,  and  suppose  a  point  to  describe 
this  circle  uniformly,  and  the  wnole  of  it  in  the 
same  time  as  the  planet  describes  the  ellipse,  let 
t  denote  the  time  elapsed  during  P's  motion  from 

A  to  P;  then  if  AM^    >   t.    ,>   ^  M  will  be 
'  penodic  time 

the  place  of  the  point  that  moves  uniformly, 
whilst  P  is  that  of  the  planets ;  the  angle  is  called 
the  mean  jmomaly,  and  A  £  P  the  true  ano- 
maly. 

603.  Hence,  as  the  angle  ACM  can  always 
be  found  when  t  is  given,  the  solution  of  Kep- 
ler's problem  is  reduced  to  this,  to  find  the  true 
anomaly  in  terms  of  the  mean. 

604.  The  angle  D  C  A,  determined  by  pro- 
dncing  the  ordinate  A*  P  to  the  ellipse  is  called 
the'  eccentric  anomaly,  which  has  been  devised 
for  the  purpose  of  expediting  the  computation  of 
the  true  anomaly.  It  hMs  a  mean  between  the 
two  other  anomalies,  and  is  a  step  in  the  com- 
putation from  the  one  to  the  other. 

605.  We  shall  first  deduce  two  equations,  by 
which  the  eccentric  anomaly  is  expressed,  in 
terms  of  the  true  and  mean  anomalies  respec- 
tively. 

Let  <  =  the  time  in  describing  A  P,  P  =  the 
periodic  time  in  the  ellipse  a  =:  C  A,  ae  i=£C, 
•«=Z.P£A,ti=rZ.DCA,  (whence  £  Tz= 
£  C.  sin.  II,  £  T  being  perpendicular  to  D  T)  r  p 
=  P  £,  IT  a=  3*1415986 ;  then,  by  the  law  of  the 
equable  description  of  areas, 
<=P  X    *^^^^   -^  P  X  *^   D  E  A 


(by  conies  )=srj-^  x  (T>  £C  +DC  A)=  —^x 

(ET.DC^  AD. DC        Pa      _^ 

•     ^ + 2 =2T?X(£Csintt+ 

p 
D  C .«)»--  X  (e.  sin.  u^u):  hence  if  we 

put  - —  =-    we  have 
2  IT     n 

n  ^  =  e.  sin.  «  X  t<i  an  equation  connecting  the 

mean  anomaly  n  t  with  the  eccentric  u. 

606.  To  find  the  equation  between  the  true 

and  eocentric  anomaly  we  must  investigate  and 

equate  two  values  of  p.    Now  the  value  of  p  in 

terms  of  the  true  anomaly  is  by  conies  s= 

aTl":^g« 

1— C,  COS.  «. 

and  in  terms  of  u  the  eccentric  anomaly  p  ss  a 

1  -J-  C.  COS.  u,  

Inp»  =  £N*  X  Py»=£N»H-DN» !-■€»= 

a  e  -h  a*  cos.  i#'  +  «•  sin.*  t*  1  —  e"  =  a*+  2  e 

cos.tt  +  COS.  2  tt+   a*l— €**m*tt=  a*-f 

h  .COS.  a—  c»  cos*  u  when  p  =>  a  1+  e.  cos-  u. 

By  equating  these  two  values  of  P  we  have, 

1  —  <*=s  cos  «  1  +  e  .  cos  11 ;  whence  cos.  v  = 

c  +  cos  u     _^  ...  ... 

r-~ -,  dn  expression  which  may  readily 


I  of  ellipse 


aiea  0 


be  transformed  into  1  tan  ^  V^  z •  ton  ^ 

The  difference  between  the  mean  and  true 
anomalies  is  called  the  Equation  of  the  Centre ; 
which  has  its  greatest  value  when  P  moves  with 
its  mean  anffular  velocity,  as  may  be  thus  made 
evident.  If  we  conceive  a  body  to  move  uni- 
formly in  a  circle  round  £,  as  a  centre,  with  the 
mean  angular  velocity  of  P  round  £,  revolving 
round  the  circle  in  the  same  time  that  P  revolves 
round  the  ellipse.  If  Uiey  botli  depart  from  P 
together,  then  P  at  the  first  moving  with  its  least 
anguUur  velocity,  will  describe  round  E  a  less 
angle  than  the  fictitious  body  does,  which  body 
will  therefore  advance  before  P,  tiU  the  angular 
velocity  of  P  becomes  equal  to  that  of  the  bNxly, 
at  which  time  their  angular  distance  will  be  the 
greatest,  and  P  will  immediately  afterwards 
begin  to  gain  upon  the  body. 

608.  To  determine  the  ellipse  in  which  the 
e(|uation  of  the  centre  is  the  greatest,  conceive  a 
circle  to  be  described  round  E  as  a  centre,  setting 
the  ellipse  on  some  point  P,  and  the  line  £  A 
somewhere  between  £  and  A.  Then,  if  the 
angular  velocities  be  inversely  as  the  squares  of 
the  distances  from  £,  the  angular  velocity  in  the 
ellipse  from  A  to  P,  will  in  every  intermediate 
point  be  less  than  the  angular  velocity  of  the 
body  in  the  circle,  in  all  the  points  between  £  A 
and  P.  But  if  the  areas  described  by  the  body 
in  the  ellipse,  and  the  body  in  the  circles,  be  res- 
pectively equal,  the  angular  velocities  are  in- 
versely as  the  squares  of  the  distances. 

609.  If  then  the  incremental  areas  be  equal, 
the  whole  areas  are  equal,  since  bv  condition, 
the  lines  of  revolution  are  emial.  Let  therefore 
X  be  put  for  the  value  of  £  P,  2  a  =  the  major 
axis,  and  a  e  =  the  eccentriciw  of  the  ellipse,  then 
by  equating  the  expression  m  the  elliptic  area, 


Digitized  by 


Gobgl( 


172 

and  that  of  the  circle  we  obtain 


ASTRONOMY. 


nearly. 

609*  From  the  above  value  of  the  radius  vector 
"when  the  equation  of  the  centre  is  the  greatest, 
the  corresponding,  true,  and  eccentric  anomalies 
may  be  computed  by  the  general  equations  for 
those  purposes  given  above. 

«T.  fl .  1  —  ^*   -  -: — ; 

Viz.  0=  ^ 1  p  =  fl.  1  +  «•  cos   u; 

^      1 — ecos.tf     ^ 

and  hence,  too,  the  mean  anomaly  nt  is  .deter- 
mined from  nt  ziu  +  e,  sine  «,  and  finally 
tiiere  results  the  greatest  equation  of  the  centre 

We  proceed  now  to  the  principles  of  the 
method  by  which  the  place  and  motion  of  the 
aphelia  are  determined. 

610.  It  is  evident  that  the  sun  being  in  perigee 
at  die  least  distance  and  in  apogee  at  his  greatest, 
if  we  could  measure  his  diameter  with  sufficient 
nicety,  so  as  to  determine  when  it  is  greatest  or 
least,  the  corresponding  places  of  the  sun  would 
be  those  of  the  perigee  and  the  apogee  respec- 
tively ;  or  if,  by  observing  the  suir  s  place  trom 
day  to  day,  we  could  ascertain  the  times  when 
his  angular  motion  was  the  greatest  or  least,  his 
places  at  the  corresponding  time  would  be  those 
of  the  required  points.  And  if,  at  a  period  con- 
siderably distant,  like  observations  were  repeated, 
a  comparison  of  the  results  would  shew  whether 
the  place  of  the  apogee  was  stationary  or  not. 

61 1 .  Now  by  the  observations  of  various  astro- 
mers,  it  has  been  found  that  the  apogee  of  the 
earth's  orbit  is  progressive,  as  may  be  seen  firom 
^e  following  statement: 

Astronomer.  Year.      Longitude  of  Apogee. 

Cochin  King    .    1279        3s.    0°    8'    0* 
Walthcrus  .     .    1496        3       3    57    57 
LaHine      .     .    1684        3       7    28      0 
Flamsteed  .     .    1690        3       7    35      0 
The  mean  result  of  these  observations  gives 

about  1'  3*4"  for  the  annual  progressive  motion 

of  the  apogee  of  the  earth's  orbit. 

612.  The  following,  however,  is  a  more  accu- 
rate method  of  determining  the  progression  of 
theapogee.  LetSEr(fig.l3.PlateVl.)bearight 
line,  and  draw  T  £^  ms£ing  with  A  B,  the  major 
axis,  an  angle  TEA  zz  SEA;  now  the  time 
through  rB/S  is  less  than  the  time  through 
the  remaining  are  SATr;  for  the  equal  and 
similar  areas  S  E  ^,  T  E  r,  are  described  in  equal 
times,  but  tlie  area  r E ^,  is  less  than  SET,  and 
it  will  therefore  be  described  in  less  time; 
whence  r  £  r -h  S  £  ^,  which  isequaltoS  Er^S, 
is  described  in  less  time  than  SET  +  TEr, 
which  compose  the  area  SErTS.  This  pro- 
perty belongs  to  every  line  drawn  through  E, 
except  AB,  the  major  axis,  or  the  line  which 
joins  the  ap&elion  and  perihelion  of  the  orbits. 
Hence,  if  on  comparing  two  observations  of  the 
sun  in  opposite  longitudes,  as  at  S  and  r,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  time  elapsed  is  not  half  a  year, 
we  may  be  sure  that  the  sun  has  not  been  ob- 
served in  apogee  or  perigee.  In  practice,  bow- 
ever,  the  interval  will  not  differ  much  from  half 
a  year,  and  the  true  position  of  the  apogee  may 
be  determined  in  the  following  manner : 


613.  The  time  from  r  to  S  =:  the  time  from 
r  to  B  +  the  time  from  B  to  A —  the  time  from 
S  to  A ;  or,  time  from  B  to  A  —  time  from  r  to 
S  =z  time  from  S  to  A  —  time  from  r  to  B. 
Now  the  first  of  these  differences  is  known, 
being  the  difference  between  half  an  anoma- 
listic year  (the  time  from  the  sun's  leaving  &e 
apogee  till  his  return  to  it)  and  the  observed  in- 
terval ;  and  the  second  term  of  the  second  dif- 
ference  may  be  expressed  by  means  of  the  first 
For  let  the  first  term  =  t,  then  the  time  from  r  to 
J.  _  arearEB  _  ,  rBxE  B  ,  .  _ 
^-'•areaSEA='s^AirEA  ^'^  "^  ^ 
being  supposed  near  the  apsides) 

_      r_B      EA     EB»_         EB» 

""       EB  ^SA^EA?"     ^EA« 

^  angular  velocity  at  A    _      rB  _  S  A 

^     ^  angular  velocity  at  B'      ^'^  E  B  ""  A  E 

each  representing  the  incremental  angle  r  E  B. 

614.  Now  the  angular  velocities  at  A  and  B, 
or  the  increments  of  the  sun's  longitude,  being 
known  from  observation,  and  the  time  from  r  to 
B  being  expressed  in  terms  of  those  velocities 
and  of  ty  the  quantity  t  may  be  readily  deter- 
mined ;  whence  the  exact  time  when  the  sun  is 
at  A ;  and  his  longitude,  computed  for  that  time, 
is  the  longitude  of  the  apogee. 

Example. 

1743.Dec.30.  Oh.  3m.  7s.  ©'slong.Os  8®  29'  12-5" 
1744.Jun.30.0h.3m.0s 3  8    51    1*5 


Difference    .    6  0  21     4-9 


Therefore  at  the  second  observation,  June 
30th,  the  sun  was  past  S.  In  order  to  find 
when  I  e  was  at  S,  that  is,  when  the  difference  of 
the  luQ^itudewas  six  signs  (or  supposing  the  peri- 
gee to  have  progressed  through  31")  when  the 
difference  of  tne  longitudes  was  6  s  0°  0'  31",  we 
must  find  the  time  of  describing  21'  49*  —  31*, 
or  21'  18".  This  is  easily  effected  by  this  pro- 
portion, as  the  sun*s  daily  motion  on  June  30th 
(5r  12*)  :  24  hours  :  :  21'  18*;  8h.  56m.  13s., 
which  taken  from  June  30th,  Oh.  3m.,  leaves 
June  29th  15h.  6m.  47s.  for  the  time  when  the 
difference  of  the  sun*s  longitudes  under  the  given 
circumstances  was  180°  0'  31".  . 

615.  The  interval  between  this  last  time  and 
Dec.  30th,  Oh.  3m.  7s.  the  time  of  the  past  ob- 
servation, is  182d.  15h.  3m.  40s.,  nearly  the 
time  from  r  to  S :  but  this  time  is  less  than  half 
an  anomalistic  year,  which  is  182d.  15h.  7m. 
1  s.,  as  has  been  found  by  repeated  observations, 
and  as  we  have  seen  above :  t  —  time  from  r  to 
B  :=:  3m.  21s. ;  and  time  from  r  to  B  rz  <. 

57*  12** 
,     ^/;  whence,  by  substitution  and  reduction, 

we  have  t  =  47m.  54s.  This  added  to  June 
29th,  15  h.  6m.  47s.,  when  the  sun  was  at  S, 
gives  June  29th  15h.  6m.  47s.  for  the  time 
when  he  was  in  apogee. 

616..  The  sun's  longitude  at  that  time  must  be 
less  than  his  longitude  on  June  30th,  Oh.  3m. 
by  the  difference  due  on  the  differenoe  of  the 
times,  which  is  8h.  8m.  19s.  This  quantity  is 
easily  found  by  proportion  to  be  IST.  21**,  and 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ASTRONOMY. 


173 


hence  the  longitude  of  the  apogee  is  98®.  31' 
40*5',  or  8*  31'  40*5"  past  the  summer  solstice. 

617.  From  the  longitude  at  any  giren  time 
and  the  annual  progression,  the  position  of  the 
apogee  and  of  the  axis  of  ihe  solar  ellipse  may 
be  (bund  by  proportion  for  any  other  time.  If 
it  were  required,  for  example,  to  find  when  the 
axis  of  the  solar  ellipse  was  perpendicular  to  the 
line  of  the  equinoxes,  or  when  the  longitude  of 
the  perigee  was  270°.  Now  its  longitude  in 
1750  was  9»  8°  37*  28",  hence,  taking  the  an. 

Dual  progression  at  62% — ^^ —  =  about  500 

years,  as  the  major  axis  was  perpendicular  to 
the  line  of  the  equinoxes  in  1250.  It  is  remark- 
able, that  the  period  in  which  the  major  axis 
coincided  with  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  is  at 
the  time  which  astronomers  consider  to  be  that 
of  the  beginning  of  the  earth. 

618.  Our  next  object  is  to  explain  those  ob- 
servations made  at  the  earth,  and  reduced  to 
what  they  would  have  been  if  the  observer  had 
been  at  the  sun ;  as  the  methods  of  extricating 
from  the  geocentric  observations  of  a  planet's 
place,  the  elements  of  the  orbit  which  it  de- 
scribes round  the  sun. 

619.  The  observations  made  on  the  earth  are, 
generally  speaking,  for  right  ascensions  by  the 
transit  instruments,  and  polar  distances  by  the 
quadrant  or  axle  The  latitudes  and  longitudes 
are  not  observed,  but  computed  from  the  right 
ascensions  and  declinations.  Let  A,  fig.  15. 
plate  VI.,  represent  the  first  point  of  Aries,  A  C 
a  portion  of  the  ecliptic,  AB  a  portion  of  the 
equator,  S  a  star,  S  B  its  declination,  and  S  C  its 
Utitude;  then  AB  will  be  its  right  ascension 
and  AC  its  longitude  round  BAG,  the  obli- 
quity of  the  ecliptic.  Now  the  method  of  find- 
ing BAG  has  already  been  shown;  BS  is  de- 
termined by  the  circle  or  quadrant,  and  A  B  by 
the  time  shown  by  the  siderial  clock  when  tiie 
sun  is  on  the  meridian.  Hence  A  G,  G  S,  and 
the  angle  BAG,  are  given  to  find  AB  and  BS. 
Now  COS.  AS  =  cos  AG  .  cos.  C S;  cos.  SAG 
=  co8.  CS  .inAG,  SAB  =  SAG  =  BAG; 
tan  AB  ==  cos.  SA,B  .  tan.  AS  and  sin.  BS 
=  sin.  A  S  .  in  B  A  S.  Hence  the  geocentric  la- 
titudes and  longitudes  may  be  always  determined. 

620.  If  a  =z  the  right  ascension,  d  =:  the  de- 
clination, /  =  the  latitude,  X  =  the  longitude, 
and  o  =  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  then  / 
and  X  may  be  determined  from  the  following 
equations : 

tan.X=sin.o  .  tan.i  .  sec.a  +  tan.a  .  cos.o 
sin. /=sin<2  .  cos.a  —  sin. a.  cos. d  .  sin.e. 

621.  By  either  of  these  methods  the  geocen- 
tric latitude  and  longitude  may  be  determined. 
Among  the  resulting  values  of  the  latitude,  some 
will  be  either  nothing  or  very  small.  If  the 
geocentric  latitude  is  nothing,  the  heliocentric 
latitude  is  also  nothing,  or  the  planet  is  in  the 
plane  of  the  earth's  orbit,  or  in  tnat  point  of  its 
own  orbit  which  is  called  its  node ;  the  node 
being  the  intersection  of  the  orbit  of  a  planet 
with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  It  is  not  likely, 
however,  that  the  planet  will  be  observed 
exactly  in  the  node;  but  if  by  one  observa^ 
tion  its  latitude  is  found  to  be  a  south,  and 


by  another  at  an  interval  of  time  /,  to  t>e  a'  north, 

the  — ; — 7-  is  the  interval,  which  added  to  the 
a  -\-  a 

time  when  the  planet  had  the  latitude,  a  will 
give  the  instant  at  which  it  was  in  its  node. 

622.  As  we  can  thus  find  the  time  of  a  planet's 
entering  its  node,  we  can  determine  the  time  of 
its  passage  firom  the  descending  to  the  ascending 
node,  and  also  the  time  between  two  successive 
returns  to  the  same  node ;  and  if  the  place  of 
the  nodes  and  the  dimensions  and  line  of 
the  oroit  remain  unchanged,  the  latter  interval 
must  be  the  periodic  time  of  the  planet ;  and  if 
the  former  interval  were  half  the  latter,  it  would 
prove  either  that  the  orbit  of  the  planet  was  cir- 
cular, or,  if  elliptical,  that  its  major  axis  coin- 
cided with  the  positions  of  the  nodes. 

623.  Now  let  N  P,  fig.  14,  plate  VI.  be  part 
of  the  orbit  of  a  superior  planet,  N  r  G  a  portion 
of  the  ecliptic,  £  the  earth,  S  the  sun ;  and  let 
P  IT  be  an  aro  of  a  great  circle  from  P  perpen- 
dicular to  the  ecliptic.  A  spectator  at  £,  sees 
P  V  under  the  angle  P  £  ir,  which  is  therefore 
the  geocentric  latitude ;  and  a  spectator,  as  S, 
would  see  P  T  under  the  angle  P  S  x,  which  is 
therefore  the  heliocentric  latitude.  If  y  be  the 
first  point  of  Aries,  then  as  the  diameter  of  the 
earth\  orbit  subtends  no  sensible  angle  at  the 
fixed  stars,  a  line  drawn  from  £  to  y  may  be 
considered  as  parallel  to  a  line  drawn  firom  S  to  y. 
Hence 

the  geocentric  longitude  of  P  (L)  is  Z  vEy 
the  heliocentric  longitude  of  P  (P)  is  ^  ir  S  y 
the  longitude  of  the  sun,  (0)  is  2.  S  £  y, 
and  consequently, 

L=©  +  Z.  SE»=©  +  E. 
£  representing  the  angle  S  £  ir,  called  the  angle 
of  elongation. 

624.  The  angle  £  S  r,  is  called  the  angle  of 
oonunntation,  (G)  the  angle  S  ir  £,  or  rather  the 
angle  S  P  £,  under  which  the  earth's  radius  ap- 
pears fipom  the  planet,  is  called  the  annual  pa- 
rallax. 

625.  To  proceed,  y  Sir,(P)  =:  Z.  S£  y  -h 
1 80'*  —  £  S  X  =  0  -h  1 80**  —  G,  whence  P  may 
be  determined,  if  G  be  previously  known.  But 
S  £  is  known  from  the  solar  theory,  and  S  £  ir, 
or  £  s:  L  —  0  is  known,  since  L  can  be  com- 
puted as  we  have  shown  above  firom  the  obsei^ 
ved  right  ascension  and  declination,  and  0  is 
known  from  the  solar  theory ;  therefore  to  find 
the  angle  £  S  r,  and  all  the  other  parts  of  the 
triangle,  it  is  only  necessary  to  know  S  x,  which 
is  called  the  curtate  distance. 

626.  Now  Sir  =  SP  cos.  Z.  PSir  =  y  . 
008.  H;  whence  to  find  S  ir  we  must  know  the 
values  of  y  and  H.  Let  I  =  P  N  x,  represent 
the  inclination  of  the  planet's  orbit,  to  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic.  Then  by  spherics,  tan.  H  =  cos. 
N  X  .  tan.  I,  whence  to  find  H  we  miist  pre- 
viously know  I  and  N  ir,  the  distance  of  the  re- 
duced place  of  the  planet  from  the  node  of  its 
orbit,  which  distance  is  evidently  equal  to  the 
longitude  of  the  planet,  minus  the  longitude  of 
the  node. 

627.  If  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit  be  jmadl, 
S  P,  or  r,  may  be  determined  by  Kepler's  law, 
but  it  is  Uie  mean  distance  which  is  determined 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


174 


ASTRONOMY. 


hj  that  law ;  and  thcreforf  except  P  moTe  in  a 
circle,  S  P  so  determined  \vill  not  be  quite  cor- 
rect And  in  hct  there  »  no  direct  and  general 
method  of  determinin|  S  P.  Astrononien  there- 
fore select  those  positions  of  a  planet  in  which  its 
lieliocentric  longitude  is  exactly  known.  Now 
when  the  inferior  planets  are  in  conjunction,  their 
longitudes  are  exactly  known,  as  when  they  are 
in  supeijor  conjunction  their  longitudes  are  equal 
to  0,  and  in  inferior  equal  to  180*  +  0. 

628.  In  such  positions  then  the  heliocentric 
longitude  is  obtained  without  anv  knowledge  of 
S  T,  and  without  trigonometrical  computation. 
The  p^ocentric  longitude  may  be  computed  from 
the  nght  ascension  and  declination  bytke  formu- 
lai  already  given. 

629.  If  we  conceive  N  ir  C  to  represent  the 
earth's  orbit,  and  e  B  that  of  an  inferior  planet, 
then  £  IT  S  is  called  the  planet's  angle  of  elong- 
ation, and  V  £  3  its  annual  parallax,  when  w  £ 
is  a  tangent  to  £  <. 

T9  find  the  penodie  iMie,  mean  wioiianf  and  dit* 
tance  of  a  planet. 

630.  From  the  observed  right  ascensions  and 
declinations  compute  its  geocentric  latitude ;  and 
find  when  it  is  equal  to  nothing.  The  planet 
is  then  in  its  node.  Find  in  the  same  way  at 
some  subsequent  period  when  H  returns  to  the 
same  node,  and  thence  the  periodic  time  may  be 
determined. 

631.  This  method  of  finding  the  periodic  time 
serves  also  to  show  whether  the  orbit  is  eccentric, 
and  the  degree  of  die  eccentricity ;  as  will  appear 
from  the  following  detail  given  by  Delambre^for 
finding  the  periodic  time  of  Msin  :-^u1y  23d, 
1807.  ^  in  his  descending  node  (|})  and  his 
eoulbem  latitude  increased  tiU  Dec.  Ifilii.  If 
the  latter  time  be  assumed  as  that  when  Ida  latfr* 
inde  was  greajteet,  and  the  inteivil  (145  days) 
of  his  passage  from  tke  node  to  that  poskiaa,  be 
taken  as  one^fourth  of  hia  periodic  tune,  the  pe- 
riod will  then  be  560  days. 

632.  But  on  May  21st,  1808,  ^  in  his  ascend- 
ing node  (Q)  and  the  interval  in  hia  passage 
iicom  C9  to  Q  waa  309  days.  If  that  interval 
were  half  the  period,the  period  would  be  604  days. 

633.  Again  am  Marea  7th»  1809,  the  north 
latitude  of  Mara  was  9^  49^ ;  and  in  June  8th,  it 
was  (0),  when  Mara  had  returned  to  the  node  in 
which  he  was  on  Jnly  S3d,  1807,  in  687  davs, 
which  must  be  very  nearly  the  period  of  his 
levdlntion. 

634  Now  from  this  detaU,  and  what  we  have 
done  before,  we  may  infer  that  the  orbit  of  Mam 
is  not  circular,  and  that  the  major  axia  ia  neither 
perpendicular  to,  nor  Goincident  with*  the  line  of 
the  node. 

635.  But  we  may  draw  farther  inferences. 
The  time  from  3  to  Q  being  less  than  the  oth« 
half  of  the  period  by  83  dams  if  (plate  VI.  fig. 
13)  N  fi  reprwent  the  line  of  the  Qodee,  we  have 

NAii  — NB»        83    ,      .. 
— jA  ■  :;!  2j-  since  the  areas  are  propor- 

tional to  the  times.  Now  wlien  Nn  is  parpen* 
dicular  to  A  B,  the  difference  between  N  A  «  and 
NBii  is  a  maximnm.  In  such  a  position 
AEN  — NEB        ,.  ^  ,41         ,, 


time  fitmi  B  to  N  won)d  beaeaity  162  daya  aoi 
fioBaNloA193daya. 

636.  But  the  period  being  nearljr  687  days  in 
which  the  planet  describes  360°  the  time  of  de- 
scribing 90^  would  be  nearly  1 71  days,  supposing 
the  planet  to  depart  fiom  B^  and  to  mov«  with 
its  mean  motion;  but  as  we  have  seen, (he  planet 
was  in  N  nineteen  days  pveviously,  in  whicli 
time  its  mean  motion  is  equSil  to  nearly  10*°. 
When  the  real  planet  therefore  was  at  N,  tlte  fic- 
titious body  moving  with  the  planet's  mean 
motion  would  be  nearly  10°  behind.  Now  this 
difference  is  what  hae  been  denominated  tb^ 
equation  of  the  centre,  which  at  N  is  nearly  at 
its  greatest  value.  Hence  the  greatest  equation 
of  the  centre  in  Mars  cannot  be  less  than  10^. 
The  same  process  for  finding  the  periodic  time, 
and  like  infi^rences  respecting  the  eccentricity 
are  applicable  to  Jupiter  and  Satom.  But  the 
Georgian  planet  has  not  completed  more  than  half 
a  revolution  since  it  was  first  discovered,  and  yet 
we  have  the  elements  of  its  orbit  to  a  very  con- 
siderable degree  of  exactness.  The  folwwing 
method  of  detennination  by  La  Lande  (one  indeed 
of  tttsX  and  conjecture,  but  which  after  a  few 
times  is  sure  of  sueceeding)  will  be  easily  under- 
stood, 

637.  Resuming  the  notation  already  employed ; 
the  angle  of  elongation  (£J  «*  L--0,  l»  heiog 
the  geocentric  longitude,  and  £  ir  S,  the  angle  <d 
paraltaix  (w)  is  the  difference  of  the  helioeeetrie 
and  geocentric  longitudes,  and  therefore  eenal  to 
P — ^L.    Now  £:=L  —  0  is  known,  and  ir  is 

Sfi 
known  firam  theexpres»on  sin.  sr  «^«in,  ^^— 

if  we  can  find  S  t.  If  we  assume  a  value  (r)  for 
S  «•  (Sir  and  S F  being  nearly  equal)  we  shall 
from  the  above  equation  have  a  corresponding 
value  of  V,  and  thence  of  P :  let  tiiis  value  be 
represented  by  P*.  Make  another  computation 
with  9  and  a  second  and  third  geoceotnc  longi- 
tude, and  let  the  resulting  heliocentric  longitudes 
beP^andP-.  Then  we  have  p- —  P*,  P*— 
P*,and  P^ —  P,  and  ftom  the  three  times  of 
observation,  t;»f  and  IT  we  have  f  —  t^lT  — 

r  and  r--r. 

Hence  P"*—  P:  r — C  : :  860* :  planet's  period. 
Or  P*— F  :  r— r  :  :3eO':  planet's  period. 
As       P^—P'ir—rctSfiO*:  planet's  period. 

638.  Bv  any  of  these  three  proportions  may 
the  period  be  computed ;  but  r  is  assumed  as  the 
mean  distance,  ana  if  1  r:  the  earth's  mean  dis- 
tance, and  p  its  periodic  time ;  the  periodic  time 
of  the  planet  will  be  represented  by  p  r  };  and 
if  this  result  agree  with  toe  former  one,  it  will  be 
a  proof  that  rhas  been  rightly  assumed ;  and  the 
disagreement  by  its  nature  and  maflniitude  will 

S>int  out  the  manner  and  extent  of  correcting 
e  first  assumption  for  y. 

639.  Ia  Lande  computed  from  three  geocentric 
observations  of  the  planet  made  on  April  25tK, 
July  31st,  and  Dec.  t2di,  1781,  and  he  found 
firom  the  above  formulae,  the  periodic  Ume.  The 
two  values  disagreeing  he  amended  hie  first  as- 
sumption, guided  partly  by  eontectnre  and  partly 
by  his  first  trial,  tul  a  value  or  r  was  obtained, 
vdiieh  agreed  with  all  Ae  observations. 

640.  The  distance  of  an  inferior  planet  oiay 
also  be  determined  finom  observatiotts  on  its  dia- 


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176 


tanoe  from  the  son  when  stationaiyy  or  from  what 
has  been  called  its  greatest  elongation.  JLet  £ 
and  £'  be  two  of  the  greatest  elongations,  one 
when  the  planet  is  in  aphelion  and  the  other  in 
perihelion,  t  the  eccentricity  of  the  orbit,  R  and 
R'  the  distances  oC  the  earth  from  tlie  sun, 
and  r  the  planet's  mean  distance;  then  «  = 
Rsin=E— R'sinE'  .  ^.  ^  ^ 
rtT '  *"  equation  which  deter- 
mines the  relation  between  the  eccentricity  and 
mean  distance. 

641.  We  proceed  now  to  the  method  of  deter- 
mining the  place  of  the  node  of  a  planet's  orbit, 
and  the  inclination  of  its  orbit  to  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic,  tn  fig.  16,  plate  VI.  let  N  n,  represent 
the  nodes.  Now  from  the  observed  right  ascen- 
sion and  declination  we  can  in  an  hour  even  com- 
pute the  planet's  geocentric  latitude,  and  when 
this  is  equal  to  0,  the  planet  is  in  its  node. 
J^t  £,  £'  be  the  two  positions  of  the  planet 
when,  as  viewed  from  the  earth,  it  is  respectively 
at  n  and  N.  Then  S  £  n  =  geocentric  longitude 
ofplanet  at«~0and$£'N=  ©'—geocen- 
tric longitude  of  planet  at  N.  Now  we  already 
know  how  to  compute  S  N  or  S  a,  and  hence  in 
the  triangles  S  £  »,  S  £  N,  we  can  compute  the 
angles  »S£,  Sfi£,  and  NSE',  SN£';  and 
thence  heliocentric  Ion.  of  n  ssl80+ 0 —  ^  » S£ 
and  heliocentric  Ion,  of  N  =  0'  — 180  + 
Z.N  S  £',  0  and  0'  lepiesentiikg  the  sun's  km- 
gitudes  at  the  two  times  of  obs^vation ;  and  th« 
angle  £S  £'  is  proportional  to  the  earth's  mo- 
tion during  the  planiBlft  pam^  from  n  to  N. 

649.  It  IS  evident  tfiat  the  determination  of  the 
place  of  the  node  is  the  more  difficult,  the  less  is 
the  inclination  of  the  planet's  orbit;  and  it  is 
difficult  on  this  account  to  determine  the  nodes 
of  the  orbits  of  Jupiter  and  the  Gveorgian  planets. 

643.  The  longitude  of  the  node  being  foundji 
the  inclination  of  the  orbit  may  be  thus  deter- 
mined:  Compute  the  day  oaawhioh  the  sun's 
longitude  will  be  the  same,  w  nearW  the  same 
as  the  longitude  of  the  node,  the  earth  will  then 
be  nearly  in  the  line  of  the  nodes  N  fi,  at  some 
point  e,  fie.  16,  plate  VI.  On  that  day  observe 
the  planet's  right  ascension  and  declination,  and 
theniBe  deduce  the  geqoentric  latitude  (G.)  Then 
^       «     iin.tSe       ^      sin.N< 

tan.  G ;  but  sin.  N  <=cot.  t  Np,  f  j) ;  or  tan.  I  sin, 

N  ( s=  <  J)  (I  denoting  the  inclination) ;  whence 

tan.G 
ttn.I.is  ■ .    ^.   A  like  diagram  and  a  similar 

process  will  apply  to  a  superior  planet.  Tha 
inclination  may  also  be  determined  from  observing 
the  planet  at  conjunction  when  its  latitude  is  con- 
siderable. If  f'  =  die  pUnet's  distance  from  the 
sun  reduced  to  the  ecliptic,  I  the  inclination,  and 
G,  as  above,  the  geocentric  latitude.  Then  it 
Q»y  be  easily  shown,  that : 

«...(._,+;-«..i)-J^ 


an  equation  from  which  I  may  be  obtained,  either 
by  approximation,  or  the  solution  of  a  quadratic 
equation. 

644.  The  next  step  in  the  investigation  is  the 
determination  of  the  form  of  the  planetary  orbits. 
For  the  sake  of  simplifying  the  problem,  in  the 
first  instance,  we  shall  suppose  that  the  planet's 
orbit  lies  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  Since  the 
mean  motion  is  known  finom  the  periodic  time, ' 
and  by  observing  in  opposition  or  conjunction 
the  planet's  true  longitude  we  can  at  any  instant 
determine  its  mean  longitude.  Then  if  the 
elapsed  time  were  the  interval  between  two  con- 
junctions, and  the  orbit  were  circular,  the  com- 
puted mean  longitude  would  agree  with  the  last 
observed  longitude ;  and  a  difference  would  be 
an  indication  of  the  orbit^s  eccentricity;  which 
difference  must  depend  both  on  the  eccentrici^ 
and  the  place  of  the  aphelion. 

645.  To  apply  these  considerations  to  the  sub* 
ject  in  hand,  let  N  (fig.  14,  plate  VI.)  be  the 
node  of  the  orbit.  Then  as  its  longitude  may  be 
considered  (from  what  has  preceded)  as  known, 
and  the  longitude  of  a  planet  when  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  sun  is  known,  being  equal  to  180^ 
+  0»  if  we  deduct  the  longitude  of  the  planet 
firom  the  longitude  of  the  node^  there  remains 
N  w.  Now  as  the  elliptical  motion  takes  place 
in  the  orbit  N  P  it  is  r^ouisite  to  know  N  P,  and 
other  like  distances  of  tne  planet  ficom  its  node. 
But N  wbeing  known,  and  the  angle  P  N  v ;  the 
distance  N  P  may  be  computed.  For  let  P  N=n 
COS.  N.  COS.  N  ir. 

646.  If  we  set  off  on  the  orbit  of  the  planet 
an  arc  (A)  s=  N  r,  the  longitude  of  the  node, 
we  shall  have  A  +  N  P  which  is  called  die  lon- 

g'tude  of  the  planet  on  its  orbit;  and  we  can 
ive  as  many  such  longitudes  as  there  are  obser- 
vations in  conjunction  or  opposition. 

647.  Three  observations  are  sufficient  to  deter- 
mine the  two  elements  of  die  eccentricity,  and 
the  place  of  the  aphelion;  for  if  we  have  three 
longitudes  (V,  V*,V*,)  we  have  two  indepen- 
dent differences  of  longitude,  and  as  soon  as  the 
planet's  period  is  known,  we  can  compute  two 
portions  of  its  mean  motion  corresponding  to 
the  two  corresponding  noted  intervals  of  time  \ 
and  the  two  real  differences  of  longitude  com- 
pared aoeording  to  the  elliptic  theory,  with  the 
corresponding  portions  of  mean  motion,  will  give 
us  two  equations  fi>r  determining  the  eccentricity 
and  place  of  the  aphelion. 

648.  Let  e  be  the  eccentricity  (supposed  to  be 
very  small)  ^  the  longitude  of  die  perihelion^ 
the  place  of  which  suppose  to  be  at  some  point 
between  N  v^d  P»  W  let  M,M'>M^  be  tha 
mean  anomalies  reckoned  from  the  perihelion. 
Then  we  have 

V  —  ^  =  M  -fSe.sin.  ^^Z. 

V  —  ^  =  M' +  2  c  .  sin,  ^^^T" 
V^f^  W^  2  «  .  «n.  V"^  ^ 


HenceV'-^V— M'— M(?:5«)«s2e.  {sin.  V  — f  —  sin.  V  — ^| 
And     V-V— M'— Br(=6)  =  2  c.  |  sin.  V -^  ^ -- sin.  V— ^  | 


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Now  as  VjV'jV  are  known,  and  M'— M 


ASTRONOMY. 

of  these  equations  be  divided  by  the  second  we  bar 


M"—  M'  are  known  from  the  period  of  the  planet 
and  the  elapsed  time;  for  if  t  be  the  interval  be- 
tween the  observations  of  V  and  V;  we  have 

t  360^ 
I'lanet's  period  :  360»  ::t:  M'— M  =  -^-g; 

Hence  since  a  and  b  are  knovm,  we  have  two 
equations  for  determining  e  and  f.    If  the  first 
1"  a 


^    sm.  V— ^— «n.  V-— ^ 

"—  .    -■     .    : — rf=  nKwa whence,  by  re- 

"J— sin.V— 0— sm.V*  — ^  *    ' 

dnction  we  obtain  tan.  ^  zi         

a  •  sin.  V  —  sin.  V  —  b  •  sin.  V  —  sin.">r 


4'sm. 


649.  Then  e  and  0,  and  the  miyor  axis  being 
«etermined,  we  can  compute  the  radius  sector  y 

from  this  expression,  r  =: ., 

^  1+e-cos.  V  —  0: 

and  since  the  place  of  the  node,  and  the  inclina^ 
tion  of  the  orbit  are  determined,  we  can  compute 
the  curtale  distance  S  ir,  on  the  supposition  that  S 
P,  from  which  it  is  deduced,  is  the  radius  vector  of 
an  elliptical  orbit.  If,  therefore,  in  any  of  the 
processes  for  determining  the  elements  of  the 
planet's  orbit,  the  curtale  distance  S  t  has  been 
supposed  derived  from  S  P,  considered  as  a  mean 
■distance,  we  may  now,  vrith  a  more  correct  value 
of  S  T,  repeat  the  operations  and  correct  the  re- 
«ults. 

650.  We  shall  now  direct  our  attention  to  the 
method  of  finding  the  synodical  revolutions  of 
the  planets,  and  of  computing  their  returns  to 
the  sajnepoint  of  their  orbits. 

651.  The  time  between  conjunction  and  con- 
junction, or  between  opposition  and  opposition, 
IS  called  a  synodical  period.  Let  us  suppose 
that  at  a  given  instant  tne  sun,  Mercury,  ana  the 
€arth,  are  in  the  same  right  line ;  then,  after  any 
elapsed  time  (a  day  for  example),  Mercury  will 
have  describcKi  an  angle  tn,  and  the  earth  an 

nle  M,  round  the  sun,  therefore  at  the  end  of 
&y  die  separation  of  Mercury  from  the  earth, 
as  seen  from  the  sun,  will  be  m  —  M,  and  at  the 
end  of  f.  days  I.  m  —  M;  and  wheni.  m  —  M  = 
360^,  the  sun.  Mercury,  and  the  earth,  will  be 
again  in  the  same  right  line,  and  in  that  case 

360° 
f  =  -  j^,  where  #  denotes  a  synodical  period 

and  m,  M  the  mean  motions  of  Mercury  and 
the  earth  for  any  equal  intervals  of  time. 

65.3.  Let  P  and  p  denote  the  siderial  periods 
of  the  earth  and  the  planet;  then,  since  1  d. :  M° 
: :  P  :  360*^  and  1  d. :  m** : :  p  :  360°,  we  have 
360  360° 

M  =     p     and  m  =: ;  which  substituted 

*  P 

for  m  and  M  in  the  preceding  equation,  gives 

*  =  p  ^  ''    Or  if  1  represents  the  earth's  mean 

distance,  and  r  that  of  the  planet;  we  have  P ; 
I        P        _j  p 

p::l:r';or — =r    'whence«  = z r. 

P  —l^^ 

We  have  here  three  expressions,  from  any  of 
which  8  may  be  computed. 

654.  Forinstance,inthecaseofMercury,p=87 
d.  969,  and  P  being  365-269,  we  have  «,  the  synodi- 

cal  period  of  Me„«.y  =  ^'''''^  >'  ^''^^  - 

15d.  31  h.  nearly. 


277-287 


a  •  COS.  V  —  COS.  V  —  6  •  cos.  V  —  cos.  V 
Hence,  ^  being  determined,  we  have 
sin.  i; 

-V,       /V'+V  \ 

_»cos.(^^ fl 

In  the  case  of  the  moon/  m  =  13°-1763,  and 
M,  the  earth's  daily  mean  motion  =  59"  8'-  3 ; 

whence  #  ==      ^^.,  :=  29  d.  12h.  neariy 


655.  Since  s  zi 


M 


«P 


fz::f>PTfV 


there- 


fore from  the  knovm  periodic  time  of  the  earth, 
and  the  observed  synodic  pjeriod  of  a  planet,  we 
can  determine  p,  the  periodic  time  of  the  planet 
But  to  insure  accuracy  in  the  determination,  the 
return  of  the  planet  to  a  conjunction  nearly  in 
the  same  part  of  its  orbit,  at  which  a  previous 
one  was  observed,  ought  to  be  noted,  and  the 
interim  divided  by  the  number  of  synodical 
revolutions  will  give  the  mean  synodic  period. 
For  under  these  circumstances  there  will  be 
nearly  a  mutual  compensation  of  the  inequalities 
arising  from  the  elliptic  form  of  the  planet'? 
orbit. 

656.  Another  reason  for  attending  to  this 
caution,  is  that  on  such  conjunction  depend  the 
transits  of  Venus  and  Mercury,  over  the  son's 
disk.  For  it  is  evident  that  Venus  to  be  seen  on 
the  sun's  disk,  must  not  only  be  in  conjunction, 
but  near  the  node  of  her  orbit :  at  the  next  con- 
junction, afler  one  synodical  revolution,  she 
cannot  be  near  her  node,  and  can  only  be  again 
near  when  she  returns  to  the  same  part  of  her 
orbit,  as  at  the  first  time  of  observation. 

657.  The  preceding  formule  for  the  synodic 
periods  afford  us  the  means  of  knowing  these 
particular  conjunctions.*- 

The  times  of  a  synodic  period  is  =z    p_^-, 

therefore  at-^^^ — ^,  the  planet  will  still  be  in 

conjunction,  n  representing  any  whole  number. 
It  will  therefore  be  for  the  first  time  in  conjunc- 
tion, and  the  earth  and  planet  will  also  be  in 

the  same  part  of  their  orbits,  when      '^  ^  = 

P— » 
P,  or  when  n  = -.     Hence  the   required 

P  —  n 

conjunction  can  only  take  place  when ^,or 


when, 
whence  we 


some  of  its  multiples  is  a  whole  number,  say 

m  .  P — p  _^u      "*  P 

— i-  zz  n,  or  when  —  n  -5-^- — ; 

fl  r  — p 

ive  simply  to  find  two  integers,  n 

and  n,  such  that  -  ^  ..  ^     • 
'  n        P — p 

658.  Now  the  tropical  revolution  of  Mercury 
.    ^.  ^^^  ,        .  m         87-96a 

IS  87-968  days,  hence-  =  3^5-256-87  968 


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177 


n  ^yr:^g,  consequently  in  87,988  penods  of 

the  earth,  there  will  b^  277288  synodical  revolu- 
tions of  Mercuiy,  which  vriU  then  be  observed 
again  in  conjunction,  and  in  the  same  part  of  its 
orbit.  This  result  however,  from  the  length  of 
the  period,  is  of  no  practical  use ;  we  must, 
therefore  by  means  of  continued  fractions  (see 
Algebra)  endeavour  to  find  fractions  in  smaller 

terms,  having  nearly  the  same  value  as  -, 

2772oo 

659L  Making  the  computation  we  find  the  fol- 
lowing series  of  fractions  continually  approxima- 
ting to  Ihis  value. 

±6  7         13        33  46 

3'  19'  "22"'  IP  l04'  "14?  ^^'  "" 
which  the  denominators  denote  the  number  of 
synodical  revolutions,  corresponding  to  the  num- 
ber of  years  expressed  by  the  numerator.  Take 
as  an  example  the  fourth  fraction,  in  thirteen 
years,  one  474-8328  days,  and  forty-one  synodi- 
cal periods,  475-0875  days,  differing  by  only  about 

six  hours.    If  the  sixth  fraction  be  taken  the  ^^^^  o      xu      -6*f 

difference  will  be  little  more  than  two  hours.         ▼»!««  of  — j>  which  will  be  — ,    -g  ,     — 


&c.  a  series  of  approximating  value  to  ^        ,  from 

which  we  are  able  to  tell  after  what  number  of 
synodic  periods  Venus  and  the  earth  will  be 
nearly  in  the  same  parts  of  their  orbits. 

661.  Thus,  taking  the  fifth  fraction,  we  infer 
that  after  142  synodic  periods,  227  circumfer- 
ences nearly,  will  be  described ;  or  142  synodic 
periods  are  nearly  equal  to  227  years ;  and  on 
trial  we  find  575*-51  X  142  =  360°  x  227  + 
2°  42',  or  2°-42  in  excess.  If  we  take  the  sixth 
fraction  we  shall  find  the  result  only  0^-03  in  de- 
fect. Hence,  235  years  after  a  transit  of  Venus 
we  may  confidently  expect  another,  and  also 
after  235  -h  8,  or  243  years ;  neglecting  as  we 
have  done,  and  may  safely  do,  the  small  altera- 
tion in  the  place  of  the  node,  that  takes  place  in 
the  interval  of  the  transit. 

662.  A  transit,  however,  may  happen  when 
the  planet  is  in,  or  nearly  in,  the  opposite  node 
of  her  orbit.  To  find  the  time  when  it  is  proba- 
ble that  transits  in  the  opposite  node  may 
happen,  we  have  merely  to  And  approximative 

57551     ^v:.u  _....  v..   3      16      227 


660.  In  a  similar  way  we  may  compute  a 
series  of  fractions  which  will  indicate  the  periods 
when  transits  of  Venus  may  be  expected.  Thus, 
as  Venus's  period  (p)  =  224  d.  7008240,  and 
the  earth's  (P)  =  365d.  256385,  the  synodical 

period  of  Venus  («)  ^-^  =  583-92 d.  nearly; 

and  consequently  in  one  synodical  period  the 
earth  describes  575®*51  nearly ;  as  in  n  synodical 
periods,  n.  575®- 51 ;  and  when  this  first  becomes 
a  multiple  of  360®,  the  earth  and  Venus  will  be 
first  in  conjunction,  in  the  line  from  which  diey 
originally  departed.  If,  therefore,  Venus  were 
so  near  the  node  in  this  orig^inal  position  that  a 
transit  took  place,  a  transit  will  take  place  when 

(as  before)  — =r  ■  -^^^    Whence,  by  continued 


470 

Ti? 


&c.    Taking  the  third  of  these  fractions, 


fractions,  we  obtain  —,  — -,  --^  —-, 


222 
IIP 


235 
143* 


we  have  71  x  575*'-51  =  180°  x  227  -|-  l°-2i; 
the  fourth  gives  147  X  575°-51  =  180°  x  470"* 
—  0°-03.  Whence,  supposing  the  earth,  \'enus, 
and  the  sun,  to  be  exactly  in  a  line,  Venus  being 
in  one  of  her  nodes,  then,  in  71  synodic  periods, 
Venus  will  be  1°21  distant  from  the  otlier  node, 
and  in  147  83modic  periods,  only  <about  three 
hundreth  parts  of  a  degree  distant  from  that  node. 
663.  Did  our  limits  permit,  we  should  now 
enter  upon  the  most  difficult  branch  of  the 
science,  the  Lunar  Theory ,  but  we  must  content 
ourselves  with  referring  those  who  would  acquaint 
themselves  vrith  this  highly  interesting  subject, 
to  the  works  of  La  Lande,  La  Place,  and  other 
foreigners,  and  to  the  astronomy  of  the  late  Pro- 
fessor Vince;  more  especially,  however,  to  the 
elegant  and  masterly  work  of  Professor  Wood- 
house. 


664.  Table  of  the  TrmuUs  of  Venus  over 

the  Sun 

's  Disk,  that  wUl  occur  to  the  Year  3000. 

Shortest  Di8t. 

Ye«t. 

True  Time  of  Middle  of  Transit. 

for  centre  of 

observed  at  the 

Yenos. 

Earth's  centre. 

H, 

M. 

S. 

H.    M.     8. 

1874 

Dec.       8 

15 

43 

27 

2       4     41 

13'    51"  N 

1882 

Dec.     16 

4 

49 

41 

3      1     43 

10     29  S 

2004 

June      7 

20 

26 

58 

2     44    50 

11      19  S 

211* 

June      5 

13 

37 

25 

3     20    45 

8      20  N 

2117 

Dec.    10 

14 

34 

0 

2    22     50 

13       ON 

2125 

Dec.      8 

3 

44 

30 

2    48    20 

11      28  S 

2247    . 

June    11 

23 

51 

13 

2       7    52 

13     17  S 

2255 

June      8 

16 

59 

9 

3    36      2 

6     23  N 

2360 

Dec    12 

13 

29 

31 

2    42    27 

11      49  N 

2368 

Dec.    10 

2 

38 

5 

2     29    12 

12     37  S 

2490 

June    12 

3 

13 

58 

1       2    14 

15     14  S 

2498 

June      9 

20 

20 

58 

3    46    24 

4     29  N 

2603 

Dec.    15 

12 

25 

54 

2    56    47 

10     56  N 

2611 

Dec.    13 

1 

40 

30 

2    15     20 

13     20  S 

2733 
2741 

June    15 
June    12 

6 
23 

33 
38 

52 

38 

17       9  N 
2     '35  N 

3    53     23 

2846 

Dec.    16 

11 

26 

34 

3      7    24 

9     56  N 

2864 

Dec.    14 

0 

44 

20 

1     54    10 

14     12  S 

2984 

June    14 

2 

51 

52 

3    56      9 

0     45  N 

vot.ni. 


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178  ASTRONOMY. 

665.  TaUe  of  the  TVoniO  of  lUrewy  oter  the  Sim's  Didt,  that  %M  ocetr  htfiirt  th»  Ytar  UOO. 


1 

Sliertcet  Dedin. 

Yeait. 

True  Time  of  Middle  of  Tnaut.                 | 

ScBudnntiim. 

otMervedetOM 

• 

Eaxth't  centre. 

H. 

M. 

8. 

H.    M.    8. 

1832 

May 

0 

18 

0 

•  3     28       2 

8'     16"  N 

1835 

Not. 

8 

12 

21 

2     33     53 

5      37S 

1845 

May 

r 

32 

57 

3    22     33 

8     58  S 

1848 

Nov. 

7 

49 

42 

2    41     33 

2     36  N 

1861 

Nov. 

11 

19 

20 

13 

2      0    23 

10     52  N 

1868 

Nov. 

19 

18 

20 

1     45    2 

12     20  .S 

1878 

May 

6 

55 

13 

3    53     3 

4     39N 

1881 

Nov. 

12 

59 

32 

2     39      9 

3     57S 

1891 

May 

14 

14 

32 

2     34    20 

12     21  N 

1894 

Nov. 

10 

6 

36 

28 

2     37    36 

4     20 

SicT.  VI. — ^Preliminary  OBSERyATiom 

RESPECTIHO  £CUPSE8. 

666.  Before  we  lay  dovrD  rules  for  calculating 
eclipses,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  few  general  ob- 
servations respecting  their  nature  and  causes. 
All  tiie  planetff  and  satellites  being  illuminated  by 
the  sun,  cast  their  shadows  towaids  that  point  of 
the  heavens  whidi  is  opposite  to  die  sun.  This 
shadow  is  nothing  but  a  privation  of  lights  in  the 
space  hid  from  the  sun  by  the  opaque  bod^r  that 
intercepts  his  rays.  When  the  sun\  light  is  in- 
tercepted by  the  moon,  so  that  he  appears  covered 
in  whole,  or  in  part,  to  any  part  of  the  earth,  he 
is  said  to  undergo  an  eclipse;  tfao^rfa,  property 
speaking,  it  is  only  an  eclipse  of  that  part  of  the 
earth  where  the  moon's  shadow  or  penumbra 
falb.  When  the  earth  comes  between  the  sun 
and  moon,  the  moon  falls  into  the  earth's  sha- 
dow; and  having  no  light  of  her  own,  she  suffiers 
a  resd  and  total  eclipse  from  the  interception  of 
the  sun's  rays.  >^en  the  sun  is  eclipsed  to  us, 
the  moon's  inhabitants,  on  the  side  next  the 
earth,  see  her  shadow  like  a  dark  spot  travelling 
over  the  earth,  about  twice  as  &st  as  its  e^uato* 
rial  parts  move,  and  the  same  way  ai>  they  move. 
W^hen  the  moon  is  in  an  eclipse,  the  sun  ap- 
pears eclipsed  to  her  inhabitants ;  totally  to  all 
those  pans  on  which  the  earth's  ihadow  falls, 
and  or  as  long  continuance  as  they  are  in  the 
shadow. 

667.  Although  all  opaque  bodies,  on  which 
the  sun  shines,  have  their  shadows,  yet  such  are 
the  distances  of  the  planets,  and  the  size  of  the 
sun,  that  the  primary  planets  can  never  eclipse 
one  another.  A  primary  can  eclipse  only  its 
secondary,  or  be  eclipsed  by  it;  and  never  but 
when  in  opposition  or  conjunction  with  the  sun. 
The  pnma^  planets  are  very  seldpm  in  these 
positions,  but  the  sun  and  moon  are  so  every 
month ;  whence  one  may  imagine  that  these  two 
luminaries  should  be  eclipsed  every  month.  But 
there  are  few  eclipses  in  respect  of  the  number 
of  new  and  full  moons ;  the  reason  of  which  we 
shall  now  explain. 

668.  If  the  moon's  orbit  were  coincident  with 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  in  which  the  eardi  al- 
ways moves,  and  the  sun  appears  to  move,  the 
moon's  shadow  would  fall  upon  the  eardi  at 
every  change,  and  eclipse  the  sun  to  some  parts 


of  the  earth.  In  like  manner,  the  moon  would 
go  through  the  middle  of  the  earth's  shadow,  and 
be  eclip^  at  every  full ;  but  with  this  difference, 
that  she  would  be  totally  darkened  for  above  an 
hour  and  an  h^f ;  whereas  the  sun  never  was 
above  four  minutes  totally  eclipsed  to  us  by  the 
interposition  of  the  moon.  But  one  half  of  the 
moon's  orbit  is  elevated  5^  degrees  above  the 
ecliptic,  and  the  other  half  as  much  depressed 
below  it;  and  when  the  sun  and  moon  are  more 
than  17^  degrees  from  either  of  tlie  nodes  at  the 
time  of  conjunction,  the  moon  is  then  generally 
too  high  or  too  low  in  her  orbit  to  cast  any  part 
of  her  shadow  upon  the  earth :  when  the  sun  is 
more  than  12°  nrom  either  of  the  nodes  at  the 
time  of  full  moon,  the  moon  is  ganerallv  too 
high  or  too  low  in  her  orbit  to  go  throu^  any 
part  of  the  earth's  shadow ;  and  in  both  these 
cases  there  will  be  no  eclipse. 

669.  But  when  the  moon  is  less  than  17^  from 
either  node  at  the  time  of  conjunction,  her  sha- 
dow or  penumbra  &lls  more  or  less  upon  te 
earth,  as  she  is  more  or  less  within  this  limit. 
And  when  she  is  less  than  12°  from  either  node 
at  the  time  of  opposition,  she  ffoes  through  a 
greater  or  less  portion  of  tfie  earm's  shadow,  as 
she  is  more  or  less  vrithin  this  limit  Her  orbit 
contains  360°;  of  which  17°,  the  limit  of  solar 
eclipses  on  either  side  of  the  nodes,  and  12°,  the 
timit  of  lunar  eclipses,  are  but  small  portions ; 
and,  as  the  sun  commonly  passes  bv  tne  nodes 
but  twice  in  a  year,  it  is  no  wonder  Aat  we  have 
so  many  new  and  fiiU  moons  without  eclipses. 

670.  To  illustrate  this,  let  ABCD,  plate  V. 
fig.  9,  be  the  ecliptic,  RSTU  a  circle  tying  in 
the  same  plane  with  the  ecliptic,  and.VXYW 
the  moon's  orbit,  all  thrown  into  an  oblique 
view,  which  gives  them  an  elliptical  shape  to  the 
eye.  One  half  of  the  moon's  orbit,  as  V  WX, 
is  always  below  the  ecliptic,  and  the  other  hal^ 
X  Y  V,  above  it.  The  points  V  and  X,  where  di% 
moon's  orbit  intersects  the  circle  RST  U,  whicii 
lies  even  with  the  ecliptic,  are  the  moon's  nodes; 
and  a  right  line,  XEv,  drawn  from  one  to  the 
other  through  the  earth's  centre,  is  the  line  of  the 
nodes,  which  is  ca^rried  almost  pamllel  to  itself 
round  the  sun  in  a  year.  If  the  moon  moved 
round  the  earth  it  the  orbit  RSTU,  which  is 
coincident  vrith  ^e  plana  of  the  ectiptic,  her 


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sharbw  would  fall  upon,  the  earth  every  time  ihe 
is  in  conjunction  witii  the  sun,  and  at  every  op- 
position she  would  go  through  the  earth's 
shadow ;  and  thus  the  sun  would  be  eclipsed  at 
every  change,  and  the  moon  at  every  full. 

671.  But  although  the  moon's  sh^ow  N  must 
fall  upon  the  earth  at  a  when  the  earth  i3  at  B, 
and  the  moon  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  at  t, 
because  she  is  then  very  near  one  of  her  nodes ; 
and  at  her  opposition,  n,  she  must  go  through  the 
earth's  shadow  I,  because  she  is  then  near  the 
other  node,  yet,  in  the  time  that  she  goes  round 
the  earth  to  her  next  change,  according  to  the 
order  of  X  Y  VW,  the  earth  advances  from  £  to 
€,  according  to  tiie  order  of  EFGH;  and  the 
line  of  the  nodes  VEX,  being  carried  nearly 
parallel  to  itself,  brings  the  point /of  the  moon'i 
orbit  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  at  that  next 
change.  The  moon  being  then  at  /,  it  too  high 
above  the  ecliptic  to  cast  her  sl^ow  on  the 
earth ;  and,  as  the  earth  is  still  moving  forward, 
the  moon  at  her  next  opposition  will  be  at  g^ 
too  &r  below  the  ecliptic  to  go  through'  any  part 
of  the  earth's  shadow ;  for  by  that  time  the  point 
g  will  be  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
earth  as  seen  from  the  sun. 

672.  When  the  earth  comes  to  F,  the  moon, 
in  conjunction  with  the  sun  Z,  is  not  at  A  in  a 
plane  coincident  with  the  ecliptic,  but  above  it 
at  Y,  in  die  highest  part  of  her  obit ;  and  then  the 
point  b  of  her  shadow  0  goes  fiur  lUwve  the 
earth,  as  in  fig.  2,  plate  IV,  which  gives  an  edge 
view  of  fig.  9.  The  moon,  at  her  next  opposition, 
is  not  at  o,  but  at  W,  where  the  earth's  shadow 
goes  fiur  above  her,  as  in  fig.  2,  plate  IV.  In 
Doth  these  ca3es  the  line  of  the  nodes  is  about 
90^  from  the  sun,  and  both  luminaries  are  as  far 
w  possible  from  the  limits  of  the  eclipses.  When 
the  earth  has  gone  half  round  the  ecliptic,  from 
£  to  G,  the  Ime  of  the  nodes  VG  X  is  nearly,  if 
not  exactly,  directed  towards  the  sun  at  Z ;  and 
then  the  new  moon  /,  casts  her  shadow  P  on  the 
earth  G ;  and  the  full  moon  p  goes  through  the 
earth's  shadow  L ;  which  brings  on  eclipses  again, 
as  when  the  earth  was  at  £.  When  the  earth 
comes  to  HT,  the  new  moon  fells  not  at' m,  in  a 
plane  coincident  with  the  ecliptic  C  D,  but  at 
W  in  her  orbit  below  it;  aiid  men  her  shadow 
Q,  see  fig.  2,  plate  IV,  goes  &r  below  the  earth. 
At  the  next  fiill  she  is  not  at  9,  fig.  9,  {^ate  V,  but 
at  Y  in  her  orbit  5|  degrees  above  9,  and  at  her 
greatest  height  above  the  ecliptic  CD;  being  then 
as  far  as  possible,  at  any  opposition,  from  the 
earth's  shadow  M,  as  in  fig.  2,  plate  IV. 

'  673.  Thus  when  the  earth  is  at  F  and  G,  tlie 
moon  is  about  her  nodes  at  new  and  full,  and  in 
her  greatest  north  and  south  decimation  (or  lati- 
tude as  it  is  generally  called)  from  the  ecliptic  at 
her  quarters ;  but  when  the  earth  is  at  F  or  H, 
the  moon  is  in  her  greatest  north  and  south  decli- 
nation frx>m  the  ecUptic  at  new  and  full,  and  in 
the  nodes  about  her  quarters.  The  point  X, 
where  the  moon's  orbit  crosses  the  ecliptic,  is 
called  the  ascending  node,  because  the  moon  as- 
cends firom  it  above  the  ecliptic ;  and  the  oppo- 
site point  of  intersection,  V,  is  called  the 
'descending  node,  be<»use  the  moon  descends 
from  it  below  the  ecliptic. 
674.  When  the  moon  is  at  Y,  in  the  highest 


point  of  her  orbit,  she  is  in  her  greatest  north 
latitude ;  and  when  she  is  at  W,  in  the  lowest 
point  of  her  orbit,  she  is  in  her  ^^reatest  south 
latitude.  If  the  line  of  die  nodes,  like  the  earth's 
axis,  was  carried  parallel  to  itself  round  the  sun, 
there  would  be  just  half  a  year  between  the  con- 
junctions of  the  sun  and  nodes.  But  the  nodes 
shift  backwards,  or  contrary  to  the  earth's  annuiU 
motion,  19^^  every  year;  and  therefore  the  same 
node  come*  rouna  tne  sun  nineteen  days  sooner 
every  year  than  on  the  year  before.  Conse- 
quenUy,  from  the  time  that  the  ascending  node 
A  (when  the  earth  is  at  £)  passes  by  the  sun  as 
seen  from  the  earth,  it  is  only  173  days  (not  half 
a  year)  tfll  the  descending  node,  V,  passes  by 
him. 

675.  TRierefbre,  in  whatever  time  of  the  year 
we  have  eclipses  of  the  luminaries  about  either 
node,  we  may  be  sure  that  in  173  days  afterward 
we  shall  have  eclipses  about  the  other  node. 
And  when  at  any  time  of  the  year  the  line  of  the 
nodes  is  in  the  situation  VGX,  at  the  same  time 
next  year  it  will  be  in  the  situation  rGf ;  the  as- 
cending node  having  gone  backward,  that  i% 
contrary  to  the  order  of  sisns,  from  X  to  «,  and 
the  descending  node  from  V  to  r ;  each  19i°. 

676.  At  tiiis  rate  tiie  nodes  shift  through  all  the 
signs  and  degrees  of  the  ecliptic  in  18  years  and 
225  davs;  in  which  time  there  would  always  be 
a  regular  period  of  edips^  if  any  complete 
number  of  lunations  were  finished  witnout  a  fi^ic* 
tion.  But  this  never  happens ;  for  if  both  the 
sun  and  moon  should  start  from  a  line  of  oon* 
junction,  with  either  of  the  nodes  in  any  point  of 
the  ecliptic,  the -sun  would  perform  18  annual 
revolutions  and  %2^^  over  and  above,  and  the 
moon  230  lunations  and  85^  of  the  231st  by  the 
time  the  node  came  round  to  the  same  point  of 
the  ecliptic  again ;  so  that  the  sun  would  then  be 
138°  from  the  node,  and  the  moon  Q5°  from  the 
sun.  But  in  223  mean  lunations,  after  the  sun, 
moon,  and  nodes,,  have  been  once  in  a  line  of 
conjunction,  they  return  so  nearly  to  the  same 
state  again,  as  that  the  same  node,  which  was  in 
conjunction  with  thesun  and  moon  at  the  beginning 
of  tbe  first  of  these  lunations,  wiU  be  within  28' 
12^  of  a  degree  of  a  line  of  conjunction  with  the 
sun  and  moon  again,  when  the  last  of  these  lu< 
nations  is  completed.  And  therefore  in  that 
time  there  will  be  a  regular  period  of  eclipses,  or 
return  of  the  same  eclipse,  for  many  ages. 

677.  In  this  period,  which  was  first  discovered 
by  the  Chaldeans,  there  are  18  Julian  y.  lid, 
7h.  43m.  20s.,  when  the  last  day  of  February 
in  leap  years  is  four  times  included ;  but  when 
it  is  five  times  included,  the  period  consists  of 
only  18y.  lOd.  7h.  43m.  20s.  Consequentiv,  if 
to  the  mean  time  of  any  eclipse,  eitiier  of  the 
sun  or  moon,  you  add  18  Julian  y.  lid.  7h« 
43m.  20s.,  when  the  last  4ay  of  February  in 
leap-years  comes  in  four  times,  or  a  day  less 
when  it  comes  in  five  times,  you  will  have  the 
mean  time  of  the  return  of  the  same  -eclipse. 
But  the  falling  back  of  the  line  of  conjunctions, 
or  oppositions  of  the  sun  and  moon  28*  12^,  with 
r^ect  to  the  line  of  the  nodes  in  every  period, 
will  wear  it  ont  in  process  of  time;  and  after 
that  it  will  not  return  again  in  less  than  12,493 
years. 


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ASTRONOMY. 


67B.  These  eclipses  of  the  sun,  which  happen 
about  the  ascending  node,  and  begin  to  come  in 
at  the  north  pole  of  the  earth,  will  go  a  little 
southerly  at  each  return,  till  they  go  quite  off  the 
earth  at  the  south  pole;  and  those  which  happen 
about  the  descending  node,  and  begin  to  come 
in  at  the  south  pole  of  the  earth,  will  go  a  litUe 
north  at  each  return,  till  at  last  they  quite  leave 
the  earth  at  the  north  pole. 

Sect.  VIL— Op  Calculating  Eclipses. 

679.  The  chief  things  to  be  considered  in  the 
calculation  of  eclipses  are,  the  magnitudes  of  the 
shadow  and  penumbra  of  the  opaque  body,  and 
the  ecliptical  limits,  or  the  distance  from  the 
node,  when  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  or  moon  will 
happen.  These  must  be  calculated  both  for 
lunar  and  solar  eclipses.  The  operations  may  be 
performed  as  follows : — 

I. — ^Foa  Lunar  Ecupses. 

680.  In  plate  VIII.  fiGr.  3,  let  A  B  be  the  sun, 
and  CD  the  earth.  Draw  AC,  BD,  by  the 
edges  of  the  sun  and  earth,  which  will  meet  in 
a  point  V,  because  the  sun  is  bigger  than  the 
earth.  Through  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  earth, 
S  and  T,  draw  S TV.  Also  draw  B C  E,  AD F, 
touching  the  contrary  sides  of  the  sun  and  earth, 
intersecting  in  P;  also  draw  SC  and  CT.  If 
the  whole  figure  be  turned  round,  about  the  axis 
SV,  the  lines  AV,  BV,  APF,  BPE,  will  gene- 

.  ratethetwoconesCVD,  EPFjtheconeCVD, 
18  the  dark  shadow  of  the  earth,  £  P  F  continued, 
is  the  penumbral  cone.  And  beyond  V,  the  sec- 
tion Of  the  cone  £  P  F,  will  be  all  in  the  pen- 
umbra. 

681.  Hence,  1.  Half  the  angle  of  the  cone  of 
the  earth's  shadow  CVT,  is  equal  to  the  sun's 
apparent  semidiameter,  less  his  horizontal  paraU  . 
lax.  For  in  the  triangle  SCV,  the  external 
angle  SCA  =  CVS +  CST.  AndCSTisthe 
sun's  pajallax..  Therefore  CVT  =  SCA  — 
CST. 

682.  2.  Half  of  the  angle  of  the  earth's  pe- 
numbral cone  CPT,  is  equal  to  the  'sun's  semi- 
diameter  and  his  horizontal  parallax.  For  in  the 
triangle  CSP,  the  external  angle  CPT  =  PCS 
+  CST. 

683.  3.  Hence  half  the  angle  of  the  earth's 
penumbral  cone  C  PT,  is  equal  to  half  the  angle 
of  the  dark  cone  CVT  +  twice  the  sun's  hori- 
zontal parallax  C  ST. 

684.  4.  The  apparent  semidiameter  of  the 
earth's  dark  shadow  I K,  upon  the  moon's  orbit, 
is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  horizontal  parallaxes 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  less  the  sun's  apparent 
semidiameter.  For  the  angle  VCI  =  ClT  — 
CVIrrCIT  — SCA  +  CST. 

685.  5.  The  apparent  semidiameter  of  the  earth's 
penumbra,  G  I,  upon  the  moon's  orbit,  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  horizontal  parallaxes  of  the  sun 
and  moon  +  the  sun's  apparent  semidiameter. 
For  in  the  triangle  PCI,  the  external  angle 
ECI  =  CIT  +  CPT=:CIT  +  PCS  + 
CST. 

686.  6.  Hence  to  find  the  length  of  the  earth's 
shadow.    In  the  triangle  CTV  there  is  given 


the  angle  V  =:  sun's  apparent  semidiameter  — 
his  parallax,  and  CT  the  earth's  radius,  to  fiod 
TV. 

II.— Foe  the  Shadow  and  Penumbea,  in 
SOLAR  Eclipses. 

687.  In  plate  IV,  fig.  10,  let  A  B  be  the  sun* 
KJL  the  moon,  CD  3ie  earth.  Draw  the  tan- 
gents AK,  BL,  by  the  edges  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  on  the  same  side,  to  meet  in  V;  and  BK 
G,  ALH  to  touch  the  contrary  sides.  Draw  S  K, 
IK;  and  through  S  and  I,  the  centres  of  the  sua 
and  moon,  draw  the  axis  SIV.  Then  if  the 
whole  figure  AKVLB  be  turned  about  the  axis 
SV,  the  sides  AV,  BV,  and  PH,  PG,  will  ge- 
nerate twocones  KVL,  GPH.  The  cone  K  VL 
is  the  dark  shadow  of  the  moon,  and  the  cune 
GPH  is  the  moon's  penumbral  cone.    Hence, 

688.  1.  The  angle  uf  the  cone  of  the  moon's 
shadow  KLV,  the  angle  of  the  penumbral  cone 
KPL,  the  angles  GKV,  and  HLV,  are  each 
equal  to  the  sun's  apparent  diameter  A  KB,  very 
nearly;  and  half  the  angle  of  either  cone  P  or  V 
is  equal  to  the  sun's  apparent  semidiameter.  For 
by  reason  of  the  great  aistance  of  the  sun  from  T, 
in  respect  of  T  P,  T  V,  T I ;  the  apparent  diameter 
of  the  sun,  seen  from  any  of  the  places  V,  T,  I, 
P,  K,  will  be  the  same,  that  is,  the  angles  AVB 
or  KVL,  APB  or  KPL,  AKB  or  GKV, 
ALB  or  VLH  are  all  equal;  differing  only  by 
the  angle  K  S  I,  whidi  in  the  moon  is  insensible. 

689.  2.  The  height  of  the  cone  I P  is  equal  to 
the  cone  VI.  And  KPL,  KVL,  are  eqnal  and 
similar.  For  the  angles  at  P  and  V  are  equal ; 
and  K  L  is  common. 

690.  3.  The  apparent  semidiameter  of  the 
moon's  dark  shadow  Q  O,  upon  the  earth  at  O, 
seen  from  the  moon,  is  equal  to  the  moon's  ap- 
parent semidiameter — ^the  sun's  apparent  semi- 
diameter. And  if  the  sun's  apparent  semidia- 
meter be  greater,  the  shadow  does  not  reach  the 
earth.  For  draw  K  0 ;  then  in  the  triangle  K  O 
V,  VKOziKGS  — KVS=:KOI— AV 
S=KOI  —  I  the  sun's  apparent  diameter. 

691.  4.  The  apparent  semidiameter  of  the 
moon's  penumbra  G  0,  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  as  seen  from  the  moon,  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  apparent  semidiameters  of  the  sun  and 
moon.  Draw  GI  and  TGR.  Then  in  the  tri- 
angle G  P  I,  the  external  angle  G I O  =  G  P I 
-h  PGI  =  KPI  +  Kt>I=KPI  +  KOI 
=  AKS  +  KOL 

692.  5.  Hence,  to  find  the  length  I  V  of  the 
moon's  shadow.  In  the  triangle  K  V  I,  there 
is  given  the  angle  K  V I  =:  half  the  son's  appa- 
rent diameter,  and  K I  the  earth's  radius ;  whence 
VI  will  be  had;  and  to  find  the  arch  QN  of  the 
earth,  involved  in  the  moon's  dark  shadow.  In 
the  triangle  Q  VT,  we  have  given  T  V  the  dif- 
ference between  the  moon's  distance  from  the 
earth,  the  height  of  the  shadow;  and  the  an- 
gle QVO  =  the  sun's  apparent  diameter,  and 
T  Q  the  radius  of  the  eartn;  to  find  the  angle 
TQ V,  to  which  add  QVT,  and  the  sum  is  the 
angle  QTO  or  arch  QO;  and  doubled  gives  the 
whole  arch  Q  N. 

693.  6.  To  find  the  arch  of  the  earth  G  H 
involved  in  tlie  penumbra;  say,  as  the  earth> 
radius  G  T ;  to  S.  of  the  sun's  apparent  semidia> 


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181 


meter : :  so  is  PT  the  sum  of  the  moon's  dis- 
tance and  cone's  height:  to  S.TG  P  or  RG  K. 
From  this  take  the  sun's  apparent  semidiameter, 
and  there  remains  GTO  =z  GO,  which  doubled 
gives  G  H.  For  in  the  triangle  G  P  T,  there  is 
given  the  angle  P  =  the  sun's  apparent  semidia- 
meter/  and  PT  the  moon's  distance  and  height  of 
the  cone,  and  T  G  the  earth's  radius ;  to  find  the 
angle  RGK  =  GPT  -|-  PTG.  Therefore  P 
TG  or  OTG=:RGK  — GPT=RGK— 
the  sun's  apparent  semidiameter. 

lU.  To  FIND  THE   ECLIPTICAL  LiMITS. 

694.  An  eclipse  of  the  moon  can  only  hap- 
pen, when  the  distance  of  the  centres  of  the 
moon,  and  of  the  earth's  penumbra,  is  less  than 
the  sum  of  their  semidiameters.  For  if  the  dis- 
tance is  greater,  the  moon  and  penumbra  cannot 
touch  one  another. 

695.  An  eclipse  of  the  sun  cannot  happen  un- 
less the  distance  of  the  centres  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  be  less  than  the  sum  of  their  semidiame- 
ters, when  seen  from  a  certain  place.  That  it 
shall  appear  in  no  place,  the  moon's  parallax 
must  be  added  to  the  sum  of  the  semidiameters. 

696.  In  lunar  eclipses,  therefore,  the  moon's 
latitude  must  be  less  than  the  sum  of  the  semi- 
diameters of  the  moon  and  of  the  earth's  penumbral 
shadow,  taken  at  the  moon's  orbit.  And  in  solar 
eclipses,  the  moon's  latitude  must  be  less  than 
the  sum  of  the  sun's  and  moon's  semidiameters 
added  to  the  moon's  horizontal  paralhix ;  that  the 
eclipse  may  be  visible  some  way :  or  without  the 
parallax,  to  be  visible  in  a  certain  place. 

697.  Therefore  in  the  right  angled  spherical 
triangle,  plate  IV,  fig.  4,  Q  SM,  having  the 
^ngie  ^,  and  the  distance  S  M,  the  distance  of 
the  sun  from  the  node,  g^  S  will  be  known,  or 
the  ecliptic  limits.  The  mode  of  finding  whidi, 
may  be  seen  from  the  following 

Example.  ,      „ 

Mean  apparent  semidiameter  of  the  sun  16  4 
Paiallax  of  the  sun  ....  12 
Mean  apparent  semidiam.  of  the  moon  15  38 
Parallax  of  the  moon  59    5 

Inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit  .    5    8  30 

Hence  will  be  obtained, 
The  semidiameter  of  the  earth's  pe- 
numbra 1  13  21 
The  semidiameter  of  the  moon  and 

earth's  shadows          .  .  56  51 

The  semidiameter  of  the  sun  and  moon  31  42 
The  same  with  the  parallax  1  28  47 

In  the  triangle  ^  S  M  for  the  eclipse  of  the  moon. 
Here  SM  =  1«  13'  21"  -|-  15  38"  =  1°  28'  59". 
.     S.   a  =  5     8i  .        8.952398 

S.SM=1  28  59    .        .  8.413067 

Radius 10. 


S.  OS  =16  47  9.460669 

the  limit  for  the  lunar  eclipse  at  a  medium. 

In  the  triangle  Q  S  M  for  the  eclipse  of  the  sun. 

Here  S  M  =  1°  28'  47". 
S-    ft,   =5      8i  .        8.952398 

S .  S  M  =  1    28  47  8.412009 

Radius 10. 


S.a.S.=  16  15 


9.459611 


the  limit  for  ttie  solar  eclipse,  in  any  place; 
about  the  same  as  for  the  lunar.  But  for  a  par- 
ticular place,  S  M  =  31  42 ;  and  S  ft  comes 
out  only  5^  54'  for  the  limit. 

698.  1 .  Hence  there  will  at  least  be  four  eclip- 
ses in  a  year,  taking  one  year  with  another ;  two 
of  the  moon,  land  two  of  the  sun.  For  16°  47* 
H-  16°  45  =  33°  32*  or  32J°.  Therefore  the 
sun  stays  above  a  month  within  the  ecliptic  limits 
twice  in  the  year.  During  which  time  the  moon 
makes  two  revolutions,  and  therefore  must  cause 
two  eclipses,  either  time ;  one  of  the  moon,  and 
another  of  the  sun. 

699.  2.  Half  of  the  eclipses  will,  in  general,  be 
invisible  at  any  given  place.  And  consequently 
one  year  with  another  there  can  only  be  two 
visible  eclipses  in  a  year,  the  one  lunar  and  the 
other  solar.  For  the  sun  and  moon  spend  as 
much  time  below  the  horizon  as  above  it. 

700.  3.  The  ecliptical  limits  may  be  found 
for  total  eclipses,  as  well  as  for  partial  ones,  by 
the  same  method ;  i.  e.  by  taking  S  M  =.  the  dif- 
ference of  the  semidiameters  of  the  earth's  dark 
shadow  and  of  the  moon,  in  lunar  eclipses;  or 
^  the  difference  of  the  semidiameters  of  the 
moon  and  sun,  in  solar  eclipses. 

701.  4.  Eclipses  do  not  always  happen  in 
the  same  places  of  the  zodiac;  but  in  places 
more  and  more  westward.  For  the  eclii>ses  being 
about  the  nodes,  and  the  nodes  regressive  at  the 
rate  of  nineteen  degrees  in  a  year ;  the  places 
of  the  eclipses  are  nineteen  degrees  more  west 
every  succeeding  year. 

702.  From  these  premises  it  will  be  necessary, 
in  calculating  a  particular  eclipse,  to  consider  the 
angle  that  the  moon's  way  makes  with  the  sun 
at  the  time  of  an  eclipse.  See  plate' XI.  fig.  4. 
Let  ft  S  be  the  ecliptic,  ft  M  the  moon's  orbit, 
ft  the  node.  And  let  S  be  the  sun,  in  the  solar 
eclipse ;  or  the  centre  of  the  earth's  shadow,  in 
the  lunar ;  and  M  the  moon  at  the  time  of  the 
syzygy.  Take  ft  A  to  ft  S  as  the  sun's  horary 
motion,  to  the  moon's,  at  that  time ;  draw  M  A, 
then  M  A  S  is  the  angle  required ;  and  A  M  the 
moon's  apparent  orbit. 

703.  For  by  construction,  in  the  time  that  the 
moon  has  been  moving  from  ft  to  M  (that  is, 
through  ft  S  reckoned  in  the  ecliptic,)  the  sun 
ha»  moved  through  a  space  D  S  eaual  to  ft  A. 
Therefore  the  sun  was  in  D,  when  the  moon  was 
in  the  node  at  ft.  Draw  D B,  M  B  parallel  to 
S  m,  SD;  and  draw  B  ft,  which  will  be  parallel 
to  M  A.  Now  since  the  moon  makes  the  same 
latitude  D  B  or  S  M,  in  the  same  time,  whether 
the  sun  moves  or  stands  still ;  and  since  S  M  is 
her  latitude,  when  the  sun  is  at  S,  D  B  (equal  to 
S  M)  will  be  her  latitude,  supposing  the  sun  had 
stood  at  D,  without  any  motion  towards  S ;  and 
consequently  ft  B  will  be  her  apparent  way,  to 
an  eye  at  D,  through  which  she  seems  to  move 
in  the  same  time.  Or,  which  is  tlie  same  thing, 
A  M  will  be  her  apparent  way  to  an  eye  fixed  at 
S.— For  the  triangles  AMS  are  ft  BD  are 
equal;  and  M  AS  is  the  angle  of  her  way  with 
the  ecliptic.  By  the  theory  of  relative  motions, 
in  bodies  moving  the  same  way,  all  the  apparent 
motions  are  the  same,  as  if  one  body  stood  still 
and  the  other  moved  forward,  with  the  difference 
of  their  motions.  And  here  ft  D  or  AS  is  the  dif- 
ference of  their  motions  supposing  S  to  be  fixed 


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ASTRONOMY. 


704.  Haioe,  ai  the  moon's  homry  motion :  to 
'Ae  sun's  boruy  aiotion : :  S  Q  the  distance  from 
the  node  to  A^.  'IlienSA:KSfi  —  A^. 
As  sine  of  S  A :  rad : :  tangent  moon's  latitude 
SM :  tangtat  angle  A- 

705.  It  is  the  apparent  orbit  A  M  that  must 
be  mafie  use  o(  in  calculating  all  the  particulaxs 
of  an  eclipse.  For  nn  observer  oonsiden  not  S 
as  oioyiog;  and  therefore  only  the  relative  men- 
tions are  concerned.  To  calculate,  therefore,  an 
edipee  of  the  moon,  the  following  rules  will  be 
found  useful. 

IV.  Rules  FOR  Calculating  Luvab  Eclipses. 

706.  1.  Find  the  true  time  of  the  oppositioui 
when  an  eclipse  ts  to  happen ;  and  let  that  be 
reduced  to  e^arent  time. 

707.  2.  Fmd  the  true  places  of  the  sun  and 
mooDy  when  in  oppotntion :  2.  The  sun'«  mean 
anomaly,  anjl  the  place  of  bis  apogee:  3.  The 
place  of  the  moon's  ascending  noae»  and  of  her 
apogee,  and  her  latitude. 

708.  3.  Let  Q  S,  fig.  1,  pUte  VIII.  be  a 
part  of  the  ecliptic;  3  M  the  moon's  orbit;  S 
the  centre  of  the  earth's  shadow,  and  M  the  moon, 
when  in  opposition.  Take  $^  A,  to  Q  S  whidi 
is  known  byealeulatxon;  as  the  sun's  horary  mo- 
tion, to  the  moon's ;  which  are  known  from  the 
astronomical  tables.  Draw  A  M,  for  the  way  of 
the  moon  from  the  son.  Thm  in  the  right 
aiM;led  spherical  triangle  AS  M»  there  is  given 
AS  (ss  fi  S—  Q  A);  and  SM  the  moon's 
latitude  found  by  calculation :  to  find  the  angle 
SMA. 

709'.  4.  Let  SP  fiOl  perpendicular  to  AM; 
tiien  since  die  arches  SM,  M  P,  S  P,  are  very 
small,  they  may  be  taken  for  right  lines ;  and  the 
triangle  S  M  P  for  a  plane  triangle.  Tien  bar- 
ing SM  and  angle  SM  P;  MP  and  SP  will  be 
found,  where  P  is  the  place  qf  the  moon  in 
the  middle  of  the  eclipse.  Likewise  the  time  of 
the  moon's  moving  through  M  P  will  be  known 
by  her  hoiaiy  motion ;  and  from  thence  the  time 
when  she  b  at  P,  or  the  middle  of  the  eclipse. 

710.  5.  From  the  astrouomical  tables,  find  the 
•an  and  moon's  apparent  semidiameteis,  for 
the  time  of  opposition;  and  their  horizonlal 
paralhoes. 

711.  6.  From  any  convenient  scale  of  equal 
parts,  with  the  centre  P  and  radius  P  B,  eqihil 
to  the  minutes  contained  in  the  moon's  radius, 
describe  the  circle  B  C  o  for  the  moon.  And 
with  the  radius  SD  (equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
aun  and  moon's  horizontal  parallaxes ;  the  sun's 
semidiameter,  all  in  minutes,)  describe  the  cir- 
cle DEB,  from  the  centre  S,  then  this  circle 
will  represent  the  earth's  dark  shadow.  like- 
wise with  the  same  centre  S,  and  radius  SF 
(equal  to  the  sum  of  the  sun  and  moon's  panl- 
laxes  +  the  sun's  semidiameter,  in  minutes,) 
describe  the  ciide  FQG;  and  this  will  be  the 
earth's  penumbra. 

712.  7.  Tbese  rules  being  observed,  it  will 
be  easy  to  find  all  the  requisites  by  scale  and 
compasses,  by  measuring  them;  or  rather  by 
calculation,  in  the  several  rightpungled  plain 
triangles,  contained  in  the  scheme.  Thus,  to 
find  when  the  moon  first  touches  the  penumbra  at 
L;  in  the  right  uigled  triangle  S  P  K,  there  is 


given  S P,  and  8K  (the  sum  of  the  radii  SL 
and  PB),  to  find  PK.  Which  being  known, 
the  time  of  the  moon's  passing  tlirough  it  will 
be  known,  l^  the  moon  s  horary  motion  from 
the  sun. 

713.  To  find  when  the  moon  first  eoten  the 
dark  shadow  of  the  '^arth  in  D :  in  the  right 
angled  triangle  S  P  I,  there  is  given  S  P,  and  S  I, 
(the  sum  ofthe radii  SD,PB,) to  find  PI;  and 
x^ottsequently  the  time  of  half  the  duration  iu  the 
shadow. 

714.  To  find  the  digits,  or  12th  parts  of  the 
moon  eclipsed.    Here  no  the  part  eclipsed  is  = 

Sn-hPo-SP;  and  IH^or^^^is  thenum- 
'  2Po       Po 

her  of  digits  ecHpsed.    In  total  eclipses  of  the 

mooni  the  earth's  shadow  often  reaches  fiuther 

than  the  moon.    And  then  more  than  twelve  dh 

gits  are  said  to  be  eclipsed,  supposing  the  moan's 

disk  to  be  produced  so  &r. 

715.  To  find  the  time  when  the  moon  wholly 
enters  into  the  dark  shadow  BED,  follow  the 
same  method  as  when  it  entered  into  the  penum- 
bra G  Q  F.  This  will  be  evident,  by  supposing 
G  Q  L  the  dark  shadow.  In  that  case  SI  will 
be  the  difference  of  the  semidiaraetero  of  the  moon 
and  daik  ehadow.  The  times  of  passing  dirough 
P  I,  P  K,  &c.  being  known,  and  the  time  of  the 
middle  of  the  eclipse  at  P,  the  beginning  and 
end  will  be  known. 

716.  8.  Hence,  if  the  moon  or  circle  C  Bo 
never  touches  die  circle  G  Q  F,  thefe  will  be  no 
eclipse,  not  even  by  the  penumbra.  And  if  the 
same  circle  never  touches  the  circle  B  D  E,  there 
will  be  no  part  of  the  moon  totally  eclipsed.  And 
if  the  whob  circle  C  B  o  enter  into  the  circle 
B  E  D,  the  whole  moon  will  be  totally  eclipsed; 
and  that  is  when  S  P  is  less  than  the  difference 
of  the  semidiameters  S  D  and  P  B.  If  the  point 
S  be  in  the  node,  then  P  falk  upon  S,  and  the 
eclipse  is  central.  When  only  a  part  ofthe  cir- 
cle C  Bo  goes  intoihe  circle  B  £ D,  the  eclipse 
is  a  partial  one,  as  in  this  figure* 

717.  9.  The  time  of  the  eclipse  being  known 
for  any  pattioular  place,  it  is  easy  to  know  if  it  be 
visible  at  that  place,  by  knowing  if  the  moon  be 
risen.  Or  the  place  will  be  known  where  the 
moon  is  vertical;  and  therefore  it  will  be  visible 
to  all  places  within  a  quadrant's  distance  from 
it 

718.  10.  If  the  spectator  live  in  the  place,  (or 
in  the  same  longitude)  which  the  tables  are  caJcu- 
lated  for;  he  will  see  the  eclipse  at  the  time 
determined  by  the  calculation.  If  not,  he  will 
see  it  an  hour  sooner  for  every  15°  difference  of 
longitude,  that  he  lives  west  from  it.  And  so 
much  later,  if  he  lives  eastward ;  that  is,  in  the 
way  of  reckoning  time.  But  in  regard  to  ab- 
solute time,  it  is  seen  from  all  places  at  the  same 
instant. 

Example. 

To  find  ike  timeoftke  Lunm-  EeUpu,  Deemhtt 
XZth,  1769 ;  iU  DwrutMn  and  DtgUs  eeUfted. 
719.'  1.  The  mean  time  ofthe  syrrgiea,  by  the 
tables,  is  found  to  be  December  12d.  19h.  27m. 
at  which  time  the  moon's  horary  motion  from  the 
sun  is  35' 33".  At  this  time,  computing  the 
true  places  of  the  sun  and  moon,  the  moon  will 


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ASTRONOMY. 


183 


appear  to  be  95  10*  before  the  sun.  And  Aere- 
fbre  the  time  u  past  the  syzygy,  59m.  12s. 
Therefore, 

From  Id.  19h.  27m.     Os. 

Take   0      0      59       12 


True  time  1    18      27 


48 


The  places  being  computed  again,  the  moon  is 
only  f  before  die  sun,  wfaidi  amounts  to  12* 
of  time;  therefore  the  time  of  opposition  is  12d. 
}8h.  27m.  36s.  which  reduced  to  apparent  time 
is  December  12d.  18h.  32m  51s. 

2.  The  sun's  place  is  .  .  8s.  21**  3r  35" 
The  moon's  place  ..  2  21  37  35 
Place  of  the  ascending  node  8  14  46  13 
Her  latitude  south  .  .  37  58 
The  sun's  horary  motion  2  33 
The  moon's  horary  motion              38     6 

3.  H^nce  the  moon  is  e""  51'  22"  past  the  de- 
scending node:  that  is  Q  S  is6''51'  22".  There- 
fore ft  A  =  17'  32",  and  AS  =  6°  23'  50". 
Therefore  the  angle  S  M  A=  84°  22'  28". 

4.  Hence  drawing  the  ecliptic  R  S,  and  S  M 
perpendicular  to  it,  and  equal  to  37'  58"  from  a 
scale  of  minutes,  as  in  fig.  12,  plate  IX.  and 
making  the  angle  S  M  A  =  84""  22f.  We  find 
die  perpendicular  S  P  =  r  47",  and  M  P  =  3' 
43".  And  therefore,  the  horary  motion  of  the 
moon  from  the  sun  being  35'  33",  P  M  will  be 
passed  over  in  6'  17".  And  since  this  is  before 
the  opposition  at  M,  this  time  must  be  deducted 
from  tne  time  of  opposition.  And  the  time  of 
the  middle  of  the  eclipse  will  be  December  12d. 
18h.  26m.  34s. 

5.  The  sun's  apparent  semidiameter      16'  20" 
His  horizontal  panllax    ....        12 
The  moon's  apparent  semidiameter  16  48 
Her  horizontad  parallax    ....  61    7 

6.  Hence  the  radius  B  P  ==  16'  48". 

radius  S  D  =  44  59. 
radhis  S  F  =  77  39. 

7.  HeneealsoPKorPft  =86  34. 

andP  lorPt  =48  53. 
and  therefore  the  time  of  passing  through  P  K  is 
2h.  26m.  6s.,  and  through  PI  r:  Ih.  22m.  30s. 
And  the  whole  duration  m  tne  shadow  from  I  to 
t,  b  2h.  45m.  And  the  digits  eclipsed  8|  on 
die  upper  side.    Whence, 

D.    H.  M.  S. 
First  entering  the  penumbra 

December  ..    13    4    0  38  mom. 

Entering  the  dark  shadow  at  0    5    4    4 

Middle 0    6  26  34 

Opposition 0    6  22  51 

Leaving  the  shadow  ...  0    7  49    4 
Leaving  the  penumbra  .    .0    8  52  40 

Duration 0    2  45    0 

Digits  eclipsed  8i 

720.  All  these  calculalions  may  be  made  suf- 
ficiently near,  by  scale  and  compasses,  in  a  large 
draught ;  making  use  of  a  scale  of  minutes  and 
sixtieth  parts;  or  rather  by  makings  a  scale  of 
time  answering  thereto,  by  the  help  of  the  horary 
motion  of  the  moon  from  the  sun.  For  by  this 
scale,  the  several  hours  and  minutes  may  be 
marked  along  the  line  A  A,  by  which  it  will  ap- 


pear at  what  time  the  centre  of  the  moon  is  at 
any  given  point.  For  the  time  is  known  when 
the  moon  is  at  M,  and  from  thence  the  points  at 
each  hour  and  minute  are  easily  found.  And 
this  construction,  with  only  right  lines  and  cir- 
cles, will  be  exact  enough  in  a  large  figure;  for 
the  best  lunar  tables  give  the  times  of  the  phases 
of  an  eclipse  no  nearer  than  to  four  or  five 
mimites  of  time ;  and  therefore  sudi  a  construe- 
tioB  is  sufficient  to  answer  the  purpose.  Henoe 
it  may  be  observed,  that  no  eclipse  of  the  moon 
can  last  above  five  hours  and  a  half  from  the 
moon's  first  touching  the  earth's  penumbra,  to 
its  last  leaving  it.  For  S  K  =  94'  %r  =  94-45, 
and  the  horary  motion  is  35'  33*  =  35-55  and 

94*45 

•^rm  =:  2*66  =  2h.  39m.  =  semiduration :  and 

35*55 

no  ecHpse  of  the  moon,  by  the  earth's  shadow, 

can  last  above  3f  hours.    Nor  when  total,  above 

If  hours.     For  SI  =r  61'  AT  =  61-78,  and 

^4^77  =  1'745  =  1'  45"  c=  the  semidumtioB, 
and  SD  — SI  =  28'11"=:2818,  and  |5!l? 

OO'OiM 

=  -79  =  47m.  the  semiduration. 

721 .  The  refraction  of  the  earth*s  atmosphere, 
in  lunar  eclipses,  makes  the  shadow  less;  by 
bringing  the  rays,  which  terminate  the  shadow, 
sooner  to  a  point.  And  hence  comes  that  red 
color  of  the  moon  even  in  total  eclipses.  But 
that  light  must  be  veiy  dim,  by  reason  of  a  great 
number  of  the  rays  being  stopt  and  lost  in  the 
earth's  atmosphore. 

722.  The  circles  terminatioff  the  shadoi^rand 
the  penumbra  BED  and  G  Q  F,  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished. For  the  darkness  from  BED,  di- 
minishes by  insensible  degrees,  to  G  Q  F,  being 
darkest  at  £,  and  lightest  at  Q,  where  it  vanishes 
insensibly.  And  therefore  the  moon  does  not 
appear  to  be  eclipsed  till  she  is  a  good  way 
within  the  penuml>ra.  For  that  reason,  there 
may  happen  eclipses  of  the  moon  which  cannot 
be  discovered  as  such, 

723.  All  lunar  tables  show  the  moon's  place 
in  eclipses,  more  truly  in  the  syzygies  than  m  the 
quadratures,  or  any  other  place.  For  the  times 
of  the  syzygies,  and  the  moon's  place,  have  been 
more  accurately  observed  in  eclipses,  than  at  any 
other  time ;  and  from  thence  the  moon's  theory 
has  been  deduced.  Besides,  many  of  the  ine- 
qualities cease  in  the  syzygies,  but  have  sensible 
efiecti  in  other  places ;  becoming  greater,  as  the 
moon  is  fimher  from  the  syzygies ;  being  greatest 
in  the  quadratures.  Whence  the  lunar  tables  do 
not  determine  the  moon's  place  truly  in  the 

Suadratures.    And  her  plaos  eakulated  from 
lese  tables  is  not  so  exact  in  the  quadratures  as 
in  the  syzygies. 

724.  S^eral  ineaualities  depend  on  the  aspect 
of  the  nodes  and  ue  sun;  but  these  cease  when 
the  nodes  are  in  the  syzygies.  When  the  moon 
and  the  nodes  are  in  the  syzygies,  the  moon's 
place,  then  wanting  fewer  equations,  as  being 
subject  to  fewer  inequalities,  will  be  more  cor- 
rect than  in^en  she  is  in  oth^  places,  where 
there  are  more  and  greater  inequalities,  and  more 
equations.  From  hence  more  errors  will  happen 
out  of  the  syzygies  than  in  them. 


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ASTRONOMY, 


v.— To  FIND  THE  WAY  OF  THE  MOOK   FROM  THE 

Sun,   in  a  Solar  Eclipse,  supposing  the 
Observer  at  rest. 

725.  Let  HZ 0,  in  plate  IX.  fig.  6,  be  the 
meridian  of  the  place,  H  O  the  horizon,  £  C  the 

,  equinoctial,  E  L  the  ecliptic,  Z  the  zenith,  P  the 
pole,  S  and  M  the  places  of  the  sun  and  moon  in 
conjunction,  P  S  D  the  sun's  meridian.  Having 
found  the  sun's  distance  from  the  node,  Q  S,  and 
the  moon's  latitude  S  M,  &c.  take  g^  A  g^  to  S, 
as  the  sun's  horary  motion  to  the  moon's  horary 
motion;  then  SAis  known.  Draw  MA;  then 
in  the  spherical  triangle  ASM,  right  angled  at 
S,  there  is  given  S  ^  S  M ;  to  find  the  angle 
S  M  A ;  AM  being  the  moon's  way  from  the  sun. 

726.  But,  as  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  in  mo- 
tion, by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  which  gives  an 
apparent  motion  to  the  moon,  contrary  to  that  of 
the  observer,  we  must  find  the  quantity  and 
direction  of  that  motion.  As  the  observer  is 
carried  eastward,  towards  the  point  C,  the  ap- 
parent motion  of  the  moon  caused  thereby  will 
oe  in  the  line  C  S.  And  to  determine  the  position 
of  C  S,  in  respect  of  A  M  or  S  M,  several  spheri- 
cal triangles  must  be  resolved,  as  follows : 

727.  In  the  right-angled  triangle  EDS  there 
is  given  E  S,  and  angle  E  to  find  D  S,  and  angle 
£  S  D  or  A  S  P ;  or  these  may  be  easier  lubd 
from  the  astronomical  tables.  And  in  the  tri- 
angle Z  P  S,  there  is  given  P  S  (the  complement 
of  DS),  the  angle  Z  P  S  (firom  the  time  of  the 
day),  and  Z  P  the  complement  of  the  latitude ; 
to  find  ZS,  and  angles  PZS  and  ZSP.  Then 
Z  S  P  and  AS  P  being  known,  Z  S  A  will  be 
known.  And  MSA  being  a  right  angle,  Z  S  M 
will  be  known.  In  the  right  angled  triangle 
C  F  S,  there  is  given  C  F,  the  measure  of  the 
angle  F  Z  C  (the  difference  between  the  angle 
PZS  and  the  right  angle  C  Z  P),  andSF  the 
complement  of  Z  S ;  to  find  C  S,  and  the  angle 
CSForBSZ.  Then  B S Z  and  Z S M  being 
known,  BSM  will,  be  known.  And  SMA 
being  known,  its  supplement  S  M  B  is  known, 
and  consequently  the  angle  S  B  M. 

728.  To  find  the  quantity  of  the  motion. 
That  along  A  M  is  already  known ;  and  to  find 
the  apparent  motion  along  SB.  The  sine  of 
15^  (tne  horary  motion  of  a  point  in  the  equinoc- 
tial), is  -259  to  the  radius  1.  And  if  A  be  the 
moon's  horizontal  parallax,  then  the  radius  of  the 
earth  appears  at  the  moon  under  the  angle  A,  and 
therefore  15^  of  the  equinoctial  appears  under 
ihe  angle  of  *259  h;  this  then  is  the  horary  mo- 
tion of  a  point  in  the  equinoctial,  viewed  directly 
from  the  moon.  And  the  moon's  apparent  motion 
seen  from  that  point  in  the  equinoctial  is  the 
very  same.  But  this  motion  is  to  be  diminished 
upon  two  accounts.  1.  Because  it  is  less  in  a 
parallel  circle,  in  proportion  to  the  cosine  of  the 
latitude.  And  2.  Upon  account  of  the  obliquity 
of  the  motion,  when  not  perpendicular  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun ;  and  this  will  be  as  the  sine  of 
C  S,  the  sun's  distance  from  the  east  or  west 
point  of  the  horizon.  Therefore  to  find  the 
quantity  of  this  motion. 

To  the  logarithm  of  '255  h. 
Add  the  cosine  latitude. 
And  the  sine  of  C  S. 


Then  the  sum,  abating  twice  radius,  is  the  logu- 
ithm  of  this  apparent  horaiy  motion.  Then  thin 
motion  is  to  be  compounded  with  the  motioii 
along  A  M  B  as  follows : 

729.  Let  AS,  plate  IX.  fig.  5,  be  a  portion  of 
the  ecliptic,  S  B  the  way  of  the  apparent  mo- 
tion, MA  tiie  moon's  way  from  the  sun.  Draw 
NM  parallel  to  SB;  and  let  MN  be  thehoiazy 
motion  along  SB  or  MN,  and  MI  the  horary 
motion  of  the  moon  from  the  sun.  Then  com- 
plete the  parallelogram  N  M I  Q  ^  draw  the 
diagonal  M  Q  R,  which  is  the  direction  of  the  mo- 
tion, compounded  of  the  observer's  and  the  moon's 
motions,  and  M  Q  is  the  total  apparent  horaxy 
motion,  supposing  the  observer  at  rest.  Then  in 
the  plain  triangle  Q  M  I,  there  is  given  M  I,  and 
IQ(orMN),and  the  angle  MIQ=MBS; 
to  find  the  angle  Q  M  I,  and  side  M  Q  or  the  ab- 
solute horary  motion.  And  the  angles  Q  M I 
and  IMS  being  known,  Q  M  S  is  known. 

730.  If  the  sun  be  in  the  eastern  hemisphere, 
in  which  case  the  concave  side  of  the  eastern  he- 
misphere is  here  projected  (in  fig.  6),  then  die 
moon's  motion  from  the  sun  is  from  M  towards 
A,  and  the  other  apparent  motion  from  S  to- 
wards B,  or  from  M  towards  N.  But  if  the  sun 
is  in  the  western  hemisphere,  this  projection  re- 
presents the  convex  side  of  the  sphere;  and 
men  the  moon  moves  from  the  sun,  in  direction 
A  M,  and  the  other  apparent  motion  is  from  S 
towards  C,  being  contrary. 

VI.~To  Calculate  Solae  Ecupses. 

731.  The  eclipses  of  the  son  are  more  diffi- 
cult to  calculate  than  those  of  the  moon ;  the 
latter  being  clear  of  parallaxes,  which  the  former 
are  incumbered  with,  which  gives  a  great  deal  of 
trouble.  But  a  great  part  of  it  may  be  avoided 
by  using  projections  instead  of  calailations. 
Tjie  niles  are, 

732.  1.  Find  the  true  time  of  the  conjunction, 
and  the  places  of  the  sun  and  moon  at  that  time. 

733.  2.  Having  found  the  way  of  the  moon 
fiom  tlie  sun  by  projection  or  calculation ;  find, 
by  the  astronomical  tables,  the  moon's  horizon- 
tal parallax,  her  apparent  diameter,  and  horary 
motion,  also  the  sun's  apparent  diameter  and  ho- 
rary motion.  But,  to  avoid  a  great  deal  of  calcu- 
lation, if  the  sphere  be  projected  by  a  laige  scale, 
it  will  give  all  the  requisites  with  sufficient  ex- 
actness, by  measuring  the  several  angles  and 
sides,  without  any  oilculation,  or  veiy  little. 
And  here  it  is  best  to  project  the  concave  side, 
and  then  every  thing  appears  as  it  is  in  nature. 

734.  3.  Find  the  moon's  parallax  of  alti- 
tude, by  making  as  rad. :  cos.  altitude  :  :  so  the 
moon's  horizontal  parallax :  to  her  parallax  of 
altitude  V  ^  or  M  m.  fig.  8.  Then  find  her  pa- 
rallax of  latitude  M  m,  and  longitude  S  s,  or  m  a, 
and  from  tlience  her  apparent  latitude  and  longi- 
tude is  known. 

735.  4.  Draw  the  line  SL,  fig.  10,  for  the 
ecliptic,  and  from  a  large  scale  of  minutes,  erect 
S  M  perp.  to  L  S,  and  equal  to  the  apparent  la- 
titude ;  make  the  angle  S  M  R,  as  found  in  the 
last  prob.  and  draw  ^  M  R  for  the  moon's  ap- 
parent path.  From  S  let  fall  SP  perpendicular 
to  MR,  and  SP  will  be  the  least  distance  of  the 
centres  of  the  sun  and  moon,  or  the  middle  of 


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ASTRONOMY.  186 

the  cdip«.    From  the  centre  S,  with  the  radius  of  31'  20*  an  hour,  is  52'  45"  for  the  semidu- 

equal  to  the  minutes  contained  in  the  sun's  semi-  ration.    By  reason  of  the  parallax  (24'  13"),  she 

diameter,  describe  the  circle  A  B  C  for  the  sun.  is  past  the  apparent  conjunction ;  the  difference 

And  from  the  centre  P,  with  the  radius  equal  to  bemg  what  the  parallax  causes,  which  comes  to 

the  moon's  semidiameter,  describe  die  circle  47'  23".     Therefore  the  middle  of  the  eclipse 

A  O  C  D  for  the  moon.    If  these  circles  do  not  i«  so  much  sooner,  being  at  3d.  19h.  41m.  20s. 

intersect,  there  will  be  no  eclipse.     But  if  they  This  reduced  to  apparent  time  is  3d.  19h.  43m. 

intersect,  an  eclipse  must  necessarily  happen.  278.  for  the  middle. 

736.  5.  Then  P  is  the  place  of  the  moon  in       6.  The  digits  eclipsed  are  5  A,  nearly. 

the  middle  of  the  eclipse.  .  Make  S I  and  S  K  740.  In  this  example,  the  concave  side  of  the 

equal  to  die  sum  of  the  semidiaraeters  of  the  sun  sphere  is  proiected,  which  suits  best  to  the  ap- 

and  moon ;  and  the  moon's  centre  will  be  at  I  pearance  of  toe  heavens.    And  the  figures  are 

when  die  moon  first  touches  the  sun,  or  at  the  drawn  upon  that  supposition.     It  appears  from 

moon's  centre,  at  the  end  of  it.    In  the  triangle  the  process,  that  the  moon  is  advancing  to  her 

P  S  I,  there  is  given  SI,  S  P ;  to  find  P I  =  P  K,  descending  node,  and  therefore  has  north-  lati- 

which  reduced  to  time  by  help  of  the  moon's  ap-  tude.    And  by  the  position  of  that  part  of  the 

parent  horary  motion,  shews  half  the  duration  of  ediptic,  her  parallax  in  longitude,  advances  her 

the  eclipse;  and  consequendy  we  shall  have  the  •<>  much  forward,  viz.  24'  13".     And  therefore 

beginning  and  end.  she  is  so  much  past  the  apparent  conjunction. 

737.  6.  And  to  find  die  quantity  no,  or  the  Hence  we  gain  these  several  particulars,  as  to 
digits  eclipfled;wc  have  no  =  Sn  +  Po—SP,  die  eclipse: 

"^  YJ-  =  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^'  741. 1.  The  begin.  June,  morn.  4*  6  *  53    42 

738.  7.  The  time  found  being  mean  time,  "^;J^®  '  '  '  '  1  I  11  Vo 
It  must  be  reduced  to  the  common  or  apparent  f ^7,  ,  *  ^  '  ' '  '  ?  ^r  o^ 
time,  by  the  equation  of  time.  And  if  Uie  given  ,.  .,*°^J.^"?**?,'*  '  '  '  .^  ^.i^  ^^ 
place  he  not  Aat  for  which  die  tables  are  made,  f'g»ts  eclipsed  5^,  on  die  upper  side  of  die  sun, 
add  so  much  time,  if  the  place  lie  eastward,  to  *<*T[^  ^^l"^'  »»  aPP«^  ^J  die  figure. 

die  time  of  conjunction,  is  answers  to  the  dif-       /f  •  2-  Hence  the  position  of  die  horns  at  C 

ference  of  meridians;    or  subtract  it  if  it  lie  ^$  ^^  are  easily  found  m  die  middle  of  die 

westward  eclipse.     For  they  are  m  a  position  parallel  to 

Example  R  I,  the  moon's  way. 

743.  3.  The  middle  of  the  eclipse  will  not  be 

To  Find  the  Time  op  the  Sun's  Eclipse,  at  the  same  time  in  all  places  of  die  same  longi- 

JuME  4,  1769,  ITS  Duration  and  Digits  tude;  for  the  parallax  of  longitude  will  be  dif- 

eclipsed  at  London.  ferent  in  different  places. 

739.  1.  By  the  tables  the  mean  time  of  the  con-  744.  No  eclipse  of  the  sun  can  last  above  two 
junction  is  found  to  be  June  2d.  20h.  41m.  And  hours.  For  SI  or  S  A  +  M  D  =  32'  26"  zs 
hence,  the  true  time  of  conjunction  is  June  3d.  32.6  and  the  horary  motion  =  34'  47"=:  35.78. 
20h.27m.  43s.  And  dieir places  are  2*  13® 51  a «^  32.6  ^^  ^.,  .  ,  .  .  ^. 
25'.  And  die  moon's  kt  55-32  nordi.  The  ^^35:78  =  *^^  =  ^^*  "^""^  ^'  '^'^  *^'" 
moon's  motion  firom  die  sun  35'  47*.  duration. 

2.  Infig.5aDd6,  Plate  IX.  die  angle  AM  S  745.  If  it  were  not  for  die  parallax,  eclipses  of 
=  840  4r.  Z  SM  =  35*^  20'.  C  SF  =  5°  18'  die  sun  would  be  a* easily  calculated  as  diose  of 
S  B  M  =  43**  49'.  S  F  =  42*>  16',  C  F  =  3®  34'.  die  moon.  And  in  order  to  get  die  parallax,  die 
CS  =  42®  24'.  The  angle  QM I  =  8®  25'.  angle  ZSM  and  SP  must  be  known,  fig.  2, 
S  M  Q  =  92°  52'.  M  N  or  I Q  =  6®  38'.  M  Q  v?hich  occasions  die  resolving  several  spherical 
=  31®  20'.    Also  triangles  before  they  can  be  had.    Likewise  it 

The  moon's  horizontal  parallax  .    .  60'  58"  may  be  ob^rved,  that  the  apparent  way  of  the 

Her  apparent  diameter    .    .    .    .  33  32  moon  is  strictiy  curve  line,  concave  towards  S, 

Her  horary  motion 38   10  which  arises  from  the  parallel  of  latitude  being 

The  sun's  diameter 31   41  a  curve,  and  the  moon  being  out  of  its  plane. 

His  horary  motion 2  23  Likewise  the  moon's  apparent  velocity  is  some- 

3.  In  fig.  4,  die  moon's  parallax  in  altitude  thing  greater  at  the  beginning  dian  at  the  end. 
Mfiiis45'  09";  her  paralbix  in  latitude  Mn,        ,„     ^  ^ 

38' 05";  her  remaining  latitude  Sn,  17' 26";  VI.— Rules  pob  calculating  a  General 

her  parallax  in  longitude  S«,  24'  13" ;  which  is  Eclipse  op  the  Sun. 

increased  so  much.  746.  The  elemento  necessary  for  this  are :    1- 

4.  Draw  S  L  for  the  ecliptic,  as  in  fig.  10,  at  The  sun  and  moon's  place,  and  the  time  at  die 
any  point  S,  erect  die  perp.  M  S  equal  to  17'  true  conjunction ;  2.  The  moon's  latitude,  hori- 
26",  die  moon's  apparent  latitude ;  dirough  M  zontal  parallax,  diameter,  and  horary  motions ; 
draw  the  moon's  way  62  M  R,  making  the  angle  3.  The  sun's  declination,  diameter,  and  horary 
SMR  =  92®52'.  Draw  SP  perp.  MR,  which  motion;  and  4,  die  angle  die  moon's  way  makes 
here  fiills -very  near  M.     From  the  centre  S,  with  a  circle  of  latitude. 

widi  die  radius  S  A  =:  15'  50",  describe  die  cir-  747.  2.  From  a  large  scale  of  minutes,  take 

de  ABC  for  the  sun.    And  with  the  radius  the  moon's  horizontal  parallax  in  the  compasses, 

M  D  =  16'  46",  and  centre  P,  describe  die  cir-  and  at  any  point  C,  in  the  right  line  B  D,  (which 

de  A  DOG  for  die  moon.  represents  die  ecliptic  in  plate  XI.  fig.  6),  de- 

5.  Hence  PI  or  P  K  =  27'  33".     And  the  scribe  die  circle  A  B  E  D,  for  die  eardi's  disk,  or 

tme  of  moving  dirough  I P  or  P  K,  at  the  rate  die  eaidi's  flat  face  as  it  appears  at  a  distance,  in 

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a  fine  drawn  to  the  tun.  Draw  C  M  perpendi- 
cular to  C  D,  and  equal  to  the  latitude  of  the 
moon  upwards,  if  norm.  Make  the  angle  C  M  G 
equal  to  that  which  the  moon's  way  makes  with 
a  circle  of  latitude ;  acute  to  the  right  hand,  if 
she  tend  to  the  node ;  or  obtnse,  if  she  be  past 
it;  and  drawing  F  M  O,  it  will  be  the  way  of 
the  centre  of  the  moon's  shadow  upon  the  earth. 
From  C  let  &il  CH  nerpendiculaf  to  F6.  Then 
at  H  will  be  the  middle  of  the  earth's  eclipse. 

748.  3.  With  liie  centre  H,  and  radius  HO, 
equal  to  ike  sum  of  the  semidiameters  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  describe  the  ctrde  QOR^  which  will 
be  the  moon's  penmnbra.  Also  describe  a  smaD 
circle  round  the  oentre  H,  whose  ladias  is  the 
difference  of  the  sua  and  moon's  semidiameters, 
that  little  aide  will  be  the  dailL  shadow  of  tlie 
mnon.  Then  all  the  countries  of  the  earth  con- 
tained in  the  segment  V  A  W  will  be  successively 
eclipsed  by  the  penumbra,  as  the  shadow  moves 
along  the  tract  FG;  while  the  other  segment 
V  £  W  suffers  no  eclipse  at  al^  All  places  in  the 
line  $t  will  be  totally  eclipsed^  as  the  dark  sha- 
dow, or  the  smadl  circle  at  H  passes  successively 
over  &em.  But  this  circle,  or  dark  shadow,  be- 
ing very  small,  a  total  eclipse  at  any  place  conti- 
nues but  a  small  time.  Sometimes  tne  sun's  se- 
midiametcr  exceeds  the  moon's ;  and  then  there 
will  be  no  dark  drele,  or  total  eclipse,  but  a  lu- 
dd  ring  wil  appear  about  the  moon  \n  tiiese  pla- 
ces, and  this  is  called  an  annnlar  eclipse.  The 
difference  between  the  semidiameters  of  the  sun^ 
and  moon  is  so  little,  that  no  total  eclipse  lasts 
above  fonr  minutes. 

749.  4.DTawCF,  CGssmn  of  the  semi- 
diameters of  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  moon's 
parallax ;  then  the  moon^s  shadow  will  touch  the 
earth  at  L  and  K,  where  tfie  eclipse  begins  and 
ends.  In  the  triangle  CFH,  there  is  given  C  F, 
C  H ;  to  find  F  H  =  H  G,  which,  converted  into 
time,  gives  half  the  duration,  or  half  the  time  that 
the  moon's  shadow  is  upon  the  earth.  Also  N  O 
measured,  shews  how  far  the  eclipse  reaches; 
OK  C  O  measured,  does  the  same.  It  may  be 
suffident  to  measure  all  these  by  the  scale  with- 
out calculation. 

750  5.  To  find  the  pole.  Draw  the  arch 
A  P,  making  the  an^e  K  A  P  equal  to  the  sun's 
lon^^ude,  and  A  P  toe  distance  of  the  poles  of 
the  equator  and  ecliptic,  23°^;  then  P  is  the 
pole.  For  A  P  is  a  part  of  the  solstitial  colure^ 
and  passes  through  Cancer  and  Capricorn.  And 
C  A  r  is .  wfaiai  the  sun  wants  of  Cancer,  there- 
fore PAR  is  what  it  is  past  Aries.  Through 
P  draw  C  P  T.  And  here  we  may  suppose  that 
the  pole  P  is  fixed  during  the  time  of  an  eclipse. 
Tlien  in  the  right  angled  spherical  triangle  APT, 
there  is  given  A  P  uid  the  angle  A,  to  find  AT 
orangleACP.  In  this  triangle  PT  is  the  sun's 
dadination,  and  AP  T  or  C  P  K  his  right  ascen- 
sion from  Cancer.  Here  note,  that  any  place  in 
the  line  C  T  is  m  the  su^'s  meridian ;  and  C  is 
the  place  where  the  sun  is  vertical  at  the  time  of 
the  eclipse. 

7111.  6.  To  find  the  dtuation  of  any  given 
place,  at  a  given  hour.  Make  the  angle  C  P  X 
(with  the  sun's  meridian)»  equal  to  the  time  from 
noon ;  on  the  left  hand,  if  it  is  before  noon.  And 
make  P  Z  the  qomplement  of  Ae  latitude ;  then 


Z  ia  the  place  required.  And  if  it  fiills  in  ihn 
penumbra,  it  is  eclipsed ;  or  anywhere  in  tbe 
segment  VAW;  if  its  motion  m  the  parallel 
drde  does  not  carry  it  out,  befi>re  the  penumbra 
reaches  it 

752.  7.  To  find  the  place  which  is  first  or 
last  touched  by  the  penumbra,  as  K.  Draw  the 
arch  PK.  In  the  triangle  GCA,  there  are 
given  CG and  CH,  to  find  the  angle  GCH, 
firom  which  subtract  ti  C  P  which  is  known,  gives 
the  angle  P  C  K  or  TK.  Then  in  the  right-angled 
spherical  triangle  PT  K,  there  is  given  T  K,  and 
PT  the  sun's  dedination ;  to  find  P  K  the  com- 

Slement  of  the  latitode  of  K,  and  T  P  &  or  C  PK 
le  difference  of  longitude  of  K,  and  the  sun.— 
Iherefere  its  longitude  and  latitude  is  obtained. 
In  ^e  same  manner  may  be  found  that  of  L.  And 
by  the  same  method  the  latitude  and  longitude 
of  ^e  places  s  and  t  may  be  found,  where  the 
dark  shadow  first  enters  the  earth's  disk,  or  ouite 
leaves  it.  Thus  also  may  be  found  the  place  which 
u  in  the  line  F  H,  at  any  point  of  time  :  or  if  the 
place  be  given,  what  the  time  will  be ;  and  that 
uy  help  of  the  horary  motion,  with  other  parti- 
culars of  like  nature. 

753.  8.  The  part  of  the  sun's  diameter 
eclipsed  by  the  moon,  is  known  by  the  situation 
of  the  place  within  the  penumbra,  or  its  dbtance 
from  the  centre  of  the  penumbra.  And  the  pba- 
sis  of  the  eclipse,  as  seen  from  any  place  Z,  upon 
the  disk,  vrill  be  found  thus,  for  any  time.  I  iod 
the  centre  of  the  shadow  for  that  time,  as  suppose 
at  H.  Describe  about  H,  a  circle,  whose  radius 
is  the  moon's  radias,  and  about  Z,  a  circle  with 
tbe  sun's  radius.  Then  the  part  cut  off  the  sun's 
circle  will  be  the  part  obscured. 

Sect.  VIII. — Remarks  ov  Eccipsts  iv 

GESERAL. 

754.  In  edipses  of  the  moon,  even  when  she 
is  near  the  centre  of  the  earth's  shadow,  her  body 
is  still  visible,  and  appears  of  a  tarnished  copper 
color.  This  seems  to  be  occasioned  by  the  rays 
of  li^t  vrhich  come  fivm  die  sun,  and  which, 
passing  near  the  earth,  are  inflected  from  their 
rectilinear  course  by  our  atmosphere ;  so  that 
they  enter  the  earth's  conical  shadow,  thus  pro- 
ducing that  fiunt  illumination  on  the  surfiice  of 
the  moon,  which  some  have  supposed  to  be  her  own 
nat^e  l^ht ;  but  there  seems  to  be  no  jnst  ground 
for  such  a  conjecture. 

755.  In  most  solar  eclipses,  the  moon's  disk  is 
covered  with  a  &int  light,  vrhich  is  attributed  to 
the  reflection  of  the  light  from  the  illuminated 
part  of  the  earth ;  and  in  total  edipses,  the  moon's 
limb  is  seen  surrounded  by  a  pale  drcle  of  light: 
vriiich  some  astrenoiners  consioer  as  an  indication 
of  a  lunar  atmosphere,  but  otheie  as  the  atmos- 
phere of  the  sun ;  because  it  is  ebservedl  to  move 
equally  with  the  sun,  but  not  with  die  moon. 

756.  Edipses  have  in  all  ages  greatly  attracted 
the  attention  of  mankind.  The  ignorant  and  su- 
perstitioas  have  viewed  them  with  terror,  and 
in  former  ages  they  were  often  cousdered  as  the 
forerunners  of  national  calamities.  The  Chinese, 
even  at  the  present  day«  upon  their  appearance, 
perform  the  most  absurd  and  supeistitioiia  cere> 
monies,  although  they  are  so  far  aoauainted  with 
their  na^re,  as  to  be  able  to  predic|^cai.  See 
Chiiia.   But  true  philosophy  has  taoght  ub«  tliat 


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GHAKB     OURKBT  iiimii  nade  forUn^  GEOBGE  1. 


OHRRUr. 


z  4wrW>iiv.  nMimk^d  \v  Tkmmm^  7V,«  7».  rA^n^^fde  Jm%t  Jt  *i97€.        Digitized  bv 


ASTRONOMY. 


187 


iBKlead  of  these  appeftfences  being  portentous  of 
e^il  to  maakind,  uey  maj,  by  proper  observa- 
tions upon  them,  be  made  of  great  advantage  to 
the  sciences,  and  to  some  of  the  arts  of  life. 

757.  Weliave  already  shewn,  that,  by  eclipses 
of  the  moon,  the  earth  is  demonstrated  to  be  a 
globular  figure.  The  longitudes  of  places  on  the 
earth  are  also  determined  by  observations  on 
sokur  and  lunar  eclipses ;  as  will  appear  by  con- 
sulting the  articles  GEooaAPHY,  Lohoituds,  Na- 
▼lOATiON,  &c.  Eclipses  are  also  of  great  im- 
portance in  Chronology,  (which  see),  as  by  them 
we  are  enabled  to  determine  exactly  the  time 
when  events  recorded  in  history  happened. 

758.  From  the  observations  made  upon  the 
ancient  eclipses,  it  appears  that  the  period  of  the 
moon  is  now  shorter,  and  consequently  that  her 
distance  from  the  earth  is  now  less,  than  in  for- 
mer ages ;  and  this  has  been  considered  as  an  ar- 
gument against  those  who  assert,  diat  the  world 
may  have  existed  from  eternity ;  fbr  it  was  hence 
inferred^  that  the  moon  moves  in  a  resisting  me- 
dium, and  tiierefore  that  her  motion  must  byde^ 
grees  be  all  destroyed,  in  which  case  she  must  at 
last  come  to  the  earth.  But  M.  de  La  Place  has 
shewn,  that  this  acceleration  of  the  moon's  period 
is  a  necessary  consequence  of  universal  gravita^ 
tion,  and  that  it  arises  from  the  action  of  the 
planets  upon  the  moon.  He  has  also  shewn  that 
this  acceWation  will  go  on,  till  it  arrive  at  a 
certain  limit,  when  it  will  be  changed  into  a  re- 
tardation ;  or  in  other  words,  that  there  are  two 
limits,  be^een  which  the  lunar  period  fluctuates, 
bat  neither  of  which  it  can  pass. 

759.  M.  de  La  Grange  has  also  discovered, 
that  all  the  seeming  irregularities  in  the  motions 
of  our  system  are  periodical ;  so  that  although 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the  eccentricities  of 
the  planetary  orbits,  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes, the  length  of  the  year,  &c.  may  change, 
yet  these  changes  will  not  pass  certain  limits,  and 
after  stated  periods,  they  will  return  precisely  to 
what  they  had  formerly  been.  Some  of  tliese 
periods,  however,  may  be  veiy  long.  The  aoco* 
ieration  of  the  moon,  for  example,  has  been  going 
on  from  the  easliest  ages  of  astronomy  to  the  pre- 
sent day. 

760.  We  cannot  close  this  section,  without 
observing,  that  eclipses  happen  very  frequently 
to  all  the  satellites  of  Jupiter ;  and,  as  they  are 
of  great  service  in  determining  the  longitude  of 
places  on  the  earth,  astronomers  have  been  at 
pains  to  calculate  tables  for  the  eclipses  of  these 
satdlites  by  their  primary ;  for  the  satellites  thein* 
selves  have  never  been  observed  to  eclipse  one 
another.  Bnt  this  fells  more  properly  to  be  con- 
sidered under  the  articles  Gbooraphy,  and  Lok" 
oiTVDK,  to  which  the  reader  is  therefore  referred. 

761.  The  primary  planets  would  also  eclipse 
one  another,  were  it  not  for  their  great  distances ; 
but,  as  the  comets  are  not  subject  to  the  same 
laws  with  the  planets,  it  is  possible  they  may 
sometimes  approadi  so  near  to  the  primary  pla- 
nets, as  to  cause  an  -eclipse  of  the  sun  to  those 
planets ;  end  as  the  body  of  a  comet  bears  a  much 
larger  proportion  to  the  bulk  of  a  primary  planet 
than  any  secondary,  it  is  plain,  that  a  cometary 
eclipse  would  both  be  of  much  longer  continu- 
ance, and  attended  with  greater  dariuieas,  than 


that  occasioned  by  a  secondary  planet.  If  we 
supjxMe  the  primary  planet  and  comet  to  be 
moving  bodi  the  same  way,  the  duration  of  such 
an  eclipse  would  be  prodigiously  lengthened; 
and  thus,  instead  of  four  minutes,  the  sun  might 
be  totally  darkened  to  the  inhabitants  of  oeiCin 
places  for  as  many  hours :  and,  from  this  cause, 
some  account  for  that  prodigious  darkness,  which 
we  sometimes  read  oi  in  history,  at  times  when 
BO  eclipse  of  the  sun  by  the  moon  could  possi- 
bly h^pen. 

PART  V. 

ASTRONOmCAL  MACHINERY  AND   IN- 
STRUHENTB. 

Sect.  I. — Description  of  the  Astronomical 
Machinery  invented  for  Illustrating 
THE  Science. 

762.  The  Grand  Orrery,  a  very  magnificent 
machine,  first  made  in  this  kingdom,  by  Mr. 
Rowley,  for  king  George  I.  is  represented  in 
plate  XIL  fig.l.  The  frame  of  it,  which  con- 
tains the  wheel-work,  &c.  and  regulates  the 
whole  machine,  is  made  of  ebony,  and  about 
four  feet  in  diameter.  Above  the  frsune  is  abroad 
ring,  supported  with  twelve  pillars,  which  repre- 
sents tms  plane  of  the  ecliptic*  Above  the  ecliptic, 
stand  soitie  of  the  principal  circles  of  the  sphere, 
viz.  No.  10,  are  the  two  eolures  divided  into  de- 
frees,  and  half  degrees;  No.  11,  is  one  half  of 
the  equinoctial  circle,  nsaking  an  angle  of  23^°. 
The  tropic  of  Cancer,  and  the  arctic  circle,  are 
each  fixed  parallel,  at  their  proper  distance  from 
the  equinoctial.  On  the  northern  half  of  the  * 
ecliptic,  is  a  ^rass  semicircle,  movable  upon  two 
points,  fixed  in  cy>  and  ^,  representing  the 
movable  horizon  to  be  put  to  any  degree  of  la- 
titude ttpon  the  north  part  of  the  meridian,  and 
the  whole  machine  nuy  be  set  to  any  latitude, 
vrithotti  disturbing  any  of  the  internal  motions^ 
by  two  strong  hinges,  (No.  13.)  fixed  to  the  hot* 
tom-firame,  upon  which  the  instrument  moves^ 
and  a  strong  brass  arch,  httving  holes  at  every 
d^rce,  through  which  a  strong  pin  is  put  at  every 
elevation,  "ntis  arch,  and  the  two  hinges,  sup* 
port  die  whole  machine,  when  it  is  lifted  up,  ac- 
cording to  any  latitude ;  and  the  arch,  at  other 
times,  lies  conveniently  under  the  bottom  frame* 

763.  The  sun,  (No.  1.)  stands  in  the  middle 
pf  the  whole  system,  upon  a  wire,  making  an 
angle  with  the  ecliptic,  of  about  82°.  Next  the 
sun  is  a  small  ball,  (2),  representing  Mercury. 
Next  to  Mercury  is  Venus^  (3),  represented  by 
a  larger  ball.  The  earth  is  represented  (No.  4), 
by  an  ivoty  ball,  having  some  circles  and  a  map 
sketched  upon  it.  The  wire  which  supports 
the  earth,  makes  an  angle  frith  the  ecliptic,  of 
66)^  the  indination  of  the  earth's  axis  to  the 
ecliptic.  Nearthebottomofthe  earth's  axis  is  a  dial 
plate,  (No.  9.)  having  an  index,  pointing  to  the 
Bours  of  the  day,  as  the  earth  turns  round  its 
axis.  Round  the  earth  is  a  ring  supported  by 
two  small  pillars,  representing  tiie  orbit. of  the 
moon;  and  the  divisions  upon  it  answer  to  the 
moon's  latitude.  The  motion  of  this  ring  repre- 
aeitts  the  motion  of  the  moon's  orbit,  accoraing 
to  that  of  the  nodes.  Within  this  ring  is  the 
BMoa,  (No.  6),  having  a  black  cap  or  case,  by 


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ASTRONOMY. 


which  its  motion  represents  the  phases  of  the 
moon,  according  to  her  age.  Without  the  orbits 
of  the  earth  and  moon,  is  Mars,rNo.6.)  The  next 
in  order  to  Mars  is  Jupiter,  and  his  four  moons, 
(N%.  7.)  Each  of  these  moons  is  supported  by  a 
wire  fixed  in  a  socket,  which  turns  about  the 
pillar  supporting  Jupiter.  These  satellites  may 
be  turned  by  the  hand  to  any  position,  and  yet, 
when  the  machine  is  piit  into  motion,  they  will 
all  more  in  their  proper  times.  The  outermost 
of  all  is  Saturn,  his  five  moons,  and  his  ring, 
(No.  8.)  These  moons  are  supported  and  con- 
trived, similar  to  those  of  Jupiter. 

764.  The  machine  is  put  in  motion,  by 
turning  a  small  winch,  (No.  14) ;  and  the  whole 
system  is  also  mov«d  by  this  winch,  and  by  pull- 
ing out,  and  pushing  in,  a  small  cylindrical  pin 
above  the  handle.  When  it  it  pushed,  all  the 
planets,  both  primary  and  secondary,  will  move 
according  to  their  respective  periods,  by  turning 
the  handle.  When  it  is  drawn  out,  the  motions 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  will  be 
stopped,  while  all  the  rest  move  without  interrup- 
tion. There  is  also  a  brass  lamp,  having  two 
convex  glasses,  to  be  put  in  room  of  the  sun ; 
and  also,  a  smaller  earth  and  moon,  made  some- 
what in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  each 
other,  which  may  be  put  on  at  pleasure.  Tlie 
lamp  turns  round  at  the  same  time  with  the  earth, 
and  the  glasses  of  it  cast  a  strong  light  upon  her ; 
and  when  the  smaller  earth  and  moon  are  placed 
on,  it  will  be  easy  to  show  when  either  of  them 
will  be  eclipsed. 

765.  Mr.  Ferguson's  orrery,  plate  XII.  fig.  2, 
shows  the  motions  of  the  Sun,  Mercury,  Venus, 
Earth,  and  Moon ;  and  occasionally  the  superior 
planets,  Mars,  Jnpiter,  and  Satnrn  may  be  put 
on.  Jupiter's  four  satellites  are  put  round  him  in 
their  proper  times,  by  a  small  winch;  and  Sa- 
turn nas  his  fire  satellites,  and  his  ring,  which 
keeps  its  parallelism  round  the  sun ;  suod  by  a 
lamp  put  m  the  sun's  place,  the  ring  shows  all  its 
various  phases  already  described.  In  the  centre, 
No.  1,  represents  the  sun;  No. 2,  Mercury;  No. 
3,  Venxis;  No.  4,  the  earth;  No.  6,  is  a  siderial 
dial-plate  under  the  earth ;  and  No.  7,  a  solar 
dial-plate  on  .the  cover  of  the  machine.  The  in- 
dex of  the  former  shows  siderial  time,  and  of  the 
latter,  solar  time. 

766.  The  earth  always  keeps  opposite  to  a 
moving  index,  (No.  10),  which  shews  the  sun's 
daily  change  of  place,  and  also  the  days  of  the 
months.  The  earth  is  half  covered  with  a  black 
cap^  for  dividing  the  apparently  enlightened  half 
next  the  sun,  from  the  other  half,  which,  when 
turned  away  from  him,  is  in  the  daric.  The  edge  of 
the  cap  represents  the  circle  bounding  light  and 
darkness,  and  shows  at  what  time  the  sun  rises 
and  sets  to  all  places  throughout  the  year.  The 
earth's  axis  inclines  23^^  from  the  axis  of  the 
ecliptic ;  by  which  means,  the  different  lengths 
6f  days  and  nights,  and  the  cause  of  the  various 
seasons,  are  demonstrated  to  sight. 

767.  There  is  a  broad  horizon,  to  the  upper 
side  of  which  is  fixed  a  meridian  semicircle,  in 
the  north  and  soudi  points.  From  the  lower 
side  of  this  thin  horizontal  plate  stand  out  four 
small  wires,  to  which  is  fixed  a  twilight-circle, 
eighteen  degrees  from  the  graduated  side  of  the* 


horizon,  all  round.  This  horizon  may  bt  put 
upon  the  earth  (when  the  cap  is  taken  away), 
and  rectified  to  the  latitude  of  any  place ;  and 
then  by  a  small  wire,  called  the  solar  tay,  which 
may  be  put  on,  so  as  to  proceed  directly  from 
the  sun's  centre  towards  the  earth's,  but  to  come 
no  farther  than  almost  to  touch  the  horizon.  The 
beginning  of  twilight,  time  of  sun  rising,  with 
his  amplitude,  meridian  altitude,  time  of  setting, 
amplitude  then,  and  end  of  twilight,  are  shown 
for  every  day  of  the  year,  at  that  place  to  which 
the  horizon  is  rectified. 

768.  The  moon,  (No.  5.)  exhibits  all  die 
phases  already  described.  When  the  horizon  is 
rectified  to  Uie  latitude  of  any  given  place,  the 
times  of  the  moon's  rising  and  setting,  together 
with  her  amplitude,  are  shown  to  that  place,  as 
well  as  the  sun's ;  and  all  the  various  phenomena 
of  the  harvest  moon  are  made  obvious  to  sight. 
The  moon's  orbit,  (No.  9.)  is  inclined  to  the 
ecliptic,  (No  11.)  one  half  being  above,  and  t)u 
other  below  it.  The  nodes,  or  points  at  0  and  0, 
lie  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  as  before  describ- 
ed, and  shift  backward,'through  all  its  sines- and 
degrees,  in  18f  years. 

769.  The  degrees  of  the  moon's  latitude,  to 
the  highest  in  NL,  (north  latitude,)  and  lowest 
at  SL,  (south  latitude,)  are  engraven  both  ways 
from  her  nodes  at  0  and  0 ;  and,  as  the  moon 
rises  and  falls  in  her  orbit,  according  to  its  incli- 
nation, her  latitude  and  distance  from  her  nodes 
are  shown  for  every  day,  having  first  rectified  her 
orbit,  so  as  to  set  the  nodes  to  their  proper  places 
in  the  ecliptic ;  and  then,  as  they  come  about,  at 
different,  and  almost  opposite  times  of  the  year, 
and  then  point  towards  the  sun,  all  the  eclipses 
may  be  shown  for  hundreds  of  years  (without 
any  new  rectification),  by  turning  the  machinery 
backward,  for  time  past,  or  forward  for  time 
to  come. 

770.  At  17^  distance  from  each  node,  on  both 
sides,  is  engraved  a  small  sun;  and  at  12^  dis- 
tance a  small  moon,  which  show  the  limits  of 
solar  and  lunar  eclipses;    and  when,   at  any 
change,  the  moon  (alls  between  either  of  these 
suns  and  the  node,  the  sun  will  be  eclip^d  on  the 
day  pointed  to  by  the  annual  index,  (No.lO).  And 
'when  at  any  full,  the  moon  falls  between  either 
of  the  little  moons  and  node,  slie  will  be  eclipsed, 
and   the  annual  index  shows  the  day  of  that 
eclipse.    There  is  a  circle  of  29i|  equal  parts  (No. 
8)  on  Uie  cover  of  the  machine,  on  which  an  in- 
dex shows  the  days  of  the  moon's  age.    There  is 
a  iointed  wire,  of  which,  one  end  being  put  into 
a  hole  in  the  upright  stem  that  holds  the  earth's 
cap,  and  the  wire  laid  into  a  small  forked  piece 
which  may  be  occasionally  put  upon  Venus  or 
Mercury,  shows  the  direct  and  retrograde  mo- 
tions of  these  two  planets,  with  their  stationary 
times  and  tilaces,  as  seen  from  the  earth.    The 
whole  machinery  is  turned  by  a  winch,  (No.  12) 
and  is  so  easily  moved,  that  a  clock  might  turn 
it,  without  any  danger  of  stopping. 

771.  Mr.  Jones's  Planetarium,  plate  XI.  fig. 
1,  represents  in  a  general  manner,  by  various 
parts  of  its  machinery,  all  the  motions  and  phe- 
nomena of  the  pbmetaiy  system.  This  machine 
consists  of,  the  Sun  in  the  centre,  with  the  pla- 
nets. Mercury,  VemiSi  the  Earth  Mid  Moon, 


Digitized  by 


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ASTRONOMY, 


189 


Man,  Jupiter  and  his  four  moons,  Saturn  and  ■  earth's  in  this  machine,  this  being  in  just  pro* 

his  five  moqns;  and  to  it  is  occasionally  applied  portion  to  the  moon's  distance  from  the  eaith. 

an  extra  long  arm  for  the  planet  Uerschel  and  his  A  A  is  a  bar  of  woo^,  to  be  moved -by  hand 

two  moons.    To  the  earth  and  moon  is  applied  a  round  the  axis  g,  which  is  fixed  in  the  wheel  Y, 


frame  C  D,  containing  only  four  wheels  and  two 
pinions,  which  serve  to  preserve  the  earth's  axis 
m  its  proper  parallelism  in  its  motion  round  the 
sun,  and  to  give  the  moon  her  due  revolution 
about  the  earth  at  the  same  time.  These  wheels 
are  connected  with  the  wheeUwork  in  the  round 
box  betow,  and  the  whole  is  set  in  motion  by  the 
winch  H.  The  arm  M,  which  carries  round  the 
moon,  points  out  on  the  plate,  B,  her  age  and 
phases  lor  any  situation  in  her  orbit,  and  which 


The  circumference  of  this  wheel  is  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  small  wheel  L,  below  the  other 
end  of  the  bar,  as  365i  days  to  29^,  or  as  a  year 
is  to  a  lunation.  The  wheeb  are  grooved  round 
their  edges,  and  in  the  grooves  is  the  catgut 
string  G  G,  crossing  between  the  wheeb  at  X. 
On  the  axis  of  the  wheel  L,  is  the  index  F,  in 
which  is  fixed  the  moon's  axis  M,  for  carrying  her 
round  the  earth  £,  fixed  on  the  axis  of  the  wheel 
L  in  the  time  that  the  index  goes  round  a  circle 


accordingly  are  engraved  thereon.  In  the  same  of  29^  equal  parts,  which  are  the  days  of  the 
manner  the  arm  points  out  her  place  in  the  moon's  age.  The  wheel  Y  has  the  months  and 
ecliptic  D,  in  sijnis  and  degrees,  called  her  geo-  days  of  the  year  all  round  its  limb;  and  in  the 
centric  place.  The  moon's  orbit  is  represented  bar  A  A  is  fixed  the  index  /,  which  points  out  the 
by  the  flat  rim  A;  the  two  joints  of  which,  and  days  of  the  months  answerbg  to  the  days  of  the 
upon  which  it  turns,  denoting  her  nodes.  This  moon's  age,  shewu  by  the  index  F,  in  the  circle 
orbit  is  made  to  incline  to  any  desired  angle,  of  29^  equal  parts  at  the  other  etid  of  the  bar. 
The  earth  of  this  instrument'  is  usually  made  of  On  the  axis  of  the  wheel  is  put  the  piece  D,  below 
a  three  inch  or  1^  globe,  papered,  &c.  for  the  the  cock  C,  in  which  this  axis  turns  round;  and 
purpose ;  and  b^  means  of  the  terminating  wire  in  D  are  put  the  pencils  e  and  m,  direcdy  under 
that  goes  over  it,  points  out  the  changes  of  ti^e  tiie  ewrth  C  and  moon  M ;  so  that  m  is  carried 
seasons,  and  the  aifferent  lengths  of  days  and  round  e  as  M  is  round  £.^ 
nights  more  conspicuously.  This  machine  is  774.  Lay  the  machine  on  an  even  floor,  pres- 
also  made  to  represent  the  Ptolemaic  system,  or  sing  gently  on  the  wheel  Y,  to  cause  ite  spiked 
such  as  is  vulgarly  received ;  which  places  the  feet  (of  which  two  appear  at  P,  the  third  being 
earth  in  the  centre,  and  the  planets  and  sun  re-  supposed  to  be  hid  from  the  sight  by  the  wheel) 
volving  about  it.  This  is  done  by  an  auxiliary  to  enter  a  little  into  the  floor  to  secure  the  wheel 
small  8\m  and  an  earth,  which  change  their  places  fironi  turning.  Then  lay  a  paper  about  four  feet 
in  the  instrument  long  under  die  pencils  e  ana  m,  cross-ways  to  the 

772.  The  true  causes  of  the  solar  and  lunar  bar ;  which  done,  move  the  bar  slowly  round 
eclipses  are  here  very  clearly  seen ;  for  by  placing  the  axis  g  of  the  wheel  Y ;  and  as  the  earth  £ 
the  lamp,  fig.  5,  plate  XI.,  upon  the  centre,  in-  goes  round  the  sun  S,  the  moon  M  will  go  round 
stead  ot  the  brass  ball  denoting  the  sun,  and  tur-  Sie  earth  with  a  duly  proportioned  velocity;  and 
ning  the  winch  until  the  moon  comes  into  a  the  friction  wheel  W,  running  on  the  floor,  will 
right  line  between  the  centres  of  the  lamp  (or  keep  the  bar  from  bearing  too  heavily  on  the 
sun)  and  the  earth,  the  shadow  of  the  moon  pencils  e  and  m,  which  will  delineate  the  paths 
will  fiill  upon  the  euth  On  the  odier  side,  the  of  the  earth  and  moon.  As  the  index  I  points 
moon  passes  (in  the  aforesaid  case)  through  the  out  the  days  of  the  months,  the  index  F  shows 
shadow  of  the  earth,  and  is  by  that  means  the  moon's  age  on  these  days,  in  the  circle  of 
eclipsed.    And  the  orbit  A,  fig.  1,  is  so  movable    29^  equal  parts.    And,  as  this  last  index  points 


on  the  two  joints  called  nodes,  that  any  person 
may  easily  represent  the  due  position  of  the 
nodes  and  intermediate  spaces  of  the  moon's 
orbit;  and  thence  show  when  there  vnll,  or  will 
not  be,  an  eclipse  of  either  luminaiy,  and 
what  the  quantity  of  each  will  be.    While  the 


to  the  different  days  in  its  circle,  the  like  nu- 
meral figures  may  be  set  to  those  parts  of  the 
curves  of  the  earth's  and  moon's  paths,  where 
the  pencils  e  and  m  are  at  those  times  re- 
spectively, to  shew  the, places  of  the  earth  and 
moon.    If  die  pencils  be  pushed  a  very  little 


moon  is  continuing  to  move  round  the  earth,  the  off*,  as  if  from  the  pencU  m,  to  about  j^  part  of 

lamp  on  the  centre  will  so  illuminate  her,  that  their  distance,  and  tne  pencil  m  pushe4  as  much  . 

all  ber  phases,  as  new,  dichotomised,  gibbous,  tovrards  e  to  bring  them  to  the  same  distances 

full,  waning,  &c.  will  be  seen  just  as  Siey  ap-  again,  though  not  to  the  same  points  of  space ; 

pear  in  the  heavens.    All  the  same  phases  of  the  then  m  goes  round  e,  e  will  go  as  it  were  round 

earth,  as  they  appear  at  the  moon,  will  also  be  the  centre  of  giavi^  between  the  earth  e  and 

exhibited.    The  satellites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  moon  «i ;  but  this  motion  will  not  sensibly 

are  movable  only  by  the  hand ;  yet  all  their  alter  the  figure  of  the  earth's  path  or  that  of  the 

phenomena  may  be  easily  represented,  excepting  moon's. 

the  true  relative  motions  and  distances.  775.  If  a  pm,  as  p,  be  put  through  the  pencil 

773.  The  Trajectorium  Lunare,  fig.  8,  plate  m,  widiits  head  towards  that  of  the  nin  g,  in  the 

XIII,  is  intended,  by  delineating  the  paths  of  pencil  e,  its  head  will  always  keep  tiiereto  as  m, 

the  earth  and  moon,  to  show  what  sort  of  curves  goes  round  e,  or  as  the  same  side  of  the  moon  is 

they  make  in  the  ethereal  regions.    S  is  the  sun,  still  obverted  to  the  earth.    But  the  pinp,  which 

and  £  the  earth,  whose  centres  are  ninety-five  may  be  considered  as  an  equatorial  diameter  of 

inches  distant  from  each  other ;  every  inch  an-  the  moon,  vnll  turn  quite  round  the  point  m, 

swering  to  1,000,000  of  miles.    M  is  the  moon,  making  all  possible  angles  with  the  line  of  ib* 

whfiie  centre  is  ft  parts  of  an  inch  from   the  progress,  or  line  of  the  moon's  path.    This  is 


Digitized  by 


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190 


ASTRONOMY. 


an  ocular  proof  of  die  moon's  taming  rotmd  her 
axis. 

Sect.  IL    Op  the  Psinctpal  Insteumekts 

USED    FOR    MAKING    AsTROMOMICAL   ObSSE- 
▼ATIOMS. 

776.  In  practical  astronomy  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  place  conveniently  situated,  and  suitably 
iumished  with  proper  astronomical  instruments. 
It  should  have  an  uninterrupted  view  from  the 
zenith  down  to>  or  even  below,  the  horizon,  at 
least  towards  its  cardinal  points.  For  this  pur- 
pose that  part  of  the  roof  in  particular  which  lies 
in  (he  direction  of  the  meridian,  should  have 
moveable  covers,  which  may  easily  be  moved  and 
put  on  again ;  by  which  means  an  instrument 
aay  bo  directed  to  any  point  of  the  heavens  be- 
tween the  horizon  and  zenith,  either  northward 
or  southwaid.  This  place,  called  an  observatory, 
should  contain  some,  if  not  all,  of  the  following 
instruments : 

777.  1.  A  pendulum  dock  for  showing  equal 
time.  This  should  show  time  in  hours,  minutes, 
and  seconds;  and  with  which  the  observer,  by 
bearing  the  beats  of  tlie  pendulum,  may  count 
them  by  his  ear,  while  his  eye  is  employed  on  the 
motion  of  the  celestial  objcctbe  is  observing.  Just 
before  the  ohject  arrives  at  the  position  described, 
the  observer  should  look  on  the  dock  and  mark 
the  time,  suppose  it  6h.  i5mm,  25sec.;  then 
sayiog,  25,  26,  27,  28,  &c  responsive  to  the 
beat  of  the  pendulum,  till  he  sees  through  the  in- 
strument the  object  amved  at  the  position  expeo- 
ted ;  which  suppose  to  happen  when  he  says  38, 
he  t^n  writes  down  9b.  15m.  38sec.  for  the  time 
of  observatioD,  anaexii^;  the  year  and  &e  day  of 
the  month. 

778.  2.  An  aehwraailic  refracting  telescope,  or 
a  lefleotiag  one,  of  two  feet  at  least  in  lene^,  for 
ohsemng  particular  phenomena.  See  me  de- 
scription under  Optics. 

779.  3.  A  micrometer,  for  measuring  small 
angular  distances.    See  Miceohetek 

780.  Astronomical  qaadrants,  both  mural  and 
portable,  for  observing  meridian  and  other  alti- 
tudes of  the  bodies. 

781.  4.  The  mural  quadrant,  so  called  from 
murus  a  wall:  it  is  m  tbeform  of  aquaiter  of  a 
circle,  contained  under  two  radii  at  right  angles 
to  one  another,  aad  an  arch  equal  to  one  fourth 

Strt  of  the  cirewnference  of  the  cncle.  This  is 
e  most  useful  and  valuable  of  all  the  astrono- 
Bomical  instruments;  and,  as  it  is  sometimes 
fixed  to  the  side  of  a  stone  or  brick  wall,  and  the 
plane  of  it  erected  exactly  in  the  plane  of  the 
meridian,  it  Koeives  the  name  of  mural  quadrant. 
Tyofao  Brahewas'the  first  person  who  applied 
this  aroh  (o  a  wall ;  and  Flamsteed  the  first  in 
England  who,  with  indefatigable  pains,  fixed  one 
up  in  the  royal  observatory  at  Greenwich. 

782.  Mural  <}uadnmts  have  usually  been  made 
boim  five  to  eight  feet  radius.  Fig.  1,  plate 
XIIL  represents  the  instrument  fixed  to  the 
wall.  The  frame  is  formed  of  flat  bars,  and 
strengthened  by  edge  ba»,  fixed  underneath  per- 
pendicular to  them.  The  radii  H  B,  A  A,  being 
divided  each  into  four  equal  parts,  serve  to  find 
the  points  D  and  £^by  which  tneqqadrant  is  freely 
iuspeodedoD  iu  isoa  supports,  that  are  festened 


in  the  wall.  One  of  the  supports,  £,  is  repre- 
sented separatdy  in  e  on  one  side  of  the  quadrant 
It  is  moveable  by  means  of  a  long  slender  rod  EB 
or  ef,  which  goes  into  a  hollow  screw  in  oider 
to  restore  the  instrument  to  its  situation  when  it 
is  discovered  to  be  a  little  deraaged.  This  may 
be  known  by  the  very  fine  perpendicular  thread 
HA,  which  ought  always  to  coincide  with  the 
same  point  A  of  the  limb,  and  carefully  examined 
to  be  so  by  a  small  magnifying  telesoope-at  eveiy 
observation. 

783.  In  order  to  prevent  the  unsteadiness  of 
so  great  a  machine,  there  should  be  placed  behind 
the  limb  four  copper  ears  with  double  cocks,  I, 
K,  I,  K.  There  are  otiiers  along  the  radii  HA 
and  H  B ;  each  of  these  cocks  contains  two 
screws,  into  which  is  fastened  the  ears  that  are 
fixed  behind  the  quadrant.  Over  the  wall  or 
stone  which  supports  the  instrument,  and  at  the 
same  height  as  tiie  centre,  is  placed  hohzoot^y 
the  axis  P  O,  which  is  perpendiailar  to  the  plane 
of  the  instrument,  and  which  would  pass  through 
the  centre  if  it  was  contiDucd.  This  axis  turns 
on  two  pivots  P.  On  this  axis  is  fixed  at  right 
angles  another  branch,  O  N,  loaded  at  its  extre- 
mity with  a  weight,  N,  capable  of  equipoising 
with  its  weight  that  of  the  telescope  L  A ;  whilst 
the  axis,  by  its  extremity  nearest  the  quadrant^ 
carries  the  wooden  firame  P  R  M»  which  is  fosten- 
ed  to  the  telescope  in  M.  The  counterpoise  takes 
off  firom  the  observer  the  weight  of  the  telescope 
when  he  raises  it,  and  hinders  him  from  either 
forcing  or  straining  the  instrument  The  lower 
extremity,  V,  of  the  telescope,  is  fiimished  with 
two  smsdl  wheels,  which  take  the  limb  of  the 
quadrant  on  its  two  sides.  The  telescope  hardly 
bears  any  more  upon  the  limb  than  toe  small 
firiction  of  these  two  wheels ;  which  renders  its 
motion  so  extremely  cuy  and  pleasant,  that  by 
giving  it  with  the  hand  only  a  small  motion,  the 
telescope  will  run  of  itself  over  a  great  pait  c^the 
limb,  balanced  by  the  counterpoise  N. 

784.  When  the  telescope  is  to  be  stopped  at  a 
certain  position,  the  copper  hand  T  is  to  be  made 
use  of,  which  embraces  the  limb  and  springs  at 
the  bottom.  It  is  fixed  bv  a  setting  screw,  which 
fastens  it  to  the  limb.  Inen,  in  turning  the  re* 
gulating  screw,  the  telescope  will  be  advanced; 
which  is  continued  until  the  star,  or  other  object 
whose  altitude  is  observing,  be  on  the  horizontal 
fine  tliread  in  the  telescope.  Then  on  the  plate 
X,  supporting  the  telescope,  and  carrying  a  ver- 
nier or  nonius,  will  be  seen  (he  number  of  degrees 
and  minutes,  and  even  quarter  of  minutes^  that 
the  angular  height  of  the  object  observed  is  equal 
to.  "Ac  remainder  is  easily  estimated  within 
two  or  three  seconds  nearly. 

785.  There  are  several  methods  of  sobdividiBg 
the  divisions  of  a  mural  quadrant,  which  are 
usually  from  five  or  ten  minutes  each ;  but  that 
whidi  is  most  commonl>>  adopted  is  by  the  ver* 
nier  Or  nonius,  tlie  invention  of  Peter  Vernier,  a 
Frenchman.  This  vernier  consists  of  a  piece  of 
copper  or  brass,  CDAB,  fig.  6,  which  is  a 
small  portion  of  X,  fis.  1,  represented  separatdy. 
The  length,  G  D,  is  divided  into  twenty  equal 

r,  and  placed  contiguously  on  a  portion  of 
division    of   the   limb  of  the  quadrant. 


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ctmtuning  twenty-one  diTisions,  and  theiebj  di* 
viding  their  length  into  twenty  equal  parts. 
Thus  the  first  diidsion  of  the  vernier  piece 
marked  15,  beginning  at  die  point  D,  is  a  little 
backward,  or  to  ihe  1^  of  the  first  division  of  the 
limb,  equal  to  15". 

786.  The  second  division  of  the  vernier,  is  to 
the  left  of  the  second  division  of  the  limb  double 
of  the  fim  difierenoe,  or  de^;  and  so  on  to  the 
twentieth,  and  last  division  on  the  left  of  the  ver- 
nier piece ;  where  the  twenty  differences  being 
accumulated,  each  of  the  twentieth  part  of  the  di- 
vision of  the  limb,  this  last  division  will  be  found 
to  agree  exactly  with  the  twenty-fiist  division  of 
the  limb  of  the  <juadnmt  The  index  must  be 
pushed  the  twentieth  part  of  a  division,  or  15'  to 
the  right;  to  make  the  seoond  division  on  (he  ver- 
nier coincide  with  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  limb, 
in  like  manner  in  moving  two  SOths,  or  30^,  we 
must  look  at  the  second  division  of  the  index, 
and  there  will  be  a  coincidence  wiA  a  division  of 
the  limb.  Thus  the  beginning,  D,  of  the  vernier, 
which  is  always  the  line  of  reckoning,  has  advan- 
ced two  divisions,  or  30*  to  the  light,  when  Uie 
second  division,  marked  30  on  the  vemiez,  is  seen 
to  correspond  exactly  with  one  of  the  lined  of  the 
quadrant. 

787.  The  plate  of  copper  which  carries  the 
telescope,  is  placed  on  the  side  of  the  quaibrant, 
and  carries  two  verniers.  The  outer  line  CD  di- 
vides ^je  minutes  into  twenty  parts,  or  15"  each. 
The  interior  line  A  B  answers  to  the  parts  of  ano- 
ther division,  not  having  90^,  but  96  parts  of  the 
quadrant.  It  is  usuallv  adopted  by  English  astro* 
nomers,  on  account  of  the  &cility  of  its  subdivi- 
sions. Each  of  the  96  portions  of  the  quad- 
rant is  equivalent  to  56'  15  of  the  usual  divisions. 
It  is  divided  on  the  limb  into  sixteen  parts,  and 
the  arch  of  the  vernier  A  B  contains  twenty-five 
of  these  divisions ;  and  being  divided  itself  into 
twenty-four,  immediately  give  parts,  the  value  of 
each  of  which  is  8"  471'". 

788.  6.  The  portable  astronomical  quadrant  is 
generally  made  from  twelve  to  twenty-three 
inches.  Fig.  2,  plate  XIU.  represents  one  of 
brass,  and  strongly  filmed  together  by  crossed 
perpendicular  bars.  The  arch  A  C,  and  tele- 
scope £  F,  are  divided  and  constructed  in  a  simi- 
lar manner  to  the  mural  quadrant,  but  generally 
without  the  division  of  ninetv-six  parts.  Tfale 
counterpoise  to  the  telescope  T  is  represented  at 
P,  and  also  another  counterpoise  to  tne  quadrant 
itself  at  P.  The  quadrant  is  fixed  to  a  long  axis, 
which  ffoes  into  the  pillar  K  R.  Upon  ti^s  axis 
is  fixea  an  index,  which  points  to,  and  subdi- 
vides by  a  vernier,  the  divisions  of  the  azimutU 
circle,  K.  This  azimuth  circle  is  extremely  use- 
ful for  taking  the  azimuth  of  a  celestial  body,  at 
the  time  its  altitude  is  observed.  The  upper 
end  of  the  axis  is  firmly  connected  with  the  ad- 
justing frame  G  H ;  and  the  pillar  is  supported 
on  the  crossed  feet  at  the  bottom  of  the  pUlar  K 
R,  with  the  adjusting  screws  abed, 

789.  When  the  instrument  is  erected  for  ob- 
servation, it  is  necessary  that  two  adjustments  be 
very  accurately  made;  one,  that  the  place  or  sur- 
face of  the  instrument  be  truly,  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon ;  the  other,  that  the  line  supposed  to 
be  diavm  fimm  the  centre  to  the.  first  line  of  the 


limb,  be  truly  on  a  level  or  parallel  with  the  ho- 
rizon. The  first  of  these  ifirticulaiB  is  done  by 
means  of  the  thread  and  plummet  p ;  thf»  thread 
of  which  is  usually  of  very  fine  silver  wire,  and 
is  placed  opposite  to  a  mark  made  upon  the 
ena  of  the  limb  of  the  instniment  'fbe  four 
screws  at  die  foot  aked,  are  to  be  turned  until 
a  perfect  ootnddenoe  is  observed  of  the  thread 
upon  the  mark,  vrhich  is  accurately  observed  by 
means  of  a  small  tdesoope  T,  that  fits  to  Ae 
limb.  The  other  adjustment  is  effected  by  means 
of  ihe  spirit-level  L,  which  applies  on  tne  frame 
6H,  and  the  small  screvrs  turned  as  before  amtil 
die  bubble  of  air  in  the  level  settles  in  the  mid- 
dleof  the  tube.  The  dotted  tube  EB  is  a  kind 
of  prover  to  the  instrument ;  for,  observing  at 
what  mark  the  centre  of  it  appears  against,  or, 
by  putting  up  a  mark  against  it,  it  vnll  at  any 
time  discover  if  the  instrument  has  been  dis- 
placed. The  screw  S,  s(t  the  index,  is  the  regu- 
lating or  adjusting  screw,  to  move  the  telescope 
and  index,  during  the  observation,  with  die  ut- 
most nicety. 

Sect.  VII. — ^The  Mub4L  Cjrcle. 

790.  Valuable  as  hanre  been  the  services  which 
the  astronomical  quadrant  has  rendered  to  astro- 
nomical science,  its  use,  in  modem  times,  has 
been  altogether  superseded  by  the  sauial  circle, 
of  which  we  shall  row  give  the  description  and 
use: — 

791.  Hie  circle,  with  its  attached  telescope,  is 
made  to  revolve  by  means  of  a  hoxizontal  axis, 
which  works  in  collars  fixed  in  the  stone  wall. 
The  plane  of  the  circle,  see  plate  X.  fig.  3,  is  pa- 
rallel to  the  wall,  but  the  gRiduations  are  made 
on  the  outer  rim  of  the  instrument,  which  rim 
is  perpendicular  to  the  wall 

792.  These  graduations  are  viewed  and  read 
off  by^  six  microscopes  fixed  to  the  wall,  one  of 
which' microscopes  is  represented  at  A,  and  the 
places  of  the  five  others  ^precisely  similar  to  the 
former)  are  marked  by  tne  letters  B,  C,  D,  E, 
F.  The  microscopes  are  distant  from  each  other 
sixty  degree^  or  so  placed  as  nearly  as  can  be  by 
the  instrument  maker. 

793.  The  rim  is  divided  into  equal  parts  of 
five  minutes  each,  and  the  readings  off  to  a  less 
number  of  minutes,  and  to  single  seconds,  are 
effected  by  the  micrometer  microscopes,  A,  B, 
&c.  the  construction  of  which  is  as  fi^ows : 
The  microscope  A,  or  micrometer  microscope  A, 
is  directed,  as  it  is  shovm  in  the  figure,  to  the 
rim  on  which  the  graduations  are  made.  Con- 
sider the  object  to  the  microscope  to  be  one 
graduation  of  the  instrument,  or  the  space  oc- 
cupied by  five  minutes.  Tbe  image  of  this 
space  will  be  formed  in  the  conjugate  focus  of 
the  object  g^ass,  and  vrill  be  seen  distinctly 
through  the  eyeglass  of  the  microscope,  when 
the  above-mentioned  image  is  in  its  iocus.  In 
this  latter  focus  (the  focus  of  the  eye-glass)  are 
placed  a  thin  indented  slip  of  metal,  and  a  wire 
capable  of  being  moved  m  a  parallel  direcdcn 
from  one  mark  of  division  to  another  by  means 
of  a  screw.  The  revolutions  of  the  screw,  and 
parts  of  its  revolution,  are  noted  by  means  of  a 
screw-head  and  graduated  plate.  Now,  it  is 
desirable^  fiir  the  more  convenient  noting  of  the 


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ASTRONOMY. 


results  of  observations,  that  by  the  five  revolu- 
tioDs  of  the  screw,  tie  wire  should  be  translated 
through  the  space  occupied  by  fiye  minutes ;  in 
which  case  one  revolution  would  answer  to  one 
minute,  and  one-sixtieth  to  a  second.  The  mode 
of  effecting  this  may  be  thus  explained : — 

794.  Suppose  the  object-glass  of  the  micros- 
cope being  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  gra- 
duated rim,  and  there  being  distinct  vision,  that 
the  moveable  wire  appears  to  be  translated  through 
the  ^ve  minutes  by  nve  revolutions  and  a  half  of 
the  screw.  In  such  case  the  image  of  the  five 
minutes  is  too  small.  It  will  be  increased  by 
moving  the  object-glass  tov?ards  the  graduated 
rim ;  tibe  eye-glass,  with  its  wire,  &c.  being  ad- 
justed, by  a  separate  movement,  to  distinct  ri^ 
sion.  A  second  trial  must  now  be  made,  to  as- 
certain whether  five  revolutions  of  the  screw  are 
equal  or  not  to  the  translation  of  the  wire  over 
the  image  of  five  minutes  of  the  divided  limb. 
If  there  is  not  an  equality,  the  adjustments  must 
be  repeated  till  there  be  an  exact  correspondence, 
as  considerable  trouble  is  thereby  saved  in  re- 
ducing the  graduations  of  the  screw-head  to 
minutes  and  seconds.  If  the  microscope  of  the 
micrometer  were  allowed  to  remain  in  its  first 
state,  then,  since  5*5  revolutions  =  5',  one  re- 
volution would  equal  50.454"  &c. 

795.  But,  whatever  be  the  value  of  a  revolu- 
tion, the  uses  of  the  moveable  wire  and  indented 
slip  of  brass  are  the  same.  A  star  is  observed 
on  the  centre  of  the  cross-wire  of  the  telescope ; 
and  on  looking  through  the  microscope,  die  in- 
dex, or  slip  of  brass,  occupies,  probably,  a  place 
between  two  graduations.  The  wire  moved  from 
the  index,  either  to  the  graduation  above  or  be- 
low it,  measures  the  distance  of  the  index  from 
that  graduation  by  the  revolutions  of  the  screw- 
head.  For  convenience,  each  tooth  of  the  in- 
dented brass  answers  to  one  minute,  so  that  if  the 
wire  is  moved  from  the  index  post,  two  teeth,  and 
the  index  of  the  screw-head  points  to  37,  tlien 
2'  37"  are  to  be  added  to,  or  subtractedfrom,  the 
degrees  and  minutes  which  are  read  off  by  the 
eye  without  the  aid  of  the  micrometer.  In  every 
observation  all  the  six  microscopes  are  used,  to 
diminish  the  errors  of  division,  and  the  effects  of 
partial  expansion. 

796.  In  reading  off  at  the  several  microscopes, 
we  need  only  to  attend  to  the  seconds.  For, 
suppose  a  star  to  be  in  the  pole,  and  the  teles- 
cope directed  to  it,  the  whole  circle  must  be 
turned  round  in  the  direction  from  B  towards  C, 
D,  &c. ;  and  the  end  of  the  telescope,  instead  of 
being  directed,  as  in  the  figure,  to  a  point  in  the 
south,  between  'B  and  C,  will  be  directed  to  a 
point  between  D  and  A.  If  (the  telescope  being 
directed  to  the  pole)  the  reading  off  at  the  mi- 
crometer A  were  0°  O'  0",  the  index  error  would 
be  0.  If  the  other  microscopes,  F,  £,  B,  &c. 
were  placed  exactly  at  equal  distances,  the  read- 
ing off  at  them  would  be  60"^,  120°,  180^  240^, 
360^.  This,  however,  is  not  likely  to  take  place, 
the  index  error  of  each  will  probably  be  of  some 
fliagnitude.  The  reading  off  at  A,  for  instance, 
instead  of  being  0*»  0*  0',  may  be  -|-  3",  +  10", 
-f  r' ;  and  in  the  same  way  the  reading  off  at 
the  other  microscopes,  from  their  not  being 
placed  at  equal  distances,  or  from  inequality  of 


graduation,  partial  expansion,  or  from  all  diese 
causes  conjoined,  may  be  60*  ±  4"  60**  ±6", 
120*'  +  9*,120O+r,&c. 

799.  Suppose  that,  independently  of  the  de- 
grees and  minutes,  the  seconds  at  the  six  mi- 
croscopes were  +  5",  +  7",  +  4"  -f  12"  -f  8*, 
-I-  9";  then  these  are  the  several  index  erron; 
and  if  the  polar  distance  of  an  observed  star 
were  read  off  only  at  one  microscope,  the  in- 
dex error  belonging  to  that  microscope  must  be 
applied  to  the  polar  distance  so  read  off.  Thus, 
it  only  the  microscope  B  were  used,  whose  in- 
dex error  is  -|-  12",  and  the  north jpohir  distance 
of  /3  Ursa  Minores,  were  read  pff,  196°  4'  46^, 
then  deducting  180°  for  the  position  of  the  mi- 
croscope, and  12"  for  the  index  error,  we  should 
have  the  north  polar  distance  of  the  star  =  50^ 
4'  34". 

800.  If  all  the  six  microscopes  are  used,  the 
mean  index  error,  or  one-sixtn  of  the  several 
index  errors,  is  applied  to  the  result  of  the  several 
readings. 

801.  The  same  illustration  would  serve  if  we 
suppose  die  telescope  directed  to  a  star  whose 
polar  distance  is  previously  known.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, we  knew  tnat  the  north  polar  distamce  of 
Polaris  was  1°  41'  41*3" ;  then  if  the  micrometer 
A,  marked  1°  41'  46*5",  we  should  know  that  its 
index  error  was  7*2" ;  and  the  equation  to  be  ap- 
plied to  its  observed  north  polar  distance  at  tlut 
microscope  — 7*2.  In  like  manner  we  should 
know  ftom  the  same  star  the  index  errors  of  the 
other  microscopes,  and  thence  the  mean  index 
error. 

802.  That  the  results  from  this  instrument  do 
not  depend  on  the  accurate  positions  of  the  mi- 
croscopes, may  be  easily  shown.  Suppose  the 
telescope  directed  to  the  pole,  and  that  the  se- 
conds indicated  by  the  micrometer  A  be  7^,  let 
B  indicate  b  -(-  23";  C,  c  -f  4;  D,  <j  -|-  5; 
E,  c  -I-  9,  and  F,/  -f  15 ;  6,  c,  rf,  &c.  denoting 
the  degrees  and  minutes.  Let  X  be  the  north 
polar  distance  of  any  star  (Capella,  for  example, 
X  being  =  44°  12'  16"),  and  let  the  number  of 
seconds  in  X  be  16 ;  so  that,  ^  being  the  de- 
grees and  minutes  s^y  -f  16";  then  the  in- 
strument being  directed  to  Capella  (and  con- 
sequently turned  through  an  angle  X),  and  the 
errors  of  division,  expansion,  and  uncertainties 
in  reading  off  not  being  considered,  the  seconds 
at  which  it  will  stand  will  be  23,  B,  39 ;  C,  20; 
D,  21 ;  £,  25,  and  F,  31 ;  one-sixth  of  the  sum 
of  which  is  26*5",  whence  the  north  polar  dis- 
tance of  Capella  by  the  instrument,  is  i  -f  26*5* 
z=  44°  12'  26*5";  and  consequenUy  the  mean 
index  errory  -f  26*5"  —  szzy+  26*5* — y  -|- 
16"  =  10*5. 

803.  The  index  error  may  be  found  in  the 
same  way  by  any  other  star,  since  x  may  be  any 
angle ;  and  if  the  catalogues  were  exact,  and  the 
instrument  perfedt,  the  same  index  error  would 
result  from  all  stars.  If,  for  instance,  the  seconds 
in  X,  instead  of  16"  were  36",  we  should  still  have 
the  same  index  error  10*5".  But  in  practice,  the 
index  error  will  be  found  different  with  different 
stars,  both  on  account  of  the  imperfection  of  the 
catalogues,  the  inaccuracy  of  graduation,  and 
other  defects  in  tlie  instrument.  The  index 
error,  therefore,  is  found  from  olnervations  oo  a 


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great  number  of  stars,  and  the  mean  of  the  whole 
of  the  errors  so  found,  is  considered  as  the  ge- 
neral mean  index  error. 

804.  For  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  errors 
of  dirision,  the  telescope  can  be  shifted  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  circle,  so  that  instead  of  the 
microscope  A,  nearly  coinciding  with  O,  when  the 
telescope  is  pointed  to  the  pole,  it  may  point 
nearly  to  10°,  20**,  30°,  or  any  other  degree  of 
the  circle.  In  this  case  the  index  error  in  se- 
conds, found  as  above,  added  to  the  degrees  and 
minutes  read  off  by  the  eye,  is  the  index  error  of 
the  microscope. 

805.  The  mural  circle,  like  the  transit  instru- 
ment, reauires  three  adjustments,  1.  Its  axis  must 
be  made  horizontal.  2.  Its  line  of  collimation 
must  be  made  perpendicular  to  the  horizontal 
axis.  3.  The  line  of  collimation  must  be  made  to 
move  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian. 

806.  The  method  of  making  the  first  adjust- 
ment is  the  same  as  that  for  maJcing  the  like  ad- 
justment in  the  transit^nstrument ;  and  as  the 
two  insbuments  are  commonly  used  in  conjunc- 
tion, we  may  use  the  transit  instrument  for 
bringing  the  plane  of  the  circle  and  its  telesco|>e 
into  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  When  a  star  is 
on  the  meridional  wire  of  the  transit  instru- 
ment, move  the  mural  circle,  so  that  the  star  may 
be  also  on  its  middle  wire.  Observe,  by  the 
transit  instrument,  when  a  star  in  or  near  the 
zenith  crosses  the  meridian,  and  if  it  is  also  at 
the  same  time  on  the  middle  vertical  wire  of  the 
telescope  of  the  mural  circle,  its  line  of  collima* 
tion  is  rightly  adjusted.  If  a  difference  exists, 
adjust  till  an  exact  agreement  takes  place. 

807.  The  great  difficulties  attending  the  veri- 
fication of  the  line  of  collimation  in  the  mural 
circle,  will  always  prevent  its  becoming  a  good 
transit  instrument;  though,  in  this  respect,  it 
acts  better  than  the  telescope  of  the  mural  quad- 
rant, which  slides  along  tne  limb  of  the  quad- 
rant, whose  plane  cannot  be  made  wholly  on  the 
plane  of  the  meridian. 

808.  The  mural  circle  is  evidently  sufficient 
to  determine  to  the  extent  of  180°,  the  differ- 
ences of  the  decliuations  of  stars  south  and  north 
of  tlie  zenith  of  the  observer.  There  must  be  two 
quadrants  to  effect  the  same  object ;  and  besides 
this  advanuge  (that  of  a  single  instrument),  the 
circle  is  better  balanced,  and  its  six  microscopes, 
>vhich  are  firmly  fixed  in  a  stone  wall,  together 
with  the  power  of  changing  the  position  of  the 
telescope,  must,  when  we  take  the  mean  results 
of  a  great  number  of  observations,  in  a  great 
measure  do  away  the  errors  of  division  or  partial 
expansion. 

809.  The  direct  and  special  office  of  the  mural 
circle  is  to  determine  the  meridional  angular  dis- 
tances of  stars.  But  we  may  extend  the  prin- 
ciple of  its  uses,  and  view  the  image  of  the  pole 
star,  by  reflection,  from  a  basin  of' quicksilver, 
and  we  thence  obtain  the  angular  distance  be- 
tween the  star  and  its  image,  which  is  twice  the 
elevation  of  the  star  above  the  horizon.  Hence 
its  zenith  distance  becomes  known,  and  the  ze- 
nith distances  of  other  stars  are  consequently 
readily  given  by  the  instrument.  The  circle  in 
this  application  combines  in  itself  the  properties 
of  the  mural  quadrant  and  zenitli  sector.     It  was 

Vol.  in 


first  applied  by  the  present  astronomer  royal,  and 
it  is  one  of  the  many  improvements  on  practical 
astronomy  for  which  the  world  is  indebted  to 
that  eminent,  active,  and  unassuming  astrono- 
mer. 

81 0«  The  preceding  is  a  concise  description  of 
the  circle  which  Troughton  fixed  at  the  Royal 
Observatory.  Some  trifling  differences  between 
the  results  given  by  it  and  other  instruments, 
lately  induced  government  to  have  anoth^  made 
by  Jones,  which  is  now  fixed  to  the  west  wall, 
five  feet  from  the  other  circle.  The  agreement 
between  them  is  almost  perfect. 

811.  Dr.  Brinkley  of  bublin  has  a  circle,  and 
a  very  admirable  one,  which  moves  round  a  pil- 
lar, or  azimuth;  and  consequently,  in  two 
days  it  determines  double  the  zenith  distance  of 
any  celestial  object.  He  employs  only  three 
microscopes  in  reading  off;  but  the  principle  of 
reading  is  the  same  as  that  which  we  have  above 
described ;  and  a  person  who  attentively  con- 
siders what  we  have  said  on  the  subject  of  the 
Greenwich  circle,  will  have  no  difficulty  in  com- 
prehending the  method  of  using  the  Dublin  one. 

812.  8.  The  Astronomical  or  Equatorial 
Sector,  is  an  instrument  for  finding  the  differ- 
ence, in  right  ascension  and  declination,  between 
two  objects ;  the  distance  of  which  is  too  great' 
to  be  observed  by  the  micrometer,  and  was  in- 
vented by  Graham.  Let  A  B,  plate  XIII.  fig.  4, 
represent  an  arch  of  a  circle  containing  ten  or 
twelve  degrees  well  divided,  having  a  strong 
plate  C  D  for  its  radius,  fixed  to  the  middle  of 
the  arch  at  D :  let  this  radius  be  applied  to  the 
side  of  an  axis  H  F  I,  and  be  movable  about  a 
joint  fixed  to  it  at  F,  so  that  the  plane  of  the 
sector 'may  be  always  parallel  to  the  axis  H I ; 
which  being  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  the 
plane  of  the  sector  will  always  be  parallel  to  the 
plane  of  some  hour  circle.  liCt  a  telescope  C  £ 
oe  movable  about  the  centre  C,  of  the  arch  AB, 
from  one  end  of  it  to  the  other,  by  turning  a 
screw  at  G ;  and  let  the  line  of  sight  be  parallel* 
to  the  plane  of  the  sector.  Now,  by  turning  tLe 
whole  instrument  about  the  axis  H  I,  till  the 
plane  of  it  be  successively  directed,  first  to  one 
of  the  stars  and  tlien  to  another,  it  is  easy  to 
move  the  sector  about  the  joint  F,  into  such  a 
position,  that  the  arch  A  B,  when  fixed,  shall 
take  in  both  the  stars  in  their  passage,  by  the 
plane  of  it,  provided*  the  difference  of  their  de- 
clinations does  not  exceed  the  arch  A  B.  Then, 
having  fixed  the  plane  of  the  sector  a  little  to 
the  westward  of  both  the  stars,  move  the  tele- 
scope C  £  by  the  screw  G  ;  and  observe  by  a 
clock  the  time  of  each  transit  over  the  cross 
hairs,  and  also  the  degree  and  minutes  upon  the 
arch  A  B,  put  by  the  index  at  each  transit;  then 
in  the  difference  of  the  arches,  the  difference  of 
the  declinations,  and  by  the  difference  of  the 
times,  we  have  the  difference  of  the  right  ascen- 
sions of  the  stars. 

813.  The  dimensions  of  this  instrument  are 
these :  The  length  of  the  telescope,  or  the  radiu.^ 
of  the,  sector,  is  2|  feet ;  the  breadth  of  the 
radius,  near  the  end  C,  is  1^  inch;  and  at  the 
end  D,  two  inches.  The  breadth  of  the  limb, 
AB,  is  1}  inch  ;  and  its  length  six  inches,  con- 
taining ten  degrees,  divided  into  quarters,  and 


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numbered  from  either  end  to  the  other.  The 
telescope  carries  a  nonius  or  subdividing  plate, 
whose  length,  being  equal  to  sixteen  quarters  of 
a  degree,  is  divided  into  fifteen  equal  parts; 
which,  in  eflfect,  divides  the  limb  into  minutes, 
and  by  estimation,  into  smaller  parts.  The 
length  of  the  square  axis,  H I F,  is  eighteen 
inches,  and  of  the  part  H I  twelve  inches ;  and 
its  thickness  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  :  the 
diameters  of  the  circles  are  each  five  inches : 
the  thickness  of  the  plates,  and  the  other  mea- 
sures, may  be  taken  at  the  direction  of  a  work- 
man. , 

814.  This  instrument  may  be  rectified,  for 
making  observations,  in  this  manner:  By  placing 
the  intersection  of  the  cross  hairs  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  plane  of  the  sector,  as  the 
centre  of  the  object-glass,  the  plane  described 
by  the  line  of  sight,  during  the  circular  motion 
of  the  telescope  upon  the  limb,  will  be  suffici- 
ently true,  or  free  from  conical  curvity ;  which 
may  be  examined,  by  suspending  a  long  plumb- 
line  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  instru- 
ment ;  and,  by  fixing  the  plane  of  the  sector  in 
a  vertical  position,  and  then  by  observing,  while 
the  telescope  is  moved  by  the  screw  along  the 
Kmb,  whether  the  cross  hairs  appear  to  move 
along  the  plumb-line. 

815.  The  axis,  hfoy  fig.  5,  may  be  elevated, 
nearly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  by  means 
of  a  small  common  quadrant ;  and  its  error  may 
be  corrected,  by  making  the  line  of  sight  follow 
the  circular  motion  of  any  of  the  circumpolar 
stars,  while  the  whole  instrument  is  moved  about 
its  axis,  hfOy  the  telescope  being  fixed  to  the 
limb;  for  this  purpose,  let  the  telescope  /c  /  be 
directed  to  the  star  a,  when  it  passes  over  the 
highest  point  of  its  diurnal  circle,  and  let  the 
division  cut  by  the  nonius  be  then  noted :  then, 
after  twelve  hours,  when  the  star  comes  to  the 
lowest  point  of  its  circle,  having  turned  the  in- 
strument half  round  its  axis,  to  bring  the  tele- 
scope into  the  position  mn\  if  the  cross  hairs 
cover  the  same  star  supposed  at  6,  the  elevation 
of  the  axis,  hf  o,  is  exactly  right ;  but,  if  it  be 
necessary  to  move  the  telescope  into  the  position 
u  v,  in  order  to  point  to  the  star  at  c,  the  arch  m 
tt,  which  measures  the  angle  mfu  or  hfo,  will 
be  known ;  and  then  the  axis  hfo  must  be 
depressed  half  the  quantity  of  this  given  angle, 
if  the  star  passed  below  6,  br  must  be  raised  so 
much  higher,  if  above  it ;  and  then  the  triil  must 
be  repeated,  till  the  true  elevation  of  the  axis  be 
obtained.  By  making  the  like  observations  upon 
the  same  star  on  each  side  the  pole,  in  the  six 
o'clock  hour  circle,  the  error  of  the  axis,  toward 
the  east  or  west,  may  also  be  found  and  corrected, 
till  the  cross  hairs  follow  the  star  quite  round  the 
j)ole :  for,  supposing  a  o  p  b  c  to  be  an  arch  of 
the  meridian  (or  in  the  secondary  practice  of 
the  six  o'clock  hour  circle),  make  the  angle  afp 
equal  to  half  an  angle  afc,  and  the  line/p  will 
point  to  the  pole;  and  the  angle  o/p,  which  is 
the  error  of  the  axis,  will  be  equal  to  half  the 
angle  bfc,  or  mfu,  found  by  the  observation ; 
because  the  difference  of  the  two  angles  afb,  af 
c,  is  double  the  difference  of  their  halves  afo 
and  afp.  Unless  the  star  be  near  the  ])ole, 
allowance  must  be  made  for  refractions. 


816.  9.  The  transit  instrument  is  used  for 
observing  objects  as  they  pass  over  the  meridian, 
and  consists  of  a  telescope  fixed  at  right  angles 
to  an  horizontal  axis,  so  supported  that  what  is 
called  the  line  of  collimation,  or  line  of  sight  of 
the  telescope,  may  move  in  the  plane  of  the 
meridian. 

817.  Let  AD,  plate  X.  fig.  1,  represent  a 
telescope  fixed,  as  it  is  represented  in  the  figure, 
to  an  horizontal  axis  formed  of  two  cones.  The 
two  small  ends  of  these  cones  are  ground  into 
two  perfectly  equal  cylinders ;  which  cylindrical 
ends  are  called  pivots.  These  pivots  rest  on  two 
angular  bearings,  in  form  like  the  upper  part  of 
a  Y,  and  denominated  Y's.  The  Y' s  are  placed 
in  two  dove-tailed  brass  grooves,  ftistened  m  two 
stone  pillars,  E  and  W,  so  erected  as  to  be  per- 
fectly .steady.  One  of  the  grooves  is  horizontal, 
the  odier  vertical ;  so  that,  by  means  of  screws, 
one  end  of  the  axis  may  be  pushed  a  little  for- 
wards or  backwards,  and  the  other  end  may  be 
either  slightly  depressed  or  elevated-  \Vhich 
two  small  movements  are  necessary,  as  it  will 
be  soon  explained,  for  two  adjustments  of  the 
telescope. 

818.  Let  E  be  called  the  eastern  pillar,  W  the 
western.  On  the  eastern  end  of  tlie  axis  is  fixed 
(so  that  it  revolves  with  the  axis)  an  index  b, 
the  upper  part  of  which,  when  the  telescope 
revolves,  nearly  slides  along  the  graduated  &ce 
of  a  circle ;  attached,  as  it  is  shown  in  the  figure, 
to  the  eastern  pillar.  The  use  of  this  part  of 
the  apparatus  is  to  adjust  the  telescope  to  the 
zenith,  or  polar  distance  (for  the  one  is  as  easily 
done  as  the  other)  of  a  star,  the  transit  of  which 
is  to  be  observed.  Thus,  suppose  the  index  of 
n  to  be  at  o  (in  the  upper  part  of  the  circle) 
when  the  telescope  is  horizontal ;  then,  by  ele- 
vating the  telescope,  the  index  of  n  is  moved 
downwards.  Suppose  the  position  to  be  that 
represented  in  the  figure,  then  the  number  of 
degrees  between  o,  and  what  the  index  of  n 
marks,  is  the  altitude  of  the  telescope ;  or  we 
may  so  graduate  the  circle,  that  the  index  shall 
mark  the  telescope's  zenidi  distance ;  or,  if  we 
make  the  o,  the  beginning  of  the  graduation,  to 
belong  to  that  position  of  the  telescope  in  which 
it  is  directed  to  the  pole,  the  number  of  degrees, 
&c.  between  o  and  any  odier  position  of  the  index, 
will  mark  either  the  telescope* s  polar  distance,  or 
if  we  please,  may  be  made  to  mark  the  telescope's 
declination ;  the  telescope  in  all  these  cases  being 
supposed  to  move  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian. 

819.  There  are  several  otlier  parts  and  con- 
trivances belonging  to  the  instrument  not  shown 
in  the  figure;'  for  instance,  one  of  the  cones  is 
hollowed;  and,  opposite  Ae  orifice,  there  is 
placed  in  the  pillar  a  lamp,  which,  throwing  its 
light  on  a  plane  speculum,  placed  in  the  axis  of 
the  telescope,  and  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45^, 
illuminates  the  cross  wires.  It  is  usual,  also,  in 
large  transits^  to  have  counterpoises,  by  which 
the  pressure  of  the  pivots  of  the  axis  on  the  Y's 
is  relieved.  We  will  now  explain  the  three 
principal  adiustments  of  the  transit. 

820.  1.  To  make  the  axis  on  which  the  tele- 
scope moves,  horizontal. 

821.  2.  To  make  the  line  of  collimation  move 
in  a  great  vertical  circle ;  or,  which  is  the  same 


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thing,  to  make  it  perpendicular  to  the  horizontal 
axis. 

822.  3.  To  make  it  move  in  that  vertical  circle 
which  is  the  meridian. 

823.  The  first  adjustment  is  effected  by  means 
of  a  level;  the  figure  A  is  intended  to  represent 
the  level  L,  as  hanging  bv  means  of  its  upright 
arms  (bent,  however,  in  their  upper  extremities) 
on  the  two  pivots  of  the  axis.  The  principle, 
however,  and  mode  of  rendering  any  axis  hori- 
zontal, by  means  of  a  level,  may  be  best  explained 
by  the  subjoined  figure. 

824.  In  plate  X,  fig.  2,  the  spirit-level  (includ- 
ing in  that  term  the  brass  tube  that  partly  enve- 
lopes it,  the  horizontal  bar  to  which  it  is  affixed, 
and  the  two  vertical  arms  by  which  it  is  hung  on 
any  cylinder  or  rod)  is  represented  as  hanging  on 
a  straight  cylinder  a  6,  the  end  towards  a  lying 
on  a  crotchet,  which  is  capable  of  being  raised  or 
lowered  by  a  screw  B.  The  end  A  of  the  tube  A 
D,  which  contains  the  level,  is  also  capable  of 
being  lowered  or  raised  by  means  of  a  screw  at 
A,  as  is  shown  in  the  figure. 

825.  If  a  6  were  horizontal,  and  the  tube  of  the 
spirit-level  were  parallel  to  a  6,  then  the  bubble 
would  occupy  the  middle,  or  the  two  extremities 
of  the  bubble  would  be  equidistant  from  the  cen- 
tre, and  would  be,  for  instance,  at/  and  e.  The 
same  thing  would  happen  if  ihe  level  were  re- 
versed, that  is,  if  it  were  taken  off  the  rod,  turned 
round,  and  again  hung  on ;  so  that  d  in  the  second 
position,  should  occupy  the  place  that  A  did  in 
the  first,  or  should  be  to  the  rigdt  hand.  But  if 
a  bj  should  not  be  horizontal,  die  above  circum- 
stances cannot  take  place.  Suppose  the  end  a 
to  be  lower  than  the  end  b,  then  it  the  level  should 
not  be  parallel  to  a  b,  the  bubbly  might  still 
stand  in  the  middle,  by  the  end  at  A  being,  by 
a  certain  quantity,  higher  than  the  end  at  B. 
But  on  reversing  the  level  the  bubble  cannot 
occupy  its  middle;  since  then,  the  lower  part  of 
the  rod  a  6,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  level,  would 
both  be  situated  at  the  right  hand.  The  bubble, 
however,  may  not  stand  in  the  middle  from  two- 
causes,  the  want  of  horizontality  in  a  b,  and 
the  want  of  parallelism  to  it  in  the  tube  contained 
between  AD. 

826.  If  the  level  were  parallel  to  a  6,  and  the 
extremity  of  the  bubble,  instead  of  being  at  e, 
should  be  at  A,  on  reversing  the  level,  the  other 
extremity  of  the  bubble  (which,  by  the  reversion, 
would  be  towards  a)  would  be  at  h;  fk  being 
equal  U>  e  h.  But  suppose  this  is  found  not  to 
he  the  case,  and  that  tne  extreroitv  of  the  bubble, 
on  reversing  the  level,  is  at  n,  then  the  circum- 
stance of  the  bubble  not  standing  at  the  two 
points  e  and/,  cannot  arise  solely  from  the  end  a 
neing  higher  than  b;  but  the  level  cannot  be  par- 
allel to  a  6 ;  and  in  the  case  we  have  put,  the  end 
at  A  nmst  be  lower  than  the  end  at  D,  when  the 
level  then  is  in  the  second  or  the  reversed  posi- 
tion;  so  elevate  the  end  at  A,  by  means  or  the 
screw  A,  that  the  extremity  of  the  bubble  shall 
descend  from  n,  and  occupy  a  place  intermediate 
to  ft  and  kf  and  then  the  level  is  made  parallel  to 
a  b:  this  is  the  first  sLdjustment.  Next,  by  means 
of  the  screw  B,  so  depress  the  end,  a  that 
the  extremities  of  the  bubble  shall  be  (as  they 
oughtto  be, «  /  being  the  length  of  the  bubble)  at 


e  and  f;  then  is  a  6  adjusted  or  made  horizon- 
tal ;  this  second  adjustment  completes  the  ope- 
ration. 

827.  In  the  preceding  reasonings,  a  b  has  been 
considered  (the  whole  of  it)  as  cylindrical  But 
this  is  not  necessary :  it  is  sufficient  if  its  extre- 
mities at  a  and  b  {ihe  pivots),  on  which  the  level 
is  bung,  be  equal  cylinders,  the  axis  of  which  lie 
in  the  same  straight  line.  The  intermediate 
parts  of  the  axis  of  the  transit  between  the  pivots, 
may  be  of  any  form :  they  may  be  formed,  as 
they  generally  are,  of  two  cones.  The  preceding 
process  then  will  render  the  axis  of  the  transit 
norizontal ;  the  level,  whether  in  its  primary  or 
ID  its  reversed  position,  being  supposed  to  be 
hung  on  the  equally  cylindrical  pivots.^ 

828.  The  axis  being  now  horizontal,  the  next 
operation  is  to  make  the  line  of  coUimation  de- 
scribe a  great  vertical  circle,  or,  which  is  now 
the  same  thing,  to  make  the  line  of  coUimation 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  transit.  The 
telescope  A  D  is  furnished,  like  the  telescope  of 
the  quadrant,  with  a  system  of  cross-wires  placed 
in  the  principal  focus  of  the  object-glass.  Sup- 
pose the  wires  so  placed,  that  the  line  of  coUi- 
mation is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  tran- 
sit. If  then  a  small  and  well-defined  object  be^ 
bisected  by  the  centre  of  the  cross-wires,  it  will 
still  be  bisected  when  the  transit  is  lifted  off  its 
angular  bearings,  reversed  and  directed  to  the 
object ;  that  is,  if  the  end  of  the  axis  carrying 
the  index  n,  which  is  placed  on  the  eastern  Y, 
should  be  placed  on  ihe  western.  Let  now  the 
wires  be  deranged,  so  that  their  intersection  is 
moved,  not,  as  in  the  former  case,  in  the  plane 
of  the  meridian,  but  in  a  direction  perpendicular 
to  that  plane,  and  suppose  it  moved  a  little  to- 
wards the  east.  In  this  case,  the  object  before 
bisected  is  no  longer  so,  but  will  be  seen  in  the 
field  of  view  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  present 
centre  of  the  cross-wires.  Reverse  the  telescope, 
then  the  centre  will  be  towards  the  west,  and  the 
original  object  will  be  seen  a  little  to  the  east  of 
the  centre :  as  much  towards  the  east  as  it  was 
before  towards  the  west.  If,  therefore,  there 
should  be  two  objects  or.  marks  (on  the  horizon, 
for  instance,)  bisected  by  the  centre  of  the  wires 
in  the  two  positions  of  the  transit,  the  correction 
or  adjustment  of  the  line  of  coUimation  would 
consist  in  moving  the  centre  of  the  cross-wires 
half-way  towards  that  object  which  is  not  on  the 
centre. 

829.  But  the  moving  the  centre  of  the  cross- 
wires  half-way  towards  an  object,  is  a  matter  of 
guess,  and  not  of  certainty.  •  In  order  to  ascer- 
tain whetlier,  in  moving  the  centre,  we  have  ad- 
justed it  rightly,  we  may  avail  ourselves  of  that 
angular  bearing,  or  Y,  which,  by  means  of  an 
horizontal  groove  and  screw,  we  can  move,  toge- 
ther with  the  pivot  of  the  axis,  in  azimuth.  So 
move  these  then,  that  the  object  to  which  we 
have  already  made  the  centre  to  approach  half- 
way, may  be  exactly  bisected  by  that  centre. 
Reverse  the  transit,  and  the  object  .and  centre 
are  either  coincident,  or  very  nearly  so.  If  the 
latter  be  the  case,  again  by  their  proper  motion, 
move  the  centre  of  the  wires  half-way  towards 
the  object,  and  move  it  the  other  half-way  by  the 
screw  that  acts  on  the  axis.    Reverse  the  instru- 

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ment,  and  again,  if  it  be  necessary,  repeat  the 
above  operations. 

830.  by  these  means,  after  a  few  trials,  we  are 
sure  of  making  the  line  of  collimation,  or  axis  of 
vision,  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  transit ; 
and  when  that  is  effected,  the  cross-wires  are  no 
longer  to  be  meddled  with,  although  we  must 
continue  to  use  the  above  horizontal  movement 
of  the  axis,  for  the  purpose  of  placing  the  line  of 
collimation  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  That 
line  now  moves  in  a  vertical  circle,  and  produced 
passes  through  the  zenith :  it  is  farther  necessary 
to  make  it  pass  through  the  pole. 

831.  The  transit  instrument  is  supported  be- 
tween two  fixed  pillars'.  It  must  be  supposed  to 
be  nearly  in  the  meridian,  and  to  need  only  some 
slight  adjustments  to  place  it  there  exactly.  It 
would  be  easy  to  effect  this,  were  the  pole-star 
exactly  in  the  pole ;  for,  then,  it  would  be  only 
requisite  to  bisect  that  star  by  the  middle  vertical 
cross-wire.  But  the  pole-star  being,  in  fact,  a 
circumpolar  one,  we  must  compute,  by  means  of 
existing  tables  and  observations,  the  time  of  its 
transit;  and,  at  that  computed  time,  bisect  the 
star  by  the  middle  vertical  wire.  By  these  me- 
thods we  may  place  the  transit  very  nearly  in  the 
plane  of  the  meridian. 

832.  We  will  now  show  how  to  place  it  there 
more  exactly  by  means  either  of  the  polar,  or  of 
any  other  circumpolar  star. 

833.  The  axis  being  horizontal,  the  optical 
axis  perpendicular  to  it  passes  through  the  ze- 
nith :  let  Z  P  H  in  fig.  1,  plate  VI.,  be  the  true 
meridian,  and  Z  s  m  the  vertical  circle  described 
by  the  optical  axis  or  line  of  collimation ;  then 
H  m,  which  is  the  measure  of  the  angle  at  Z,  is 
the  deviation  of  the  transit  from  the  meridian. 

Let  ij^  i"  <7  represent  the  circle  described  by 
a  circumpolar  star,  which  is  seen  through  the 
transit  telescope  at  tr,  its  inferior  passage,  and  at 
I,  its  superior.  Now,  when  tlie  transit  is  not  in 
the  meridian,  the  time  from  tr  to  i  cannot  equal 
the  time  from  $  through  j^  and  i"  to  <r^  for,  P 
being  the  pole,  the  former  time  is  proportional 
to  the  angle  <7  P  s,  or, 

180**—  £  fPs'—  /_  ffP^, 
the  latter  to 

180*^  +  Z.  <P«'+  A  «rPi". 

834.  Hence,  if  the  interval  between  the  infe- 
rior and  superior  passage  should  be  less  than  the 
interval  between  the  superior  and  inferior,  the 
plane  in  which  the  transit  moves  from  the  zenith 
to  the  north  of  the  horizon  (P  being  the  north 
pole)  is  to  the  eastward  of  the  true  meridian. 

835.  But  in  order  to  estimate  the  quantity  of 
deviation  from  the  observed  difference  of  inter- 
vals between  the  passages,  we  must  compute  the 
angles  s  P  s'  or  5  P  Z,  and  a  P  H, — ^now 

sin.5PZ  =  sin.«ZP  x  **°' ^' 


sin.Pj' 
,<fPH=s8in.<fPZ=s8in.«ZP-t- 


sin.  Z  9 
sin.  P  <r 

Let  Z.  sZ P  (measured  by  Hm)  =  Z, 
Pf=P<T  =  flr 
the  latitude  of  the  place  (=  H  P)  =  L. 
Then  since  Z,  or  the  deviation  from  the  meri- 
dian is,  by  the  conditions,  very  small,  we  have, 
nearly  sin.  Z  =  Z 


Z*  =  Z  P  —  P«  =  90°  —  (  L  +  »), 

Z  (T  =  Z  P  +  P«  =  90^  —  (  I^  ir), 

consequently,  i  P  Z  (which  is,  nearly,  =  its  sine) 

=  Z.  COS.'  ^,_       -zi  Z.  (cos.Lcos.x — sin.L), 


andffPHrz  Z. 


Z  (cos.  L. 


sm.  IT 

—  7   <^Qs.  (L.  —  y) 
sin.  ir 
COS.  AT  -f  sin.  L). 
Hence,  the  time  from  <7  to  i  =  180®  —  2  Z  cos. 

L.  cot.  AT, 

and  firom  s  to  tr  =  180°  -f  2  Z  cos.  L.  cot.  ir; 
let  the  former  time  =  12  h.  —  A, 
the  latter  =  12  h.  -h  a; 
then,  since  180°  is  the  angular  measure,  or  ex- 
ponent of  twelve  hours  of  siderial  time, 
12h.  —  A  =  12h.  —  2Z.  cos.  L.  cot.  r, 
12  h.  4-  A  —  12  h.  -H  2  Z.  cos.  L.  cot.  r, 

whence     Z  =  • 


or 


2  COS.  L.  cot.  X. 

A  -r 

=  -r  sec.  L  tan.  x. 
2- 


836.  The  plane  in  which  the  line  of  collima- 
tion moves  is  brought  into  the  plane  of  the  me- 
ridian by  means  of  a  screw;  and  supposing  the 
adjustment  nearly  effected,  it  may  be  completed 
in  the  following  manner :  Let  the  time  of  the 
transit  of  an  equatorial  star  be  noted  on  a  parti- 
cular day.'  Alter  the  inclination  of  the  plane  in 
which  the  line  of  collimation  moves,  by  turning 
the  screws  once  round,  and  observe  the  time  of 
the  star's  next  transit.  If  the  difference  between 
the  siderial  times  of  transit  be  t  seconds,  then,  $ 
seconds  of  time  corresponding  to  one  revolution 
of  the  screw,  it  is  easy  to  find  the  number  of  re- 
volutions, or  parts  of  a  revolution,  that  will  give 
the  correction  2,  in  the  above  equation ;  whence 
the  adjustment  may  be  made  to  any  degree  of 
accuracy. 

837.  Computing  from  the  above  formulae  for 
Z,  we  shall  find  that,  in  the  case  of  Polaris,  a 
deviation  of  ten  seconds  in  the  position  of  the 
transit  instrument  will,  in  the  latitude  of  London, 
produce  a  difference  of  about  seven  minutes  in 
the  times  between  the  upper  and  lower  transits 
of  the  star ;  and  in  the  case  of  Capella,  a  dif- 
ference of  only  about  twenty-five  seconds.  Hence, 
c»teris  paribus,  the  pole-star  is  better  adapted 
thanCapella,  to  adjust,  by  the  preceding  metkod, 
a  transit  telescope  to  the  plane  of  the  meridian. 
The  slow  motion  of  the  pole-star,  however,  in 
some  measure  detracts  from  this  superiority.  In 
small  instruments  it  is  hid  for  some  seconds  be- 
hind the  wire.  Even  in  the  splendid  ten  feet 
transit,  at  Greenwich,  it  may  be  considered  as  hid 
for  about  a  second. 

838.  Still,  however,  on  the  whole,  this  ttar 
is  the  most  convenient  one  that  can  be  made  use 
of.  The  following  is  the  method  of  making  this  ad- 
justment by  means  of  the  transits  of  the  pole-star 
and  of  a  star  which  passes  near  the  zenim  of  the 
place  of  observation.  In  our  latitudes,  for  in- 
stance, if  the  transit  deviate  only  slightly  from 
the  plane  of  the  meridian,  Capella  would  pass 
the  meridian  very  nearly  at  the  time  of  its  pass- 
ing the  vertical  wire  of  the  telescope.  Assume  it 
to  pass  exactly,  and  note  tlie  diOfereoce  between 
the  time  shown  by  tlie  clock  and  the  star's  known 
right  ascension.     Observe  the  time  when  the 


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pole-8(ar  is  on  the  meridian^  (which  will  differ 
more  from  the  star's  right  ascension  than  the 
transit  of  Capella  did  from  its  right  ascension), 
and  compute,  from'  the  difference  between  its 
true  right  ascension  and  the  observed  time  of  its 
transit,  the  deviation  of  the  instrument,  and 
adjust  it  accordingly. 

839.  This  operation  will  give  a  near  approxi- 
mation to  the  reauired  position ;  and  by  a  repe- 
tition or  two  of  tne  process,  the  adjustment  may 
be  effected  with  great  precision. 

840.  The  line  of  collimation  being  now  sup- 
posed, by  means  of  the  previous  adjustments,  to 
aescrib!e  a  great  circle  passing  through  the  ce- 
lestial pole  and  the  zenith  of  the  observer,  the 
transit  instrument  is  in  a  fit  state  to  note  the  pas- 
sages of  stars  across  the  meridian.  A  star  passes 
the  meridian  when  it  coincides  with  the  centre  a, 
fig.  3.  plate  IX.,  of  the  cross-wires ;  but  ifde  were 
truly  vertical,  a  star  on  any  point  of  de  would 
be  on  the  meridian;  hence  it  is  desirable  to 
make  d  e  vertical,  since  we  might  then  observe 
the  star's  transit  on  any  part  of  that  line.  This 
may  be  easily  done  thus :  Direct  the  transit  tele- 
scope to  some  well-defined  distant  object,  so  that 
it  is  bisected  by  some  point  ofde;  move  the  te- 
lescope upwaids  and  downwards  on  its  hori- 
xontai  axis,  and  observe  whether  the  same  ob- 
ject is  bisected  by  every  part  of  de,  or  whether 
It  runs  along  de  If  it  does,  the  wire  is  vertical, 
or  the  middle  wire  is  a  meridional  wire ;  if  it 
does  not,  the  wire  must  be  adjusted  till  the  object 
coincides  with  it  in  every  part. 

841.  In  large  instruments  these  various  ad- 
justments are  made  with  considerable  trouble 
and  difficulty ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  a  repeti- 
tion of  these  troublesome  verifications,  when  the 
instrument  is  once  adjusted  to  the  plane  of  the 
meridian,  two  marks  are  set  up,  one  to  the  north 
and  the  other  to  the  south,  and  their  places  de- 
termined by  means  of  the  meridional  wire.  They 
are  first  placed  by  means  of  the  mstrument,  ad- 
justed by  the  astronomical  means  above  ex- 
plained, and  they  are  subsequently  used  to  bring 
the  instrument  into  the  meridian,  should  it  be- 
come deranged. 

842.  Besides  the  meridional  wire,  it  is  usual 
to  place  on  each  side  of  it,  and  at  eoual  dis- 
tances fit>m  it,  parallel  side  wires,  to  cneck  the 
middle  wire  and  to  supply  its  place,  if  from 
clouds  or  othdr  accidents,  an  observation  on  it 
should  not  be  obtained.  The  old  transit,  at 
Greenwich,  had  four  side  wires,  or,  in  all,  five 
wires.  The  present  one  has  seven ;  though  only 
five  are  in  general  used.  In  fig.  2,  plate  IX. 
five  wires  are  represented,  and  numbered  1,  2, 
3,  4,  5. 

843.  If  the  wires  are  equidistant,  then  the  fifth 
part  of  the  sum  of  the  times  at  which  a  star  is  ob- 
served on  the  several  wires,  will  be  the  time  of 
its  passing  the  meridian,  and  it  ought,  if  the  ob- 
servation is  well  made,  to  lu^ree  with  the  time  of 
passing  the  middle  wire. 

844.  But  the  fact  is,  we  are  not  able  to  note* 
absolutely  the  times  at  the  several  wires ;  for 
probably  no  beat  of  the  pendulum  will  happen 
exactly  when  the  star  is  on  the  wire.  The  ob- 
server is  obliged  to  estimate  to  the  best  of  his 
judgment,  the  firaction  of  a  second  sum>  the  last 


beat  of  the  pendulum,  when  the  star  is  on  the  wire. 
A  tenth  or  two  of  a  second  may  be  put  down  too 
much  at  one  vrire,  and  too  litUe  at  another;  but 
the  errors  will  probably  in  a  great  degree  com- 
pensate each  otner,  and  the  result  will  certainly 
De  entitled  to  more  confidence  than  a  single  ob- 
servation at  the  middle  wire. 

845.  It  will  soon  be  perceived  by  the  observer, 
that  stars  near  the  equator,  pass  more  speedily 
from  wire  to  wire  than  stars  near  the  pole.  It  is 
easy  to  prove  that  the  time  of  a  starts  describing 
small  spaces  perpendicular  to  the  meridian  varies 
as  the  secant  of  its  declination.  For  (fig.  1 ,  plate 
IX.)  let  P  represent  the  pole  P  6,  P/,  two  quad- 
rants ;  let  5  ^  represent  the  interval  of  the  wires, 
which,  by  reason  of  its  smallness  is  nearly  coinci- 
dent with  irt.  Take  e  qizst;  then  by  the  re- 
volution of  tlie  earth  or  star  apparently  moves 
from  s  to  <  in  the  same  time  that  another  moves 
from  e  to/.  But  the  time  through  s  f  (=  the  time 

through  ef)  =  time  through  e  ^  x  -^  =:  time 

through  e  ^  -I-  — ^  =  time  through  e  9  +  • ^ 

sect,  s  € 
=  time  through  e  q  -^  t —  Hence,  if  the 

time  through  e  g,  that  is  the  time  of  an  equatorial 
star  crossing  the  interval  e  9,  be  given,  the  time  of 
crossing  an  eaual  interval,  $  t,  varies  as  the  secant 
of  the  star's  aeclination. 

846.  There  is,  however,  no  star  exactly  in  the 
equator;  but  the  equatorial  time  of  a  star's  running 
from  wire  to  wire,  may  be  readily  obtained  from  the 
time  which  a  star  of  known  declination  is  observed 
to  take.  Let  t  be  the  observed  time,  and  d  the 
declination,  then  ^,  sect.  (2  rz  the  equatorial  time. 

847.  By  the  preceding  methods,  the  upright 
wires  of  the  telescope  may  be  adjusted  vertically, 
and  the  true  intervals  between  the  wires  found 
in  parts  of  siderial  time.  To  know  whether  the 
wires,  which  ought  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
former,  are  truly  horizontal,  direct  the  telescope 
tovTards  a  star  near  the  equator,  and  if  the  star  en- 
tering at  A,  plate  IX.  fig.  2,  in  an  inverting  teles* 
cope,  run  along  hf;  then  A/ is  horizontal. 

848.  This  test  of  horizontality  is  strictly  true 
only  with  respect  to  a  star  in  the  equator.  If  the 
star  be  out  of  the  equator,  it  cannot  be  bisected 
during  the  whole  of  its  passage  from  h  Xofi  for 
the  star  then  describes  the  arc  of  a  small  circle. 
In  fig  1,  plate  IX.  let  s  m  f  be  an  arc  of  a  great 
circle ;  then  a  star  describing  $mt  would  seem  to 
an  eye  situated  in  a  plane  passing  through  tmt 
and  s  ^  to  describe  1 1\  but  1  r  ^,  part  of  a  small 
circle  parallel  to  ef,  is  the  star*s  apparent  path, 
which  coitxciding  at  its  extremities  with  theenerd 
f  t  would  appear,  in  the  astronomical  telescope, 
to  describe  a  curve  below  the  cross  horizontal 
wire,  the  apparent  curvature  of  the  path  increas- 
ing with  the  declination.  Tliereare,  however^ 
many  stars  near  enough  the  equator  to  make 
this  adjustment,  without  reference  to  the  appar 
rent  curvature  of  their  paths  in  the  transit 
instrument,  as  they  will  differ  from  straight  lines 
by  a  quantity  too  small  to  be  estimated. 

849.  We  have  hitherto  spoken  only  of  the 
transits  of  stars,  which  are  but  as  points  without 
disks.    The  sun  and  the  moon,  however,  have 


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ASTRONOMY. 


disks,  but  no  marked  points  for  their  centres  ; 
and  the  transit  of  a  heavenly  body  means  the 
transit  of  its  centre.  With  respect  to  the  sun, 
the  time  at  which  his  first  or  preceding  limb 
touches  each  wire  is  noted,  and  the  time  at  which 
his  following  limb  comes  to  the  same  wire  is  also 
noted,  and  the  sum  of  the  times  of  observation 
divided  by  the  number  of  observations,  gives  the 
time  at  which  his  centre  is  on  the  meridian. 

850.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  the  transit  of  both 
limbs  of  the  moon  can  be  observed ;  but  the  mean 
of  the  times  at  which  her  enlightened  limb  is  in 
contact  with  the  several  vertical  wires,  is  the  time  at 
which  that  limb  is  on  the  meridian ;  and  adding 
to  this,  or  subtracting  from  it,  the  time  that  the 
moon  takes  to  move  over  a  space  equal  to  her. 
own  semidiameter,  according  as  the  east  or  west, 
the  following  or  preceding  limb  is  observed,  we 
obtain  the  time  at  which  her  centre  is  on  the  me- 
ridian. 

We  have  judged  it  right  to  devote  so  much 
space  to  the  description  of  the  circle  and  tran- 
sit instruments,  as  in  the  present  state  of  as- 


tronomical science,  they,  with  the  astronomical 
clock,  are  the  capital  instruments  of  our  obser- 
vatory. 

851.  10.  The  Equatorial  or  Portable  Obseiva 
tory ;  an  instrument  designed  to  answer  a  nwn- 
ber  of  useful  purposes  in  practical  astronomy, 
independent  of  any  particular  observatory,  may 
be  made  use  of  in  any  steady  place,  and  per- 
forms most  of  the  usefVil  operations  in  the  science. 
The  principal  parts  of  this  instrument,  plate 
XIII.  fig.  3,  are,  1.  The  'azimuth  or  horizontal 
circle  A,  which  represents  the  horizon  of  the 
place,  and  moves  on  a  long  axis  B,  called  the 
vertical  axis.  2.  The  equatorial  or  hour  circle 
C,  representing  the  equator,  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  polar  aids  D,  or  the  axis  of  the 
earth  upon  which  it  moves.  3.  The  semicircle 
of  declination  £,  on  which  the  telescope  is  placed, 
and  moving  on  the  axis  of  declination,  or  the 
axis  of  motion  of  the  line  of  collimation. 

852.  These  circles  are  measured  and  divided 
as  in  the  following  table : 


Measures     of    the    several 
circles,   and  divisions   of 
them. 

Radios. 
In  dec. 

Limb     divided . 
to 

Nonius    of 
30    given 
seconds. 

Divided  on 
limb    into 
parts  of  inc. 

Divided     by 
Nonius  into 
parts  of  inc. 

Azimutli    or    horizontal ) 
circle.                           J 
Equatorial  or  hour  cir- 
cle. 
Vertical  semicircle  for"j 
declination    or    lati-  > 
tude.                          3 

5     1 
5     1 

5     5 

15' 

05' 

(1      in  ume. 

15' 

30" 

30'  1 
2"    ] 

SO** 

45th 
45th 

42nd 

1350th 
1350th 

1260th 

853.  4.  The  telescope  in  this  equatorial  may 
be  brought  parallel  to  the  polar  axis,  as  in  the 
figure,  so  as  to  point  to  the  pole  star  in  any  part 
of  its  diurnal  revolution :  and  thus  it  has  been 
observed  near  noon,  when  the  sun  has  shone  very 
bright.  5.  The  apparatus  for  correcting  the  error 
in  altitude  occasioned  by  refraction,  which  is  ap- 
plied to  tlie  eye-end  of  the  telescope,  and  consists 
of  a  slide  G,  moving  in  a  groove  or  dovetail,  and 
carrying  the  several  eye-tubes  of  the  telescope,  on 
which  slide  there  is  an  index  corresponding  to  five 
small  divisions  engraved  on  the  dovetail ;  a  very 
small  circle,  called  the  refraction  circle,  H,  move- 
able by  a  finger  screw  at  the  extremis  of  the  eye 
end  of  the  telescope ;  which  circle  is  divided  into 
half  minutes,  one  entire  revolution  of  it  being 
equal  to  3'  18",  and  by  its  motion  raises  the  cen- 
tre of  the  cross  hairs  on  a  circle  of  altitude ;  and 
a  quadrant,  I,  of  1|  inch  radius,  vrith  divisions 
on  each  side,  one  expressing  the  degree  of  alti- 
tude of  the  object  viewed,  and  the  other  express- 
ing the  minutes  and  seconds  of  error  occasioned 
by  refraction  corresponding  to  that  degree  of  al- 
titude. To  this  quadrant  is  joined  a  small  round 
level,  K,  which  is  adjusted  partly  by  the  pinion 
that  turns  the  whole  of  this  apparatus,  and  partly 
by  the  index  of  the  quadrant;  for  which  purpose 
the  refraction  circle  is  set  to  the  same  minute,  &c. 
which  the  index  points  to*  on  the  limb  of  the 
quadrant;  and  if  the  minute,  &c.  given  by  the 
quadrant  exceed  the  3*  18',  contained  in  one  en- 
tire revolution  of  the  refraction  circle,  this  must 
l»e  set  to  the  excess  above  one  or  more  of  its  en- 


tire revolutions;  then  the  centre  of  the  cross  hairs 
will  appear  to  be  raised  on  a  circle  of  altitude  to 
the  aaaitional  height  which  the  error  of  refraction 
will  occasion  at  that  altitude. 

854.  To  adjust  this  instrument  make  the  line 
of  collimation  to  describe  a  portion  of  an  hour- 
circle  in  the  heavens;  in  order  to  which^  the  azi- 
muth circle  must  be  truly  level,  the  line  of  colti- 
mation,  or  some  corresponding  line  represented 
by  the  small  brass  rod,  M,  parallel  to  it,  must  be 
perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  its  ovra  proper  mo- 
tion ;  and  this  last  axis  must  be  perpendicular  to 
the  polar  axis;  on  the  brass  roa  M,  there  is  oc- 
casionally placed  a  hanging  level,  N,  the  use  of 
which  will  appear  in  the  following  adjustments. 

855.  The  azimuth  circle  may  be  made  level, 
by  turning  the  instrument  till  one  of  the  levels  is 
parallel  to  an  imaginary  line  joining  two  of  the 
feet  screws ;  then  adjust  the  level  with  these  two 
feet  screws;  turn  the  circle  half  round,  i.  e.  180°; 
and,  if  the  bubble  be  not  then  right,  correct  half 
the  error  by  the  screw  belonging  to  the  level,  and 
the  other  half  error  by  the  two  feet  screws ;  repeat 
this  till  the  bubble  comes  ri^t;  then  turn  the 
circle  90°  from  the  two  former  positions,  and  set 
the  bubble  right,  if  it  be  wrong,  by  the  foot 
screw  at  the  end  of  the  level;  when  this  is  done, 
adjust  the  other  level  by  its  own  screw,  and 
the  azimuth  circle  will  be  truly  level.  The 
hanging  level  must  then  be  fixed  to  the  brass 
rod  by  two  hooks  of  equal  length,  and  made  tiuly 
parallel  to  it:  for  this  purpose  make  the  polar  axis 
perpendicular  or  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  ho- 


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fboo;  then  adjust  the  leVel  by  the  pinion  of  the 
<ieclinatk>n  semicircle;  reverse  the  level  and,  if  it 
bo  litaagf  correct  half  the  error  by  a  small  steel 
screw  iSaaX  lies  under  one  end  of  the  level,  and 
the  other  half  error  by  the  pinion  of  the  'declina- 
tion semicircle;  repeat  this  till  the  bubble  be 
eight  in  bod)  positions. 

856^  To  make  the  brass  rod  on  which  the  level 
is  suspended  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  motion 
of  the  telescope  or  line  of  collimation,  make  the 
polar  axis  horizontal,  or  nearly  so :  set  thfe  dedi- 
natioa  semicircle  at  0^^  turn  ue  hour  circle  till 
the  babble  comes  right;  then  torn  the  declination 
circle  to  90°;  adjust  the  babble  by  raising  or  de- 
pressing the  polar  axis;  first  by  hand  till  it  be 
nearly  right;  afterwards  tighten,  with  an  ivory 
key,  the  socket  which  runs  on  an  arch  with  the 
polar  axis;  and  then  apply  the  same  ivory  key 
to  the  adjusting  screw  at  the  end  of  the  said  arch, 
till  the  bubble  comes  quite  right;  then  turn  the 
declination  circle  to  the  opposite  90^;  if  the  level 
be  not  then  nght,  correct  half  the  error,  by  the 
aforesaid  adjusting  screw  at  the  end  of  the  aich, 
and  the  other  half  error  by  the  two  screws 
which  raise  or  depress  the  end  of  the  brass  rod. 
The  polar  axis  remaining  nearly  horizontal  as 
before,  and  the  declination  semicircle  at  (P, 
adjust  the  bubble  by  the  hour  circle;  then- turn 
the  declination  semicircle  to  90%  and  adjust  the 
bubble  by  raising  or  depressing  the  polar  axis ; 
then  turn  the  hour  circle  twelve  hours;  and  if 
the  bubble  be  wrongs  correct  half  the  error  by 
the  polar  axis,  and  the  other  half  error  by  the 
two  pair  of  capstan  screws  at  the  feet  of  the  two 
supporters  on  on6  side  of  the  axis  of  motion  of 
the  telescope;)  and  thus  this  axis  will  be  at  right 
angles  to  tne  polar  axis. 

857.  The  next  adjustment  is  to  make  the  cen- 
tre of  cross  hairs  remain  on  the  same  object, 
tvhile  the  eye-tube  is  turned  quite  round  by  the 
pinion  of  the  refraction  apparatus.  For  this  ad- 
justment, set  the  index  on  the  slide  to  the  first 
division  on  the  dovetail;  and  set  the  division 
marked  18^  op  the  refraction  circle  to  its  index ; 
then  look  through  the  telescope,  and  with  the 
pinion  turn  the  eye-tube  quite  round ;  and  if  the 
centre  of  the  hairs  does  not  remain  on  the  same 
spot  during  that  revolution,  it  must  be  corrected 
by  the  four  small  screws,  two  and  two  at  a  time, 
which  will  be  found  upon  unscrewing  the  nearest 
end  of  the  eye-tube  that  contains  the  first  eye- 
glass ;  repeat  this  correction  till  the  ceotre  of  the 
hairs  remains  on  the  spot  looked  at,  during  an 
entire  revolution. 

858.  To  make  the  line  of  collimation  parallel 
to  the  brass  rod  on  which  the  level  hangs,  set  the 
polar  axis  horizontal,  and  the  declination  circle 
to  90^ ;  adjust  the  level  by  the  polar  axis ;  look 
through  the  telescope  on  some  distant  horizontal 
object,  covered  by  the  centre  of  the  cross  hairs ; 
then  invert  the  telescope,  which  is  done  by  turn- 
ing the  hour  circle  half  round,  and,  if  the  centre 
of  the  cross  hairs  does  not  cover  the  same  object 
as  befoVe,  correct  half  the  error  by  the  uppermost 
and  lowermost  of  the  four  small  screws  at  the 
eye-end  of  the  large  tube  of  the  telescope.  This 
correction  will  give  a  second  object,  now  covered 
by  the  centre  of  the  hairs,  which  must  be  adopted 
instead  of  the  first  object :  then  invert  the  teles- 


cope as  before ;  and  if  the  second  object  be  not 
covered  by  the  centre  of  the  hairs,  correct  half 
the  error  by  the  same  two  screws  which  were 
used  before.  This  Correction  will  give  a  third 
object,  now  covered  by  the  centre  of  the  hairs, 
which  must  be  adopted  instead  of  the  second  ob- 
ject; repeat  this  operation  till  no  error  remains ; 
then  set  the  hour  circle  exactly  to  12  hours  (the 
declination  circle  remaining  at  90°  as  before) ; 
and,  if  the  centre  of  the  cross  hairs  does  not  cover 
the  last  object  fiixed  on,  set  it  to  that  olMCct  by 
the  two  remaining  small  screws  at  the  end  of  the 
large  tube,  and  then  the  line  of  collimation  will 
be  parallel  to  the  brass'  rod. 

859.  For  rectifying  the  nonius  of  the  declina- 
^on  and  equatorial  circles,  lower  the  telescope  as  ' 
many  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  below  0°, 
or  M,  on  the  declination  semicircle  as  are  equal 
to  the  complement  of  the  latitude ;  then  elevate 
the  polar  axis  till  the  bubble  be  horizontal,  and 
thus  the  equatorial  circle  will  be  elevated  to  the 
co-latitude  of  the  place;  set  this  circle  to  6 
hours ;  adjust  the  level  by  the  pinion  of  the  decli- 
nation circle;  then  turn  the  equatorial  circle 
exactly  12  hours  from  the  last  position;  and  if 
the  level  be  not  right,  correct  one  half  of  the 
error  by  the  equatorial  circle,  and  the  other  half 
by  the  declination  circle ;  then  turn  the  equato- 
rial circle  back  again  exactly  12  hours  from  the 
last  position;  and  if  the  level  be  still  vrrong, 
repeat  the  correction  as  before  till  it  be  right, 
when  turned  to  either  position ;  that  being  done, 
set  the  nonius  of  the  equatorial  circle  exactly  to 
6  hours,  and  the  nonius  of  the  declination  circle 
exactly  to  0^    The  uses  of  this  equatorial  are : 

860.  1.  To  find  the  meridian  by  one  observa- 
tion only :  for  this  purpose,  elevate  the  equatorial 
circle  to  the  co-latitude  of  the  place,  and  set  the 
declination  semicircle  to  the  sun's  declination  for 
the  day  and  hour  required ;  then  move  the  azi- 
muth and  hour  circles  both  at  the  same  time, 
either  in  the  same  or  contrary  direction,  till  the 
centre  of  the  cross  hairs  in  the  telescope  exactly 
covers  the  centre  of  the  sun.  When  that  is  done, 
the  index  of  the  hour  circle  will  give  the  apparent 
or  solar  time  at  the  instant  of  observation ;  and 
thus  the  time  is  gained,  though  the  sun  be  at  a 
distance  from  the  meridian.  Then  turn  the  hour 
circle  till  the  index  points  precisely  at  12  o'clock, 
and  lower  the  telescope  to  the  horizon,  in  order 
to  observe  some  point  there  in  the  centre  of  the 
glass,  and  that  point  is  the  meridian  mark  found 
by  one  observation  only ;  the  best  time  for  this 
operation  is  three  hours  before  or  three  hours  af- 
ter twelve  at  noon. 

861.  2.  To  point  the  telescope  on  a  star, 
though  not  on  the  meridian,  in  full  day  light. 
Having  elevated  the  equatorial  circle  to  the  co- 
latitude  of  the  place,  and  set  the  declination 
semicircle  to  the  star's  declination,  move  the  in- 
dex of  the  hour  circle  till  it  point  to  the  precise 
time  at  which  the  star  is  then  distant  from  the 
meridian,  found  in  tables  of  the  right  ascension 
of  the  stars,  and  the  star  will  then  appear  in  the 
glass.  Besides  these  uses,  peculiar  to  this  instru- 
ment, it  is  also  applicable  to  all  the  purposes  to 
which  the  principal  astronomical  instruments, 
viz.  a  transit,  a  quadrant,  and  an  equal  altitude 
instrument,  are  applied. 


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ASTRONOMY. 


862.  This  instrument,  however,  like  all  instni- 
ments  that  profess  to  do  much,  does  nothing  so 
well  as  instruments  whose  objects  are  more 
limited.  The  splendid  equatorial  of  sir  Geo. 
Shuckburghy  now  at  the  royal  observatoiy  at 
Greenwich,  is  seldom  used,  except  to  observe 
comets  when  they  cannot  be  seen  at  the  time  of 
their  transit.  And  even  for  that  purpose  it  is 
now  likely  to  be  superseded^  by  an  equatorial 
lately  put  up  in  the  north-west  turret  of  the  ob- 
servatory, by  Mr.  DoUond.  The  polar  axis  of  this 
equatorial  is  fixed  in  the  direction  of  the  earth's 
axb,  and  carries  round  with  it  ^  vernier  which 
points  out  right  ascensions,  on  an  equatorial  cir- 
cle, fixed  at  its  lower  extremity ;  and  a  circle  at 
right  angles  to  the  equatorial  is  attached  to 
the  axis,  which  shows  at  once  the  distances  of 
objects  to  which  its  telescope  is  pointed. 

863.  We  shall  conclude  the  subject  of  astro- 
nomy with  the  following  catalogue  of  sixty  of 
the  principal  fixed  stars,  recently  published  by 
astronomer  royal,  who  remarks  upon  it  that  *  The 
catalogue  will  require  a  small  correction,  com- 
mon to  every  star,  both  in  right  ascension,  and 
north  polar  distance.    The  correction  in  R.  A. 


will  be  subtract!  ve,  and  may  amount  to  nearly 
one-tenth  of  a  second  in  time.  The  correctioii 
in  N  P  D  will,  I  imagine,  be  likewise  subtractrra, 
and  wiU  not  exceed  a  quarter  of  a  second. 

^  It  is  divided  into  four  classes,  according  to 
the  supposed  degree  of  accuracy  of  each.    The 
stars  01  the  first  class  are  those  that  have  been 
determined  both  by  direct  vision,  and  reflection 
The  second  class  consists  chiefly  of  those  too 
near  the  zenith  to  be  observed  by  reflection. 
The  third  class  is  not  quite  so  exact  as  the  second, 
and  the  fourth  still  less  exact  than  the  third.  The 
errors  of  the  first  and  second  classes,  I  should 
think,  can  rarely  exceed  a  quarter  of  a  second : 
in  the  third  class  the  error  may  probably  amount 
to  double  that  quantity;  and  the  fourth  class 
cannot  be  relied  on  bat  to  the  nearest  second. 
Regulus  ought,  from  the  number  of  observations, 
to  be  in  the  first  class ;  but,  from  some  acddentsd 
discordances,  I  have  reserved  it  for  future  ex- 
amination.   The  errors  are  quite  independent  of 
the  common  error  above-mentioned,  the  exact 
amount  of  which  will  be  the  fiiture  subject  of 
investigation.* 


864.  Catalogue  of  the  JRifkt  AscensUm  and  North  Polar  Dutance  of  Sixty  StarSy  for  the  be- 
giwung  of  1823,  by  J.  Pond,  Etq,  Astronomer  noyal. 


N.  P.  D. 

N.  P.  D. 

i 

No. 

Names  of  Stan. 

Right  Aieeiuion. 

Bradley's 

French 

Class. 

Refraction. 

Refnction. 

H. 

M. 

S. 

1 

y  Pegasi      .    . 

0 

4 

81 

75**   48*     2-2" 

75° 

48'      3-4" 

1 

2 

a  Cassiopese    . 

0 

30 

31-3 

34    26      60 

34 

26       6-4 

1 

3 

Polaris     .     . 

0 

57 

46-2 

1     38      7-7 

1 

38       7-7 

1 

4 

a  Arietes     .     . 

1 

57 

131 

67    22    44-4 

67 

22     451 

1 

5 

a  Ceti     .     .     . 

2 

53 

2-3 

86     36     36-5 

86 

36     381 

3 

6 

3 

11 

44-3 

40    46     391 

40 

46     39-7 

2 

7 

Aldebaran    . 

4 

25 

46-6 

73    51     17-7 

73 

51     18-6 

1 

8 

Capella    .    . 

5 

3 

37-8 

44     11     36-9 

44 

11     37-5 

1 

9 

Rigel       ,    . 

5 

6 

2-2 

98     24    48-5 

98 

24     50-3 

3 

10 

/3  Tauri       .     . 

5 

15 

6-8 

61     33      65 

61 

33       7-4 

1 

11 

5 

15 

38-7 

83     49       8*0 

83 

49       9-5 

3 

12 

5 

22 

58-3 

90     26     180 

90 

26     19-7 

4 

13 

5 

27 

14-3 

91     19     22-9 

91 

19     24-6 

4 

14 

5 

31 

501 

92       2     380 

92 

2     39-7 

4 

15 

5 

45 

35-6 

82     38       41 

82 

38       5-3 

1 

16 

5 

46^ 

32-9 

45       4     55-9 

45 

4     56-7 

3 

17 

' 

6 

37 

20-9 

106     28     48-5 

106 

28     50-5 

3 

18 

7 

23 

17-6 

57     43     59-1 

57 

44     59-9 

1 

19 

7 

30 

2-2 

84     19     43-3 

84 

19     44-B 

1 

20 

7 

34 

28-5 

61     33     16-8 

61 

33     17-6 

1 

21 

9 

18 

53-5 

97     53     44-4 

97 

53     46-2 

3 

22 

9 

58 

56-3 

77    10     15-6 

77 

10     170 

— 

23 

10 

52 

43-5 

27     17     43-7 

27 

17     441 

1 

24 

11 

40 

1-7 

74     26     181 

74 

26     19-3 

3 

25 

11 

44 

28*6 

35     19     14-9 

35 

19     15-6 

2 

26 

12 

6 

37-2 

31     59      0.3 

31 

59       0-9 

3 

27 

13 

15 

52-9 

100     14       0-4 

100 

14       2-2 

3 

28 

13 

16 

46-8 

34       8     51-2 

34 

8     51-9 

2 

29 

13 

40 

33-5 

39    47     59-6 

39 

48      0-4 

2 

30 

13 

59 

35-9 

24     46     31-4 

24 

46     31-9 

3 

31 

Arcturus 

14 

7 

35-6 

69     53     29-2 

69 

53     301 

1 

32 

14 

37 

15-6 

62     10     27-8 

62 

10     28*9 

3 

»       33 

14 

40 

54-6 

105     15     14-5 

105 

15     16-5 

4 

34 

14 

41 

6-4 

105     17     560 

105 

17     580 

4 

35 

14 

51 

19-6 

15     7       15-6 

15 

7     15-9 

1 

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ASTRONOMY. 

Aitrcgiomer  itoyoT*  Catalogue  conttauei. 


201 


1 

N.  P.  D. 

N.  P.  D. 

No. 

KaxDesof  Sun.    . 

Right  ▲aoension.   { 

Bradley's 

French 

Clam. 

. 

Refraction. 

Refraction. 

' 

H.    M. 

S. 

36 

'■ 

15     27 

120 

62     41       0-8 

62     41       1-6 

1 

37 

15     35 

33-5 

83     00     36*8 

83     00     381 

1 

38 

' 

16       5 

50 

93     13     490 

93     13     50-8 

3 

39 

16     18 

34-2 

116       1     43-3 

116       1     45-5 

4 

40 

v-    • 

17      6 

350 

75     24      0-4 

75     24       1-5 

1 

41 

. 

17     26 

25-9 

37     33     48-8 

37     33     49-5 

2 

42 

t, 

17     26 

43-5 

77     18     110 

77     18     12-2 

1 

43 

•' 

17     52 

301 

38    29     10-6 

38     29     11-3 

2 

44 

18     29 

22-3 

3     25     111 

3     25     11-2 

3 

45 

18     30 

570 

55     22     31-2 

51     22     31-9 

1 

46 

18    43 

330 

56     50     120 

56     50     130 

1 

47 

18    57 

16-8 

76     23     31-3 

76     23     32-6 

2 

48 

19     12 

29-7 

22     38     58-9 

22     38     59-5 

2 

49 

19     16 

34-6 

87     13     47-3 

87     13     48-9 

2 

50 

19     37 

50-8 

79    48     390 

79     48     40-2 

2 

51 

19     42 

8-9 

81     35     29-7 

81     35     309 

1 

52 

19    46 

37-3 

84       1     40-2 

84       1     41-4 

2 

53 

20      7 

49-9 

103       2     49-6 

103       2     51-5 

4 

54 

20       8 

13-7 

103       5       6'^ 

103      5       8-5 

4 

55 

20     35 

24-2 

45     20     52-4 

45     20     53*1 

1 

56 

20     58 

58-6 

52       6     55-2 

52       6     561 

3 

57 

21     14 

21-0 

28       9     430 

28       9     43-6 

1 

58 

21     22 

14-2 

96     20     38.5 

96     20     40-3 

2 

59 

21     26 

20-4 

20     12     53-9 

20     12     54-3 

1 

60 

21     56 

41-5 

91     10     31-3 

91     10     330 

1 

61 

22     55 

57-2 

75     44     41-7 

75     44     42-9 

1 

62 

23     59 

15-6 

61     53     12-5 

61     53     13-2 

1 

INDEX. 


Aberration  of  light,  discovered  hy  Bradley,  56. 61. 
373.  Canse  of,  investigations  respecting,  formu- 
lae and  tables  for  computing,  374 — 386. 

Adam  supposed  to  have  been  acquainted  with  astro» 
nomy,  3* 

Almagest,  conned  by  Ptolemy,  31.  Commented 
on  by  Puzbach,  38.     and  completed  by  Muller, 

.    39. 

Alphonsine  tables  composed,  87.  and  corrected,  38. 

Altitude  of  the  sun  observed  by  Pytheas,  27. 

Amazon  river,  five  high,  and  four  low  tides  in,  at 
once,  480. 

Americans  acquainted  with  astronomy,  17. 

Annual  motion  of  the  earth  iUustxated,  410 — 413. 

Anomaly,  mean  and  true,  602.  Eccentric,  604. 
To  find  true  on  terms  of  mean,  604 — 609. 

Antarctic  circles  definf^d,  418. 

Antediluvians  acquainted  with  astronomy,  3 — 5. 

Anticipation  of  the  equinoxes,  429 — 431. 

Aphelion  or  Apside  of  the  planets,  601.  Method 
of  finding  place  and  motion  of,  610.  617.  647. 
Table  of  places  of,  235.  . 

Apogee,  motion  of  the  sun's,  computed  by  Albateg- 
nius,  33.     Defined,  353.  360. 

Arabians  cultivated  astronomy,  32,  33. 

Aracta,  tables  formed  for  the  meridian  of,  33. 

Arctic  circle  defined,  416. 

Arcturus,  half  a  degree  more  southerly  than  ob- 
served by  the  ancients,  208. 

ARMIU.ARY  tphero  erected  at  Alexandria,  28. 


Ascending  node  of  planeu,  table  of  places  of,  234. 
Defined,  335.  673.  * 

Aspects  of  the  planets,  340. 

Astronomical  instruments  described,  776 — 862. 
Quadrants,  780—789.  Mural  circle,  790~-8n. 
Equatorial  sector,  812 — 815.  Transit  Instru- 
ment, 816—850.  Equatorial,  851 — 861.  Ma- 
chinery for  illustration,  762 — 775. 

Astronomical  Society  of  London,  74. 180. 

Astronomy,  etymology  of,  definition  of,  sublimity 
and  usefulness,  2.  Antiquity  of,  3 — 19.  History 
of,  3—76.  Various  systems  of,  210.  218.  True 
system  of,  219. 235. 

Athenians  erect  a  statue  to  Berosus  the  astronomer, 
27. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  tides  on  the,  less  thanon  the  Paci- 
fic, 479. 

Atmosphere,  lunar,  170.  Supposed  to  have  Udet, 
483.     Light  refracted  by  it,  501—511. 

ATMOSPHERES,  Venus  and  Mars  have,  112,  113. 
Doubtful  whether  Mercury  has  one.  111. 

Atkinson  on  refraction,  510,51 1. 

Attraction  of  the  great  mountains  affecU  the  plumb 
line,  60.  Dr.  Herschel's  ideas  of  the  effects  of 
attraction  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  194.  200.  Its 
power  supposed  to  be  balanced  by  projectile  forces, 
207.  Effects  of  attraction  on  the  motions  of  tho 
planets,  254.  327. 

Attractive  force,  law  of,  between  different  planets, 
dC^--314. 


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ASTRONOMY. 


Axis  of  the  e»ith  deccribed,  369.  420. 
AZIMUTH  circle,  utility  of  the,  788.     Method  of  ad- 
justing, 855. 

Baltic  sea  has  no  sennble  tides,  482. 

Bearded  comet  explained,  145. 

Belts.    See  Jupiter. 

Benares,  a  celebrated  observatory  at,  13. 

Black  sea  has  no  sensible  tides,  482. 

Bodies  of  the  sun  and  planets  described,  303 — 807. 

Bode,  remarkable  analogy  among  the  distances  of 

the  planets  noticed  by,  141. 
Brinklby,  503. 588. 
Bull's  eye,  more  southerly  than  the  ancients  placed 

it,  206. 

Calippic  period  corrected  by  Hipparchus,  30. 

Cambridge  observatory,  75. 

Cartesian  system,  218. 

Caspian  sea  has  no  sensible  tides,  482. 

Celestial  bodies,  appearances  of  the,  as  seen  by  the 
naked  eye,  77 — 97.  Or  seen  through  telescopes, 
98—149. 

Central  forces,  236—247.  Application  of  to  the 
planetary  theory,  248—253.  Obeyed  by  comeU, 
258. 

Ceres,  69.  114 

Chaldea,  a  country  proper  for  astronomical  observa- 
tion, 18. 

Chaldeans,  early  astronomers,  12.  18, 19. 

Chinese,  said  to  have  been  taught  astronomy  by 
Noah,  7.     Their  superstition,  756. 

Chronology,  eclipses  useful  in,  757. 

Circles,  described  by  the  planetn,  328—336. 

Clairault  computed  the  orbit  of  a  comet,  178,  179. 

Cold,  cause  of  in  winter,  423 — 425. 

Comets,  written  on  by  Muller,  39.  Observed  by  Wer- 
ner, 41.  And  Hevelius,  44.  Paths  of ,  discovered  by 
Kepler,  48.  Places  of  observed,  and  elements  com- 
puted hj  Bradley,  61.  Number  and  appearances  to 
the  eye,  87.  Apparent  magnitude,  88.  Appear- 
ances through  telescopes,  142—1 46.  Of  their  taib, 
144 — 146.  Fancies  respecting,  172.  Perihelion 
distances,  175.  Cox^jectures  respecting  tails,  176. 
Methods  of  determining  the  orbito  of,  294—302. 
Resistance  of  ether  inferred  from  the  motion  of 
Ouke's,  180. 

Commutation,  angle  of,  624.' 

Conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  observed  by 
Tycho  Brahe,  47. 

Conjunctions  of  planeu,  340, 341. 

Constellations,  number  of  the  Chinese,  7.  How 
marked,  8.  When  first  used  by  the  Greeks,  22,  23. 
Names  of  the  ancient,  595.  And  of  the  modem, 
596,  597.     >fumber  of  stars  in  each,  595—597. 

COPBRNICAN  System  published,  42.  Improved,  43. 
Account  of,  219 — ^235.  Much  opposed  at  first, 
220.     Confirmed  by  Newton,  221, 

Corpuscle,  attraction  of  a  line  on,  313.  Of  a  plane 
on>  314.     Of  a  sphere  on,  315. 

Crabtree,  Mr.  sees  the  first  transit  of  Venus  ever 
obeerved,  51.  583. 

Crystalline  heavens,  an  erroneous  notion  in  the 
Ptolemaic  system,  213. 

Curtate  distance,  625. 

Darkness,  extraordinary,  supposed  to  be  caused  by 
comets,  761. 

Declination,  sun's,  table  of,  550,  Principal  fixed 
stars,  863. 

Deluge,  supposed  to  have  been  caused  by  a  comet, 
177. 

Density  of  the  whole  matter  on  the  earth,  67.  Pro- 
portional of  the  sun  and  planets,  235.  320 — 327. 

Descending  node  defined,  673. 


Diameter  of  the  sun  and  plane'ts,  234. 
Dichotomy  of  the  moon,  used  by  Aristarchus  to  de- 

tcrmine  the  sun's  distance,  28. 
Direct  motion  of  a  planet  defined,  357. 
Diurnal  rotations  of  the  sun  and  planeU,  234.    Of 

the  earth  illustrated,  410 — 413. 
Disturbing  effects  of  planets  on  each  other,  more 

easily  computed  from  their  smallneas  with  respect 

to  the  sun,  266. 
Double  stars,  some,  revolve  round  each  other,  186. 

Herschel  and  South  on  motions  of,  71. 
Druids  early  astronomers,  27. 

Earth,  fignre  of  the,  dispute  concerning,  60.  Mean 
density  of  matter  in  it,  67.  The  motion  of  main- 
tained by  Pythagoras  and  Nicetas,  219.  Its  revo- 
lution, diurnal  motion,  propoctional  density,  &c. 
233.  235.  327.  Distance  from  the  sun,  366. 
Diameter  and  motion,  t6.  Form,  366 — 368.  Angle 
of  its  axis,  369.  Its  motion  round  the  sun  proved, 
370-^86.  Objection,  387.  Revolves  on  ite  axis 
388 — 409,  Its  motipns  illustrated,  411--43I. 
Appears  as  a  moon  to  the  Lunarians,  and  the 
largest  body  in  the  universe,  435.  Irregularity  of 
thb  form  of  its  orbit,  276.  t 

Bcoentricities  of  the  planets,  233.  Method  of 
finding,  648. 

BccENTRics,  a  term  used  in  the  Ptolemaic  system, 
214. 

Eclipses,  the  theory  of,  known  to  the  Chinese,  9. 
Accounts  of,  collected  by  Hipparchus,  50.  Pre> 
liminary  observations  respecting,  666-^678.  Rules 
and  examples  for  calculating,  679 — ^745.  For  a 
general  solar  eclipse,  746 — ^753.  Eclipses  of  Ja« 
Piter's  satellites,  25—760.  Cometa^  eclipses, 
761.     CausM  of  (explained,  772. 

Ecliptic,  obliciuity  of  the,  in  Ptolemy's  time,  28. 
Fixed  by  Albategnius,  33.  Observed  by  Anachel, 
34.  Corrected  by  Werner,  41.  Derivation  of  the 
name,  330.  To  find  the  obliquity  of,  331.  333. 
563,  564.  Periodical  variation  in  obliquity,  393. 
Comprehended  in  the  aodiac,  593. 

Egypt,  a  country  adapted  to  astztmomical  observa- 
tions, 18. 

Elliptical  orbits  of  the  planets  discovered  by  Kep- 
ler, 48.  Of  Saturn's  sateUites,  136.  Of  comets, 
very  eccentric,  225. 

Elongation,  greatest  of  in&rior  planets,  235.  De- 
fined, 362—629. 

Ephemerides,  made  by  Purbach,  38. 

Epicycle,  a  term  in  the  Ptolepnaic  system,  214. 

Equation  of  centre,  ^7, 608. 

Equation  of  time,  table  of,  548.  Auxiliary  table  foi 
reducing  to  subseqaent  year,  544. 

Equatorial  described,  851— -862. 

Equinoctial,  obliquity  of  the,  420.  Cause  of  the 
seasons,  420. 

Equinoctial  point,  method  of  finding  the,  565. 

Equinoxes,  precession  of  the,  33 — 41. 

Evening  star,  83. 

FacUL£  of  the  sun  explained,  103. 

Falling  bodies,  velocity  of,  273,, 274. 

Fields  of  stars  defined,  188. 

Fixed  stars,  Uble  of  proper  motions  of,  209.  Cata- 
logue of  principal,  864. 

Fo-HE,  emperor  of  China,  taught  the  Chinese  astro- 
nomy, 7. 

Forces,  central,  236.  242.  247. 

Galaxy.    See  Milky  Way. 
Geocentric  latitude  defined,  334. 
Geocentric  motion  explained,  342,  343.  351. 
Geocentric  observations,  method  of  reducing  to  he- 
liocentric, 618, 625. 


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203 


•0£0R6IAN  planet,  Georgiutt  8:diM,  Unu^,  or  Her- 
echel,  dieeofvered  by  HeischeU  139.  Apparent  mag- 
nitude, •&.  Diameter,  »6.  Periodic  revolution.  «&. 
Has  six  satellitee,  t6.  Remarkable  peculiarity  in 
tbe  poaition  of  their  orbits,  ib.  Theoretical  deduc- 
tion of  La  Place  respecting,  t2(.  Periods  and  elon- 
gations of  satellites,  140. 

Gnomon,  the  use  of  a,  known  to  the  Chinese,  9. 
Used  by  Pytheas,  27.  One  erected  at  Bologna, 
58. 

Gravitation  defined,  260.  Its  effects  on  the  pla* 
neu,  261—269.  307.^  And  satellites,  270— 277. 
On  the  moon  in  particolar,  276—886.  Illustrated, 
286—292.  Is  di£fused  through  the  sabstaace  of 
the  celestial  bodies,  303 — 318. 

Greeks,  probable  origin  of  their  astronomy,  22—25. 
Vitruvius's  account  of  it,  27. 

Halley,  Dr.  examines  Hevelius's  instruments,  and 
makes  observat^ns  along  with  him,  53.  Makes  a 
catalogue  of  the  fixed  stars  j  discovers  the  accel- 
eration of  the  moon ;  points  out  the  method  of  find- 
ing the  diManoe  of  the  sun  from  the  transit  of  Ve- 
nus, 59. 

HAADiNQ>diseov«red  Juno,  69. 

Harvest  moon,  rises  sooner  than  any  other,  486. 
Reasons  of  this,  487-^492.  Goes  thnnigh  a  course 
of  mere  ana  leas  beneficial  states,  493. 

Heat,  formula  for  determining  time  of  day  when 
greatest,  426. 

Heavens,  general  appearance  of  the,  80.  Divisions 
of  the  starry,  589—597. 

Heliocentric  drde  defined  and  described,  328 — 
330. 

Heliocentric  latitude  defined,  334. 

Herschel,  Dr.  improves  reflecting  telescopes,  57. 
Constructs  very  powerful  ones,  and  discovers  a  new 
planet,  with  satellites,  68.  His  observations  on 
Venus,  112.  And  on  Mars,  113.  Sees  a  satellite 
and  iu  shadow  both  on  the  disk  of  Jupiter,  125. 
Discovers  the  double  ring  of  Saturn^  131 — 133.  A 
sixth  and  seventh  satellite,  134.  4nd  vast  num- 
bers of  nebula,  146.  Obs«rves  eruptions  of  the  lu- 
nar volcanoes,  167.  Forms  a  new  theory  of  the 
universe,  187.  His  theory  of  the  heaveps>  195— 
203.  Proposes  a  method  of  determining  the  pa- 
rallax of  the  fixed  stars,  586. 

Herschel,  Jun.  on  double  stars,  71. 

Herschel,  the  new  planet,  so  named  by  foieiga  ae- 
tronomers,  68.     See  Georgium  SidUS. 

UiGli  water,  to  find  the  time  of,  484, 485. 

Horizontal  parallax  defined,  566.  How  to  find  it, 
567. 

HoRiZONtAL  sun  and  moon,  apparent  magnitude  of 
the,  494.  Accounted  for  by  Alhasen,  495.  Des- 
cartes and  Wallis,  496,  497.  Dr.  Desaguliers, 
498.  And  Dr.  Smith,  499.  Probable  cause  of, 
500. 

HiiRNNA,Tycho  Brahe  builds  an  observatory  on,  47. 

Inclinations  of  the  planetaiy  orbiu  to  the  ecliptic, 

.    tZ34. 

Indians  early  astronomers,  13. 

INFERIOR  planets  defined,  227—335. 

INSTRDMENTS,  astronomical,  described,  776—862. 

Jones,  constructed  Greenwich  mural  circle,  790. 

Italy,  great  astronomers  in,  ^3. 

Julian  year,  excess  of  tlie,  above  the  solar,  430. 

Juno,  116. 

Jo  PITER,  phenomena  of,  eclipses  of,  satellites  of,  25. 
Conjunction  of,  with  Saturn  observed,  47.  Occul- 
tation  of,  by  the  moon,  53.  Eclipses  of,  by  his  sa- 
tellites, observed  by  Cassini,  64.  Theoiy  of  his 
satellites  still  imperfect,  62.  His  appearance  to 
Che  eye,  85.     And  through  a  telescope,  118.     A 


satellite  and  its  shadow  seen  on  the  planet  at  the 
same  time,  125.  Revolution  of  satellites  on  their 
axes,  126.  Remarkable  connexion  among  their 
periodic  times,  127.  Spots  observed  on  him,  118. 
His  figure  and  roUtion,  1 19.  His  four  satellites, 
120.  Aecount  of  these  phenomena,  127.  Other 
phenomena,  231.  233,234,  235.  Attractive  power 
of  Jupiter,  271,  272.  Motion  uf  light,  from  Jupi- 
ter to  the  earth,  374.  Eclipses  of  his  satellites 
vecy  frequent,  useful  in  finding  the  longitude,  760. 

KatSR  observed  a  volcanic  appearance  in  the  moon, 

167. 
Kepler  and  Newton's  discoveries,  distinctive  nature 

of,  254. 
Kepler's  Uws,  255— 267.— Illostmted,  259, 260. 

Latitude  of  a  planet  defined,  334.  Methods  of 
computing,  620.  Terrestrial,  methods  of  ^ding, 
561,662, 

LiBRATlON,  109.  447. 

Light,  progressive  motion  of,  discovered,  68.  373. 
Proportion  of,  in  the  planets,  235.  Velocity  and 
alienation  of,  376 — 387.  Afford*  evidence  of  the 
motion  of  the  earth,  395.  408 — 411.  Illustrated, 
411 — 413,  Quantity  of,  afforded  by  the  earth  to 
the  moon,  436.  Befraction  of  fay  the  atmosphere, 
500—616. 

Local  zodiac  described,  336. 

liDNlMN  bridge,  time  of  tides  arriving  at,  480. 

Longitude,  Vnetbod  of  finding  the,  proposed  by 
Werner,  41.  By  Dr.  Halley,  59.  Has  since  been 
carried  into  execution,  t6.  Longitude  of  a  celestial 
phenomenon  defined,  338.  Mc^od  of  computing, 
620.  Of  places  easily  found  in  the  moon,  438. 
Eclipses  useful  in  determining  it,  661,  664. 

Lunar  eclipses,  two,  at  least,  happen  annually,  698. 
One  visible,  the  other  not,  699.  Rules  for  calcu- 
lating, 706—724.     Exemplified,  772. 

Lunar  tables  computed,  62.  When  themoon's  place 
is  most  correctly  in  the  sysygies,  723,  724. 

Lunarians,  appearance  of  the  earth  to  the,  435, 
436.  442.  Have  always  equal  day  and  night, 
437—439. 

Lunations,  no  eomplel^  number  td,  finished  without 
a  fraction,  676.    See  MooN. 

Machinery,  astronouieal,  described>  762 — ^776. 

MACULiS  of  the  sun  defined,  103. 

Magnitudes  of  the  celestial  bodies,  661—688.  Of 
the  stars  distinguished,  689. 

Mars,  his  appearance  to  the  eye,  color,  and  other 
phenomena,  84.  Appearance  through  a  telescope, 
113.  Rules  for  deducing  his  distance,  675,  576. 
Obliquity  of  axis  of  rotation,  appearance  of  snow 
about  poles  of,  113. 

Marseilles,  the  gnomon  early  used  at,  27. 

Matter,  universal  attraction  of,  proved,  67.  262. 
303.  318.  Diversity  of,  in  the  earth,  67.262. 
And  pdanets,  320—327. 

Mean  distances  of  the  planets,  238. 

Mediterranean  sea  has  no  tides,  482. 

Mercury,  appearance  of,  to  the  eye,  82.    Through 

^  a  telescope,  110.  Mountains  in.  111.  Has  phases 
similar  to  those  of  the  moon,  231.  Seen  in  con- 
junction with  the  son,  345.  And  passing  over 
his  disk,  346.     Table  of  occultations  of,  665. 

Meridian,  rules  for  finding  the,  517 — 522.  To 
place  a  transit  instrument  in,  831 — 839. 

Micrometer  improved,  57.  Necessary  for  measur- 
ing small  angular  distances,  779. 

Milky  way,  appearance  of  the,  96.  Dr.  Herschel 
discovers  innumerable  multitudes  of  stars  in  it; 
he  views  it  by  fields,  188.  And  supposes  the  sun 
to  be  set,  192.     Gauges  it,  194. 


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ASTRONOMY. 


Moon,  acceleration  of  the»  determined  by  Ebn. 
Younia's  obaervationa,  34.  Discoyered  by  Halley, 
59.  Her  appearance  to  the  eye,  78.  And  through 
» teleacope,  109.  Great  inequalities  on  her  sur- 
face, 166.  Supposed  to  be  mountainous ;  attempts 
made  to  measure  their  height,  166.  Volcano  ob- 
served in  her  by  Kater,  167.  Also  by  others,  ib. 
Br.  Herschel's  estimate  of  the  height  of  the  lunar 
mountains,  166.  Conjectures  respecting  the.moon's 
substance,  168.  And  her  spots,  169.  Atmos- 
phere of,  discovered  by  Ramage,  Ross,  and  Com- 
field,  170.  Enquiry  whether  the  moon  is  inha- 
bited, 171.  Her  orbit  and  motion,  271,  272.  11- 
Instrated,  273 — ^292.  Her  conjunction,  340,  341. 
And  peculiar  phenomena,  432 — 449.  She  influ- 
ences the  tides,  450 — 482.  Proportion  of  her 
power  to  that  of  the  sun  in  moving  the  sea,  459. 
Her  appearance  at  the  fall  in  harvest,  486.  Causes 
of  it,  487 — 493.  Appearance  near  the  horison, 
494.  Various  reasons  assigned  for  it,  49(M500. 
Causes  of  her  eclipses,  666 — 678.  Rules  for  com- 
puting them,  680—724.  To  find  her  way  from  the 
sun,  725 — ^730.  Her  color,  &c  during  an  eclipse, 
754,  755.  Her  distance  from  the  earth  less  than 
fonnerly,  758.  Her  various  phases  exemplified, 
768.  770.  772.  Method  of  delineating  her  visible 
disk,  447.  Parallaxes  indicate  the  shape  of  the 
earth,  578. 

AfORNiNG  star,  83. 

Motion,  planetary,  laws  of,  255— 259.  344.  364.  Of 
light,  373— 386 

Motions  of  comets,  293—302.  Of  planets,  in  ante- 
cedence and  consequence,  defined,  336.  Direct, 
344.  357.  And  retrograde,  344—358.  Pro- 
gresaive  of  light,  408,  409.  Annual  and  diurnal, 
of  the  earth,  410—413.  531. 

Moral  quadrant  described,  781—787. 

Mural  circle,  and  iu  uses,  described,  790—811. 

Nautical  almanack,  or  Nautical  £phemeris>  annually 
published,  62—66. 

Neap  tides,  cause  of  the,  455.  472.  476. 

Nebula  explained,  vast  numbers  of,  discovered  by 
Herschel,  149.     His  account  of  them,  188 — ^205. 

New  stars,  accounts  of  several,  90—95.   ' 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  constructs  reflectors  with  sphe- 
rical speculums,  55.  Brings  theoretical  astronomy 
to  perfection,  56.  Determines  the  figure  of  the 
earth,  60.  Confirms  the  Copemican  system,  and 
lays  down  the  fundamental  laws  of  motion  and 
gravity,  221, 

N0DE8  denned,  621.  Method  of  finding  when  a 
planet  is  in,  ib.  To  find  the  motion  of  the  moon's, 
289, 290.     Line  of  the  nodes  defined,  335. 

Nonagesimal  degree  defined,  443. 

North  Pole  star,  appearance  of  the,  79,  80. 

Nutation,  natural,  and  cause  of,  401.  Formols 
and  tables  for  computing,  402 — 407. 

Obliquity  of  ecliptic,  periodical  variation  in,  393. 
Method  of  finding,  563,  564. 

Observatories,  the  towers  of  Babel  and  Belus  sup- 
posed to  have  been,  and  the  pyramids  of  Egypt, 
probably  used  as  such,  18. 

Observatory,  principal  instrumento  in,  described, 
776—862. 

Observatory,  portable  or  equatorial,  described, 
851—862. 

Occultation  of  lupiter  by  the  Moon,  observed,  53. 
170.     And  of  Saturn,  ib. 

Octants  of  the  moon  described,  440. 

Olbers  discovered  Pallas  and  Vesta,  69. 

Opposition  defined,  340.    Mark  of,  341. 

Orbits  of  the  planets,  inclination  of  the,  to  the  eclip- 
tic, 234.    Of  thejnoon,  286— 291.     Method  of 


finding  the  form  of,  644.  Inclination  of,  643.  Ee> 
centricity,  648.  Place  of  a  planet  in  an  ellipiica] 
orbit,  598—609. 

Orion,  number  of  stars  in,  148. 

Orrery,  erected  by  Archimedes,  30.  Description  oi 
the  grand,  made  for  King  George  I.,  762 — ^764. 
Of  Mr.  Ferguson's,  765—772. 

OSYMANDIUS,  an  astronomical  circle  on  the  monu- 
ment of,  18. 

Pallas,  69.  115. 

Paralla'X  of  planets,  methods  of  determining,  577. 
Of  fixed  stars,  no  sensible  quanti^,  588. 

Parabola  of  a  comet,  method  of  finding  the,  297 — 
302. 

Pendulum,  a  test  of  velocity,  274.  Caose  of  i» 
vibration,  304.  Vibrates  most  quickly  near  the 
poles,  397. 

Pendulum  dock,  777. 

Penumbra,  method  of  finding  the  place  fint  or  last 
touched  by,  752. 

Perigee  defined,  353 — 360. 

Period  of  eclipses,  676.    See  Eclipses. 

Periodical  revolutions,  233.  630. 

Pisces  and  Aries,  appearance  of  the  moon  in,  487^ 
492. 

Piazzi  discovered  Ceres,  69. 

Planetarium  erected  by  Archimedes,  29.  Mr. 
Jones's  described,  771. 

Planets,  a  theory  of  the,  written  by  Multer,  39. 
Their  appearance  to  the  eye,  81 — 86.  Number, 
81.  Apparent  magnitudes  and  motions,  86.  Their 
names  and  order,  222 — ^227.  Are  all  opaque  bo- 
dies, 230.  Their  periods,  distances,  and  eccentri- 
cities, 233.  Secondary  planets,  270— 292.  Their 
circles  defined  and  described,  328—^333. 336.  Their 
latitude,  334 — 337.  Method  of  computing  lati- 
tude of,  620.  Longitude,  357.  Method  of  coin- 
puting,  620.  Conjunctions,  oppositions,  and  as- 
pects, 340—349.  fttotionary  appearances,  350. 
354.  Motions,  355,  356.  Direct,  357.  Retro- 
grade, 358.  In  apogee  and  perigee,  353.  360. 
Periods  of  return,  361 — 364.  Methods  of  finding 
the  parallax  of  the  plaueu,  566 — 579.  Their  dis- 
Unces,  580-^582. 609. 630—^9.  Periodic  times, 

.  630.  Method  of  computing  densities,  320 — 336. 
Comparative  view  of  densities,  327. 

Pleiades,  number  of  stars  in,  148. 

Pole,  to  find  the  place  of,  in  projecting  a  sdlar 
eclipse,  750. 

Poles  of  the  earth,  bodies  heaviest  when  near, 
397. 

Pond,  astronomer  royal,  71,  588. 

Precession  of  the  equmoxes,  390'--'392.  Table  and 
formulae  for  computing  effect  of,  394 — 396* 

Progressive  motion  of  light  proves  the  motion  of 
the  earth,  373—386. 

Projectile  forces,  supposed  by  Dr.  Herschel  to 
counteract  the  power  of  attraction,  207.  Rendered 
probable  by  changes  in  the  positions  of  stars, 
208. 

Proportional  distances  of  the  planets  from  the  sun, 
233, 

Proportions  of  light,  heat,  bulk,  and  density  of  the 
planets,  235. 

Pythagorean  system  of  astronomy,  taught  by  Phil* 
olaus,  25.  Andby  Arisurchus,28.  Carried  into 
Italy,  Gaul,  and  Egypt,  26,  27.  Hestored  by  Co- 
pernicus, 42.  218. 

Pythagoras  held  comets  to  be  of  the  nature  at 
planets,  172. 

Quadrant,  mural,  described,  781— 787. 
Quadrant,  portable,  described,  788,  789. 
Quadrant,  reflecting,  invented,  56. 


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QUADEATUKB  deHned,  340,  341. 


Radius,  vector,  601.  Method  of  finding  length  of, 
609.  649. 

REFRACTION  of  light  by  the  atmosphere,  501.  II- 
lostittted,  502.  Method  of  computing  by  BrinUey, 
504 — 509.  Table  of  mean  refractions,  by  Mr. 
Henry  Atkinson,  511. 

Refractions,  the  use  of,  in  astronomy,  shown  by 
Alhasen,  34.     And  Vitello,  37. 

Retrograde  motion  of  a  planet  defined,  344. 

Revolution  of  the  heavens,  only  an  apparent  mo- 
tion, 409. 

Revolution,  synodical,  method  of  determining, 
650-656. 

RIGHT  Ascension,  method  of  computing,  of  the  stars, 
620.  Table  of  principal,  865.  Of  the  sun,  558. 
560. 

Ring,    ftee  Saturn.    To  find  the  form  of,  137. 

Samarcand,  the  latitude  of,  determined  by  Ulug 
Beg,  35. 

Satellites,  four  revolve  round  Jupiter,  120.  Seven 
round  Saturn,  134.  And  six  round  Herschel, 
139. 

Saturn,  his  ring  discovered,  50.  128.  And  five  of 
his  satellites,  54.  His  appearance  to  the  naked 
eye,  85.  And  through  a  telescope,  128.  His 
ring  described,  129,  130.  Found  by  Dr.  Herechel 
to  be  double,  131.  Not  changeable,  132.  Period 
of  his  revolution,  133.  Seven  satellites,  134. 
Their  periodical  revolutions  and  distances  from  Sa- 
turn, and  greatest  angular  distance  as  seAn  from  the 
earth,  135.  Table  to  determine  the  apparent  form 
of  the  ring,  and  of  the  orbits  of  satellites,  137, 138. 
Mutual  attraction  between  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  267, 
268.     Their  power,  272. 

Schroeter,  111.  113. 

Sea,  the  ebbing  and  flowing  jof  the,  causes  of,  450. 
483. 

Seasons,  causes  of  the,  414.  428.  Had  fallen  back 
from  the  error  of  the  Gregorian  calendar,  430. 
Rectified  by  the  new  style,  16.  431. 

Sector,  equatorial,  described,  812.  815. 

Semita  Luhinosa,  or  zodiacal  light,  150—152. 

Sbmi  Tychonic  system,  217. 

Sextile,  definition  and  marks  of,  341. 

Shadow  of  the  earth  always  round,  367. 

Siderial  days  defined,  525. 

Signs,  Chinese  names  of  the,  7.     Defined,  336. 

Solar  days  defined,  525. 

Solar  eclipses,  of  the  shadow  of  the  penumbra  in, 
687 — 693.  When  they  can  happen,  695.  Num- 
ber that  may  happen  in  a  year,  698.  Rules  for 
computing,  731 — 753. 

Solar  noon,  deviation  of  the,  from  the  clock,  541. 

Solar  systems, ours,  in  motion,  208. .  Synoptic  view 
of  222—227. 

Solar  systems,  space  univeisaily  filled  with,  183. 

Southern  constellations,  596. 

Stars,  fixed,  catalogues  of  the,  made  by  Hipparchus, 
30.  Ulug  Beg,  35.  WUliam  lY.  of  Hesse,  46. 
Tycho  Brahe,  47.  Flamsteed,  58.  Halley,  59. 
Herschel,  68.  Their  aberration  discovered,  56. 
Appearances  to  the  eye,  79 — 81.  Most  numerous 
in  the  northern  part  of  ^e  heavens,  79 — 81.  Liable 
to  changes.  99.  Their  appearance  through  teles- 
copes, 147,  148.  Supposed  to  be  suns,  181—186. 
Br.  Herschel's  theory,  187.  Observations  of  in- 
numerable multitudes  of  stars,  188 — ^205.  His  in- 
ferences, 205 — ^208.  Apparent  changes  of  stars, 
ib.  Are  situated  at  an  immense  distance,  shine  by 
their  own  native  light,  228.  No  method  yet  found 
to  ascertain  their  distance,  584.  Conjecture  as  to 
it,  585.  Dr.  Herschel's  method,  586.  Still  in- 
sufficient, 587.    Divisions  of  the  stars,  589 — 597. 


Number  of,  in  different  oonstellations,  695—^597. 
Table  of  proper  motion  of,  209.  Catalogue  of  prin- 
cipal, 865. 

Style,  reason  for  the  change  of,  430,  431. 
'Sun,  spots  on  the,  discovered,  50.  His  parallax  and 
distance  computed,  64.  His  appearance  to  the  eye, 
77.  And  through  a  telescope,  98—108.  His 
9jfot»  observed  by  Galileo,  Scheiner,  and  Harriot, 
about  the  same  time,  98, 99.  Varie^  of  uimen- 
sions,  100.  Subject  to  increase  and  diminution,  101 
— 103.  Their  velocity  and  uniform  motion  from  east 
lowest,  104.  Other  phenomena  attending  them 
106 — 108.  Dr.  Long's  account  of  them,  154.  To 
find  the  time  of  their  revolutions,  156, 157.  Dif- 
ferent opinions  concerning  them,  158.  Dr.  Wilson, 
159 — 164.  The  sun  supposed  not  to  be  in  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  192.  Is  at  an  immense 
distance,  229.  Mutual  gravitation  between  the 
sun  and  planets,  260—- 269.  Action  of  the  sun  on 
the  secondary  planets,  270 — ^292.  Proportion  of 
his  action  on  both,  306 — 318.  His  conjunctions 
•  with  the  planets,  340 — 364.  Is  immensely  larger 
than  the  earth,  370,  371.  Proofs  that  the  earth 
revolves  round  the  sun,  371 — 413.  And  that  the 
sun  revolves  on  his  axis,  388,  389.  He  is  higher 
in  summer  than  in  winter,  421.  And  more  dis- 
tant, 423.  Reasons  for  the  greater  heat  in  sum- 
mer, 423 — 426.     Periods  of  his  completing  a  tro- 

.  pical  revolution,  427.  Appears  to  fall  back  with 
respect  to  the  stars,  428.  Reasons  for  the  ap- 
parent-increase of  magnitude  near  the  horizon, 
494-^500.  The  motion  of  the  sun  illustrated  by 
supposing  a  fictitious  sun  moving  in  the  equator, 
533 — 541.  The  sun's  parallax  the  most  important 
problem  in  astronomy,  582.  Table  of  the  sun's 
declination  for  I?  14  ^  with  auxiliary  table  to  find 
it  for  bubsequent  years,  550,  551.  To  find  the 
moon's  way  fron  the  sun  in  eclipses,  725—730. 
to  calculate  eclipses  of  the  sun,  731 — 753. 

Synopsis  of  the  sun  and  planets,  232 — ^235. 

Systems  of  astronomy,  account  of  the  most  famous, 
210—227.  Of  the  Pythagorean,  212.  Ptolemaic, 
213,  214.  TVchonic,  216.  Semi  Tychonic,  217. 
Cartesian,  218.     And  Copemican,  219—227. 


Tables,  astronomical,  published,  37. 48. 59.  62. 

Telescopes,  improvement  of,  54 — 57.  Various 
kinds  of,  used  by  astronomers,  778.  784.  816.  To 
point  the  telescope  of  an  equatorial  to  a  star, 
861. 

Telescopic  stars  defined,  589. 

Tides,  theory  of,  450—483.  Causes  of  the  spring 
and  neap,  455.  472.  475,  476.  Tides  supposed  in 
the  atmosphere,  483. 

Time,  methods  of  finding,  526 — 529.  Equation  of 
time,  table  of,  543,  544.  Illustration  of  equation 
of  time,  53a!— 536.     Explanation  of,  537—54 1 . 

Time  keeper,  recommended  by  Frisius  to  determme 
the  longitude,  45. 

Trajectorium  Lnnare,  described,'773 — ^775. 

Transit  instrument,  description  and  use  of,  817 
—850. 

Transits  of  inferior  planets  over  the  sun ;  intervals 
at  which  they  may  happen,  657.  663.  List  of 
transits  of  Venus,  664.     Of  Mercury,  665. 

Tropic  of  Cancer  described,  416.  Of  Capricorn, 
418. 

Troughton,  maker  of  one  of  the  Greenwich  mural 
circles,  71. 

Twilight,  cause  of  the,  512.  Method  of  determin- 
ing the  time  of  shortest  at  any  place,  513 — 515. 

Tychonic  system,  account  of  the,  216. 

Velocity  of  the  spots  on  the  sun,  104.  Of  comets, 
greatest  in  their  perihelion,  174.  Of  bodies,  pheno- 


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menm  of  the,  237.  273.  274.  Of  the  euth^  386. 
Of  light,  396. 

Vends,  the  first  transit  ofyeverobserred,  61.  The 
second  end  third  obserred  at  various  places, 
inferences,  64.  Her  appearance  to  the  eye>  83. 
And  through  a  telescope ;  her  phases  and  changes 
similar  to  those  ol»erved  in  the  moon  were 
first  observed  by  Galileo;  Dr.  Herschel's  ob- 
servations and  inferences;  she  has  an  atmos- 
phere, and  is  probably  a  little  larger  than  the 
earth,  112.  Mountains  in  her,  seen  by  Sdmieter, 
113.  Periods  of  her  transiu,  346.  664.  Her 
motions,  361,  362.  Methods  of  deducing  her  pa- 
rallax, 571,  572.  581,  582.  Advantage  of  observ- 
ing her  transits,  582.  Account  of  those  that  have 
been  observed,  583. 

Ternier  described,  785,  786. 

Vesta.  69, 117. 

Vibration  of  pendulums,  cause  of  the,  304. 

Visible  disk,  moon's,  method  of  delineating,  447. 

Visible  edipses,  number  of,  in  the  year,  699. 

Umbra  in  the  sun  defined,  106,  107. 


Unformed  staii  defined,  590. 
Uraniburg,  built  by  Tycho  Brahe,  47. 
UranometrIA,  a  work  published  l^  Bayer,  ^. 
Ursa,  major  and  minor,  number  of  stars  in,  505* 

Whiston,  conjecture  of,  respecting  comets,  177. 

Xiphias,  number  of  stars  in  the  constellation,  596. 

Year,  the  grand,  Jeaephus's  mention  of,  4.  Casstni V 
remaik  on,  6.  The  tropical  and  siderial  defined, 
427.  CivU  and  solar  difference  of,  429,  430. 
Rectified  by  the  change  of  style,  430, 431. 

Zenith  sector,  invented  by  Graham,  56. 

Zodiac,  Chinese  divisions  of  the,  7.     Etymology  and 

definition  of,  330.      Division  of,   astral   and  local 

defined,  336.     Extent  of,  593. 
Zodiacal  light,  discovered  by  Cassini,  150.    T>t- 

scribed,  151 — 153.      Reason  for  supposing  that  it 

is  not  connected  with  the  solar  atmosphere,  152. 
Zones,  or  belu  round  Jupiter,  54.  118. 


ASTROPECTEN,  in  natural  history,  a  species 
of  star  fish,  composed  of  a  central  nucleus,  fur- 
rowed like  the  shell  of  the  common  scallop,  and 
parting  into  five  principal  rays,  from  each  of 
which  issue  several  transverse  processes,  covered 
with  a  haiiy  down. 

ASTIlOPODIA,the8tar.8tone.  SeeAsTERiA. 

ASTROSCOPE,  an  astronomical  instrument, 
composed  of  two  cones,  on  whose  surftice  the 
constellations,  with  their  stars,  are  delineated,  by 
means  whereof  the  stars  may  easily  be  known. 

ASTROSCOPIA,  the  art  of  examining  the 
stars  by  telescopes.  Huygens  improved  this  art 
considerably.  See  his  Astroscopia  Compendiaria. 

ASTROTHEMATA,  in  astrology^  the  posi- 
tions of  the  stars  in  a  theme  of  the  heavens. 

ASTRUC  (John),  a  celebrated  French  phy- 
«ician,  was  bom  in  1684,  at  the  little  town  of 
Sauves  inLanguedoc.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Montpelier,  and  in  1717  was  in  great  re- 
pute there  as  a  teacher  of  medic'ne.  His  fame 
became  so  considerable  that  the  king  assigned 
him  an  annual  salary,  and  appointed  him  to 
superintend  the  mineral  waters  in  Languedoc. 
As  Montpelier,  however,  did  not  afibrd  sufficient 
scope  for  his  genius,  he  removed  to  Paris,  but 
soon  af^r  left  it,  having  in  1729  accepted  the 
office  of  first  physician  to  the  king  of  Poland. 
Upon  the  death  of  the  celebrated  GeofFroy,  in 
1731,  he  was  appointed  Regius  Professor  of 
medicine  at  Paris.  Of  his  numerous  writings  the 
following  are  the  principal :  1.  De  Morbis  Vene- 
reis.  2.  Memoirs  relative  to  the  Natural  Histoty 
of  Languedoc.  3.  A  Treatise  on  Pathology. 
4.  On  Therapeutics.  5.  On  the  Inoculation  for 
the  Small-pox.  6.  On  Tumors  and  Ulcers.  7. 
Origine  de  la  Peste.  8.  De  motu  Muaculari. 
9.  L'Art  de  TAccoucheur.  10.  De  motus  Fer^- 
mentativi.  11.  Memoire  sur  la  Digestion.  12. 
On  the  diseases  of  Women.  The  iirst  and  last 
l\ave  been  translated  into  English.  He  died 
universallv  regretted,  on  the  15th  of  May  1766, 
in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his  age. 

ASTRUM,  or  Astron,  a  <;onstellation,  or  as- 
semblage of  stars ;  as  distinguished  from  aster,  a 
single  star. 


ASTRUT*.    On  strut.    See  Strut. 
What  good  can  the  greet  gloton  do  w«  hie  bely 
standing  a  Mroie  like  a  taber,  and  his  jioll  toty  with 
drink.  Sir  Thoi.  More,  ioL  98. 

Inflated  and  tttrul  with  adf  conceit. 
He  gulps  the  windy  diet ;  and  ere  long. 
Adopting  their  mistake,  profoundly  thinks 
The  worid  was  made  in  vain,  if  not  for  him. 

Cowper,     The  ToMk,  book  r. 

ASTURA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Italy,  in  the  Campagna  di  Roma,  which  had  a 
good  harbour.  Cficero  lost  his  life  in  it,  and 
prince  Conradin,  last  heir  of  the  house  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  was  taken  prisoner  here  in  1268. 

ASTURIA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Spain, 
subdued  by  Ans^uatus  emperor  of  Rome. 

ASTURIANS,  the  brave  inhabitants  of  Astnria, 
who,  along  with  those  of  Cantabria,  asserted  their 
liberty  long  after  the  rest  of  Spain  had  submitted 
to  the  Roman  yoke.  So  great  was  their  desire 
of  liberty,  that,  ^fter  being  closely  shut  up  by 
the  Roman  army,  they  endured  the  most  terrible 
calamities  of  famine,  ev^  to  the  devouring  of 
one  another,  rather  than  submit  to  the  enemy. 
At  length,  however,  the  Asturians  proposed  to 
surrender ;  but  the  Canubrians  opposed  the  mea- 
sure, and  maintained  that  they  ought  rather  to 
die  sword  in  hand.  Upon  this  the  two  nations 
quarrelled,  notwithstanding  their  desperate  situa- 
tion ;  and  a  battle  ensuing,  10,000  of  the  Astu- 
rians Were  driven  to  the  entrenchments  of  the 
Romans,  whom  they  begged,  in  the  most  moving 
manner,  to  receive  them  on  any  terms.  But 
Tiberius  refusing  to  admit  them  into  the  camp, 
some  of  these  unhappy  people  put  an  end  to 
their  lives  by  falling  on  their  own  swords ;  others, 
lighting  great  fires,  threw  themselves  into  them, 
while  some  poisoned  themselves  by  drinking  the 
juice  of  a  venemous  herb.  The  campaign  being 
closed  by  the  winter,  the  next  year  the  Astarians 
summoned  all  their  strength  against  the  Romans; 
but,  after  frequent  efforts,  sometimes  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  Cantabrians,  they  were  reduced  by 
the  imperial  armies,  and  submitted  to  the  Roman 
power  till  the  sub\rersion  of  that  empire  by  the 
Goths. 


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ASTORIA,  or  Asturias,  anciently  the  king- 
dom of  Asturia,  is  now  a  principality  of  modem 
Spam.  It  is  bounded  by  Biscay  on  the  east, 
Galiciaon  the  west,  Castile  and  Old  Leon  on  the 
south,  and  the  sea  on  the  north.  Its  greatest 
length  is  about  120  miles,  and  its  breadth  54. 
On  the  south  it  is  separated  from  Castile  and 
Old  Leon  by  high  mountains  covered  with  woods. 
The  province  is  tolerably  fertile,  but  is  thinly  in- 
habited. It  has  mines  of  gold,  lapis  lazufi,  and' 
vermilion.  The  hereditary  prince  of  Spain  is 
styled  Prince  of  the  Asturias;  the  infant  Don 
Henriquez,  son  of  John  I.  of  Castile,  being  the 
first  who  took  that  title  in  1388.  This  princi- 
pality is  commonly  divided  into  Asturia  d'Oviedo, 
and  Asturia  de  Santillana,  so  called  from  their 
principal  towns ;  the  former  occap3ring  two-thirds 
of  the  principality  to  the  west,  and  being  about 
thirty  Spanish  leagues  in  lengdi,  and  eighteen  in 
breadth ;  the  latter  the  other  third,  sixteen  leagues 
long,  and  twelve  bioad.  The  climate  of  the  whole 
principality  is  colder  than  the  eest  of  Spain ;  but 
the  mountains  and  hills,  though  often  covered 
with  snow  during  the  whole  winter,  abound  with 
excellent  pastures,  and  a  great  variety  of  fruit 
trees.  Apples  are  particularly  abundant,  and  a 
great  deal  of  cyder  is  made  and  exported; 
Spanish  America  alone  has  received  28,000  arobas 
or  25  lb.  each  yearly.  But  the  most  important 
branch  of  their  agriculture  is  the  breeding  of  cat- 
tle; and  their  horses  have  been  celebrated  for 
strength  from  the  days  of  Martial  and  Silius 
Italicus.  The  Asturias  contain  a  bishopric,  668 
parishes,  36  religious  houses,  including  23  mo- 
nasteries and  nunneries,  a  university,  3  colleges, 
a  royal  court  of  justice,  4  cities,  50  towns,  and 
3  sea-ports,  the  principal  of  which  is  Gijon, 
together  with  several  villages ;  and  a  population 
of  about  350,000.  In  more  modern  history,  they 
are  celebrated  for  having  received  Pelayo  and 
the  other  Christians  who  escaped  from  the  Moors 
after  the  battle  of  Xeres  de  la  Frohtera,  and  who, 
protected  by  this  mountainous*  country,  bade  de- 
fiance to,  and  finally  expelled  the  invaders,  lay- 
ing in  these  provinces  the  foundation  of  tlie 
Spanish  monarchy.  Hence  the  Asturian  nobility 
and  gentry  are  possessed  of  some  extraordinary 
privileges,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountain 
Ancena  are  still  distinguished  by  the  title  of  •  the 
illustrious  mountaineers.' 

Asturias,  in  zoology,  a  name  by  which  some 
authors  have  called  the  goshawk. 

ASTUTE.  Lat  astuius*  from  Gr.  arv,  a 
city.  Acute,  penetrating,  sharp.  Applied  to  the 
inhabitants  of  a  city  who  are  supposed  to  be 
sharp-witted  in  consequence  of  having  much  in- 
tercourse with  the  chicane  and  craft  of  mankind, 
and  are  therefore  prepared  to  contend  with  it. 

We  term  those  moat  <uiuie  which  are  most  versate. 
Sir  M,  Satufy't  Eb$.  p.  168. 

ASTYAGES,  son  of  Cyaxares,  the  last  king 
of  the  Medes.  lie  dreamed,  that  from  the  womb 
of  his  daughter  Mandane,  married  to  Cambyses 
king  of  Persia,  there  sprung  up  a  vine  that 
spread  itself  over  all  Asia ;  and  she  being  with 
cnild,  he  resolved  to  kill  the  infant  as  soon  as 
bom.  Its  name  was  Cynis ;  but  Harpagus  beihg 
sent  to  destroy  it,  preserved  it ;  which  Astyages 
hearing  of  long  after,  he  caused  Harpagus  to  eat 


his  own  son.  Harpagus,  in  revenge,  called  in 
Cyrus,  who  dethroned  his  grandfather,  and 
thereby  ended  the  monarchy  of  the  Medes ;  the 
tyrant  thus  losing  his  kingdom  by  the  barbarous 
means  he  tbok  to  preserve  it.  See  Media  and 
Persia. 

ASTYANAX,  the  only  son  of  Hector  and 
Andromache.  After  the  taking  of  Troy,  he  was 
thrown  from  the  top  of  a  tower  b^  Ulysses' 
orders 

ASTYNOMI,  in  Grecian  antiquity,  magis- 
trates in  Athens,  corresponding  to  the  aediles  of 
the  Romans ;  they  were*  ten  in  tiumber.    See 
iEniLE. 
ASUNDER.    On  sunder. 
Two  indirect  lines ;  the  farther  that  they  are  drawn 
Out,  the  further  they  gq  €uunder,     Spemer  on  Ireland. 
So  looks  the  pent  tip  lion  o'er  the  ?«ntetch 
That  trembles  under  Ms  devouring  paws  ^ 
And  so  he  walks  insulting  o'er  his  prey^ 
And  so  he  comes  to  tear  his  limbs  atiuiidtr, 

Shaktpeare't  Third  Part  of  Henry  VI.  act  i.  sc.  5. 
The  way  of  Fortune  is  like  the  milken  way  in  the 
skie,  which  is  a  meeting  or  knot  of  a  number  of  small 
stars ;  not  seen  anmder,  but  giving  light  together :  so 
are  there  a  number  of  little  and  scarce  discerned  ver- 
tues,  or  rather  faculties  and  custom««,  that  make  men 
fortunate.  Lord  Bacon's  Euajfi, 

8«nse  thinks  the  planets  spheres  not  much  anmder  ; 
What  tells  us  then,  their  distance  is  to  fa?  Z        ^ 

Daviei. 
Greedy  hope  to  find 
His  wish  and  be^t  advantage,  u$  anmder* 

Paradm  Lott, 
The  falPn  archangel,  envious  of  our  state. 
Seeks  hid  advantage  to  betray  ua  worse  ; 
Which,  when  atimder,  will  not  prove  too  hard  , 
For  both  together  are  each  other's  guard. 

Dryden. 
Borne  far  asunder  by  the  tides  of  men. 
Like  adamant  and  steel  they  meet  again. 

Dryden'e  Fahie*. 
All  this  metallick  matter  ^both  that  which  conti^ 
nued  ammier,   and  in  single  ooipusdesy   and   that 
which  was  amassed  and  concreted  into  nodules,)  sub^ 
sided.  Woodumrd^t  Natural  Hiekfry. 

The  diversified  but  connected  fabrick  of  universal 
justice  is  well  cramped  and  bolted  together  in  all 
parts ;  and  depend  upon  it,  I  never  have  employed, 
and  I  never  shall  employ,  any  engine  of  power  which 
may  come  into  my  hands,  to  wrench  it  aetmder. 

Bt^ke. 
Upon  the  whole,  there  was  in  this  man  something 
that  could  create,  subvert^  or  reform  ;  an  understand- 
ing, a  spirit,  and  an  eloquence,  to  summon  mankind 
to  society,  or  to  break  the  bands  of  slavery  asunder, 
and  to  rule  the  wilderness  of  free  minds  with  un- 
bounded authority ;  something  that  could  establish  or 
overwhelm  empire,  and  strilie  a  blow  in  the  world 
that  should  resound  through  the  universe. 

Grattan's  Character  of  Lord  Chatham, 
ASYLA,  the  plural  of  Asylum.  The  asyla  of 
altars  and  temples  were  very  ancient;  and  like- 
wise those  of  tombs,  statues,  and  other  monu- 
ments of  considerable  personages.  Thus,  the 
temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  was  a  refuge  for 
debtors  J  the  tomb  of  Theseus  for  slaves.  In 
order  to '  people  Rome,  a  celebrated  asylum 
was  opened  by  Romulus  between  tlie  mounts 
Palatine  and  (japitoline,  for  all  sorts  of  persons 
indiscriminately,  fugitive  slaves,  debtors  and 
criminals  of  every  kind.  It  had  a  temple 
dedicated  to  the  god  Asyloms.    The  Jews  had 


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their  asyla ;  the  most  remarkable  of  nrhich  were, 
the  six  cities  of  refuge,  the  temple,  and  the  altar 
of  burnt  offerings ;  which  protected  those  who 
had  incurred  the  lash  of  the  law,  but  not  for  any 
deliberate  crime.  But  it  was  customary  among 
the  heathens  to  allow  refuge  and  impunity,  even 
to  the  vilest  and  most  flagrant  offenders ;  some 
out  of  superstition,  and  others  for  the  sake  of 
peopling  toeir  cities.  They  bad  an  idea,  that  a 
criminal  who  fled  to  the  temple  or  altar,  sub- 
mitted his  crime  to  the  punishment  of  the  gods ; 
and  that  it  would  be  impiety  in  man  to  take  ven- 
geance out  of  their  hands.  It  was  by  this  means, 
and  with  such  inhabitants,  that  Thebes,  Athens, 
and  Rome,  were  first  stocked.  We  even  read  of 
asyla  at  Lyons  and  Vienue,  among  the  ancient 
Gauls ;  and  there  are  some  cities  in  Germany, 
which  still  preserve  this  ancient  right.  On  the 
medals  of  several  ancient  cities,  particularly  in 
Syria,  we  meet  with  the  inscription  A£YAOI,  to 
which  is  added  lEPAI.  The  emperors  Honorius 
and  Theodosius,  granting  the  like  immunities  to 
churches,  the  bishops  and  monks  soon  selected 
certain  tracts  or  territories,  without  which  they 
fixed  the  bounds  of  the  secular  jurisdiction ;  and 
80  well  did  they  manage  their  privileges,  that 
convents  in  a  little  time  became  a  kind  of  for- 
tresses, where  the  most  notorious  offenders  were 
in  safety.  These  privileges  at  length  were  ex- 
tended, not  only  to  the  churches  and  church- 
yards, but  also  to  the  bishops'  houses ;  whence  the 
criminal  could  not  be  removed  without  a  legal 
assurance  of  life,  and  an  entire  remission  of  the 
crime.  At  last  these  asyla  were  stripped  of  most 
of  dieir  immunities.  In  Great  Britain  particu- 
larly, they  have  been  entirely  abolished  as  pro- 
tecting criminals,  although  there  are  still  some 
privileged  places  of  refiige  for  debtors,  such  as 
the  precincts  of  the  royal  palaces,  the  Abbey  of 
Holy-rood-house,  Edinburgh,  &c. 

ASY'LUM.  Gr.  a,  the  privative,  and  <rv\ii, 
spoil;  because  it  was  not  lawful  to  spoil  those 
who  fled  to  a  sanctuary. 

So  ncred  was  the  church  to  some,  that  it  had  the 
right  of  an  aayhmi  or  tanctuaiy.  AyUfftU  Parer, 

But  noble  dames. 
In  this  atytmn  sojourning  awhile. 
Trust  your  own  merits,  and  a  guardian  god. 

Gkfoer't  Athenaid,  book  ii. 

The  adventurer  knows  he  has  not  far  to  go  before 
he  will  meet  with  some  fortress  that  has  been  rained 
by  sophistry  for  the  oiytum  of  error.        Hawkenoorth. 

ASYLUS,  the  gad-fly.    See  Asilus. 

ASYM'METRY,^    a,  the  privative,  and  w^- 

Asym'metral,      Sfurpoy,  proportion.   Want 

Asym'metrous.  3  of  symmetry,  dispropor- 
tion. 

Quantities  compared  with  respect  to  such  a  mea- 
sure, are  by  geometricians  wont  to  be  called  lymme- 
CroMf  or  atymmeinm,  i.  e.  commensurable  or  incom- 
mensurable. Barrow't  Mathemaiieai  Zecteret. 

The  aaypMmetne$  of  the  brain,  as  well  as  the  defor- 
mities of  the  legs  or  face,  may  be  rectified  in  time. 

Grew, 

ASYMPTOTE;  from  a  priv.  trw,  with* 
and  TTOM,  to  fell ;  which  never  meet ;  incoinci- 
dent.  Asymptotes  are  right  lines,  which  ap- 
proach nearer  to  some  curve ;  but  which,  though 
they  and  their  curve  were  infinitely  continued, 
would  never  meet;  and  may  be  conceived  as 


tangents  to  their  curves  at  an  infinite  < 
See  Conic  Sections. 

ASYNDETON,  firom  the  privative  a,  and 
(Tvv^cw,  I  bind  together ;  a  figure  in  rhetoric,  im- 
plying an  omission  of  words,  or  a  defect  of  con- 
junctive particles.  The  want  of  such  particles 
represents  either  the  celerity  of  an  action,  or  the . 
haate  and  eagerness  of  the  speaker.  As,  in  the 
celebrated  instance,  '  veni,  vidi,  vici,* '  I  came, 
I  saw,  I  conquered.' 

AT.  From  the  Latin  ad.  In  its  abstract 
sense  designating  completion,  termination^  touch- 
ing the  surface  by  approach. 

For  all  the  field  was  but  of  sand 
As  small  as  men  may  see  at  eye 
In  the  desert  of  Libye. 

Chaucer.   The  Houae  of  Fame,  b.  i.  c  3. 
I  speke  the  thingis  that  I  saigh  at  my  fadir  \  and 
ye  doen  the  thingis  that  ye  saighen  at  youre  fadir. 

Widif,  Jon,  chap.  viii.  p.  61. 
Under  pardon. 
Yon,  are  much  more  at  task,  for  want  of  wisdom ; 
Than  prais'd  for  harmless  mildness.        Shakipeare, 

Others,  with  more  helpful  ea». 
Cried  out  aloud.  Beware,  brave  youth,  beware '. 
At  this  he  tum'd ;  and,  as  the  bull  drew  near, 
Shunn'd  and  received  him  on  his  pointed  spear. 

Dryden, 
Their  various  news  T  heard,  of  love  and  strife. 
Of  storms  at  sea,  and  travels  on  the  shore.       Pope. 

ATABALIPA,  or  Atahualpa^  the  last  of  the 
Incas.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  in  liS29,  he 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Quito,  while  his  bro- 
ther Uuascar  obtained  the  kingdom  of  Peru. 
Not  long  after  a  disagreement  took  place,  and 
hostilities  commenced  betwixt  them,  in  which 
Huascar  was  defeated.  The  Spaniards  taking 
advantage  of  these  disturbances,  with  Pizarro  as 
their  leader,  invaded  Peru,  where  they  were  en- 
tertained with  no  little  hospitality  by  the  king 
and  the  people ;  but,  instead  of  making  any  return 
for  his  kmdness,  they,  with  their  usu^  treachery 
held  him  in  captivity.  The  inca,  as  a  ransom, 
offered  to  give  the  Spaniards  a  room  fiiU  of  gold, 
and,  when  they  had  got  the  treasure  in  their  pos- 
session, they,  with  tlie  utmost  baseness,  burnt  the 
unhappy  monarch  at  the  stake,  in  1533. 

ATAbULUS,  in  physiology,  a  provincial  wind 
in  Apulia,  of  a  dry  pinching  quality,  and  very 
noxious  in  its  effects.  The  ancient  naturalists 
speak  of  the  Atabulus  in  terms  of  horror,  on 
account  of  the  ravages  it  made  among  the  fruits. 

ATABYRIS,  a  very  high  mountain  in  the 
island  of  Rhodes,  on  which,  accordint;  to  Strabo 
and  Diodorus  Siculus,  stood  a  temple  of  Jupiter 
Atabyrius,  whose  worship  a  colony  of  Rhoaians 
carried  into  Sicily. 

ATACAMA,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  SouUl 
America,  which  separate  Peru  from  Quito,  and 
where  the  cold  is  very  violent. 

Atacama,  a  province  of  Peru,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  province  of  Arica;  east  by 
Lipes,  Salta,  and  Tucuman ;  south  by  a  desert 
extending  to  the  kingdom  of  Chili ;  and  west  by 
the  South  Sea.  Its  population  is  under  3000. 
Its  chief  town,  of  the  same  name,  lies  in  long.  W. 
69°  SOT.  lat.  S.  23°  30'.,  on  a  barren  spot,  alH>ut 
100  miles  from  the  sea. 

ATAC AMITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  name  given 
to  a  variety  of  muriate  of  copper,  found  in  t!ie 


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diitiict  of  Atacama,  in  minute  ciystals  and  frag- 
ments. 

ATAD,  a  Canaanite^  rendered  memorable  by 
bis   threshing-floor,   Gen.  1.  10.     See  Abel- 

ATALANTA,  in  ancient  geography,  an  island 
in  the  £uripus  of  Eubcea,  near  the  Locri  Opuntii, 
said  to  have  been  originally  a  city  of  the  Locri, 
but  torn  from  the  continent  in  the  time  of  an 
earthquake,  and  during  an  eruption  of  mount 
^.tna;  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  ninety-third 
Olympiad,  in  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes-Mnemon. 

Atalanta,  in  fabulous  history,  the  daughter 
of  SduBneus,  king  of  Scyros.  Being  resolved 
agaiDSt  marriage,  and  at  the  same  time  very  swift 
of  foot,  she,  to  get  rid  of  her  numerous  suitors, 
declared  that  she  would  marry  none  but  the  man 
who  was  willing  to  risk  his  life  for  her,  by  striving 
to  outrun  her,  and  to  forfeit  it  if  he  foiled.  This 
several  attempted  and  suffered  accordingly.  But 
Hippomenes,  being  furnished  by  Venus  with 
three  golden  apples,  dropt  them  at  proper  dis- 
tances during  ttie  race,  and  while  she  stooped  to 
gather  them,  gained  both  the  race  and  the  prin- 
cess. Atalanta  was  present  at  the  hunt  or  the 
Caledonian  boar,  ana  received  from  Mele^er, 
who  was  enamoured  of  her,  its  skin  and  head,  as 
a  testimony  of  her  skill  in  having  first  wounded 
the  animal.  This  roused  the  jealousy  of  Toxeus 
and  Plexippus,  his  uncles,  who  endeavoured  to 
strip  Atalanta  of  her  honorable  spoil.  Meleager 
killed  them  in  defence  of  her  right;  and  his 
mother  Althaea,  irritated  by  the  death  of  her 
brotliers,  committed  do  the  flames  the  charmed 
brand  upon  which  the  life'of  Meleager  depended. 
The  goodess  Venus  being  enraged  at  the  ingra«- 
titude  of  Hippomenes,  who  never  performed  the 
vow  he  had  made  to  erect  a  temple  to  her  at 
Scyros,  changed  both  him  and  Xtalanta  into 
lions. 

Atalanta,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  £u- 
ro[)ean  papilio,  of  which  a  variety  is  also  found 
in  Amenca.  The  wings  ace  black,  indented,  and 
spotted  with  white ;  a  red  band  across  the  an- 
terior pair ;  border  of  the  posterior  pair  of  the 
same  color.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  red  admi- 
rable butterfly,  and  by  the  French  Atalante. 

ATALAYA  nc  Alagouta,  a  tovm  in  Portu- 
guese Estremaduia,  district  of  Thomar,  with  the 
title  of  coimty,  and  between  1300  and  1400  in- 
habitants, eighteen  miles  north-west  of  Lisbon. 

Atalaya  Sortelha,  a  town  of  Portugal,  in 
flie  province  of  Beira,  thirteen  miles  north-east 
of  Cfastel  Branco. 

ATALAYAS, '  Santiago  db  las,  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  San  Juan  de  los  Llanos,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Granada.  It  contains  400  house- 
holders, and  is  nine  leagues  from  the  city  of  Pore. 

ATANARI,  a  considerable  river  of  New  Gra- 
nada, which  enters  the  Mota. 

ATANTA,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by  the 
people  of  Guinea  to  a  kind  of  sumach,  called,  by 
Petiver,  rhus  Guineense  trifoliatum  scabium, 
from  its  being  trifoliate,'  and  having  rough  and 
serrated  leaves.  They  give  it  as  a  restorative 
boiled  in  water. 

ATAPUEBA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Old  Cas^ 
tile,  near  Burgos.  In  1053,  a  battle  was  fought 
here  between  Don  Garcia,  king  of  Navarre,  and 
Vol.  in. 


his  brother  Don  Ferdinand,  in  which  the  former 
was  defeated  and  sUin. 

ATARAXIA,  Ataraxy,  arapaha.  Exemp- 
tion from  vexation  ;  tranquilliw.  The  sceptics, 
says  Glanville,  affected  an  indirorent  equiponder- 
ous  neutrality,  as  the  only  means  to  their  ataraxia, 
and  freedom  from  passionate  disturbances. 

ATARGATIS  Fanum,  the  temple  of  the 
goddess  Atergatis,  in  Bambyce,  which  was  ex- 
tremely rich.  Crassus,  in  his  march  against  the 
Parthians,  spent  several  days  in  weighing  the 
treasure. 

ATARNEA,  or  At  army  a,  an  ancient  town 
of  Mysia,  situated  between  Adi'amyttium  and 
Pitane,  memorable  for  the  marriage  of  Aristotle 
with  the  sister  of  Hermias,  the  prince  of  it. 

ATAULFUS,  the  first  king  of  the  Goths  in 
Spain,  established  his  government  there,  about 
A.  D.  404,  and  died,  A.  D.  416.    See  Spain. 

ATAXY,  fit>m  a  nqg;ative,  and  ra^ic,  order, 
the  want  of  order.  With  physicians,  it  signifies 
irregularity  of  crises  and  paroxysms  of  fevers. 

Neither  is  there  any  otajgr  to  be  feared  in  bringing 
in  this  diBtinction,  betwixt  pastors  and  the  flock. 

Bp.  HaU't  Polemieal  Warkt. 

ATCHE,  in  commerce,  the  smallest  silver 
coin  current  in  Turkey,  worth  about  one-third 
of  a  penny  sterling. 

ATCHIEVEMENT,  or  Achievement,  vul- 
garly called  Hatchment.  Armorial  bearings  in 
front  of  the  houses  of  deceased  persons. 

Atchievement,  in  heraldry,  denotes  the  arms 
of  a  person  or  family,  together  with  all  the  exte- 
rior ornaments  of  the  shield ,  as  helmet,  mantle, 
crest,  scrolls,  and  motto,  together  with  such 
quarterings  as  may  have  been  acquired  by  alli- 
ances, all  marshalled  in  order. 

ATE;  from  araw,  to  hurt;  the  goddess  of 
mischief,  in  the  mythology.  She  was  daughter  of 
Jupiter,  and  cast  down  from  heaven  at  the  birth 
of  Hercules.  For  Juno  having  deceived  Jupiter, 
in  causing  Euristheus  to  be  bom  before  Hercules, 
Jupiter  expressed  his  resentment  against  Ate,  as 
the  author  of  that  mischief,  and  threw  her  head- 
long from  heaven  to  earth,  swearing  she  should 
never  return  thither  figain,  Homeri  II.  xix.  1'25. 
Her  being  the  daughter  of  Jupiter  means,  accord- 
ing to  mythologists,  that  no  evil  happens  to  us 
but  by  the  permission  of  Providence;  and  her 
banishment  to  earth  the  terrible  effects  of  divine 
justice  among  men. 

ATEGAR ;  from  the  Saxon  aeton,  to  throw, 
and  gar,  a  weapon;  a  weapon  among  the  Sax- 
ons, which  seems  to  have  been  a  hand-dart. 

ATEGUA,  or  Attegua,  an  ancient  tovra  of 
Spain,  placed  by  some  in  the  road  from  Anti- 
quara,  now  Antequera,  to  Hispalis,  or  Seville ; 
by  others,  near  Alcala  Real.  It  was  situated  near 
the  river  Flumen  Salsum,  or  Salsusa.  Pompey, 
having  passed  this  river,  encamped  between 
Ucubis  and  Ategua,  to  oblige  Caesar  to  raise  the 
siege  of  the  latter  place ;  but  it  was  taken  in  hib 
presence. 

ATELIA,  an  exemption  from  taxes,  or  other 
burdens,  is  particularly  used  in  some  ancienc 
laws,  for  an  exemption  from  offices  granted  to 
the  Egyptian  clergy  by  Constantias. 

Atelia,  an  ancient  town  of  Campania  in 
Italy,  between  Capua  and  Neapol^s.    Tne  ruin? 

P 


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are  9tiU  to  be  seen  about  eleven  miles  from  the 
modem  Aversa. 

ATELLAN^  Fabuljk,  Atellani  Lodi,  a 
species  of  farce,  so  named  fiom  AteUa,  called 
also  Osci,  from  their  inventor,  in  whose  territory 
Atella  lay.  They  were  generally  interlarded 
with  much  ribaldry  and  buffoonery ,  and  some- 
times were  exordia,  or  interludes,  presented  be- 
tween the  acts  of  other  plays.  The  actors  in 
these  farces  were  not  reckoned  among  the  com- 
mon players,  nor  deemed  infamous ;  but  retained 
the  rights  of  their  tribe,  and  might  be  enlisted 
for  soldiers,  the  privilege  only  of  free  men. 

ATEMPO  GiusTO,  in  music,  signifies  to  sing 
or  play  in  an  equal,  true,  and  just  time. 

ATENA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Naples,  near  the 
Negro,  twelve  miles  north-west  of  Marsico,  and 
twenty-two  north  of  Policastro. 

ATER,  in  conchology,  a  species  of  my  til  us, 
described  in  Molin.  Hist.  Chili,  p.  177,  and  said 
to  be  frequent  on  the  shores  of  that  country : 
also  a  species  of  strombus  found  in  the  boggy 
parts  of  the  island  of  Amboyna. 

Ater,  in  entomology,  1.  a  species  of  der- 
mestes  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Upsal.  2. 
A  species  of  hydrophilis,  a  native  of  Europe.  3. 
A  species  of  byrrhus  that  inhabits  Germany.  4. 
A  species  of  tenebrio  found  in  Europe.  5.  A 
species  of  carabus  that  inhabits  Denmark.  6.  A 
species  of  cerambyx  (Callidium,  Fabr.)  found  in 
the  environs  of  Venice.  7.  A  species  of  gryllus 
(Acheta,  Fab.)  that  inhabits  durinam.  8.  A 
species  of  cimex. 

Ater,  in  natural  history,  a  species  of  anguis ; 
also  a  species  of  Umax,  slug  or  snail 

Ater,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  £alco; 
also  a  species  of  psittacus. 

ATERGATIS,  in  mythology,  a  goddess  of  the 
Syrians  and  Partliians,  supposed  to  be  the  mother 
of  Semiramis,  and  called  Derceto  by  the  Greeks. 
She  was  represented  with  the  face  and  breasts  oi' 
a  woman,  but  the  rest  of  her  body  resembled  a 
fish.  Vossius  makes  the  name  Photnician,  from 
addir-dag,  the  great  fish;  and  says  it  signifies, 
without  fish ;'  whence  he  conjectures  that  the  vo- 
taries of  this  deity  abstaine4  from  fish. 

ATERNUM,  in  ancient  geography,  1.  a  town 
of  Lucania  in  Italy,  now  called  Atemi.  2.  A 
town  in  the  territory  of  the  Piceni,  now  called 
Pescara,  a  port  town  of  Naples,  on  the  Adriatic. 

ATERRIMA,  in  conchology,  a  species  of  ne- 
rita,  figured  by  Chemnitz. 

Aterrima,  in  entomology,  1.  a  species  of 
blatta.  2.  A  new  British  species  of  chrysomela, 
described  by  Mr.Marsham,  Ent.  Brit. 

Aterrimus,  1.  a  species  of  curculio,  very 
common  in  Europe ;  black,  with  the  wing-cases 
shining.  Linn.  Fn.  Sv.  Fabr.,  &c.  2.  A  species 
of  carabus.  3.  A  species  of  elater,  found  in  the 
north  of  Europe.  4.  A  species  of  cimex  (rotun- 
datus,  sec.)  that  inhabits  Spain. 

Aterrimus,  in  ornithology,  the  specific  name 
of  the  great  black  cockatoo  of  New  Holland. 

ATESTE,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  Venice  in 
Italy,  now  called  Este. 

ATH,  or  jEth.  See  ^th. 

Ath,  Atha,  or  Athe,  among  our  Anglo-Saxon 
ancestors,  signifies  an  oath,  especially  that  taken 


bjT  way  of  pui|{aticm.    In  tliis  acsse,  w« 
with  breaking  of  ath,  privilege  of  aUi,  atha,  or 
ordela. 

ATHABOLI,  or  Agastorou,  a  town  of 
Turkey  in  Europe,  on  the  Black  Sea,  in  tht 
extensive  province  of  Romania,  sixty^ighl  mile> 
north-east  of  Adrianople.  Long.  27°  39^  £^  laL 
42°  27'  N. 

ATHALARIC,  the  grandson  of  Theodoric, 
and  the  second  king  of  the  O&trogoths  in  Italy, 
succeeded  A.  D.  526,  and  reigned  along  with 
his  mother  Amalasuntha,  about  eight  years.  Tliej 
both  died  A.  D,  634, 

ATHALIAH,  H^Sw,  Heb.  i.e.  the  time  of  the 
Lord ;  the  daughter  of  Ahab  king  of  Israel,  by 
Jezebel,  and  wife  of  Jehoram  king  of  Judah 
See  2  Chron.  xxi.  10,  and  xxiii.  12. 

ATHAMADULET,  or  Atheuadaulet,  the 
prime  minister  of  the  Persian  empire.  He  is 
great  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  president  of  tlie 
council,  superintendant  of  the  finances ;  and  has 
the  charge  of  all  foreign  aflfaira.  He  is  in  effect 
viceroy  of  the  kingdom. 

ATHAMANTA,  Spignel,  in  botany,  a  genus 
of  the  digynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of 
plants,  ranking  in  the  natural  method  under  the 
fourth  order,  umbellatae.  The  {hut  is  oblong  and 
striated  ;  and  the  petals  are  inflected  and  emai^ 
ginated.  Of  this  genus  LinnsDus  enumerates  nine 
species :  but  none  of  them  merit  particular  notice ; 
except  the  Cretensis,  or  Daucus  Creticua,  which 
grows  wild  in  the  Levant  and  the  warmer  parts 
of  Europe.  The  leaves  are  irregularly  disposed, 
and  formed  like  those  of  fennel.  The  flower- 
sUlk  rises  about  two  feet  high,  sending  out  many 
branches,  terminated  at  the  top  by  compound 
umbels,  composed  of  nearly  twenty  small  ones. 
Tlie  seeds  have  a  warm  biting  taste,  with  an 
agreeable  aromatic  smell.  They  are  kept  in  the 
shops  as  a  carminative ;  but  are  little  used  in 
practice. 

ATHANASIA,  Goldilocks,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  polygamia  equalis  order,  and  syn- 
genesia  class  of  plants ;  ranking  in  the  natur  J 
method  under  the  for^-ninth  order,  composits 
discoides.  The  receptacle  is  chaffy ;  the  pappus 
chaffy  and  very  short,  and  the  calyx  imbri- 
cated. There  are  twenty  species,  all  tender 
plants  except  one;  and  none  of  them  possessed 
of  much  beauty. 

Athanasia,  in  ancient*  medicine,  an  epithet 
given  to  a  kind  of  antidotes,  supposed  to  have 
3ie  power  of  prolonging  life,  even  to  immor- 
tality. In  the  Augustan  dispensatory  we  still  find 
a  medicine  under  the  appellation  of  athainasia 
magna,  recommended  against  dysenteries  and 
haemorrhages. 

Athanasia,  in  botany,  is  used  by  some  au- 
thors for  tansy. 

ATHANASIAN  Creed;  a  formulary, or  con- 
fession  of  feith,  long  supposed  to  have  been 
drawn  up  by  Athanasiusbisnop  of  Aiexaadria,  in 
the  fourth  century,  to  justify  himself  against  the 
calumnies  of  his  Arian  enemies ;  but  now  gene- 
rally allowed  among  the  learned  not  to  have  been 
his.  Dr.  Wateriand  ascribes  »t  to  Hilary  bishop 
of  Aries,  for  the  following  amojiu  other  reasons: 
1.  BecdUSL'  lionoratus  ot  lVla»ei  les,  the  writer 


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of  his  lifey  tells  us,  that  he  composed  an  Expo- 
sition  of  the  Creed ;  a  more  proper  title  for  the 
Athanasian,  than  that  of  Creed  simplvt  which  it 
now  bears.  2.  Hilaiy  was  a  great  admirer  and 
follower  of  St.  Austin ;  and  the  whole  compo- 
sition of  this  creed  is  in  a  manner  upon  St.  Aus- 
tin's plan,  both  with  respect  to  the  trinity  and 
the  incarnation.  3.  It  is  agreeable  to  tlie  style 
of  Hilary,  as  far  as  we  can  judge  from  the  little 
that  is  left  of  his  works.  About  A.  D.  570,  it 
became  so  &mous  as  to  be  commented  upon ; 
but,  for  several  years  after,  it  had  not  acquired 
the  name  of  Athanasian,  but  was  simply  styled 
the  catholic  fiiith.  This  creed  obtained  in  France 
about  A.  D.  850,  and  was  received  in  Spain  and 
Germany  about  100  years  later.  As  to  our  own 
country,  we  have  clear  proo&  of  its  being  sung 
alternately  in  our  churcnes  in  the  tenth  century. 
It  was  in  common  use  in  some  parts  of  Italy, 
particularly  in  the  diocese  of  Verona,  about  A.D. 
960,  and  was  received  at  Rome  about  1014.  As 
to  the  Greek  and  oriental  churches,  it  has  been 

Suestioned  whether  any  of  them  ever  received 
lis  creed  at  all :  witli  regard  to  its  matter,  it  is 
given  as  a  summary  of  the  true  orthodox  faith, 
and  a  condemnation  of  all  heresies,  ancient  and 
modem.  Unhappily,  however,  it  has  proved  a 
fruitful  scmrce  of  unprofitable  controversy  and 
unchristian  aniinosity  even  down  to  the  present 
time.   • 

'  The  account  given  of  Athanasius's  creed,' 
says  archbishop  Tillotson,  in  a  letter  written 
from  Lambeth,  Oct.  23, 1694,  to  a  right  reverend 
prelate,  '  seems  to  me  no  wise  satisfactory: 
I  wish  we  were  well  rid  of  it.'  Bishop  Taylor, 
in  his  Liberty  of  Prophesying,  sect.  ii.  says, 
'  If  it  were  considered,  concerning  Athanasius's 
creed,  how  many  people  understand  it  not,  how 
cootraiy  to  natural  reason  it  seems,  how  little 
tiie  scripture  says  of  those  curiosities  of  expli- 
cation, and  how  tradition  was  not  clear  on  his 
side  for  the  article  itself,  much  less  for  those 
forms  and  minutes;  it  had  not  been  amiss  if  the 
final  judgment  bad  been  left  to  Jesus  Christ : 
and  indeed  to  me  it  seems  very  hard  to  put  un- 
charitableness  into  the  creed,  and  so  to  make  it 
become  as  an  article  of  £uth.'  '  It  certainly  is 
to  be  lamented,'  says  Dr.  Tomline,  the  present 
bishop  of  Worcester,  in  his  Elements  of  Christian 
TJ>«ology,  vol.  iL  p.  220,  *  that  assertions  of  so 
peremptory  a  nature,'  referring  to  the  damnatory 
clauses,  *  unexplained  and  unqualified,  should 
have  been  used  in  any  human  composition.'  *  1 
'  am  ready  to  acknowledge,'  p.  222,  '  that,  in  my 
judgment,  notwithstanding  the  authority  of 
former  times,  our  church  would  have  actied  more 
wisely,  and  more  consistently  with  its  general 
principles  of  mildness  and  toleration,  if  it  had 
not  adopted  the  damnatory  clauses  of  the  Atha- 
nasian  creed.  Though  I  firmly  believe  that  the 
doctrines  themselves  of  this  creed  are  all  founded 
on  scripture,  I  oannot  but  conceive  it  to  be  both 
unnec»8ary  and  presumptuous  to  say,  that  '  ex- 
cept every  one  do  keep  them  wlu>le  and  unde- 
filed,  without  doubt  he  shall  perish  everlastingly*.' 
Dr.Horsley,  late  bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  avowed  a 
similar  opinion. 

ATjElANASIUS,  St.  bishop  of  Alexandria,  and 
one  of  the  most  violent  opponents  of  the  Anans, 


was  bora  in  Erf  pt.  He  followed  St.  Alexander 
to  the  council  of  Nice,  in  325,  where  he  disputed 
against  Anus,  and  the  following  year  was  made 
bishop  of  Alexandria ;  but,  in  335,  was  deposed 
by  the  council  of  Tyre :  when,  having  recourse 
to  the  emperor  Cbnstantine,  the  Arian  deputies; 
accused  him  of  having  hindered  the  exportation 
of  corn  from  Alexandria  to  Constantinople ;  on 
which  the  emperor,  without  suffering  him  to 
make  his  defende,  banished  him  to  Treves.  The 
emperor,  two  years  after,  ordered  him  to  be  re- 
stored to  his  bishopric :  but,  on  his  return  to 
Alexandria,  his  enemies  brought  fresh  accusations 
against  him,  and  chose  Gregory  of  Cappadocia 
to  his  see ;  which  obliged  Athanasius  to  go  to 
Rome,  to  reclaim  it  of  pope  Julius.  He  was 
there  declared  innocent,  in  a  council  held  in  342, 
and  in  that  of  Sardica,  in  347,  and  two  years  after 
was  restored  to  his  see  by  order  of  the  emperor 
Constans;  but,  after  the  death  of  that  prince,  h^ 
was  again  banished  by  Constantius,  on  which  he 
retired  into  the  deserts.  The  Arians  then  elected 
one  George  in  his  r9om ;  who  being  killed,  in 
a  popular  sedition  under  Julian,  in  360,  Atha- 
nasius returned  to  Alexandria,  but  was  banished 
under  Julian,  and  restored  to  his  see  under 
Joviau.  He  addressed  to  that  emperor  a  letter, 
in  which  he  proposed,  that  the  Nicene  creed 
should  be  the  standard  of  the  orthodox  faith,  and 
condemned  those  who  denied  the  divinity  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  He  was  also  banished  by  V^alens, 
in  367,  and  afterwards  recalled.  He  died  on  the 
2d  of  May,  373.  His  works  principally  contain 
a  defence  of  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity,  and  of 
the  'incarnation  and  divinity  of  the  Word  and 
Holy  Spirit.  There  are  three  editions  of  his 
works  which  are  esteemed ;  that  of  Commelin, 
printed  in  1600;  that  of  Peter  Nannius,  in 
1627 ;  and  that  of  father  Montfaucon. 

ATH ANATI,  i.  e.  immortals ;  from  a,  privative, 
and  $avetroi,  death ;  a  body  of  cavalry ,  among  the 
ancient  Persians,  consisting  of  10,000  men,  al- 
ways complete,  because  when  any  one  of  them 
died  another  was  immediately  put  into  his  place. 

ATHANOR.  Chemists  have  given  this  name 
to  a  furnace  so  constructed,  that  it  can  always 
maintain  an  equal  heat,  and  lasts  a  long  time, 
without  addition  of  fresh  fuel.  The  body  of  the 
stthanor  has  nothing  in  it  p'articular,  and  is  con- 
structed like  ordinary  furnaces.  But  at  one  of 
its  sides,  or  its  middle,  there  is  an  upright  hollow 
tower,  which  communicates  with  the  fire-place, 
by  one  or  more  slopjng  openings.  This  tower 
ought  to  have  a  lid,  which  exactly  closes  its  up- 
per opening.  When  the  athanor  is  to  be  used, 
as  much  lighted  coal  is  put  in  the  fire-place  as  is 
judged  necessary,  and  the  tower  is  filled  to  the 
top  with  unlighted  fuel.  The  tower  is  then  to  be 
exacdy  closed  with  its  lid.  As  fast  as  the  coal 
in  the  fire-place  is  consumed,  that  in  the  tower 
falls  down  and  supplies  its  place.  As  the  coal 
contained  in  the  tower  has  no  free  communica- 
tion with  the  external  air,  it  cannot  burn,  till  it 
falls  into  the  fire-place.  The  athanor  being 
much  celebrated  and  used  by  ancient  chemists, 
has  been  particularly  described  by  many  au- 
thors, and  was  formerly  found  in  all  laboratories. 
At  present,  this  furnace  is  much  less  employed,  ^ 
and  even  neglected.    The  reason  is,  that  all  the 

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ancient  chemists  were  in  search  of  the  art  of 
making  gold ;  and  being  excited  by  this  powerful 
Tnotive,  and  confident  of  success,  they  spared  no 
trouble  or  expense  to  accomplish  thu  design. — 
They  undertook,  without  hesitation,  operations 
which  required  great  length  of*  time,  and  unre- 
mitted heat.  Whereas  now,  these  alluring  hopes 
having  vanished,  the  cultivators  of  chemistry 
have  no  other  view  than  ,to  extend  and  perfect 
the  theory  of  this  essential  part  of  natural  philo- 
sophy. This  motive,  although  undoubtedly  much 
nobler  than  the  former,  seems,  however,  to  be 
less  powerful  over  most  men.  For  now,  all  long 
and  uiborious  operations,  whence  chemistry  might 
receivie  great  advantages,  are  neglected,  as  being 
tiresome  and  disgustful.  There  is,  in  &ct,  a 
considerable  difference  betwixt  the  hope  of  ex- 
plaining a  philosophical  phenomenon,  and  that 
of  obtaining  an  ingot  of  gold  capable  of  produc- 
ing many  otfiers.  Hence  the  instruments  employed 
in  long  operations,  and  particularly  the  atnanor, 
are  now  much  neglected ;  and  also,  because  the 
fuel  in  the  tower  is  apt  to  stick  there,  or  fall 
down  at'once  in  too  great  quantity.  The  lamp 
furnace,  which  is  a  true  athanor,  may  be  success- 
fully employed  in  operations  which  do  not  re- 
quire much  heat. 

ATHAPESCOW,  a  lake  in  the  north-west  of 
North  America,  and  fifty-ninth  degree  of  north 
latitude,  so  called  from  a  tribe  of  Indians  inha- 
biting its  banks.  It  is  contiguous  to  the  Lake 
of  the  HiUs,  and  has  now  become  so  shallow, 
that,  according  to  Mackenzie,  it  will  in  time  be 
probably  converted  into  a  swamp. 

ATHARER,  in  astrology,  a  term  used  when 
the  Tfoon  is  in  the  same  degree  and  minute  with 
the  sun. 

ATHBOY,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Meath,  situated  on  a  stream  of  the  same  name. 
It  was  a  borough,  which  returned  members  to 
the  Irish  parliament  before  the  union.  Three 
fairs  are  held  here  amiually.  Distant  twenty- 
nine  miles  north-west  of  Dublin.  ' 

ATHEE,  a  town  of  France,  in  Anjou,  with 
260  houses,  belonging  to  the  arrondissement  of 
Chateau-Gontier,  in  the  department  of  Mayenne. 
It  lies  on  the  river  Oudon,  five  leagues  S.  S.  W. 
of  Laval. 

Athee,  a  town  of  Trance,  in  the  department 
of  the  Indre  and  Loire,  arrondissement  of  Tours, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cher,  with  255  houses, 
three  leagues  south-west  of  Amboise. 
ATH  EISM,  "I     A,  privative,  eeoc,  God ; 

A'th  eist,  ft.  6c  at^.  without  God.  One  of  its 
Atheist^ical,  significations  is  illustrated 

Atheist'ically,  [  by  the  following  citation 
Athxist^xcalness,  I  from  St.  Paul's  EpisUe 
Atheist'ick,  to  the  Ephesians,  A  Bcm 

A'theize,  tv  rif  Kocfuff  without  God 

A'theous.  J  in  the  world. 

God  never  wroiight  nuTades  to  couTinoe  aikeimm, 
becaiue  hit  ordinaiy  works  convince  it.  Booon. 

Nor  stood  unmindful  Abdiel,  to  annoy 
The  aiheitt  CTfiYf.  Milton,  Pandim  Loti. 

Thy  Father,  who  is  holy,  wise,  and  pore. 
Suffers  the  hypocrite,  or  aAeom  priest. 
To  tread  his  sacred  courts.  Paradim  Renamed. 

Men  are  atheittical,  because  they  are  first  vicious ; 
and  question  the  truth  of  Chriitianity,  because  they 
hate  the  practice.  6otith. 


Is  it  not  enonnous,  that  a  divine,  hearing  a  great 
sinner  talk  atheittieaUy,  and  scoff  profanely  at  religion, 
should,  instead  of  vindicating  the  truth,  tacitly  appro  v ; 
the  scoffer?  M 

Though  he  were  really  a  speculative  atheitl;  yrt, 
if  he  would  but  proceed  rationally,  he  could  not  how- 
ever, be  a  practical  atheiat,  nor  live  without  God  in 
this  worid.  Id. 

1  entreat  such  as  are  atheitiiealfy  inclined,  to  con. 
aider  these  things.  TUkUm. 

It  is  the  common  interest  of  mankind,  to  paniiili 
all  those  who  would  seduce  men  to  athtum.       Id. 

Atkeisi,  use  thine  eyes  ; 
And,  having  view'd  the  order  of  the  skies. 
Think  (if  thou  canst)  that  matter,  blindly  hurl'd 
Without  a  guide,  should  frame  this  wondrous  world. 

Cnedi. 

No  atheitt,  as  such,  can  be  a  true  friend,  an  affec- 
tionate relation,  or  a  loyal  subject.  Bentiey. 

Lord,  purge  out  of  all  hearts  profaneneis  and 
atheUticabieu.  Hamntond's  Fv 


This  argument  demonstrated  the  existenee  of  a 
Deity,  and  convinced  all  aiheutich  gainsayen. 

Ray  tm  the  Cnatkm, 

Chester,  dviUaed  as  well  as  Wales,  has  demnt- 
strated,  that  freedom  and  not  servitude  is  the  com 
of  anarchy ;  as  religion,  not  aihemm,  is  the  true  re- 
medy for  superstition.  Bmkt. 

Atheism,  absurd  and  unreasonable  as  it  is, 
has  had  its  votaries  and  martyrs.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century,  Spinosa,  a  foreigner,  was  its 
noted  defender.  Lucilio  Vanini,  an  Italian,  a 
native  of  Naples,  publicly  taught  atheism  in 
France,  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century ;  and  being  convicted  of  it  at  Touloose, 
was  condemned  and  executed. 

An  Atheist  may  be  defined,  a  person  who  does 
not  believe  in  any  thing  superior  to  the  material 
world.    Many  people  both  ancient  and  modem, 
have  pretended  to  be,  or  have  been  reckoned, 
atlieists ;  but  it  is  justly  questioned  whether  any 
man  ever  seriously  adopted  such  a  principle. 
These  pretensions,  are  often,  indeed,  founded  on 
pride  and  affectation.    Such  motives,  togedier 
with  an  honest  indignation  against  the  imposi- 
tions and  intolerance  of  superstition  and  priest- 
craft (which  had  so  often  deluged  France  with 
blood),  seem  to  have  co-operated  to  produce 
that  extraordinary  moral  phenomenon,  exhibited 
in  the  French  Convention,  of  several  of  the  lead- 
ing members  openly  avowing  themselves  atheists ; 
in  consequence  of  which  the  whole  nation  was 
absurdly  branded  with  atheism.  Cicero,  however, 
represents  it  as  a  probable  opinion,  that  they, 
who  apply  diemselves  to  philosophy,  beUeve  there 
are  no  gods.  This  must  aoubtiess  be  meant  of  the 
academic  philosophy,  to  which  Cicero  himself 
was  attached,  and  which  taught  to  doubt  of  every 
thing.    On  die  contrary,  the  Newtonian  philo- 
sophers, continually  recur  to  a  Deity,  whom  they 
always  find  at  the  head  of  their  chain  of  natural 
causes.    Among  the  modem  philosopheiSy  who 
have  been  the  principal  advocates  for  Uie  exis- 
tence of  a  Deity,  are  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Boyle, 
Cheyne,  Nieuwentyt,  &c.  To  which  may  be  added 
many  others,  who,  though  of  the  clergy,  yet  have 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  philosophicaf 
pieces  in  behalf  of  the  existence  of  a  God ;  e-  g 
Derham,  Bentley,  Whiston,  Ray,  Samuel  and 
John  Clarke,  Fenelon,  &c.    So  true  is  that  say- 
ing of  Lord  Bacon,  that  though  a  smattering  of 


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phflOM»ph)r  may  lead  a  man  into  atheism,  a  deep 
draught  will  certainly  bring  him  back  again  to 
the  l^lief  of  a  God  and  Providence ;  agreeably 
to  what  the  poet  observes  of  learning  in  general : 

'  A  little  leamihg  is  a  dangerous  thing : 
Dxink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring.' 

Archbishop  Tillotson  justly  observes  that  spe- 
culative atheism  is  unreasonable  on  five  accounts  : 
1.  Because  it  gives  no  tolerable  account  of  the 
existence  of  the  world :  2.  It  does  not  give  any 
reasonable  account  of  the  universal  consent  of 
mankind  in  this  compreliension,  that  there  is  a 
God:  3.  It  requires  more  evidence  for  things 
than  they  are  capable  of  giving :  4.  The  atheist 
pretends  to  know  what  no  man  can  know :  5. 
Atheism  contradicts  itself.  Under  the  first  of 
these  he  advances  the  following  arguments :  '  I 
appeal  to  any  man  of  reason  whether  any  thing 
can  be  more  unreasonable  than  obstinately  to 
impute  an  effect  to  chance,  which  carries  in  the 
very  face  of  it  all  the  arguments  and  characters 
of  a  wise  design  and  contrivance.  Was  ever  any 
considerable  work,  in  which  there  was  required 
a  great  variety  of  parts,  and  a  regular  and  orderly 
disposition  of  those  parts,  done  by  chance  ?  Will 
chance  fit  means  to  ends,  and  that  in  ten 
thousand  instances,  and  not  fail  in  any  one? 
How  often  might  a  man,  after  he  had  jumbled  a 
set  of  letters  in  a  bag,  fling  them  out  upon  the 
ground  before  they  would  fidl  into  an  exact  poem ; 
yea,  or  so  much  as  make  a  good  discourse  in 
prose  ?  And  may  not  a  little  book  be  as  easily 
made  as  the  great  volume  of  the  world  ?  How 
long  might  a  man  be  in  sprinkting  colors  upon 
canvass  with  a  careless  hand,  before  they  would 
happen  to  nmke  the  exact  picture  of  a  man  ? 
Ado  is  a  man  easier  made  by  chance  than  his 
picture?  How  long  might  twenty  thousand 
blind  men,  who  should  be  sent  out  from  several 
remote  parts  of  England,  wander  up  and  down 
before  they  would  all  meet  upon  Salisbury  plain, 
and  fall  into  rank  and  file  m  the  exact  orcier  of 
an  army  ?  Yet  this  is  much  more  easy  to  be  ima- 
gined than  how  the  innumerable  blind  parts  of 
matter  should  rendezvous  themselves  into  a  world. 
A  mian  that  sees  Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel  at 
A'estminster,  might  with  as  good  reason  maintain 
(yea,  with  much  better,  considering  the  vast  dif- 
ference betwixt  that  little  structure  and  the  huge 
fiiibric  of  the  world)  that  it  was  never  so  con- 
trived or  built  by  any  means,  but  that  the  stones 
did  by  chance  grow  into  those  curious  figures, 
into  which  they  seem  to  have  been  cut  and 
graven ;  and  that  upon  a  time  (as  tales  usually 
begin)  the  materials  of  that  building,  the  stone, 
mortar,  timber,  iron,  lead,  and  glass,  happily  met 
together ;  and  very  fortunately  ranged  themselves 
into  that  delicate  order  in  which  we  see  them 
now,  so  close  compacted,  that  it  must  be  a  Very 
great  chance  that  parts  them  agaip.  What  would 
the  world  think  of  a  man  that  should  advance 
such  an  opinion  as  this,  and  write  a  book  for  it  ? 
If  they  would  do  him  right,- they  ought  to  look 
upon  him  as  mad,  but  yet  with  a  little  more 
reason  than  any  man  can  have  to  say  that  the 
world  was  made  by  chance,  or  that  the  first  men 
grew  out  of  the  earth  as  plants  do  now.  For 
can  any  thing  be  more  ridiculous,  and  against  all 


reason,  than  to  ascribe  the  production  of  men  to 
the  first  fruitfiilness  of  the  earth,  without  so  much 
as  one  instance  and  experiment,  in  any  age  of 
history,  to  countenance  so^onstrous  a  supposi- 
tion ?  The  thing  is,  at  first  sight,  so  gross  and 
palpable,  that  no  discourse  about  it  can  be  more 
apparent.  And  yet,  these  shameful  beggars  of 
principles  give  this  precarious  account  of  the 
original  of  things ;  assume  to  themselves  to  be 
the  men  of  reason,  the  great  wits  of  the  world, 
the  only  cautious  and  waiy  persons  that  hate  to 
be  imposed  upon,  that  must  have  convincing 
evidence  for  every  thing,  and  can  admit  of 
nothing  without  a  clear  demonstration  for  it/ 

ATHEUNG,  Adelinc,  Edung,  Ethling. 
or  Etheling  ;.  from  sethel,  noble,  Saxon ;  a  title 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  properly  belonging  to 
the  heir  apparent  to  tlie  crown.  This  appellar 
tion  was  nrst  conferred  by  king  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor on  Edgar,  to  whom  he  was  great  uncle,, 
when,  being  without  any  issue  of  liis  own,  he  in- 
tended to  make  him  hid  heir.    See  Edgar. 

ATHELNEY,  an  island  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Somerset,  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  rivers  Tone  and  Parret,  a  few  miles  below 
Taunton.  Alfred  took  refuge  here  while  the 
country  was  overrun  by  the  Danes,  and  is  said  to 
have  built  an  abbey  on  the  spot.  Many  anti- 
quities were  dug  up  in  1674 

ATHELSTANE,  a  Saxon  king  of  England, 
natural  son  of  Edward  the  Elder,  and  grandson 
of  the  ffreat  Alfred.  He  succeeded  in  925,  and 
reined  sixteen  years.  There  was  a  remarkable 
law  passed  by  Uiis  prince,  which  shows  his  jui't 
sentiments  of  the  advantages  of  commerce,  as 
well  as  the  early  attention  paid  to  it  in  this  coun- 
try: viz.  that  any  merchant  who  made  three 
voyages  on  his  own  account  beyond  the  British 
Channel,  should  be  entitled  to  the  privilege  of  a 
thane,  or  gentleman. 

Athelstane,  king  of  Northumberland,  or,  ac- 
cording to  Buchanan,  a  Danish  chief,  who  ob- 
tained a  grant  of  that  country  from  king  Alfred, 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury ;  and,  carrying  on  a  predatory  war  in  Scot^ 
land,  was  killed  in  battle  byHungus,  king  of  the 
Picts,  at  the  village  since  named  from  him  Athel- 
staneford,  near  the  rivulet  called  Lugdown  Bum, 
which  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Rug  Down, 
and  to  have  taken  its  name  from  the  circum- 
stance of  Athelstane  being  rugged  down,  or  pull- 
ed from  his  horse,  in  the  battle. 

ATHELSTANEFORD,  a  village  and  parish 
of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Haddington.  It 
was  the  birth-place  of  Blair,  the  author  of  The 
Grave ;  and  here  Mr.  Home  was  settled  as  parish 
minister,  but  was  obliged  to  relinquish  the  living 
in  consequence  of  having  written  the  tragedy  of 
Douglas.  Distant  two  miles  from  Haddington, 
seventeen  from  Edinburgh,  east. 

ATHENA,  in  the  ancient  physic,  a  plaster  or 
liniment  conmiended  against  wounds  oi  the  head 
and  nerves,  of  which  we  find  descriptions  given 
by  Oribasius,  ^lius,  and  ^gineta. 

ATHEN^fliA,  a  feast  of  the  andent  Greeks 
held  in  honor  of  Minerva,  whom  they  called 
AOfivri.  They  were  afterwards  called  Paaa- 
thenaea.* 

ATHEN^UM,  in  antiquity,  a  public  place 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


214 


ATHENS. 


wherein  the  professors  of  the  liberal  arts  held 
their  assemblies,  the  rhetoricians  declaimed,  and 
the  poets  rehearsed  their  performances.  These 
places,  of  which  there  were  a  great  number  at 
Athens,  were  built  in  the  manner  of  amphi- 
theatres, and  encompassed  with  seats  called 
cunei.  The  three  most  celebrated  Athena  were 
those  at  Athens,  at  Rome,  and  at  Lyons ;  the 
second  of  which  was  built  by  the  emperor  Adrian. 

ATIIENiEUS,  a  Greek  ^rrammarian,  bom  at 
Naucratis  in  Egypt,  in  the  third  century,  one  of 
the  most  learned  men  of  his  time.  Of  all  his 
works  we  have  none  extant  but  his  Deipno«o- 
phis,  i.  e.  the  sophists  at  table ;  there  is  a  great 
fund  of  facts  and  quotations  in  this  work,  which 
render  it  very  agreeable  to  admirers  of  antiquity, 
as  they  ^re  nowhere  else  to  be  met  with. 

Athen.hus,  a  mathematician,  who  wrote  a 
treatise  on  mechanics,  which  is  inserted  in  the 
works  of  the  ancient  mathematicians,  printed  at 
Paris  in  1693,  in  folio,  in  Greek  and  Latin. 

ATHENiEus,  a  physician,  bom  in  Cilicia,  con- 
temporary with  Pliny,  and  founder  of  the  pneu- 
matic sect.  He  taught  that  the  fire,  air,  water, 
and  earth,  are  not  the  true  elements,  but  that 
their  qualities  are,  viz.  heat,  cold,  moisture,  and 
dryness ;  and  to  these  he  added  a  fifth  element 
which  he  called  spirit,  whence  his  sect  had  their 
name,  Pneumatics. 

ATHENAGORAS,  an  Athenian  philosopher, 
who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century ;  and  was  equally  remarkable  for  his  zeal 
for  Christianity,  and  his  great  learning ;  as  ap- 
pears from  tlie  Apology  which  he  addressed  to 
the  emperors  Aurelius  Antoninus  and  Lucius 
Commodus ;  as  well  as  from  another  work  still 
extant  upon  the  Resurrection.  They  are  both 
written  in  a  style  truly  Attic. 


ATHENATORIUM,  among  chemists,  a  tiiK^ 
glass  cover  placed  on  a  cucurbit,  having  a  ilender 
umbo,  or  prominent  part,  which  enters  like  a 
stopple,  within  the  neck  of  the  cucurbit. 

ATHENE;  Aeifvi},  Greek;  the  name  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  Minerva.    See  Minerva.. 

ATHENIPPUM,  in  the  ancient  physic,  a  cd- 
lyrium  commended  against  divers  diseases  of  the 
eyes ;  thus  denominated  from  its  inventor  Athf»- 
nippus.  It  is  described  by  Scribonius  Largus 
and  Gorrseus.  Galen  mentions  another  athenip- 
pum,  of  a  different  composition,  by  which  it 
appears  that  this  was  a  denomination  common  to 
several  collyriums. 

ATHENODORUS,  a  famous  stoic  philoso- 
pher, bom  at  Tarsus,  who  went  to  the  court  of 
Augustus,  and  was  made  by  him  tutor  to  Tibe- 
rius. Augustus  had  a  great  esteem  for  him,  nod 
found  him  by  experience  a  man  of  virtue  and 
probity.  He  was  accustomed  to  speak  very  freely 
to  the  emperor.  Before  he  left  the  court  to  letom 
home,  he  warned  the  emperor  not  to  give  himself 
up  to  anger,  but,  whepever  he  should  be  in  a 
passion  to  rehearse  the  twenty-four  letters  of  the 
alphabet  before  he  resolved  to  say  or  do  any 
thing.  He  did  not  live  to  see  his  bad  success  in 
the  education  of  Tiberius. 

ATHENOPOLIS,  a  town  of  the  Massilieases, 
an  ancient  nation  of  Gaul,  conjectured  to  be  the 
same  with  Telo  Martius,  now  Toulon. 

ATHENRY,  a  village  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Galway,  formerly  a  borough,  and  a 
walled  town.  In  the  year  1315  a  Imttle  was 
fought  near  this  town'between  the  English  and 
Irish,  in  which  the  latter  was  defeated.  In  1599 
the  Irish  put  all  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword. 
Distant  ten  miles  east  of  Galway,  ninety-one 
from  Dublin. 


ATHENS. 


ATHENS,  in  geography  and  ancient  history, 
a  celebrated  kingdom  of  ancient  Greece,  the 
capital  of  Attica,  situated  100  miles  N.  £.  of 
Lacedcemon  and  320  S.  by  W.  of  Constantinople. 
It  is  at  present  the  chief  town  of  Livadia,  a  pro- 
vince or  the  Turkish  empire,  and  is  seated  in  the 
Gulf  of  Engia,  Lon.  23°  ST  E.,  lat.  38®  5'  N. 

Origin  and  Ancient  Name. — ^The  kingdom 
of  Attica  received  the  name  of  Ogygia,  from 
Opyt/8S,  commonly  placed  1586  years  before 
Christ;  but  Athens  is  scarcely  mentioned  in 
history  till  some  time  after  the  days  of  Cecrops, 
an  Egyptian  by  birth,  supposed  to  be  contem- 
porary with  Moses,  and  amrmed  by  the  Greeks 
to  be  the  first  builder  of  cities.  This  leader  who 
appears  to  have  either  founded  or  new  modelled 
the  Acropolis,  or  ancient  city,  under  the  name  of 
Cecropia^  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  it,  and 
introduced  from  Sais  in  Egypt,  the  worship  of 
Neith,  adopted  by  the  people  under  the  name  of 
'ABiivfi.  In  the  early  ages  of  Greece,  that  which 
was  afterwards  called  the  citadel,  was  the  whole 
city,  and  called  Polis,  or  <  the  city/  by  way  of 
eminence. 

Alteration  op  Name. — In  the  reign  of  Erich- 
thonius  it  lost  the  name  of  Cecropia,  and  ac- 
quired that  of  Athens,  from  Adtivii,  the  Greek 


name  of  the  goddess  Minerva,  the  Neith  of  the 
Egyptians  alr&idy  mentioned,  who  was  esteemed 
its  protectress.  This  old  city  was  seated  on  the 
top  of  a  rock  in  the  midst  of  a  large  and  pleasant 
plain,  which,  as  the  number  of  inhabitants  in- 
creased, became  full  of  buildings ;  whidi  induced 
the  distinction  of  Acropolis  and  Catopolis,  i.  e. 
of  the  upper  and  lower  city.  .  The  extent  of  the 
citadel  was  sixty  stadia ;  it  was  surrounded  by 
olive  trees,  and  fortified  with  a  strong  palisade; 
in  succeeding  times  it  was  encompa^ed  with  a 
strong  wall,  in  which  there  were  one  very  large 
and  eight  small  gates. 

Original  Succession  and  Government. — 
The  successors  of  Cecrops  are  but  imperfectly 
known,  but,  according  to  the  most  ancient  tradi- 
tions, they  were  1.  Amphictyon;  2.  Erectheus  I. 
the  same  as  Erichthonius,  the  place  of  whose  in- 
terment is  still  called  Erectheium.  It  was  this 
prince  who  raised  an  image  of  Minerva  made  of 
olive  wood  in  the  Cecropia,  and  also  in  honor  of 
the  goddess  instituted  festivals  called  Athensea, 
to  be  celebrated  by  the  twelve  Attic  cities.  To 
him  succeeded  3.  Pandion  I.  4.  Erectheus  II. 
6.  ^geus.  6.  Theseus.  The  hist  of  whom  es- 
tablished the  Prytaneum,  a  court  of  judicature 
common  to  all  Attica;   also  tlie  Panadienca, 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


ATHENS. 


215 


sacred  festivals  to  be  obserred  by  all  the  pro- 
vinces in  the  Erechtheium  every  five  years.  His 
wise  government  increased  the  pow^r  and  popu- 
lation of  Athens,  and  finally,  about  the  year 
B.C.  1300,  concentrated  the  other  eleven  cities 
of  Attica  under  one  general  government. 

Introduction  of  Pelasci,  and  Rise  op 
Athenian  Greatness. — Thp  Pelasgi  came  to 
Athens  from  the  North  B.  C.  1192,  to  whom 
those  beautiful  speciifiens  of  polygonal  architec- 
ture are  ascribed,  which  are,  found  in  the  ancient 
fortresses  of  Greece  and  Italy,  consisting  of  irre- 
gnlar  blocks  carefully  adjusted  to  each  other, 
without  cement,  whereas  the  Cyclopeian,  with 
which  it  has  been  frequently  confounded,  is  com- 
posed of  masses  laid  together  and  llie  interstices 
filled  up  with  smaller  stones. 

Next  to  the  Pelasgi,  Athens  stands  indebted  for 
much  of  her  early  grandeur  to  Pisistratus,  who, 
with  his  sons,  founded  a  public  library  and  two 
magnificent  temples,  one  to  Jupiter  Olympus, 
the  other  to  Apollo  Pythias,  besides  which  he 
collected  and  edited  the  works  of  Homer. 

Invasion  of  Xerxes  and  re-building  op 
Athens. — ^Athens  was  now  rising  in  population 
ikx\d  importance,;  possessed  of  considerable  mari- 
time ascendency,  togethef  with  an  extent  of  terri- 
tory and  influence  beyond  any  other  state  in 
Greece,  Sparta  excepted,  and  the  invasion  of 
Xerxes  served  to  raise  her  to  the  pinnacle  of 
military  glory.  It  is  true  the  Persians  at  first 
were  successful  in  burning  and  destroying  the 
ancient  city  founded  by  Cecrops ;  but,  after  their 
shameful  defeit  at  Thermopylae,  the  cilv  of 
Athens  rose  from  its  ruins  on  an  enlar^^eci  ana 
improved  scale,  the  queen  of  empire,  enriched 
by  the  resources  of  the  Invasion,  dignified  by 
a  naval  superiority,  by  which  she  commanded 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  together  with  the 
colonies  of  Asia,  Macedonia,  and  Thrace,  em- 
bellished by  the  hand  of  Minerva,  who  seems  to 
have  employed  herself  the  fifly  years  intervening 
between  the  victory  of  Salamis  and  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  to  beautify  the  city  of  her  residence ; 
her  ancient  Cecropian  nionuments  yet  remaining 
upon  the  Acropolis. 

Survives  the  Peloponnesian  War. — ^The- 
mistocles  restored  tlie  military  works  of  the  city, 
and  fortified  it  as  before.  Cimon  erected  the 
Temple  of  Theseus,  theStoap,  the  Poecile,  the  Di- 
onysian  Theatre,  the  Gymnasia,  together  with  the 
ornaments  of  the  Academy  and  the  Agora.  Pe- 
ricles conferred  u^on  it  the  Odeum,  the  Parthe- 
non, and  the  Propylaea,  and  numerous  other 
works,  rendering  it  Uie  wonder  of  nations.  The 
superb  glory  of  Athens  was  little  injured  by  the 
war  of  Peloponnesus.  The  deiieat  of  iEgospo- 
tami,  it  is  true  led  to  the  destruction  of  the  walls 
of  Piraus,  but  these  were  shortly  restored,  and 
so  skilful  was  Minerva  that  defeats  as  well  as  vic- 
tories seemed  to  raise  the  political  importance, 
and  enrich  the  site  of  her  favorite  capital. 

Ravages  of  Philip  op  Macedon. — ^The  rise 
of  Macedon  seemed  however  to  eclipse  the  gjory 
of  Athens,  and  her  nHiance  with  Rome  was  the 
first  political  blow  that  tended  to  the  real  injury 
of  this  ancient  city.  Philip  of  Macedon  invested 
her  before  her  allies  could  come  to  her  succour, 
and  as  the  city  was  too  well  fortified  to  be  taken 


easily,  he  rava^  the  suburbs,  overthrew  the 
temples,  shrines,  images,  and  tombs ;  broke  the 
maroles  which  were  too  precious  to  yield  to  the 
influence  of  fire ;  the  Cynosarges  and  the  Ly- 
caeum,  all  the  fkvorite  retreats  of  pleasure  and 
devotion  were  alike  felled  by  the  arm  of  the 
destroyer. 

Siege  by  Sylla. — ^About  84  years  B.  C. 
during  the  Mithridatic  war,  the  Roman  Sylla 
resolved  upon  the  conquest  of  Athens,  and 
employed  all  Greece  with  her  arms  and  trea- 
sures, to  aid  his  design.  He  plundered  £pi- 
daurus  and  Olympia,  carried  away  the  pre- 
cious deposits  of  Delphi,  felled  the  groves  ot 
the  Academy  and  the  Lycseum.  By  means  of 
an  ill-fortified  wall  near  Ileptachalcos  he  passed 
the  sacred  gates  at  midnight,  and  the  streets  of 
the  Cerameicus  are  said  to  have  run  with  blood. 
The  city  however  suffered  little,  but  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Pintan  fortifications  and  the  arsenal 
of  Philo  prevented  the  re-assumption  of  maritime 
power,  and  with  that  fell  for  ever  the  political 
Importance  of  Athens.  (^*lutareh,  in  ri\k  Sylte). 
As  a  school  of  science  and  art,  Athens  never- 
theless maintained  her  dignity  among  enlight- 
ened nations,  and  foreigners  from  all  parts 
resorted  .there  to  attend  the  lectures  of  her  philo- 
sophers. 

Science  and  Architecture. — ^The  Romans 
whose  taste  in  some  respects  was  formed  upon 
the  Grecian  models,  added  considerably  to  the 
embellishment  of  tiie  city.  Julius  Caesar  erected 
the  PropyloDa  of  the  new  A^ora  nearly  at  his 
own  expense.  Statues  were  terected  to  Brutus 
and  Cassius  by  the  friends  of  those  distinguished 
Romans.  Antony  endowed  the  capital  with  nu- 
merous public  gifts  and  a  lari^e  accession  of 
insular  territory ;  nor  were  Augustus  and  other 
illustrious  per3ona<:^es  in  that  powerful  empire 
remiss  in  testifying  their  friendship  for  the  city 
of  Minerva,  and  some  of  them  were  even  initia- 
ted into  the  Eleusinian  mysteries  (for  the  nature 
of  which  see  Eieusinia.)  Hadrian,  on  his  ele- 
vation to  the  imperial  dignity,  was  one  of  the 
greatest  benefactors  Athens  enjoyed  after  the 
overthrow  of  her  civil  hierarchy.  He  finished 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius,  which  Pisis- 
tratus had  begun  ages  before,  and  such  was  its 
beauty,  costliness,  and  magnitude,  that  it  was 
considered  the  glory  of  Athens ;  superb  beyond 
any  other  structure  in  Greece.  The  temple  of 
the  winds,  more  properly  called  the  Honologium, 
in  the  Agora,  was  the  benefaction  of  Andronicus 
Cyrrhestes.  A  new  theatre  was  raised  by  Agrip- 
pa,  and  another  was  shortly  afterwards  erected 
at  the  foot  of  the  Acropolis  by  Herodes  Atticus, 
the  ruins  of  which  are  yet  remaining,  llie  casing 
of  the  seats  of  the  stadium  with  pentelic  marble, 
is  attributed  to  the  generous  profusion  of  the 
same  illustrious  individual. 

Splendor  under  the  Antonines. — In  the 
Antonine  age  Athens  enjoyed  its  greatest  splen-. 
dor.  It  had  been  enriched  by  the  accumulated 
magnificence  of  six  centunes.  The  works  of  the 
age  of  Pericles,  according  to  Plutarch,  retained 
the  freshness  of  modem  buildings,  and  a  bloom 
was  diffused  over  them,  which  preserved  their 
aspect  untarnished.  Athens,  in  a  remarkable 
manner  escaped  the  ravages  and  plunder  which 


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followed  the  conquest  of  Greece,  aad  the  still 
more  formidable  dilapidations  of  time  itself. 
She  sat  supreme  amid  the  convulsions  of  states 
and  changes  of  governments,  rather  contributing 
than  otherwise  to  the  imperial  grandeur.  Having 
pursued  the  history  of  Athens  up  to  the  zenith  of 
ner  glory,  we  shall  present  the  reader  with  a  brief 
description  of  ^at  eminent  seat  of  learning  and 
politeness,  as  she  existed  in  her  prosperous  ages. 

Appear/lnce  and  Harboitrs. — Seated  upon 
a  gulf,  Athens,  commanding  three  harbours  sur- 
rounded by  dock-yards  and  buildings,  forming  a 
continued  town  moie  extensive  than  Athens  itself. 
The  first  of  these  was  the  Piraeus,  the  pipsent 
Ap€ucw  of  the  Greeks,  the  Asl^  limani  of  the 
Turks,  and  the  Porto  Leone  of  the  Italians.  The 
Greek  and  Italian  names  being  derived  from  an 
immense  line  of  Pentelic  marble  which  stood 
originally  upon  the  beach,  nearlythirty*five  or  forty 
stadia  distant  from  the  city,  and  was  displaced  at 
the  Venetian  siege.  The  harbour  had  three  docks, 
Cantharos,  Aphradisium,  and  Zea;  the  first  de- 
rived its  name  firom  an  ancient  hero,  the  second 
irom  the  goddess  Venus,  the  third  from  bread  com ; 
it  was  dignified  with  several  public  buildings.  .  A 
stoa,  including  five  distinct  stosB  or  porticos  un- 
der the  general  name  of  Macra  Stoa;  two  tem- 
ples of  Venus ;  a  sanctuary  of  Jupiter  *Soter;  the 
Hippodameia,  from  Hippodamus  the  architect, 
which  was  used  as  an  agora  or  commercial  ex- 
change; two  great  fora  or  markets,  one  near  the 
portico,  the  other  near  the  city;  the  tribunal 
rhreathys;  the  bath  Serangium;  a  deigma  or 
maritime  exchange,  and  a  theatre,  about  240  feet 
in  diameter,  some  traces  of  which  are  yet  re- 
maining. The  second  of  these  harbours  was 
Mynychia,  to  the  east  of  Pirxus,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  a  peninsula  of-  the  same  name. 
It  is  of  circular  ngure,  and  now  called  Stratis- 
tiki,  and  so  strong  is  this  promontory  or  penin- 
sula by  nature,  that  Epimenid'es  said,  if  the  Athe- 
nians saw  what  mischief  it  would  one  day  pro- 
duce to  them,  they  would  eat  it  away  with  their 
teeth.  This  part  of  Athens  is  adorned  with  a 
Dionysaic  theatre,  a  temple  of  Diana  of  the 
Doric  order,  some  remains  of  which  are  yet 
standing  on  the  shore ;  also  a  Bendideimm,  pro- 
bably in  honor  of  the  same  goddess  whose 
Thracian  name  was  Bendis.  The  third  and  most 
ancient  part  was  Phalerum,  to  the  east  of  Myny- 
chia, distant  from  the  city,  according  to  Thucy- 
dides,  thirty-five  stadia,  and  according  to  Pausa- 
nias.  twenty.  It  was  formerly  famous  for  the 
temple  of  Jupiter,  Ceres,  and  Minerva  Sciras, 
which  have  been  long  whelmed  in  ruin,  and  lost 
in  the  lapse  of  time. 

Walls,  Fortifications,  &c. — Peirseus  firom 
its  natural  division  into  three  great  basins,  and 
also  from  its  great  capacity,  be<ame  an  object  of 
capital  importance  with  the  Athenians ;  and  ac- 
cordingly It  was  fortified  strongly  in  the  second 
year  of  the  Peloponnesian  wars.  1  he  works  which 
surrounded  it  consisted  of  a  wail  nearly  seven 
miles  in  lengdi  and  sixty  feet  in  height.  The 
long  walls  (Ta  itaxftd  Tuxn,  or  Td  oK^n)  ex- 
tended from  the  as^  or  city,  on  the  norm  to 
Peiraeeus,  and  on  the  south  to  Phalerum;  a  dis- 
tance of  five  miles,  protecting  the  city  on  eveiv 
side  from  which  any  danger  was  appiehendea. 


These  walls  nmparallel  to  eaehotherattfiediiCnM 

of  550  feet,  from  the  centre  of  the  Phaleric  hill  ia 
the  direction  of  the  entrance  of  the  Acropolis. 
The  circumference  of  the  whole  walls,  including 
those  of  the  ports,  the  city,  and  the  long  walls, 
appears  to  have  been  about  twenty  miles.  These 
walls  were  surrounded  with,  cemeteries.  The 
asty  was  embraced  by  the  streams  of  Ilissus  and 
Cephisus,  uniting  in  the  marshes  of  Phalerum 
The  gates  were,  Melitides,  Peiraicae,  Achamics, 
Ithoniae,  Hippades,  Heriaese,  Diomeie,  Diocharis, 
and  Dipylum;  called  also,  Thriasia,  Sacrs,  or 
Cerameicae. 

Entrance  from  the  gats  Peiraics.— A 
cenotaph  to  Euripides  adorned  the  outside  of  the 
gate  Peiraicee;  within  it  stood  the  Pompeion 
for  the  arrangement  of  processions;  and  the  in- 
terior of  the  city,  from  this  view,  seemed  crowded 
vrith  temples,  statutes,  and  porticoes.  The  Pnyx 
(SiA  TO  ircirvffvfi«Oai),  in  which  certain  popular 
assemblies  were  held,  stood  on  the  right;  the 
road  continuing  through  the  district  of  Cerami- 
cus,  passed  the  Stoa  Basileius,  or  portico  of  the 
king,  where  the  Archon  held  his  court ;  at  which 
point  commenced  the  street  of  Henns,  so  called 
trom  Mercury,  with  whose  head  it  was  said  to 
have  been  adorned;  and  after  passing  a  consider- 
able distance,  ended  in  a  stoa  called  Pcecile,  from 
its  numerous  and  highly  finished  pictures  of  the 
taking  of  Troy,  the  battle  of  Marathon,  the  bat- 
tle of  Theseus  and  the  Amazons,  and  the  battles 
with  the  Lacedemonians  at  CEnoe  and  Argolis ; 
to  keep  alive  the  remembrance  of  which  the  cap- 
tured shields  were  also  suspended. 

Agora. — ^The  Agora,  fronting  the  Pcecile,  was 
planted  with  trees,  and  beautifiiUy  divided  into 
markets,  streets,  porticoes,  public  halls,  &c 
One  of  these  halls  was  for  the  assembling  of  the 
senate,  another  for  the  Prytanes  to  dine.  Here 
stood  a  noble  temple,  also,  to  the  mother  of  the 
gods,  and  altars  to  the  twelve  gods,  to  Pity, 
Mq^estY,  Fame,  and  Impetuosity.  The  Areo- 
pagus sloped  down  from  the  north  to  a  beautiful 
plane,  where  stood  the  temple  of  Theseus.  It  was 
called  Mars  Hill,  because  Mars  was  the  first 
person  tried  here  for  murder,  viz.  for  the  murder 
of  Hallirhotius.  The  Theseium,  from  its  beauti- 
ful remains,  must  have  been  a  most  magnificent 
spot.  It  is  a  peripteral  hexastyle,  having  on  the 
sides  thirteen  columns  of  the  done  order,  each 
three  feet  four  inches  diameter  at  the  base.  The 
whole  building  is  of  pentelic  marble,  thirty  feet 
in  height,  from  the  base  to  the  summit  of  the 
pediment.  The  cell  is  forty  feet  ia  length,  and 
twenty  in  breadth;  the  depth  of  the  posticum  is 
twenty-seven  feet;  that  of  the  pronaos  and  por- 
tico thirty  three.  Contiguous  to  the  Theseium 
were  the  Gymnasium  of  Ptolemy,  the  temple  of 
the  Dioscuri,  and  the  Uorologium  of  Anaroni- 
cus  Cyrrhestes.  To  the  south-east  stood  the 
Prytaneum  or  Senate  house,  from  which,  the 
street  of  the  tripods  led  to  the  theatre  of  Bacchus. 
This  street  was  adorned  by  the  victors  in  the 
prize  games,  and  amongst  its  magnificent  deco- 
rations stood  the  choragic  monument  of  L^sicra- 
tes  (the  lantern  of  Demosthenes),  the  circular 
roof  of  which  sull  preserves  the  triangular  apex, 
intended  to  receive  his  native  tripod.  Adjoining 
to  Uie  theatre  above  mentioned  stood  the  Odeom 


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of  PcridcSf  nofn  wliich,  after  pssstng  throiigh  a 
gateway  erected  by  Hadrian  in  the  modem  w^ls, 
arose  me  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympins,  which 
was  completed  and  dedicated  by  the  same  em- 
peror, it  was  of  decastyle  construction  consist- 
mg  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  columns, 
sixteen  of  which  are  yet  standing.  Within  it 
was  a  colossal  statue  of  the  god,  made  of  ivory 
and  gold  (chryselephantine).  The  whole  length 
of  the  sacred  precmct  (irc/>i/3oXoc)  was  689  S^ty 
and  ib  circuit  about  half  a  mile. 

The  Hill  Musauh.  —  The  fountain  of 
Enneacrunos  or  Callirrhoe,  the  oniy  natural 
spring  by  which  Athens  was  supplied  with  pala- 
table water,  was  on  ihe  Ilissus;  from  wnich, 
proceeding  to  the  south-west  angle  of  the  walls  we 
come  to  the  hill  Musxum,  the  summit  of  which  is 
embellished  by  a  monument  of  the  Syrian  C.  J. 
Antiochus  Philopappus,  grandson  of  Antiochus 
IV.  the  last  king  of  Comagene.  He  erected  it  on 
bis  return  to  Athens,  after  having  been  greatly 
honored  by  Trajan  at  Rome,  and  even  made 
Consul  and  Prater  Arvalis.  The  lower  part  was 
embellished  with  the  grand  triumph  of  his  illus- 
trious patron;  above  which  were  seated  statues 
of  himself,  his  grandfather  Antiochus,  and  Seleu- 
cus  Nicator,  founder  of  the  origizial  dynasty. 
This  monument  has  excited  a  degree  of  attention 
little  inferior  to  that  of  Lysicrates  above-men- 
tioned. 

Acropolis. — On  the  north-east  side  of  the 
Mussem,  rises  the  Acropolis  or  ancient  citadel. 
The  rock  is  lofty,  abrupt  and  inaccessible,  ex- 
cept the  front,  which  is  toward  the  Pirsus ;  but 
furnishes  a  very  ample  field  to*  the  virtuosi.  It 
was  filled  with  monuments  of  Athenian  glory^ 
and  exhibited  an  amazing  display  of  beauty,  of 
opulence,  and  of  art.  Heliodorus,  named  Pe- 
negetes  the  guide,  has  employed  on  it  fifteen 
books.  The  curiosities  of  various  kinds,  with 
the  pictures,  statues,  and  pieces  of  sculpture, 
were  so  many  and  so  remawable  as  to  supply 
Polemo  Periegetes  with  matter  for  four  volumes; 
and  Strabo  affirms,  that  as  many  would  be  re- 
quired in  treating  of  other  portions  of  Athens 
and  of  Attica.  In  particular,  the  number  of 
statues  was  prodigious.  Tiberius  Nero,  who 
was  fond  of  images,  plundered  the  Acropolis  as 
well  as  Delphi  and  Olympia ;  vet  Athens,  and 
eadi  of  these  places,  had  not  fewer  than  3000 
remaining  in  uie  time  of  Pliny.  Even  Pausa- 
nias  seems  here  to  be  distressed  by  the  multi- 
plicity of  his  subject.  But  this  banquet  of  the 
senses  has  long  been  withdrawn ;  and  is  now 
become  like  the  tale  of  a  vision.  The  spectator 
views  with  concern  the  marble  ruins  intermixed 
with  mean  flat-roofed  cottages,  and  extant  amid 
rubbish ;  the  sad  memorials  of  a  nobler  people  ; 
which,  however,  as  visible  from  the  sea,  should 
have  introduced  modem  Athens  to  more  early 
notice.  The  Acropolis  has  only  one  entrance, 
which  fronts  the  Pirteus.  The  ascent  is  by  tra- 
verses and  rude  fortifications  furnished  with  can- 
non, but  without  carriages,  and  neglected.  By 
the  second  gate  is  the  station  of  the  guard. 
C^er  this  gate-way  is  an  inscription  in  large 
characters  on  a  stone  turned  upside  down,  re- 
cording a  present  of  a  pair  of  gates.  Going 
farther  up,  you  come  to  the  ruins  of  the  pro- 


pylara,  an  edifice  which  graced  the  entrance  into 
the  citadel.  No  fewer  than  four  temples  were 
to  be  passed  in  this  ascent,  those  of  i&sculapius, 
Themis,  Venus  and  Peitho,  also  of  Tellus  and 
Ceres.  Two  equestrian  statues  stood  in  front  of 
the  wings  of  the  propylsea,  supposed  to  represent 
Marcus  Agnppa,  and  Caius  Caesar  Octavianus. 
The  propvlaea  was  one  of  the  structures  of  Pe- 
ricles, who  began  it  when  Euthymenes  was 
archoni  435  years  before  Christ,  and  completed  it 
in  five  years,  at  the  expense  of  2012  talents.  It 
was  of  marble  of  the  Doric  order,  and  had  five 
doors,  to  afford  an  easy  passage  to  ihe  multitudes 
which  resorted  on  business  or  devotion  to  the 
Acropolis  Six  fluted  Doric  columns  raised  on 
four  steps,  supported  the  central  pediment  each 
five  feet  in  diameter,  twenty-nine  in  height,  and 
seven  in  their  intercolumniation,  except  between 
the  two  central  columns,  where  was  a  space  of 
thirteen  feet,  for  the  admission  of  carriages. 
Behind  was  a  vestibule  forty-three  feet  in  depth, 
sustained  by  a  double  row  of  six  Ionic  columns, 
three  and  a  half  feet  diameter,  and  thirty-four  in 
height,  three  of  which  were  placed  on  each 
side,  whilst  marble  beams  depending  on  the 
lateral  walls  and  columns,  supported  a  painted 
ceiling  of  exquisite  workmanship.  The  doors 
contiguous  to  the  frontage,  opened  into  a  portico 
of  the  depth  of  eighteen  feet,  upon  a  level  of 
five  steps  ascent,  from  which  a  single  step 
descended  to  the  platform  of  the  Acropolis. 
The  middle  door  occupied  the  whole  space  be- 
tween the  central  columns.  The  next  door  on 
each  side  was  of  inferior  dimensions,  and  the 
two  extreme  doors  proportionally  smaller.  The 
portico  itself  consisted  of  a  large  square  room 
roofed  with  slabs  of  marble  which  were  laid  on 
two  great  marble  beams,  and  sustained  by  four 
beautiful  columns.  These  were  Ionic,  the  pro- 
portions of  that  order  best  suiting  die  purpose 
as  taller  than  the  Doric.  The  roof  which  so  ex- 
quisitely embellished  the  building,  after  standing 
above  2000  years,  was  with  all  the  pediments 
destroyed  in  1687  by  the  V^enetian  siege.  The 
right  vring  of  the  propylsa  is  said  to  ha^e  been 
a  temple  of  Victory.  The  Athenians  related 
that  ^geus  stood  there,  viewing  the  sea,  anxious 
for  the  return  of  his  son  Theseus  from  Crete, 
and  precipiuted  himself  at  the  sight  of  the  black 
sails.  The  idol  was  named  Victory  without 
wings,  because  the  news  of  the  success  of  The- 
seus did  not  arrive  but  with  the  conqueror.  It 
had  a  pomegranate  in  the  right  hand,  and  an 
helmet  in  the  left.    As  the  statue  was  without 

} unions,  it  was  hoped  the  goddess  would  remain 
or  ever  on  the  spot.  On  the  left  wing  of  the 
Propylsea,  and  fronting  the  temple  of  Victory, 
was  a  buildii^  decoratMl  with  paintings  by  Polyg- 
notus,  of  which  an  account  is  given  by  Pausa- 
nias.  This  edifice,  as  well  as  &e  temple,  was 
of  the  Doric  order,  the  columns  fluted,  and 
without  bases.  Bodi  contributed  alike  to  the 
uniformity  and  grandeur  of  the  design ;  and  the 
whole  fabric,  when  finished,  was  deemed  equally 
magnificent  and  ornamental.  Its  roof  of  white 
marble,  was  unsorpaftsed  both  in  the  size  of  the 
stones,  and  in  the  beauty  of  their  arrangement. 
On  the  northern  side  of  me  Acropolis  within  the 
piopylva,  stood  the  celebrated  statuf  of  Mi- 


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nenra  Promachus,  executed  by  Phidias  after  the 
battle  of  Marathon.  Its  height  together  with 
the  pedestal  exceeded  seventy  feet,  rising  con- 
siderably above  the  summit  of  the  parthenon ; 
the  crest  of  the  helmet  and  point  or  the  spear 
being  seen  out  at  sea,  by  persons  sailing  from 
Servium  towards  Athens;  and  a  brazen  qua- 
driga stood  near  the  statue  in  commemoration  of 
the  victory  of  the  Athenians  over  the  Boetians 
and  the  Chalcidenses.    See  Her.  v.  79.  * 

The  propylaea,  according  to  the  Greek  his- 
torians, took  five  years  in  building,  and  was 
formed  after  the  designs  of  Mnesicles.    It  was 
completed  437  years  B.C.  and  was  estimated 
by   Heliodorus,  as   cited  by   Harpocration,  at 
2012  talents,   or  £452,700   sterling,   and  was 
the  most  expensive  of  all  the  works  of  Pericles. 
Parthenon.— But  the  chief  glory    of  the 
Acropolis  is  said  to  have  been  the  Parthenon,  or 
temple  of  Minerva,  so  elevated  that  the  pave- 
ment of  its  peristyle  was  on  a  level  with  the 
capitals  of  thfe  eastern  portico  of  the  propylaa. 
It  was  a  peripteral  octostyle  of  the  Doric  ord,er, 
with  seventeen  columns  on  the  sides,  each  six 
feet  two  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and  thirty- 
four  feet  in  height,   elevated  on  Uiree  steps. 
Within   the  peristyle,  at  each   end  stood   six 
columns  of  5|  feet  diameter,  forming  a  vestibule 
to  the  cell  which  rose  two  'steps  from  the  peris- 
tyle level.    The  cell  itself  contained  two  cham- 
bers of  sixty-two  feet  six  inches  in  width,  and 
of  lengths  differing  from   forty-three  feet    ten 
inches,  to  ninety-eight  feet  seven  inches,  the  roof 
of  the  former  being  supported  by  four  columns  of 
four  feet  diameter,  and  of  the  latter  by  sixteen 
of  three  feet  diameter.    The  height  of  the  temple 
from  the  base  to  the  pediment  being  fifty-six 
feet,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  area  228  feet,  by 
102.    The  pediment  contained  two  compositions 
of  about  eighty  feet  in  length,  each  containing 
upwards  of  twenty  colossal    statues,  in   two 
groups,  the  first  representing  the  birth  of' the 
goddess  Minerva,  and  the  second  her  contest 
with   Neptune,  for  the  government  of  Attica. 
The^,  figures  of  the  western  pediment  enumerating 
them  from  the  left  were  Cecrops,  Aglaurus, 
Theseus,  Hebe,  Eresichthon,  Panarosus,  Victory 
without  wings  drawn  in  a  Biga  by  two  horses, 
Erechtheus,  Minerva  and  Jupiter  in  the  centre, 
and  to  the  right,  Neptune,  Thalassa,  Latona, 
Mercufy,  Mala,  Vesta,  Mars  and  Venus.    The 
figures  whidi  occupied  the  eastern  pediment 
have  never  been  per&ctly  ascertained.    Some  of 
them,  however,  were  Hyperion,  Hercules,  Venus, 
Iris,   Peitho,   Vesta,  Proserpine,  Victory  with 
wings,  Ceres,  and  the  car  of  Night.    The  frieze 
advancing  in  two.  parallel  columns  finom  west  to 
east,  was  sculptured  on  both  sides,  and  contained 
a  representation  of  the  Panathenaic  procession. 
Six  seated  figures  of  deities  also  represented  the 
head  of  each  column,  while  the  ^central  group 
represented  the  presentation  of  the  peplus  to 
the  second  archon.    Of  the  ninety-two  metopes 
which  anciently  adorned  the  firieze  of  the  peristyle, 
these  on  the  soudi  side,  some  of  which  are  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  contained  each  a  cen- 
uur,    and    hence  those   only  of   the  eastern 
tide  have  been  assigned  to  the  actions  of  Mi- 
nerva ;  those  of  the  western  t^  some  other  point 


of  Athenian  hitloiy,  the  subject  Of  which  has 
been  lost ;  those  of  the  northern  to  the  Amazo- 
nian war;  those  of  the  southern  to  the  war  with 
the  Centaurs.     A  chryselephantine  statue  of 
Minerva  stood  in  the  Opis,  thodomos  thirty-nine 
feet  in  height,  the  buskins  sculptured  with  the 
battle  of  the  Centaurs,  and  the  ^gis  which  lay  at 
her  feet  containing  a  representation  of  the  battle 
of  the  Amazons  on  the  outside,  and  on  the 
inside  that  of  the  Titans.    Ictinus  is  said  to^iave 
been  the  architect  of  this  temple ;  Phidias  die 
artist ;  and  the  entire  cost  one  million  and  a  half 
sterling.    The  remains  of  this  beautiftil  specimen 
of  ancient  architecture  have  been  described  by 
Dr.  Chandler,  a  few  extracts  from  whose  obser- 
vations we  shall  subjoin.   *  The  chief  ornament,* 
he  observes,  *of  the  Acropolis  was  the  Par- 
thenon  or  great  temple  of  Minerva,  a  most 
superb  and  magnificent  fabric.    The  Persians 
had  burned  the  edifice,  which  before  occupied 
the  site,  and  was  called  hecatompedon,  from  its 
being  100  feet  square.    The  zeal  of  Pericles  and 
of  all  the  Athenians  was  exerted  in  providing  a 
for  more  ample  and  glorious  residence  for  their 
favorite  ^ddess.     The  architects   were  Calli- 
crates  and  Ictinus ;  it  was  of  white  marble,  of 
the  Doric  order,  the  columns  fiuted  and  without 
bases,  the  number  in  front  eight ;  and  adonied 
with  admii-able  sculpture.    The  story  of  the  birth 
of  Minerva  was  carved  in  the  front  pediment ; 
and  in  the  back,  the  contest  with  Neptune  for 
the  country.    The  statue  of  Minerva,  made  for 
this  temple  by  Phidias,  was  of  ivory,  twenty-six 
cubits  or  thirty-nine  feet  high.     It  was  decked 
with  pure  gold  to  the  amount  of  forty-four 
talents,  so  disposed  by  the  advice  of  Pericles  as  to 
be  taken  off  and  weighed,  if  required.  This  image 
was  placed  in  the  temple  in  the  first  year  of  the 
eighty-seventh  Olympiad,  in  which  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war  began.    The  gold  was  stripped  off 
by  the  tyrant  Lachares,  when  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes  compelled  him  to  fly.    The  same  plunderer 
plucked  down  the  golden  shields  in  the  Acropolis, 
and  carried  away  the  golden  Victories,  wiOi  the 
precious  vessels  and  ornaments  provided  for  the 
Panathensean  festival.    The  Partnenon  remained 
entire  for  many  ages  after  it  was  deprived  of  the 
goddess.    The  Christians  converted  it  into  a 
church,  and  the  Mahommedans  into  a  mosque. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  letters  of  Crusius,  and 
miscalled  the  Pantheon,  iaxd  the  temple  of  the 
unknown  God.    The  Venetians  under  Koning»- 
roark,  when  they  besieged  the  acropolis  in  1687, 
threw  a  bomb,  which  demolished  the  roof,  and 
setting  fire  to  some  powder,  did  much  damage 
to  the  fabric.    The  floorj  which  is  indented, 
still  witnesses  the  place  of  its  fall.    This  was  the 
sad  forerunner  of  farther  destruction ;  the  Turks 
breaking  the  stones,  and  appl3ring  l^em  to  the 
builHing  of  a  new  mosque,  which  stands  within 
the  ruin,  or  to  the  repairing  of  their  houses  and 
the  walls  of  the  fortress.    The  vast  pile  of  pon- 
derous materials,  which  lay  ready,  is  greatly  di- 
minished ;  and  the  whole  structure  will  gradually 
be  consumed  and  disappear.    The  temple  ot 
Minerva  in  1676  was,  as  Wheeler  and  Spon 
assert,  the  finest  mosque  in  the  worM,  without 
comparison.    The  Greeks  had  adapted  die  fabric 
to  their  ceremonial  by  constructing  at  one  end  a 


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semkarcuiar  leoess  for  Aw  holy  tables,  widi  m 
window :  for  before  it  was  enlightened  only  by 
the  door,  obscurity  being  preferred  under  the 
heathen  ritual,  except  on  festiyals,  when  it 
yielded  to  splendid  illuminations ;  the  reason,  it 
has  been  surmised,  why  temples  are  commonly, 
found  simple  and  unadorned  on  the  insides.  In 
the  wall  beneath  the  window  were  inserted  two 
pieces  of  the  stone  called  phengites,  a  species  of 
marble  discovered  in  Cappadocia  in  the  time  of 
Nero ;  and  so  transparent  that  he  erected  with  it 
a  temple  to  Fortune,  which  was  luminous  within, 
when  the  door  was  shut.  These  pieces  were 
perforated,  and  the  light  which  entered  was 
tinged  with  a  reddish  or  yellowish  hue.  The 
picture  of  the  Panagia  or  Virgin  Mary,  in  Mo- 
saic, on  the  ceiling  of  the  recess,  remained; 
with  two  jasper  columns  belonging  to  the  screen, 
which  had  separated  that  part  from  the  nave; 
and  within,  a  canopy  supported  by  four  pillars 
of  porphyry,  with  Corinthian  capitate  of  white 
marble,  under  which  the  table  had  been  placed ; 
and  behind  it,  beneath  the  window,  a  marble 
chair  for  the  archbishop;  and  also  a  pulpit, 
standing  on  four  small  pillars  in  the  middle  aisle. 
The  Turks  had  white-washed  the  walls,  to  obli- 
terate the  portraits  of  saints,  and  the  other  paint- 
ings with  which  the  Greeks  decorate  their  places 
of  worship ;  and  had  erected  a  pulpit  on  the 
right  hand  for  the  iman  or  reader.  Tlie  roof  was 
disposed  in  square  compartments;  the  stones 
massive ;  and  some  had  rallen  in.  It  had  been 
sustained  in  the  Pronaos  by  six  columns ;  but 
the  place  of  one  was  then  supplied  by  a  large 
pile  of  rude  masonry,  the  Turks  not  haying  been 
able  to  fill  up  the  gap  more  worthily.  The  roof 
of  the  naos  was  supported  by  colonnades  ranging 
with  the  door,  and  on  eaim  side ;  consisting  of 
twenty-two  pillara  below,  and  of  twenty-three 
above.  The  odd  one  was  over  the  entrance, 
which  by  that  disposition  was  left  wid^  and  un- 
embaiTassed.  In  the  portico  were  suspended  a 
few  lamps,  to  be  used  in  the  mosque  at  the 
seasons  when  the  Mussulmans  assemble  before 
day-break,  or  to  be  lighted  up  round  the  mi« 
naret,  as  is  the  custom  during  llhe  Ramaian  or 
Lent.  It  b  not  easy  to  conceive  a  more  striking 
object  than  the  Parthenon,  though  now  a  mere 
ruin.  The  columns  within  the  naos  haye  all 
been  removed :  but  on  the  floor  may  be  seen  the 
circles  which  directed  the  workmen  in  placing 
them;  and  at  the  forther  end  is  a  groove  across 
it,  as  for  one  of  the  partitions  of  the  cell.  The 
recess  erected  by  the  Christians  is  demolished ; 
and  from  the  rubbish  of  the  ceiling,  the  Turiush 
beys  collect  bits  of  the  Mosaic,  of  different  colors, 
which  composed  the  picture.  >  We  are  told  at 
Smyrna,  that  this  substance  had  taken  a  polish, 
and  been  set  in  buckles.  This  cell  is  about  half 
demolished ;  and  in  the  columns  which  surround 
it,  is  a  large  gap  near  the  middle.  Qn  the, walls 
are  some  trades  of  the  paintings.  Before  the 
portico  is  a  reservoir  sunk  in  the  rock,  to  supply 
the  Turks  with  vrater  for  the  purifications  custo- 
mary on  entering  their  mosques.  In  it,  on  the 
left  hand,  is  the  rubbish  of  the  pile  erected  to 
supply  the  place  of  a  column ;  and  on  the  right 
a  staircase  which  leads  out  on  the  architrave,  and 
has  a  marble  or  two  with  inscriptions,  but  worn 


so  as  not  to  be  legible.  It  belonged  to  the  mi* 
naret,  which  has  l^en  destroyed.  The  traveBers, 
to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  an  account  of  the 
mosque,  have  likewise  given  a  description  of  the 
sculpture  then  remaining  in  the  front.  In  the 
middle  of  the  pediment  was  seen  a  bearded  Ju- 
piter, with  a  majestic  countenance,  standing,  and 
naked ;  the  right  arm  broken.  The  thunderbolt^ 
it  has  been  supposed,  was  placed  in  that  hand, 
and  the  eagle  between  his  feet.  On  his  right  wa0 
a  figure,  it  is  conjectured,  of  Victory,  clothed  to 
the  mid-leg ;  the  head  and  arras  gone.  This  was 
leading  on  the  horses  of  a  car,  in  which  Minerva 
sat,  young  and  unarmed ;  her  head-dress,  instead 
of  a  helmet,  resembling  that  of  a  Venus.  The 
generous  ardor  and  lively  spirit  visible  in  this 
pair  of  celestial  steeds,  was  such  as  bespoke  the 
hand  of  a  master,  bold  and  delicate,  of  a  Phidias 
or  Praxiteles.  Behind  Minerva  was  a  female 
figure,  without  a  head,  sitting,  with  an  infimt  in 
her  lap ;  and  in  this  angle  of  the  pediment  was 
the  emperor  Hadrian  with  his  arm  round  Sabina, 
both  reclining,  and  seeming  to  regard  Minerva 
with  pleasure.  On  the  left  side  of  Jupiter  were 
five  or  six  other  trunks  to  complete  the  assembly 
of  deities  into  which  he  received  her.  These 
figures  were  all  wonderfiiUy  carved,  and  appeared 
as  big  as  hfe.  Hadrian  and  his  consort^  it  is 
likely,  were  complimented  by  the  AAenians  with 
places  among  the  marble  gods  in  the  pediment, 
as  bene&ctors.  Both  of  them  may  be  considered 
as  intruders  on  the  original  company ;  and  pos- 
sibly their  heads  were  placed  on  trunks,  wnich 
before  had  other  owners.  They  still  possess 
their  comer,  and  are  easy  to  be  recc^ised, 
though  not  unimpaired.  The  rest  of  the  statues 
are  deiaced,  renoved,  or  fidlen.  Morosini  was 
ambitious  to  enridi  Venice  with  the  spoils  of 
Athens;  and  by  an  attempt  to  take  down  the 
principal  group,  hastened  their  ruin.  In  the 
other  pediment  is  a  head  or  two  of  sea-liorses 
finely  executed,  with  some  mutilated  figures; 
and  on  the  architrave  beneath  them  are  marks  of 
the  fixtures  of  votive  offerings,  perhaps  of  the 
golden  shields,  or  of  festoons  suspended  on 
solemn  occasions,  when  the  temple  was  dressed 
out  to  receive  the  votaries  of  the  goddess.' 

Ekecbtheium. — ^The  erechtheium,  about  160 
feet  north  of  the  parthenon,  containing  Ae  united 
temples  of  Minerva,  Polias  Pandrosus,  or,  ac- 
coroing  to  some  writers,  Neptune,  was  of  irr^ 
gular  figure,  the  eastern  front  of  which  pr^ 
sented  a  hexastyle  Ionic  colonnade,  the  western 
being  pseudo-peripteral,  and  the  entablature 
supported  by  half  colufnns.  Two  deities  are 
supposed  to  have  inhabited  two  great  dirisions 
in  tne  interior.  The  Pandrosseium  (according  to 
some)  on  the  western  side,  opened  into  porticoes 
to  the  north  and  souft ;  the  former  bemg  tetra- 
sgrle,  and  the  latter  supported  by  six  caryatides. 
This  beautiful  edifice  was  small,  tlie  entire  area 
not  exceeding  sixty-three  feet  by  thirty-six,  nor 
the  height  twenty.  Here  was  preserved  the  mark 
of  Neptune's  trident,  which  struck  when  the 
horse  issued  forth;  also  the  olive-tree  of  Mi- 
nerva ;  an  image  of  the  goddess  which  fell  from 
heaven,  before  which  v?as  suspend^  a  golden 
lamp,  the  wick  of  which,  being  Carpathian  flax, 
never  consumed,  and  required  oil  but  once  a 


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year ;  together  with  a  brazen  palm-tree  above  it, 
which  carried  off.  the  smoke ;  the  wooden  Hermes 
presented  by  Cecrops ;  the  chair  by  Dedalus ; 
the  scimitar  of  Maidonius;  the  breastptate  of 
MasistniSy  who  commanded  the  Median  cavalry 
at  Plataea ;  and  numerous  groups  of  statues. 

As  Dr.  Chandler's  description  of  this  celebrated 
'  depository  of  atts^  at  the  time  of  his  visit,  is 
highly  interesting,  we  shall  again  refer  the  reader 
to  that  authority.  '  Neptune  and  Minerva,'  ob- 
serves the  Dr.  *  once  rival  deities,  were  joint  and 
amicable  tenants  of  the  Erechtheium,  in  which 
was  an  altar  of  Oblivion.  The  building  was 
double,  a  partition  wall  dividing  it  into  tvi^o  tem- 
ples, which  fronted  different  ways.  One  was  the 
temple  of  Neptune  Erechtheus,  the  other  of  Mi- 
nerva Polias.  The  latter  was  entered  by  a  square 
portico  connected  with  the  marble  skreen,  which 
uonts  towards  the  prbpylsa.  The  door  of  the 
cell  was  on  the  left  hand ;  and  at  the  further  end 
of  the  passage  was  a  door,  leading  down  into  the 
Pandroseum,  which  was  contiguous.  Before  the 
temple  of  Neptune  Erectheus,  was  an  altar  of 
Jupiter  the  supreme,  on  which  no  living  thing 
was  sacrificed,  but  they  offered  cakes  without 
wine.  Within  it  was  the  altar  of  Neptune  Erec- 
theus ;  and  two,  belonging  to  Vulcan,  and  a  hero 
named  Butes,  who  had  transmitted  the  priesthood 
to  his  posterity,  which  were  called  Butads.  On 
the  walls  were  painting  of  this  illustrious  family, 
from  which  the  priestess  of  Minerva  Polias  was 
also  taken.  It  was  asserted,  that  Neptune  had 
ordained  the  well  of  salt  water,  and  the  figure  of 
a  trident  in  the  rock,  to  be  memorials  of  his  con- 
tending for  the  country.  The  former,  Pausanias 
remarks,  was  no  great  wonder,  for  other  wells 
of  a  similar  nature,  were  found  inland ;  but  this, 
when  the  south  wind  blew,  afforded  the  sound  of 
waves.  The  temple  of  Minerva  Polias  was  de- 
dicated by  all  Attica,  and  possessed  the  most 
ancient  statue  of  the  goddess.  This  temple  was 
burned  when  Cailias  was  Archon,  twenty-four 
years  after  the  death  of  Pericles.  Near  it  was 
the  tomb  of  Cecrops,  and  within  it  Erectheus 
was  buried.  The  ruin  of  the  Erectheum  is  of 
white  marble;  the  architectural  ornaments  of 
very  exquisite  workmanship,  and  uncommonly 
curious.  The  columns  of  the  front  of  the  temple 
of  Neptune  are  standing  with  the  architrave; 
and  also  the  skreen  and  portico  of  Minerva 
Polias,  with  a  portion  of  the  cell,  retaining  traces 
of  the  partition  wall.  The  order  is  Ionic.  An 
edi6ce  revered  by  ancient  Attica,  as  holy  in  the 
highest  degree,  was,  in  1676,  the  dwelling  of  a 
Turkish  fiimily,  and  is  now  deserted  and  neg- 
lected ;  but  many  ponderous  stones  and  rubbish 
must  be  removed  before  the  well  and  trident 
would  appear.  The  former,  at  least,  might  pro- 
bably be  discovered.  The  portico  is  used  as  a 
powder  magazine ;  but  we  obtained  permission 
to  dig  and  to  examine  the  outside.  The  door- 
way of  the  vestibule  is  walled  up,  and  the  soil 
risen  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  xloor-way  of  the 
Pandroseum.  By  the  portico  is  a  battery  com- 
manding the  town,  from  which  ascends  an 
amusing  hum.  The  Turks  fire  from  it,  to  give 
notice  of  the  commencement  of  Ramazan,  or  of 
their  Lent,  and  of  Bairam,  or  the  holy  days.' 

Schools^  GricNi^iA,  &c. — ^The  schools  and 


places  of  ptiblic  instruction  of  Athens  during  her 
prosperi^  were  several:  the  most  celebrated 
were  two  called  Ceramicus;  one  within  the 
city,  containing  a  multitude  of  buildings  of  all 
sorts;  the  other  in  the  suburbs,  in  which  was 
the  academy  and  other  edifices.  There  were 
many  gymnasia  in  Athens ;  the  most  remarkable 
were  &e  Lyceum,  Academia,  and  Cynosarges. 
The  Lyceum  stood  on  the  banks  of  Ilissus ;  some 
say  it  was  built  by  Pisistratus,  others  fay  Pe- 
ricles,  others  by  Lycurgus.  Here  Aristotle  taught 
philosophy,  instructing  such  as  came  to  hear  him 
as  they  walked,  whence  his  disciples  derived  the 
name  of  Peripatetics.  It  was  also  the  place 
where  the  Polemarch  kept  his  court,  ana  the 
chief  gymnasium  of  the  Athenian  youth.  The 
ceramicus  without  the  city  was  six  stadia  from 
its  walls.  The  academy  made  part  thereof  It 
was  a  marshy  unwholesome  place  till  Cimon 
got  h  drained,  and  then  it  becamei  extremely 
pleasant  and  delightful,  being  adorned  with 
shady  walks,  where  Plato  read  his  lectures,  and 
from  thence  his  scholars  were  styled  Academics. 
The  Cynosarges,  sacred  to  Hercules,  and  com- 
monly considered  as  the  position  occupied  by  the 
Athenians  after  the  battle  of  Marathon,  when  the 
Persians  sailed  to  Phalerum,  was  a  place  in  the 
suburbs  not  far  from  the  Lyceum ;  it  was  &mons 
on  many  accounts,  but  particularly  for  a  noble 
gymnasium  erected  there,  appointed  for  the  spe- 
cial use  of  such  as  were  Athenians  only  by  one 
side.  Themistodes  got  much  ill-will  by  car^ 
rying  many  of  the  nobility  to  exercise  with  him 
here,  because,  being  but  of  the  half-blood  he 
could  exercise  nowhere  else  but  in  this  gymna- 
sium. Antisthenes  instituted  a  sect  of  philoso- 
phers, who  from  the  name  of  this  district,  as 
many  think,  were  styled  Cynics. 

Of  the  walls  of  the  acropolis  the  southern  is 
called  the  Cimonian  and  the  northern  the  Pe- 
lasgic ;  both  commonly  attributed  to  Cimon  and 
Themistodes.  A  few  rude  fragments  of  the  an- 
dent  Hecatompedum  are  still  remaining  in  the 
latter,  of  Doric  architecture,  supposed  to  be  the 
workmanship  of  the  original  Pelasgi,  who  first 
fortified  the  citadel  anterior  to  the  invasion  of  the 
Persians.  On  the  northern  side  of  the  Propylsa 
is  still  to  be  seen  an  ancient  grotto,  consecrated 
to  Apollo  and  Pan,  in  which  the  former  received 
tlie  favors  of  Creusa,  daughter  of  Erectheus.  It 
was  descended  by  a  flight  of  steps. 

The  other  remarkable  places  and  erections  are 
the  Stadium,  south  of  the  Lyceum,  constructed 
by  Lycurgus  for  the  contest  of  the  panatlienaic 
festival,  350  B.  C,  and  afterwards  covered  with 
marble  by  Herodes  Atticus.  It  measured  675 
feet  by  130,  and  was  capable  of  accommodating 
upwards  of  25,000  persons.  The  temple  of  the 
Eumenides  stood  upon  the  hill  Colonos,  sacred 
to  Neptune,  and  celebrated  in  the  history  of 
(Edipus.  It  was  about  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
north  of  the  walb,  and  between  it  and  the  dty 
lay  the  sepulchral  plain.  To  the  east  rises  a  hill» 
supposed  to  be  the  mount  Anchesmus  of  the  an- 
cients, and  at  present  one  of  the  most  remark* 
able  features  of  modem  Athens,  occupied  by  the 
church  of  St.  George. 

Remains  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Oltic- 
PIUS.— The  ruins  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olym- 


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pi«s  and  lerenl  otbei  remariutble  antiquities  nre 
thus  described  by  ^e  celebrated  gentleman  to 
whom  we  have  aUready  refenred.  '  The  ruin  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius,'  says  he,  *  con- 
sists of  prodigious  column^  tall  and  bcautHul, 
of  the  Corin&ian  order,  fluted;  some  single, 
some  supporting  their  architraves;  with  a  few 
massive  marUes  beneath ;  the  remnant  of  a  vast 
hicapy  which  only  many  ages  could  have  con- 
sumed and  reduced  into  so  scanty  a  compass. 
The  columns  are  of  very  extraonbnaiy  dimen- 
sionsy  bdng  about  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  nearly 
sixty  in  height.  The  number,  without  the  cell, 
was  116  or  120.  Seventeen  were  standing  in 
1676 ;  but)  a  few  years  before  we  arrived,  one 
was  overturned  with  much  difficulty,  and  ap- 
plied to  the  building  a  new  mosque  in  the  bazar 
or  maii.et-place.  "niis  violence  was  avenged  ^by 
the  bashaw  of  Negropont,  who  made  it  a  pretext 
for  extorting  from  the  vaiwode,  or  governor,  fifteen 
purses;  th£  pillar  beinff,  he  alleged,  the  pro- 
perty of  their  master,  me  grand  seignior.  It 
was  an  angular,  column  and  of  consequence  in 
determining  the  dimensions  of  the  fabric.  We 
regretted  that  the  &dl  of  this  mighty  mass  had 
not  been  postponed  until  we  came,  as  it  would 
have  afforded  an  opportunity  of  inspecting  and 
measuring  some  members  which  we  found  far 
too  lofty  to  be  attempted.  On  a  piece  of  the 
architrave,  supported  by  a  couple  of  columns, 
are  two  parallel  walls  of  modern  masonry,  arched 
about  the  middle,  and  again  near  the  top.  You 
are  told  it  has  been  the  habitation  of  a  hermit, 
doubtless  of  a  Stylites ;  but  of  whatever  building 
it  has  been  part,  and  for  whatever  purpose  de- 
signed, it  must  have  been  erected  thus  high  in 
air  while  the  immense  ruin  of  this  huge  struc- 
ture was  yet  scarcely  diminished,  and  the  heap 
inclined  so  as  to  render  it  accessible.  It  was  re- 
marked that  two  stones  in  a  step  in  the  front  had 
coalesced  at  the  extremity,  so  that  no  juncture 
could  be  perceived ;  and  the  like  was  disooveied 
also  in  a  step  of  die  Parthenon.  In  both  in- 
stances-it  mav  be  attributed  to  a  concietory  fluid, 
which  pervades  the  marble  in  the  quarry.  Some 
portion  remaining  in  the  pieces  when  taken 
green,  as  it  were,  md  placed  in  mutual  contact, 
it  exuded  and  united  them  by  a  process  similar , 
to  that  in  a  bone  of  an  animal  when  broken  and 
jMoperly  set  Besides  the  more  stable  antiqui- 
ties, many  detatched  pieces  are  found  in  the 
town,  by  the  fountains,  in  the  streets,  the  walls, 
the  houses,  and  churdies.  Among  these  are 
fragments  of  sculpture,  a  marble  chair  or  two, 
which  probably  belonged  to  the  gymnasia  or 
theatres ;  a  sun-dtal  at  the  catholicon,  or  cathe- 
dral, inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  maker ;  and, 
at  the  archiepiscopal  house  close  by,  a  very  cu- 
rious vessel  of  marble,  used  as  a  cistem  to  re- 
eaive  water,  but  once  serving,  it  is  likely,  as  a 
pul^lic  standard  or  measure.  Many  columns 
occur  with  some  maimed  statues  and  jpedestal% 
several  with  inscriptions,  and  almost  buried  in 
earth.  A  custom  has  prevailed,  as  at  Chios,  of 
fixing  in  the  wall,  over  the  gateways  and  doors 
of  the  houses,  carved  stones,  most  of  which  ex- 
hibit the  fimeral  sapper.  In  the  courts  of  the 
houses  lie  many  round  stelse  or  pillais,  once 
placed  on.  the  graves  of  the  Athenians;  and  a 


great  number  are  still  to  be  seen  applied  to  the 
same  use  in  the  Turkish  burying-grounds  before 
the  acropolis.  These  generally  have  concise  in- 
scriptions containing  the  name  of  the  person, 
and  of  the  town  and  tribe  to  which  the  deceased 
belonged.  Another  species,  which  resembles  our 
modem  head-stones,  is  sometimes  adorned  with 
sculpture,  and  has  an  epitiwh  in  verse.  We  saw 
a  few  mutilated  hermae.  These  were  busts  on 
long  quadrangular  bases,  the  heads  frequently 
of  brass  invented  by  the  Athenians.  At  first 
they  were  made  to  represent  only  Hermes  or 
Mercury,  and  designed  as  guardians  of  the  se* 
pulohres  in  which  they  were  lodged,  but  after- 
wards the  houses,  streets,  and  porticoes  of  Athens, 
were  adorned  with  them,  and  rendered  vene- 
rable by  a  multitude  of  portraits  of  illustrious 
men  and  women,  of  heroes,  and  of  gods ;  and 
it  is  related  that  Hippavchus,  son  of  Pisistratus, 
erected  them  in  demi  or  borough  towns,  and  by 
the  road  side,  inscribed  witli  moral  apophthegms 
in  elegiac  verse;  thus  making  them  v^cles  of 
instruction.' 

Decli  VE  OF  Athens. — ^The  decline  of  Athens, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  subjects  of  history, 
was  occasioned  by  that  great  revolution  which 
took  place  in  the  moral  world  upon  the  propa- 
gation of  Christianity  and  the  consecjuent  anni- 
hilation of  those  idolatrous  superstitions  which 
had  been  handed  down  from  the  ages  bordering 
on  the  deluge.  The  general  conduct  of  the  earlv 
Christians,  wherever  their  influence  extendedf, 
was  to  destroy  all  works  of  pagan  architecture 
dedicated  to  the  purposes  of  superstition,  whilst^ 
by  propagating  the  gospel  and  thorough^  extin- 
guishing the  principles  that  gave  birdi  to  them, 
no  hope  remained  of  their  reproduction.  At 
Athens,  however,  the  early  Byzantine  emperors 
forbore  to  destroy  these  saci^  edifices,  and  in 
lieu  of  it  consecrated  them  to  the  Christian  cause.' 
Even  Alaric  used  every  effort  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  Athens,  and  the  noble  statue  otMinervs 
Promachus  still  crowned  the  city  and  towered 
above  the  uninjured  Parthenon  at  the  close  o* 
the  fourth  centurv.  During  the  ducal  govern- 
ment of  the  Franks,  however,  the  city  dwindled 
to  the  rank  of  a  provincial  town,  and  in  1436 
Omar  took  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  Ma- 
homet. This  was  shortly  followed  by  tlie  ruin 
of  the  city  and  the  demolition  of  those  stupend- 
ous works  of  art  which  had  been  the  wonder  o^ 
so  many  ages. 

Veketian  Invasion.— In  1687  the  Venetians, 
as  already  intimated,  under  count  Koningsmark, 
a  Swede,  besieged  the  acropolis*  The  explosion 
of  the  beautiful  temple  of  Victory  without 
wings,  {vta$  awrtpoc)  the  frieze  of  which  is  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  followed  the  bombard- 
ment; an  explosion  of  die  Parthenon  followed; 
the  eastern  wall  and  statues  of  that  pediment 
were  thrown  to  the  ground ;  the  middle  of  the 
temple  was  destroyed ;  the  western  front  consi- 
derably shaken,  and  little  less  except  part  of  the 
opisthodomos  and  a  few  of  the  lateral  columns  of 
the  peristyle  adjoining  the  cell  were  left  stand- 
ing. These  two  celebrated  temples,  which  had 
been  used  by  (he  Turks  as  powder-magazines, 
constituted  the  ch^  glory  of  Athens,  and  after 
the  destruction  of  these  she  surrender^  During 


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ATHENS. 


the  short  time  the  Venetiaiis  iMld  potteitioa  of 
the  eitjT  several  aDcient  monuments  were  d^ 
stroked.  A  celebraled  car  of  Victory,  which 
stood  00  the  western  pediment  of  the  Parthenon, 
with  horses  of  a  natural.size,  was  taken  down  by 
the  Doge  Morosini,  with  a  view  of  being  re- 
moved to  Venice,  but  in  lowering  it  to  the 
ground  the  engineers  suffered  it  tofidl^  by  whidi 
it  was  entirely  destroyed. 

Kkowledgb  op  Atbevian  AjrriQtTrriES  in 
Europe. — The  antiquities  and  worits  of  Athens 
were  little  noticed  in  Enrope  till  the  close  of  the 
17th  century.  TYie  aeconnts  rsceived  by  means 
of  tmvellers  had  been  mostly  perplexed  and  mis- 
taken. Some  called  the  Parthenon  the  pantheon, 
and  described  it  to  be  oval,  others  ^ught  it  the 
temple  of  the  unknown  God,  mentioned  in  the 
narrative  of  the  apostle  Paul.  Sir  G.  Wheeler, 
and  Dr.Spon,  who  visited  Athens  before  the  Ve- 
netian siege,  were  the- first  who  by  their  descrip- 
tion of  the  city  impressed  European  nations  widi 
the  great  value  of  these  celebrated  remains.  The 
Dillettanti  society  employed  Dr.  Chandler, 
already  quoted,  to  visit  this  ihmous  depository 
of  the  sciences,  and  examine  its  antiquities  and 
topography.  Mr.  Stuart,  an  ingenious  artist, 
also  went  over  from  England,  and  empl<^ed 
fAktte  years  in  studying  and  forming  correct  draw- 
ings of  its  principal  remains. 

Laudable  Epports  op  Lord  Elgin. — ^Lord 
Elgin,  on  his  appointment  as  ambassador  to  the 
Porte  in  1799,  established  a  society  of  distin- 
guided  artists  in  Athens,  who  in  three  years 
presented  him  with  a  complete  body  of  finished 
dsawings  of  the  plans  and  details  of  tiie  most 
important  monuments  and  renainSy  accoropamed 
by  just  admeasurements  of  the  elevation  and 
extent,  besides  bas  reliefs  and  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  Athenian  architecture,  moulded  from  the 
originals,  in  which  they  were  the  more  diligent, 
as  the  Turks  from  motives  of  avarice  vrere  in  the 
habit  of  breaking  up  marbles,  in  die  hope  of 
ftndittg  some  hidden  treasure  under  them,  and  of 
defacing  the  most  perfect  sculptures  ftom  motives 
of  superstition.  The  British  ambassador,  who 
appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  taste  and  genius, 
employed  his  interest  at  the  Porte  in  obtaining 
permission  to  remove  some  of  the  most  vydnaUe 
marbles,  and  transfer  them  to  England,  the  French 
having  removed  some  valuable  deposits  to  the 
gallery  of  the  Louvre. 

Lord  Elgin's  Collection  op  Antiquities, 
Ice. — ^Lord  Elgin's  collection  consisted  chiefly  of 
the  following  articles  :  Several  original  Metopes 
from  the  interior  Ineze  of  the  Parthenon,  descrip- 
tive of  the  combat  between  the  Centaurs  and  the 
Lapitha ;  part  of  the  outer  frie^  of  te  same 
temple,  representing  the  procession  at  the  Pana- 
thenaic  festival,  both  of  which  occupied  the  pedi- 
ments of  the  eastern  and  western  fronts,  the 
fonner  being  in  such  high  relief  as  to  seem 
grottps  of  statues.  Several  inscriptions  after  the 
Kionedott  manner,  in  which  -singular  care  is 
>  taken  to  preserve  an  equal  number  of  letters  in 
each  line^  occasionally  even  to  the  division  of 
monosyllables.  A  Doric  capita],  assizes  of  the 
columns,  a  triglyph,  some  or  the  modules  of  the 
oomice,  and  a  few  of  the  marble  tiles  (antefna,) 
which  roofed  the  original  ambuhiftofy.    Models 


of  the  metopes  in  the  temple  of  Theseus,  contain- 
ing the  labors  of  Theseus  and  Hercules,  tsken 
from  the  interior  firiele,  representing  the  battle  of 
the  Centaurs  and  Lapithae ;  together  with  seve- 
ral incidents  of  the  battle  of  Marathon.    The 
temple  being  in  a  considerable  state  of  preser- 
vation, the  originals  could  not  be  obtained.    In 
addition  to  these  he  obtained  from  the  vestibule 
of  the  temple  of  Neptune,  and  that  of  Minerva 
Polias,  in  the  Erechtheiura,  a  capital,  a  base, 
and  some  original  blocks  of  the  frieze  and  cor- 
nice, with  plans  of  die  architecture,  &c.    From 
the  adjoining  Pandroseinm,  one  of  the  Caryatides. 
From  the  temple  of  the  bouded  Bacchus,  a  sta- 
tue of  the  god,  and  a  sun-dial,  said  to  have 
existed  in  the  time  of  Jhe  tragedians.    The  con- 
vents and  other  buildings  furnished  bronzes, 
cameos,  intaglios,  and  medals.     Besides  the 
above  laudable  undertakings,  he  traced  the  walls 
of  die  city,  made  extensive  excavations,  and,  from 
the  numerous  tumuli  which  opeirad  in  the  sub- 
urbs, formed  a  magnificent  coltection  of  the  vases 
hitherto  improperiv  denominated  Etruscan.  But 
perhaps  one  of  bis  most  successful  tfhrts  was 
the  removing  of  the  celebrated  Boustrophedon 
inscription,  which  anciently  adorned  tlie  Sigean 
promontory.  This  celebmted  monument  had  for 
some  time  formed  a  $eat  at  the  door  of  a  Greek 
chapel,  and  was  the  resort  of  persons  afilicted 
with  the  ague;  the  letters  having  been  nearly 
obliterated  by  the  numbers  of  patients  who  had 
reclined  upon  it.    The  most  valuable  part  of  his 
collection  has  been  thought  by  some  to  be  a 
complete  series  of  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian 
capibds,  from  the  birth  of  Athenian  architecture 
to  its  greatest  height  under  Pericles.     The  same 
gentleman. obtained  some  fragments  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Victory  without  wings,  on  the  right  of  the 
propylea,  representing  scenes  from  the  battles  of 
Maradion,  Salamis,^d  Platcea,  which  had  been 
built  in  the  wall  of  a  powder  magazine ;  the 
finest  blocks  of  the  whole  being  plac^  in  an  in- 
verted position.  These  and  some  other  sculptures 
were  afterwards  embarked  for  England,  but  un- 
happily wrecked  off  the  island  of  Cerigo.  Many 
eases  however  by  the  assistance  of  the  most  ex- 
pert divers  were  obtained  from  the  vessel,  at  the 
depth  of  twenty  fedioms  of  water,  and  the  remain- 
der, although  two  successive  winters  of  laborious 
exertion  were  employed  about  them,  were  left 
upon  the  wreck.    On  the  acquisition  of  so  nu- 
merous a  collection  of  remains  from  the  most 
valuable  part  of  Athenian  antiquity,  the  British 
ambassador  conceived  the  idea  of  ei^aging  the 
most  distinguished  of  the  modem  artists,  to  at- 
tempt their  restoration,  but  they  declined  the 
task.     Canova,  in  particular,  affirmed  that  tlie 
marbles  of  the  ancient  perthenon  had  never  been 
retouched,  and  were  so  superior  in  their  style  of 
execution,  that  it  would  be  sacrilege  for  any  man 
to  presume  to  violate  ihem  with  a  chisel »    They 
were  therefore  transported  to  England  as  Athe^ 
nian  originals,  and  purchased  by   a   £35,000 
grant  of  E^Uament,  to  enrich  the  British  Mu- 
seum, where  they  still  remain  to  giude  the  im- 
provements of  taste,  and  excite  the  csmilatiop 
of  modem  genius. 

pKESBipr  Statb  of  Athens. — The  present 
state  of  Athens,  Iflie  that  of  most  other  celebra- 


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ted  cities  of  aotiquity,  exhibit*  a  remaikaUe 
spectacle  of  f^leo  gres^tness.  It  is  incorporated 
in  the  Turkish  empirei  Etnd  placed  uader  the 
goTernment  of  a  waywode»  or  Ueuteoant,  who 
is  chief  black  eunuch  of  the  seraglio.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  an  insignificant  wall,  about  ten 
feet  in  height,  hi  short  of  the  dimension  of  its 
ancient  circumference.  The  streets  are  narrow. 
The  population  is  diminished  to  one-tenth  of  its 
number  in  the  time  of  Demosthenes,  said  to 
have  been  116,000;  and  the  beautiful  Acropolis, 
converted  into  a  Turkic  for^ess»is  disdg!i»r«d 


by  a  huge  Venetian  tower,  the  architecture  of 
which  looks  the  more  barbarous,  from  the  highly- 
finished  models  that  surround  it.  The  parthenon 
is  degraded  in  the  front  by  a  mean  nouse,  in 
which  resides  the  disdar,  or  governor  of  the  for- 
tress, and  the  south-east  angle  exhibits  a  wretched 
mosque.  The  town  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Turk;si 
and  Chfistians,  of  the  Greek  church.  It  is  the 
see  of  an  archbishop,  under  whom  five  archons 
and  a  number  of  secretaries  are  appointed  to  tlie 
management  of  its  ecclesiastical  concerns. 


Athens,  a  flouiishing  post  town  of  New  York, 
on  the  vest  bank  of  the  Hudson,  opposite  Hud- 
son city.  The  situation  of  this  place  is  pleasaiat, 
and  verv  eligible  ibr  trade.  It  contains  a  Lu- 
theran church,  three  school-houses,  and  a  mar^ 
ket-house,  an  extensiye  rope-walk,  a  large  dis« 
ttUery,  a  pottery  of  stoneware,  and  other  smaller 
manoBictories.  PopuUtion  1000.  Tw^ty-eight 
miles  south  of  Albany. 

ATHERINA,  in  ichthJologf,a  genus  of  fishes 
of  the  order  of  abdominales.  The  characters  of 
this  genus  are  these :— the  upper  jaw  plain ;  the 
rays  of  the  branchiostege  membrane  are  six ;  and 
the  side  belt  or  line  shutes  like  silver.  The  spo^ 
cies  ate  two,  viz. 

♦I.  A.  hep8etus„the  smelt,  with  about  twelve 
rays  in  the  fin  next  the  anus.  It  is  found  in  the 
Mediterranean,  a»d  is  also  very  eommon  in  the 
tea  near  Southampton.  The  highest  season  is 
iioro  March  to  the  Winning  of  June;  in  which 
month  it  spawns.  U  is  also  found  oa  othec 
coasts  of  our  island. 

2i  A.  menidea,  has  twenty-four  rays  in  the  fin 
neact  the  anus.  This  is  a  very  pellucid  fish^  with 
many  black  points  interspersed;  it  has  many 
teeth  in  the  lips,  but  none  in  the  tongue  or  jaw«. 
Jjk  i3  found  in  the  firesh  waters  of  Carolina,  and 
spawns  in  April 

ATHERINOIDES,  a  species  of  clupea^  dis- 
tinguished by  a  silvery  lateral  line.-  In  the  dor* 
sal  fin  are  twelve  mys ;  fourteen  in  the  pectoraj 
fini ;  eight  in  the  ventral  fins ;  thirty-two  in  the 
anal  fin ;  and  eighteen  in  the  tail.  It  is  a  native 
of  Surinam. 

ATHERIX,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  the 
order  diptera,  and  family  rh^uponidap.  Its  ge- 
neric characters  are  antenns  moniliibrm;  the 
third  joint  not  ringed,  but  terminated  by  a  seta, 
the  palpi  erect.  The  only  known  species  is  ma- 
eutatus,  found  in  the  woods  of  Great  Britain. 

ATHEROMA,  a  kind  of  tumor,  occurring 
duusfly  in  the  neck  and  arm-boles,  and  contain- 
ing osatter  resembling  o&iipa,  or  pm>^  intermixed 
with  hard  and  slony  panicles.  These  tamors 
are  easily  cured  by  incision. 

ATHESIS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  river  of 
Ciaalpine  Gaul,  which,  rising  in  the  Rhcetian 
Alps,  runs  southward,  and  washes  Tridentum 
and  Vesona,  which  last  it  divides;  and  after* 
wards  bends  ils  course  eastward,  and  foils  into 
the  Adriatic,  between  Fossa  Claudia  and  Phi- 
listina.  It  separated  the  country  of  the  Euganei 
ifora  that  of  the  Veneti.  It  is  now  called  the 
Adige. 


ATHIAS  (Joseph),  a  learned  Jewish  printer^ 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  resided  at  Am- 
sterdam^  where,  in  1667,  he  published  a  Hebrew 
bible,  whieh  is  held  in  great  estimation.  He 
likewise  printed  the  bible  in  Spanish,  German, 
and  English.  The  States  presented  him  with  a 
gold  m^al  and  chain,  as  a  mark  of  the  vahie 
they  put  upon  his  labors. 

ATHIRST.    On  thirst    See  Thirst. 
With  aeaaty  mosMue  thea  sopply  their  food ; 

And»  wh«ai  oMtr^t,  restrain  'em  froin  the  flood. 

Unnumbered  supjdiants  ciowd  Preferoacot's  gate, 
Athkit  for  weslth,  and  burning  to  be  great ; 
Delusive  Fortune  bears  the  incessant  call. 
They  mount,  they  shine^  evaporate,  and  ftiU. 

J'ihnson. 

ATHLETjE,  A^Xi|n|c,Gr.  from  oflXoc,  a  com- 
bat ;  in  antiquity,  persons  of  strenjB^th  and  agility, 
disciplined  to  perform  in  &e  public  ^ames.  Un- 
der Athletae  were  comprehended  wrestlers,  boxers, 
runners, leapers,  throwers  of  the  disk,  and  those 
practised  in  other  exercises,  exhibited  in  the 
Olympic  and  Pythian  games,  &c.  for  the  con- 
querors in  which  there  were  established  prizes. 
To  obtain  a  firm,  bulky,  weighty  body,  by  force 
of  which  they  frequently  overpowered  their  an- 
tagonist, they  fed  altogether  on  dry,  solid,  and 
viscous  meats.  In  the  earlier  times  their  chief 
food  was  dry  figs  and  cheese,  which  was  called 
arida  saginatio,i:fpo  rpo^i;.  Oribasius  first  brought 
this  in  disuse,  and  substituted  fiesh  instead  of 
these.  They  had  a  peculiar  bread,  called  eoXiyria : 
they  exercised,  eat,  and  drank,  without  ceas- 
ing ;  were  not  allowed  to  leave  off  eating  when 
satiated,  but  were  obliged  to  cram  on  till  they 
could  hold  no  more ;  by  which  means  they  at 
length  acquired  a  degree  of  voracity,  which  to  us 
seems  incredible,  and  a  strength  proportional. 
Pausanias  relates  of  Milo,  the  Crotonian,  that  he 
carried  a  bull  on  his  back  a  considerable  way, 
then  knocked  him  down  with  a  blow  of  his  fist, 
and,  lastly,  devoured  him  at  a  meal  1 

ATH'LETB,  >     AdXiiriic,  a  wrestler  in  the 

Ath'letick.  )  agonistic  exercises  of  the 
Greeks;  from  dSKo^,  labor.  One  whose  phy- 
sical powers  enable  him  to  labor,  struggle, 
contend. 

And  health  itself,  if  it  be  aihUiie,  may  by  its  very 
excess  become  dangerous.  Bjf,  J.  Taylor, 

Science  distinguishes  a  man  of  honour,  from  one  of 
those  aitUeiw  brutes,  whom  undeservedly  yre  call 
heroes.  Drjfdem^ 

Was  he  [the  wise  man]  in  advexiity ;  ho  equally 
Mtumed  thanks  to  the  director  of  this  spectacle  i 


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hunu  ]ih,  fov  bayvag  oppoMd  to  him  a 
otUctt,  orer  whom,  though  the  contMt  was  likely  to 
be  more  yiolent^  the  yietoiy  was  more  glorioos  and 
equally  certain.  Smiths  Moral  SentimmtU. 

ATHIX)N,  Gr.  AOXov,  in  antiquity,  the  ynie 
adjudged  to  the  Tictor,  in  the  athletic  exercises, 
at  thepublic  games. 

ATHLONE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  pleasantly  si- 
tuated on  botli  sides  of  the  Shannon ;  the  one 
half  lyinff  in  the  county  of  Westmeath,  and  the 
other  in  mat  of  Roscommon.  These  divisions  of 
the  town  are  united  by  a  well  built  bridge,  in  the 
middle  of  which  stands  a  monument,  on  which 
there  are  some  badly  executed  figures  and  in- 
scriptions, ceiebratine  the  success  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  of  England,  and  relating  how  the 
rebels  in  her  reign  were  executed,  quartered, 
and  their  skulls,  &c.  stuck  upon  poles,  about  the 
country,  and  at  Dublin  casUe ;  and  every  thing 
brought  into  a  state  of  the  greatest  prosperity. 
Athlone,  though  so  advantageously  situated  for 
trade,  still  remains  a  poor,  ruinous,  neglected, 
dirty  place.  The  castle  was  founded  by  king 
John,  on  some  land  belonging  to  St.  Peter's  abbey, 
for  which  he  granted  a  compensation.  It  is 
built  on  {i  high  raised  round  hill,  resembling  one 
of  the  Danish  forts.  It  had  formerly  two  con- 
vents, and  was  strongly  fortified.  In  1691  part 
of  the  English  army  under  General  Gincicle, 
although  the  Irish  were  strongly  entrenched  on 
the  opposite  shore,  forded  the  river,  stormed  and 
took  possession  of  the  town,  not  losing  more 
than  fifty  men  in  the  attack ;  which  is  esteemed 
as  bold  an  enter]((rise  as  any  recorded  in  history. 
General  Ginckle  obtained  the  title  of  Earl  of 
Athlone,  as  a  reward  for  his  services.  There  are 
generally  two  troops  of  hone,  and  four  compa- 
nies of  foot  quartered  at  Athlone.  Athlone  is 
fifty-nine  miles  west  from  Dublin.  Long.  7°  41' 
W.,  lat  53**  22*  N. 

ATHLOTHETA,  in  antiquity,  an  officer  ap- 
pointed to  superintend  the  public  games,  and 
adjudge  the  prizes.  The  athlotheta  was  other- 
wise called  tesymneta,  brabeuta,  &c. 

ATHNACH,  the  name  of  one  of  the  principal 
of  the  Hebrew  accents,  wfa^ch  serves  not  only  to 
regulate  the  voice,  but  to  distinguish  the  mem- 
bers of  a  sentence,  whence  its  name  athnach,  i.  e. 
respiration.  On  this  account  it  is  called  king 
ana  pause,  and  answers  to  our  colon,  and  some- 
times to  a  note  of  interrogation.  It  b  marked 
under  a  letter  thus  (a)> 

ATHOL,  or  Atholl,  the  most  northern  dis- 
trict of  Perthshire  in  Scotland,  extending  in 
length  forty-three  miles,  and  in  breadth  thirty. 
The  country  is  very  rough  and  mountainous,  and 
contains  part  of  the  ancient  Caledonian  forest : 
but  these  mountams  are  interspersed  with  firuit- 
Ittl  valleys.  It  has  several  villages,  but  no  town 
of  any  consideration.  The  most  noted  place  is 
Blair  castle,  which  belongs  to  the  duke  of  Atholl, 
who  derives  his  title  from  this  district.  In  the 
neighbourhood  is  the  pass  of  Killicranky,  ren- 
deied  memorable  by  the  battle  fought  there,  in 
the  beginning  of  king  William's  reign,  between 
general  M'Kay,  and  me  Highlanders  adhering  to 
king  James. 

ATHOS,  a  mountain  of  Chalcidiain  Macedo- 
nia, celebrated  in  ancient  and  modem  times. 


224 


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Ilie  ancients  entertained   extravagant  notions' 
concerning  its  height ;  and  it  was  a  received  opi« 
nion,  that  the  summit  of  mount  Athos  was  above 
the  middle  region  of 'the  air,  and  that  it  never 
rained  upon  it.  Its  modem  name  of  Monte  Santo 
(Holy  Mount)  it  has  got  finom  the  number  of 
Greek  monasteries  that  are  built  on  it    They 
amount  to  nearly  thirty,  are  protected  by  fortifi- 
cations fit>m  the  incursions  of  the  corsairs,  and 
are  inhabited  by  about  6000  monks,  who  lead  a 
life  of  monotony  and  indolence.    The  air  is  re- 
markably pure,  and   many  of  the  inhabitants 
reach  a  great  age.    About  half-way  up  the  hill 
lies  a  small  town,  called  Kareis,  which  is  also 
fortified,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Turkish  aga.    A 
market  is  held  here  eveiy  Saturday,  from  which 
females  are  excluded.     ^^  P&y  t^  annual  tri- 
bute for  protection  to  the  Turkish  government. 
The  manuscripts  in  their  libraries  have  been 
recently  examined,  and  some  account  of  them 
will  be  found  in  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels.    Accord- 
ing to  the  accounts  of  modem  travellers,  this 
mountain  advances  into  the  Archipelago,  on  the 
south  of  the  Gulf  of  Contessa,  and  is  joified  to 
the  continent  by  an  isthmus  about  half  a  league 
in  breadth.    It  is  about  thirty  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  two  in  perpendicular  height.    It 
abounds  with  many  different  kinds  of  pUmts  and 
trees,  particularly  the  pine  and  fir.      In  the  val- 
leys grows  a  plant  called  elegia,  whose  branches 
serve  to  make  pens  for  writing.    Through  this 
-mountain,  or  rather  through  the  isthmus  behind 
it,  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  is  said  to  have  cut  a 
passage  for  his   fleet  when    about   to  invade 
Greece.  In  this  work  he  spent  three  whole  years, 
and  employed  in  it  all  the  forces  on  board  the 
fleet.    He  is  also  said,  before  the  work  was  be- 
guU)  to  have  written  the  following  ridiculous 
letter  to  the  mountain :  *  Athos,  thoi^  proud  and 
aspiring  mountain,  that  liftest  up  thy  head  to  the 
very  skies,  I  advise  thee  not  to  be  so  audacious, 
as  to  put  rocks  and  stones,  that  cannot  be  cut,  in 
the  way  of  my  workmen !   If  thou  makest  that 
opposition,  I  will  cut  thee  entirely  down,  and 
throw  thee  headlong  into  the  sea  I '     The  direc- 
tors of  this  enterprise  are  said  to  have  been 
Bubaris,  the  son  ot  Megabyzus,  and  Artadieus, 
the  son  of  Arbeus,  bo&i  Persians ;  but,  as  no 
traces  of  such  a  gteal  work  remain,  the  trath  of 
the  whole  relation  has  been  questioned.     Dino- 
crates,  a  sculptor,  who  followed  the  inarch  of 
Alexander,  offered  to  convert  mount  Athos  into 
a  statue  of  that  king,  holding  a  town  in  his  right 
hand,  and  in  his  left  a  basin  large  enough  to 
contain  all  the  waters  that  flowed  from  it ;  but 
the  proposal  was  deemed  too  extravagant  to  be 
accepted.    This  venerable  mountain   constitutes 
one  entire  chain,  extending  seven  miles  in  length, 
and  three  in  breadth,  and   is  situated  alM>ut 
seventy  miles  east  of  ^onichi,  the  ancient  Thes- 
salonica. 

ATHULIA,  in  entomology,  a  very  small  spe- 
cies of  pa^iliOy  found  in  the  northern  parts  o{ 
Russia.  This  is  the.papilio  phoebe  of  Esper, 
and  belongs  to  the  fiunuy  satyri  in  the  Fmbncian 
system. 

ATHWART,  prep.  hat^.  From  to  thwart. 
Across;  in  a  transverse  direction ;  figuratively, 
wrong,  in  a  vexatious  manned. 


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nere  let  the  clatiic  page  thy  fancy  lead 
lliroagh  rural  flcenea,  such  a*  ihe  Mantoan  svaia 
Paints  in  the  matchless  harmony  of  song ; 
Or  catch  thyself  the  landscape  gliding  swift ' 
Athwart  Imagination's  rivid  eye.  Thonum. 

Shook  sadden  from  the  hosom  of  the  sky, 

A  thoaaand  shapes,  or  glide  atkmart  the  dusk. 

Or  atalk  migestic  on.  Id, 

With  thee,  my  bark.  111  swiftly  go. 

Athwart  the  foaming  brine ; 
Nor  care  what  land  thou  bear'it  me  to. 
So  not  again  to  mine. 

Lord  Bynm'M  CkUde  HorM. 

Athwart,  in  navigation,  is  synonymous  with 
across  the  line  of  the  coarse.  It  is  also  used  in 
other  senses,  such  as, 

Atuwart-hause,  expresses  the  situation  of 
a  ship;  when  she  is  driven  by  wind  or  tide, 
or  any  other  accident  across  the  fore  part  of 
another 

Atbwaht-ships,  reaching  across  ships  from 
one  side  to  the  bther. 

Athwart  the  fore  foot,  denotes  the  flight 
of  a  cannon  ball  from  one  ship  across  the  course 
of  another,  to  intercept  the  latter,  and  oblige  her 
to  shorten  sail,  that  the  former  may  come  near 
enough  to  examine  her. 

ATHY,,a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  . 
Kfldare,  near  the  borders  of  Queen's  county.  It 
is  situated  on  the  river  Barrow,  on  which  boats 
pass  by  Carlow  to  Waterford.  It  is  ten  miles 
south  of  Kildare,  and  thirty-two  south-west  of 
Dublin ;  from  which  a  branch  o(  the  grand  canal 
extends,  and  boats  pass  between  mem  daily, 
through  the  whole  extent.  It  is  governed  by  a 
sovereign,  two  bailiffs,  and  a  recorder;  and  is, 
alternately  with  Naas,  the  assizes  town. 

ATHiMlAf aOvfua,  despondency;  dejection 
of  the  spirits. 

ATI^AB,  the  name  by  which  the  inhabitants 
of  Gago  in  Africa  call  gold-dust ;  from  which 
word  Europeans,  and  especially  the  French,  , 
have  composed  the  word  tioer,  which  also  signi- 
fies goldndust  among  those  who  trade  in  that 
commodity. 

ATIUA,  in  ancient  records,  signifies  utensils, 
implements  for  country  business. 

ATILT.  On  tilt.  Lifted  up  in  the  attitude 
of  attack ;  also,  any  thing  with  one  end  lifted  up, 
as  a  barrel. 

In  the  dty  Touts 

Thon  ran'st  oHU,  in  hon<mr  oif  my  love  ; 

Ind  stol'st  away  the  ladiea'  hearts  from  France. 

Shahtpeare, 
To  run  atih  at  men,  and  wield 
Their  naked  tools  in  open  field.       Hudibras. 

Such  a  man  is  always  atiUi  his  favours  come 

hardly  from  him.  Spectator, 

ATINGA  GuAcu-Mucu.  See  Cornutus  Cu- 

CULUS. 

Atikoa,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of  diodon, 
of  an  oblong  form,  b^t  with  rounded  spines. 
It  is  called  by  Marcgrave,  guamajucu  antinga ; 
and  in  England  is  known  by  the  name  of  porcu- 
pine fish. 

This  species  lives  in  the  American  seas,  and 
about  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Its  food  consists 
of  crabs  and  other  shell-fish.  The  length  rather 
exceeds  twelve  inches ;  the  body  is  compressed 
at  the  sides,  and  bluish.  This  creature  has  the 
Vol.  III. 


power  of  dilating  its  body,  and  encthig  its  spines 
at  pleasure.  It  is  usually  taken  in  nets,  but  will 
also  take  bait,  which  is  commonly  the  tail  of  a 
crab,  fastened  on  the  hook. 

ATINIA  Lex,  a  law  passed  by  the  tribune 
Atinius,  whidi  gave  a  trwune  of  the  people  the 
privileges  of  a  senator,  and  the  right  oi  sitting  in 
the  senate. 

ATIZOE,  in  the  writings  of  ancient  naturalists, 
a  stone  used  in  the  consecration  and  anointing 
of  kings.  Pliny  describes  it  to  have  been  of  a 
lenticular  figure,  and  of  the  size  of  three  fingers, 
of  a  bright  silvery  color,  and  of  a  pleasant  smell. 
He  says  it  was  found  in  India,  ana  in  some  other 
places.  Agricola  is  of  opinion  it  was  a  kind  of 
bitumen. 

ATKINS  (James),  bishop  of  Galloway,  the 
son  of  Henry  Atkins,  sheriff  of  Orkney,  was  bom 
at  Kirkwall,  educated  at  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  took  the  degree  of  A.  M.  and 
finished  his  studies  at  Oxford,  under  the  cele- 
brated Dr.  Prideaux,  about  A.  D.  1638.  Being 
appointed  chaplain  to  the  Marquis  of  Hamilton, 
he  was  soon  after  presented  to  the  church  of 
Birsay  in  Orkney,  wnere  he  was  much  esteemed. 
In  1650,  being  moderator  of  the  presbytery,  he 
was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  declaration  of 
loyalty,  in  their  names,  and  present  it  to  the 
Marquis  of  Montrose ;  for  which  he  and  the 
whole  presbytery  were  deposed  by  the  general 
assembly,  and  the  doctor  was  exoonununicated 
for  corresponding  with  the  Marquis.  The  coun- 
cil soon  after  passed  an  act  lor  bringing  him  to 
trial,  but  being  privately  warned  by  his  friend. 
Sir  Archibald  Primrose,  the  clerk  of  council,  he 
fled  to  HolUnd,  where  he  remained  till  1653; 
when  he  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  resided  in 
quiet  obscurity  till  the  restoration.  He  then 
accompanied  Dr.  Sydserf  to  London,  and  ob> 
tained  the  rectory  of  Winfrith.  In  1677  he  was 
elected  bishop  of  Moray,  and  in  1680  translated 
to  the  see  of  Galloway,  which  be  governed  seven 
years,  and  died  much  respected  in  1687,  aged 
seventy-four. 

Atkins  (Sir  Robert),  lord  chief  baron  of  the 
excheouer,  was  bom  in  1621,  and  educated  at 
the  umversity  <^  Oxford,  from  whence  he  removed 
to  the  inns  of  court,  and  became  eminent  in  the 
law.  He  was  made  knight  of  the  bath,  at  the 
coronation  of  king  Charles  II.  In  1662  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  judges  of  Common  Pleas ; 
in  which  station  he  continued  till  1679,  when 
foreseeing  the  troubles  that  soon  after  ensued,  be 
resigned,  and  retired  into  the  country.  In  1689 
he  was  made  by  king  William  lord  oiief  baron  of 
the  exchequer;  and  about  the  same  time  filled  the 
office  of  speaker  to  the  house  of  lords.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  an  unshaken  zeal  for  the 
laws  and  liberties  of  his  country;  and  wrote 
several  pieces  which  have  been  collected  into 
one  volume  8vo.  under  the  title  of  Parliamentary 
and  Political  Tracts. 

ATLANTEAN.  Possessing  the  strength  oi 
Adas. 

Where  are  the  pillars,  that  sapport  the  skies  T 
What  more  than  AtlaiUeam  shoulder  props 
Th'  incumbent  loadT  What  magic,  what  strange  art. 
In  fluid  air  these  pond'roos  orbs  sustain  ? 

Yvung't  Night  Thtmghtt,  ix. 
Q 


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ATLANTIC. 


ATLANTES.    See  Atlas. 

ATLANTIC.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  U  that 
great  basin  of  inters  that  separates  Europe  and 
Africa  on  the  east,  from  America  on  the  west, 
and  stretches  from  the  arctic  ocean  on  the  north 
to  a  line  which  joins  Cape  Horn  and  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  on  the  south.  It  is  divided  from 
the  north  sea,  on  the  north-east,  by  the  Straits  of 
DoTcr,  Great  Britain,  the  isles  of  Faroe  and  Ice- 
land. The  Mediterranean  with  its  gul&,  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  Hudson's  and  Baffin's  Bay, 
are  consequently  branches  of  it.  That  part  of 
the  Atlantic,  however,  between  Brasil  and  Airica, 
and  from  the  nearest  approximation  of  these 
countries  to  the  southern  limits,  is  sometimes 
called  the  Ediiopic  Ocean.  It  has  been  conjec- 
tured that  the  vast  bed  of  the  Atlantic  was 
formed  at  the  time  of  the  deluge,  by  the  great 
southern  ocean  below  the  ecjuator,  rushing  on 
the  northern  hemisphere.  This  the  shape  of  the 
opposite  shores  has  been  supposed  to  justify, 
which  have  the  exact  appearance  of  having  been 
formed  by  the  action  of  water,  the  great  protu- 
berances of  the  one  corresponding  to  the  inden- 
tations of  the  other.  One  ot  the  most  remarkable 
features  of  the  Atlantic  is  its  currents.  It  par- 
takes of  the  general  current  which  flows  from  the 
poles  toyrards  the  equator,  and  which  arises  from 
the  increased  evaporation  in  the  equatorial  re- 
gions, and  the  augmented  temperature  of  the 
waters,  rendering  them  specifically  lighter  than 
those  of  the  ocean  in  higher  latitudes,  as  well  as 
from  the  increased  supplies  produced  by  the 
melting  of  the  polar  ice.  The  existence  and  effects 
of  this  great  current  arc  fully  proved  by  the  enor- 
mous masses  of  polar  ice,  which  they  convey  into 
the  more  temperate  regions  of  the  ocean,  and 
which  sometimes  float  as  low  as  40°  of  latitude. 

The  coast  of  America,  and  the  numerous 
islands  with  which  it  is  flanked,  intercept  the  ge- 
neral current  of  the  Atlantic,  and  create  what 
navigators  call  the  gulf  stream.  This  enters  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  sweeps  round  the  shores  of  that 
Gulf,  and  issues  vrith  accelerated  velocity  towards 
the  north,  by  the  channel  between  the  southern 
point  of  Florida  and  the  Bahama  Islands.  It 
then  rolls  along  the  shore  of  North  America,  di- 
minishing in  veloci^,  but  increasing  in  breadth, 
till  it  reaches  the  great  bank  of  Newfoundland. 
There  it  suddenly  turns  towards  the  east  and 
south-east,  and  flows  with  still  decreasing  velo- 
city towards  the  shores  of  Europe,  the  Azores, 
and  the  coasts  of  Africa.  Navigators  readily  dis- 
tinguish it  by  the  high  temperature  of  its  waters, 
their  great  saltness,  their  indigo  color,  and  the 
shoals  of  sea-weed  that  cover  their  surface.  The 
celebrated  Dr.  Franklin  first  caused  it  to  be  laid 
down  on  a  map,  and  in  his  various  voyages  from 
America  to  Europe,  made  numerous  observations 
on  its  peculiarities.  Humboldt,  in  May  1804, 
observed  its  velocity  in  the  twenty-seventh  de- 
gree of  latitude,  and  found  it  about  eighty  miles 
in  twenty-four  hours,  though  the  north  wind 
blew  very  strongly  at  the  time  of  the  observation. 
When  it  issues  from  the  Gulf  of  Florida,  its  ve- 
locity resembles  that  of  a  torrent,  and  is  some- 
times five  miles  an  hour,  but  at  others  not  more 
than  tliree.  Between  the  nearest  point  of  Florida 
and  the  bank  of  Bahama,  the  breadth  is  only  fif- 


teen leagues,  but  a  few  degrees  further  north  it 
is  seventeen ;  in  the  parallel  of  Chariestown,  it  is 
from  forty  to  fifty  leagues  in  breadth ;  and  in 
latitude  40°  25*,  mis  is  increased  to  nearly  eighty 
leagues.    The  waters  of  the  torrid  lone,  being 
thus  forcibly  impelled  towards  the  north-east, 
preserve  their  high  temperature  to  such  a  degree, 
that  in  latitude  40°  and  41°  it  has  been  found  to 
be  22*5°  of  the  centigrade  thermometer,  or  72° 
of  Fahrenheit ;  while  out  of  the  current  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  vi^as  only  63*5°.    In  the 
parallel  of  New  York,  the  temperature  of  the 
gulf  stream  is  equal  to  that  of  the  sea  in  latitude 
80°.    When  the  stream   reaches  the  western 
Azore  island,  where  the  breadth  is  about  160 
leagues,  the  waters  still  preserve  a  part  of  the 
impulsion  they  received  in  the  Gulf  of  Florida, 
nearly  1 000  leagues  distant.    Thence  it  proceeds 
to  the  Canaries  and  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  in 
the  latitude  of  Cape  Blanco,  where  the  waters 
flow  towards  the  south-west,  they  mingle  with 
the  current  of  the  tropics,  and  recommence  their 
tour  from  east  to  west. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic, 
between  the  eleventh  and  forty-third  degrees, 
are  constantly  drawn  by  currents  into  a  kind  of 
whirlpool ;  and  if  a  body  floating  on  tt^ese  waters 
be  supposed  to  return  precisely  to  the  place  from 
which  it  commenced  its  motion,  M.  Humboldt 
has  calculated,  from  the  known  Telocity  of  the 
current,  that  it  would  require  two  years  and  ten 
months  to  complete  its  circuit  of  3800  leagues. 
*  A  boat,'  he  oMerves,  *  which  maybe  supposed 
to  receive  no  impulsion  from  the  winds,  would 
require  thirteen  months  from  the  Canary  islands, 
to  reach  Ae  coast  of  Caraccas,  ten  months  to 
make  the  tour  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  reach 
Tortoise  shoals,  opposite  the  port  of  Havwinah, 
while  forty  or  fiffy  days  mignt  be  sufficient  to 
carry  it  from  the  Straits  of  Florida  to  the  banks  of 
,  Nevirfoundland.    Estimating  the  Velocity  of  the 
water  at  seven  or  eight  miles  in  twenty-four  hours, 
in  their  progress  from  this  bank  to  the  coast  of 
Africa,  it  would  require  ten  or  eleven  months  for 
this  last  distance.    Such  are  the  effects  of  this 
slow  but  regular  motion^  which  agitates  the  wa- 
ters of  the  ocean.'    A  branch  of  this  current  evi- 
dently  reaches  the  western  shores  of  Eorope,  as 
the  productions  of  the  tropical  regions  of  America 
are  frequently  thrown  on  the  coasts  of  the  He- 
brides, Scotland,  and  Norway. 

M.  Humboldt  endeavoured  to  ascertain  the 
comparative  height  of  the  waters  of  this  ocean 
along  its  shores.  In  reference  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  the  opposite  side  of  the  isthmus  on 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  he  found  the  surface  of 
the  former  to  be  six  or  seven  metres  higher  than 
that  of  the  latter.  The  depth  of  the  Atlantic  is 
also  extremely  various;  in  inany  places  being 
wholly  beyond  the  power  of  man  to  &thom. 
Captain  Scoresby,  in  the  Greenland  sea,  in  1817, 
plumbed  to  the  greatest  known  depth  which  a 
line  has  reached,  i.  e.  7200  feet  Many  parts  of 
the  Atlantic,  however,  are  thought  to  be  three 
times  this  depth. 

The  saltness  and  specific  grarity  of  the  Atlan- 
tic differ  in  various  parts ;  and  gradually  HiminiA 
from  the  eouator  to  the  poles.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  British  isles,  the  salt  has  been 


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ATLANTIC. 


stated  at  ^  of  the  weight  of  the  water;  and 
Dr.  ThomfiMm^  in  his  Chemistry,  observes,  that 
as  fer  as  experience  has  gone,  the  proportion  of 
saline  contents  does  not  appear  to  differ  much, 
whaterer  may  be  the  latitude  in  which  the  water 
is  examined.  Captain  Phipps,  in  north  latitude 
9(fi,  and  sixty  &tDoms  under  ice,  found  the  sa^ 
line  contents  of  searwater  to  be  0*0354 ;  in  lati- 
tude 74^,  he  found  them  to  be  0'036 ;  in  latitude 
60**,  0*034. .  Pages  found- sea-water,  taken  up  hi 
noith  latitude  45®  and  SQ'',  to  contain  0*04  of 
sahne  contents ;  and  Baum^,  obtained  by  analy- 
sis from  water  taken  up  by  Pages,  in  north  lati- 
tude 34^  and  14®,  exactly  the  same  proportion  of 
saline  matter.  In  southern  latitudes,  Pages 
found  the  following  proportions  of  saline  con- 
tents, tIz.  : 


L«ttt«de  Sal.  Matter 

49®  5(/  .  00416     . 

46      0  .  0045 

40    30  .  0040       . 


Latitade  Sal.  Mat. 

25®  54'  .     004 

20    00  .     0039 

1     16  .     0035 


Th^  specific  gravity  of  the  water  is  greatest 
where  tne  saline  ingredients  contained  are  the 
most  abundant;  as  it  is  the  mixture  of  these  with 
the  pure  water  that  increases  its  weight. 

The  water  of  the  Atlantic  ocean  is  warmest  be- 
tween 5**  45'  and  6®  15'  of  north  latitude,  where 
it  has  been  found  by  actual  observation  to  vary 
from  about  82®  5'  to  84®  5'  of  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer. There,  too,  the  temperature  of  the  sea 
is  generally  a  few  degrees  higher  than  that  of  the 
air  which  reposes  upon  it.  Nearer  the  poles  the 
influence  of  the  seasons  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  becomes  more  sensible ;  but,  as  tlie  tem- 
])erature  of  the  water  changes  more  slowly  than 
that  of  the  atmosphere,  the  means  do  not,  in 
|K)int  of  time,  exactly  correspond.  Where  not 
disturbed  bv  local  causes,  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  surface  water  is  not  very  different  from 
that  of  the  incumbent  atmosphere.  It  is  about 
Rl®  at  the  equator,  70®  at  26^  of  north  latitude, 
and  60®  at  45®.  The  temperature  diminishes  as 
the  depth  increases.  M.  Peron  found  that  at 
the  depth  of  380  fathoms,  the  temperature  was 
only  45®  S,  though  at  the  surfieice  it  was  80®. 
Currents  greatly  modi^  the  temperature  by 
transmitting  the  water  of  one  region  to  another, 
as  well  as  in  some  degree  by  the  agitation  they 
create.  While  the  current  which  sets  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  is  much  wanner  than  the  adjacent 
])arts  of  the  sea,  it  is  not  so  warm  as  that  which 
flows  through  Magellan's  Straits  into  the  Pacific. 

Humboldt  made  various  experiments  on  the 
surface  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  oetween  the  9th 
of  June  and  the  15th  of  July,  1799,  from  which 
the  following  are  selected : 


Temperature  of  the 

forth  lat. 

West  Ion. 

Atlantic  ocean,  at 
itaraxfaoe.       • 

O         f 

O         / 

O        0 

39  10  .  . 

.  16  18  . 

.  .  59  00  Fahrenheit 

34  30  .  . 

.  16  55  . 

.  .  61  34 

32  16  .  . 

.17    4  .  . 

.  .  63  86 

30  36  .  . 

.  16  54  .  . 

.  .  65  48 

29  18  .  . 

.  16  40  .  . 

.  .  66  74 

26  51   .  . 

.  19  13  .  , 

.  .  68  00 

20    8  .  . 

.  28  51  .  . 

.  .  70  16 

17  57  . 

.  .  33  14  . 

.  .  72  32 

14  57  . 

.  .  44  40  . 

..  74  66 

13  51  . 

.  .  49  43  .  . 

.  .  76  46 

10  46  . 

.  .  60  54  .  , 

.  .  78  44 

227 


He  fiirther  relnarks  that,  *  from  Corunna  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  the  water  of  the  sea 
varied  but  little  in  its  temperature ;  but  from  the 
thirty-ninth  degree  of  latitude  to  the  tenth,  the 
increment  was  very  sensible  and  veiy  constant, 
though  not  always  uniform.  From  the  parallel 
of  Cape  Montego  to  that  of  Salvage,  the  progress 
of  Uie  thermometer  was  almost  as  rapid  as  from 
20®  18'  to  10®  46';  but  it  slackened  extremely  at 
the  limits  of  the  torrid  zone,  from  29®  18'  to 
20®  8*.  This  inequalitv  is,  no  doubt,  caused  by 
the  currents  that  mingle  the  waters  of  different 
latitudes,  and  which,  as  we  approach  the  Canary 
Islands,  or  the  coast  of  Guiana,  set  either  to  the 
south-east,  or  north-west  M.  de  Churuca,  who 
crossed  the  equator  in  his  voyage  to  the  straits  of 
Magellan,  in  the  twenty-fi^  degree  of  west 
longitude  (in  October),  found  the  maximum  of 
the  temperature  of  the  Atlantic  ocean,  at  the 
sur&ce  m  6®  of  north  latitude.'  Humboldt*$ 
Personal  Narrative, 

Masses  of  ice,  and  icebergs,  having  their  origin 
in  high  latitudes,  are  carried  towards  the  south 
and  south-west  by  the  general  current,  which  flows 
from  the  poles  towards  the  equator ;  and  they  have 
a  great  influence  in  lowering  the  summer  temper- 
ature both  of  the  ocean  and  atmosphere.  Frag- 
ments of  these  icebei'gs  occasiousulv  reach  the 
fortieth  degree  of  latitude.  At  50®  the  rivers, 
lakes,  and  h^ys,  of  the  sea,  sometimes  freeze ;  and 
at  60®,  the  gulfs  and  interior  seas  sometimes 
freeze  in  their  whole  extent. 

ATLANTIDES,  in  astronomy,  the  Pleiades, 
or  seven  stars,  so  called,  as  being  supposed  to 
have  been  the  daughters  of  Atlas,  who,  toe  poets 
fabled,  were  translated  into  heaven. 

Atlantis,  Atalantis,  or  Atlantic  a;  an 
island  mentioned  by  Plato  and  some  others  of 
the  ancients,  concerning  the  real  existence  of 
which  there  have  been  many  disputes.  Homer, 
Horace,  and  the  other  poets,  mike  two  Atlanti- 
cas,  calling  them  Hesperides  and  Elysian  Fields, 
making  them  the  habitations  of  the  blessed.  The 
most  distinct  account  of  this  island  we  have  in 
Plato's  Timeus,  of  which  Mr.  Chambers  gives 
the  following  abridgement.  *  The  Atlantis  was 
a  )arge  island  in  the  western  ocean,  situated  op- 
posite to  the  straits  of  Gades.  Out  of  this  island 
there  was  an  easy  passage  into  some  others, 
which  lay  near  a  large  continent,  exceeding  in 
bigness  sdl  Europe  and  Asia.  Neptune  settled 
in  this  island,  from  whose  son.  Atlas,  its  name 
was  derived,  and  divided  it  among  his  ten  sons. 
To  the  youngest  fell  the  extremity  of  the  island, 
called  Gadir;  which,  in  the  language  of  the 
country,  signifies  fertile,  or  abundant  in  sheep. 
The  descendants  of  Neptune  reigned  here  from 
&ther  to  son  for  a  great  number  of  generations 
in  the  order  of  primogeniture,  during  the  space 
of  9000  years.  They  also  possessed  several  other 
islands;  and,  passing  into  Europe  and  Africa, 
subdued  all  lybia  as  fiir  as  Egypt,  and  all 
Europe  to  Asia  Minor.  At  lengUi  the  ishuid 
sunk  under  water:  and  fo^  a  long  time  after- 

Q2 


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ATL 


228 


ATM 


wards  the  sea  thereabouts  was  full  of  rocks  and 
shelves/  Many  of  the  modems  also  are  of  opi- 
nion, that  the  existence  of  the  Atlantis  is  not  to 
be  looked  upon  as  entirely  fabulous.  Some  take 
it  to  hare  oeen  America ;  and  from  thence,  as 
well  as  from  a  passage  in  Seneca*s  Medea,  and 
some  other  obscure  hints,  they  imagine  that  the 
new  world  was  not  unknown  to  &e  ancients. 
But  allowing  this  to  be  the  case,  the  above- 
mentioned  continent,  which  was  said  to  lie 
beyond  Atlantis,  would  seem  rather  to  have 
been  the  continent  of  America  than  that  of  At- 
lantis itself.  The  learned  Rudbeck,  professor 
in  the  University  of  Upsal,  in  a  work  entitled 
Atlantica  sive  Manheim,  endeavours  to  prove 
that  Sweden  and  Norway  are  the  Atlantis  of  the 
ancients;  but  this  its  situation  will  not  allow  us 
to  believe.  By  Kircher  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  an  island  extending  from  tne  Canaries  to 
(he  Azores;  that  it  was  swallowed  up  by  the 
ocean,  as  Plato  asserts;  and  that  these  small 
islands  are  the  shattered  remains  of  it. 

Atlas,  one  of  the  Titans,  son  of  Japetos  and 
Clymene,  one  of  the  Oceanides.  He  was  brother 
to  Epimetheus,  Prometheus,  and  Menoetius. 
He  married  Pleione,  daughter  of  Oceanus,  or 
Hesperis,  according  to  other?,  by  whom  he  had 
seven  daughters,  called  Atlantides.  He  was  king 
of  Mauritania,  and  master  of  a  thousand  flocks ; 
as  also  of  beautiful  gardens,  abounding  in  fruit, 
which  he  entrusted  to  the  care  of  a  dragon.  Per- 
seus, after  the  conquest  of  the  Gorgons,  passed 
by  the  palace  of  Atlas,  and  demanded  hospitality. 
The  kmg,  who  had  been  informed  by  Themis 
that  he  should  be  dethroned  by  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Jupiter,  refused  to  receive  him. 
Perseus  showed  him  Medusa's  head,  and  Atlas 
was  instantly  changed  into  a  large  mountain. 
This  mountain  which  runs  across  the  deserts  of 
Africa,  east  and  west,  is  so  high  that  the  ancients 
have  imagined  that  the  heavens  rested  on  its  top, 
and  that  Atlas  supported  the  world  on  his  should 
ders.  Hyginus  says,  that  Atlas  assisted  the 
giants  in  &eir  wars  against  tlie  gods,  for  which 
Jupiter  compelled  him  to  bear  the  heavens  on 
his  shoulders. 

Atlas,  in  anatomy,  the  name  of  the  first  ver- 
tebra of  the  neck,  which  supports  the  head.  It 
has  no  spinal  apophyses;  because  the  motions  of 
the  head  do  not  turn  on  this  vertebra,  but  on  tlie 
second. 

Atlas,  in  architecture,  is  a  name  given  to 
those  figures,  or  half  figures  of  men,  sometimes 
used  instead  of  columns,  or  pilasters,  to  support 
any  member  of  architecture,  as  a  balcony,  or  the 
like.    These  Atlantesare  also«called  Telamones. 

Atlas,  in  commerce,  a  silk  satin,  manufac- 
tured in  the  East  Indies.  There  are  some  plain, 
some  striped,  some  flowered,  the  flowers  of  which 
are  either  gold,  or  silk.  There  are  atlasses  of  all 
colors ;  hut  most  of  them  false,  especially  the 
red  and  the  crimson.  The  manufacture  of  them 
ii  admirable;  the  gold  and  silk  being  worked 
together  after  such  a  manner  as  no  workman  in 
Europe  can  imitate;  yet  they  are  far  from  having 
that  nne  lustre  which  the  French  know  how  to 
give  to  their  silk  stuffs.  In  the  Chinese  manu- 
factures of  this  sort,  they  gild  paper  on  one  side 
with  leaf-gold;  then  cut  it  in  long  slips,  and 


weave  it  into  their  silks ;  which  makes  them,  with 
little  cost,  look  very  rich  and  fine.  The  same 
long  slips  are  twisted  about  silk  threads,  so  arti- 
ficially, as  to  look  finer  than  gold  thread,  though 
it  be  of  no  great  value. 

Atlas,  in  geography,  a  loffy  chain  of  moun- 
tains which  separate  Barbary  from  the  great 
desert  of  Zaara.  They  are  said  to  have  derived 
their  name  finom  Atlas,  king  of  Mauritania.  The 
mountains  which  form  the  eastern  boundary  of 
the  empire  of  Morocco  are  by  &r  the  loftiest 
part  of  tliis  chain;  their  height  rises  to  upwards 
of  13,000  feet;  and  their  sunmiits  are  covered 
with  perpetual  snow.  As  the  chain  stretches 
through  eastern  Barbary,  it  diminishes  consider- 
ably in  height,  spreading  into  various  branches. 
These  Dr.  Shaw  represents  as  generally  consisting 
of  a  number  of  little  nills  of  the  perpendicular  height 
of  400  or  500  yards,  coverea  with  groves,  and 
ranges  of  fruit  and  forest  trees  rising  behind  each 
other.  Prom  this  chain  numerous  rivers  de^ 
scend  and  fertilise  the  plains  of  Morocco  in  their 
way  to  the  ocean ;  while  others  flow  southwards 
into  the  desert,  till  they  are  lost  in  its  sands.  The 
geology  of  the  AUas  is  very  little  known;  but  its 
basis  is  probably  granite,  while  in  its  lower  parts 
calcareous  rocks  appear  to  prevail.  Consider- 
ing its  extent  and  magnitude,  the  Adas  does  not 
produce  any  very  copious  supply  of  minerals 
Lead  and  silver  are  obtainea  in  considerable 
quantity,  and  &rther  to  the  south  are  mines  ot 
gold  and  silver,  which  the  sovereigns  of  Morocco 
have  prevented  from  being  worked,  from  jea- 
lousy of  the  natives.  Antimony,  for  which  there 
exists  an  extensive  demand  as  a  cosmetic,  is 
drawn  very  copiously  from  these  mountains. 
The  most  Suable  kind  is  found  near  Tafilelt, 
and  is  called  £1  Kahol  Filelly.  Opposite  toTe- 
rodant,  sulphur  is  found  in  immense  quantities 
Iron  is  also  produced  though  not  very  abun- 
dantly. The  ancients,  whose  knowledge  of  geo- 
graphy was  very  confined,  conceived  these  moun- 
tains to  be  the  pillars  of  the  world,  and  that  their 
summit  upheld  the  heaven :  we  subjoin  the  fol- 
lowing quotation. 

Nee  padtar  nomen  proferri  longios  AUas, 
Adas  subdncto  tactnnu  vextice  cslun  ; 
Sidera  nubifenim  faldt  c^nt,  »d&eriasqiie 
Erigit  stemom  compagea  ardna  cervix  ; 
Canet  baiba  gelu,  frontemqae  immanibaa  umbris 
Pinea  ulva  premit,  vaatant  cava  tempore  venti 
KimbuMque  raont  tpomantia  flomina  rictn. 

sa,  1. 1. 

ATLFTA,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  papilio, 
indented,  brown,  fulvous  beneath*  with  undulated 
fflaucous  streaks,  and  five  blind-eye  shaped  spots. 
Native  of  the  East  Indies. 
ATMOSPHERE,)  From  die  Gr.  arftoc, 
Atho8pher'ic4L.  ( vapor,  and  vfaipa, 
spher]^.  The  body  of  air  and  vapor  that  sur- 
rounds the  earth. 

We  did  not  mention  the  weight  of  the  incumbent 
atmo^hmeal  cylinder,  as  a  part  of  the  weight  xeaisted. 

The  exterionr  pait  of  this  omt  habitable  world  is 
the  air,  or  aimoipkere;  a  light,  thm,  fluid,  or  springy 
body,  that  encompasses  the  solid  earth  on  all  sides. 


Digitized  by 


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ATMOSPHERE. 


229 


ImmokM  Um  whole  exeited  oimetphen 
linpetaooA  roahet  o'er  the  soonding  world. 

Thomun. 

Then  no  more 
The  expansive  utmogphere  is  eramped  with  cold. 
But  fall  of  life,  the  vivifying  soul 
Lilts  the  light  doads  sablime,  and  spreads  them  thin, 
yieecy,  and  white,  o'er  all-saiionnding  heaven.     Id, 

Atmosphere  ;  tliis  word  is  used  to  sif^ify 
the  whole  of  the  fluid  mass  consisting  of  air, 
aqueous  and  other  vapors,  electric  fluids,  &c. 
which  surrounds  the  earth  to  a  considerable 
height,  and  partakes  of  both  its  diurnal  motion 
on  its  axis,  and  its  annual  motion  round  the  sun. 
Its  composition  was,  until  within  these  few 
years,  very  little  known.  That  it  is  a  very  hete- 
logeneous  mass,  might  readily  be  concluded, 
upon  considering  that  it  is  the  common  recepta^- 
cle  of  all  the  effluvia,  exhalations,  and  particles, 
raised  from  innumerable  bodies  upon  the  earth : 
hence  it  has  been  compared  to  a  vast  chemi- 
cal vessel  in  which  the  matter  of  all  kinds  of 
bodies  is  continually  floating,  and  thus  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  sun;  from  whence  proceed 
innumerable  operations,  sublimations,  separa- 
tions, compositions,  digestions,  fermentations, 
putrefactions,  &c.  The  discoveries  of  modern 
chemistry  have,  however,  shown  us  its  essential 
constituents  and  their  proportions,  a  subject 
which  we  have  treated  at  considerable  length 
under  the  word  Air. 

It  only  remains  therefore  for  us  to  add  a  few  sup- 
plementary observations  to  that  paper ;  and  Uiese 
will  principally  respect  the  figure  of  the  atmos- 
phere and  its  supposed  limits.  If  the  earth  had 
no  diurnal  rotation  upon  its  axis,  then  according 
to  the  laws  of  gravity  the  atmosphere  would  be 
of  an  uniform  height,  enclosing  the  earth,  which 
in  this  case  would  be  perfectly  spherical.  But 
as  the  earth  and  the  atmosphere  revolve  about  an 
axis,  the  different  parts  of  Doth  have  a  centrifugal 
ibrce,  by  which  tneir  gravity  is  diminished  to- 
wards the  equator,  the  figure  of  the  atmosphere 
becomes  an  oblate  spheroid ;  the  parts  that  cor- 
respond to  the  equator  being  farther  removed 
from  the  centre  than  the  parts  that  correspond  to 
the  poles,  and  the  ratio  of  the  poles  to  the  equa- 
torial diameter,  being  as  two  to  three.  Besides, 
the  figure  of  the  atmosphere  must  on  another 
account  represent  a  flattened  spheroid ;  namely, 
because  the  sun  strikes  more  directly  the  air  be- 
tween the  tropics,  than  the  air  in  the  polar 
regions,  and  hence  the  mass  of  atmospheric  air 
adjoining  the  poles  being  less  heated,  cannot 
expand  so  mucn,  nor  reach  so  high  as  the  air  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  equator.  And  yet 
higher  columns  about  the  equatorial  regions  may 
not  be  heavier  than  those  at  the  poles ;  seeing 
that  the  same  force  which  contributes  to  elevate 
the  air,  diminishes  its  gravity  and  pressure  on  the 
sur&ce  of  the  earth. 

Mr.  Kirwan  has  given  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  an  ingenious  disserta- 
tion on  the  figure,  height,  weight,  &c.  of  the 
atmosphere,  where  he  observes,  Siat  in  the  natu- 
ral state  of  the  atmosphere,  its  weight  must  be 
equal  over  all  the  earto,  and  since  the  density  of 
the  air  at  the  earth's  surface  increases  from  the 
equator  to  the  poles,  its  height  must  diminish 
from  the  poles'  to  the  equator,  and  from  this  it 


follows  that  although  the  equatorial  air  be  less 
dense  to  a  certain  height  than  the  polar,  yet  at 
some  greater  heights  it  must  be  more  dense. 
Hence  it  is  inferred  that  in  the  higher  regions  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  denser  equatorial  air  not 
being  supported  by  the  collateral  extra-tropical 
columns,  gradually  flows  over  and  rolls  down  to 
the  north  and  south. 

La  Place,  in  that  part  of  his  Systeme  du  Monde 
which  treats  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  planets, 
ingeniously  observes,  that  in  all  the  changes  to 
which  the  atmosphere  is  subject,  the  sum  of  the 
products  of  the  particles  of  the  revolving  body 
and  its  atmosphere,  multiplied  respectively  by 
the  areas  they  describe  round  the  common  cen- 
tre of  gravity  (the  radii  being  projected  on  the 
plane  of  the  equator),  remains  ine  same  in  eoaal 
times.  Supposing  therefore  by  any  cause  what- 
ever, the  atmosphere  should  be  contracted,  or 
that  part  thereof  should  become  condensed  on 
the  surface  of  the  body,  the  rotatory  motion  of 
the  latter  and  its  atmosphere  would  be  accele- 
rated ;  for  the  radii  vectores  pf  the  areas  des- 
cribed by  the  particles  of  the  original  atmosphere 
becoming  smaller,  the  sum  pf  the  products  of  all 
the  particles  by  their  corresponding  areas  cannot 
remain  the  same  unless  their  velocities  be  aug- 
mented. 

The  limits  of  the  atmosphere  have  been  a  fre- 
quent  subject  of  philosophical  inquiry,  especially 
since  it  was  discovered  oy  the  Torricellian  tube 
that  air  is  endued  with  weight  and  pressure. 
Indeed,  if  the  air  possessed  no  elastic  power, 
but  were  everywhere  of  the  same  density,  from 
the  surfiice  of  the  earth  to  the  extreme  limit  of 
the  atmosphere,  like  water,  which  is  equally 
dense  at  all  depths,  the  whole  height  of  the  at- 
mosphere might  be  ascertained  without  difficulty. 
It  has  been  well  established,  that  the  weight  of 
a  column  of  air  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  atmos- 
phere, is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  mercury  con- 
tained in  the  barometer,  and  counterbalancing 
it ;  and  the  proportion  of  weight  likewise  being 
known  between  equal  bulks  of  air  and  mercury, 
it  will  be  leasy  to  find  the  height  of  such  a 
column,  and  consequently  that  of  the  atmosphere 
itself.  For  a  column  of  air  one  inch  high  oeing 
to  an  equal  column  of  mercury  as  1  to  11364*6; 
it  is  evident  that  11364*6  such  columns  of  air, 
that  is  a  column  947  feet  high,  would  be  equal 
in  weight  to  one  inch  of  mercury :  and  conse- 
quently the  30  inches  of  mercury  sustained  in 
the  barometer,  require  a  column  of  air  28,410 
feet  high ;  whence  the  height  of  the  atmosphere 
would  only  be  28,410  feet,  pr  little  more  than 
five  English  miles  and  a  quarter  high.  But  the 
air  by  its  elastic  property  expands  and  contracts ; 
and  it  being  found  by  repeated  experiments  that 
the  spaces  it  takes  up  when  compressed  by  diffe- 
rent weights,  stfe  reciprocally  proportional  to 
thoM  weights  themselves ;  or,  that  the  air  takes 
up  the  less  space  the  more  it  is  pressed ;  it  fol- 
lows that  the  air  in  the  upper  regions  of  the  at- 
mosphere, where  the  weight  is  so  much  less, 
must  be  much  rarer  than  near  the  surface  of  the 
earth ;  and  consequently  that  the  height  of  the 
atmosphere  must  be  much  greater  than  is  above 
assigned. 

On  this  subject  it  has  been  further  and  well 
remarked,  that  if  the  earth  were  perfectly  nitv 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


230 


ATMOSPHERE. 


cionless,  the  elasticity  of  the  atmosphere  uni- 
formly as  the  compressing  force,  and  matter 
infinitely  diyisible,  we  could  have  no  other  than 
an  atmosphere  indefinitely  extended;  but  the 
diurnal  motion  at  a  certain  height  brings  the 
centrifugal  force  equal  to  that  of  gravity,  and 
beyond  this  limit  no  atmosphere  can  exist.  Its 
particles  by  the  operation  of  this  force  would 
nere  become  projected  into  space ;  and  the  pro- 
cess would  continue  until  the  entire  atmosphere 
was  dissipated.  Dr.  WoUaston,  in  an  ingenious 
f)aper  in  Part  I.  of  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions for  1822,  observes,  that  it  we  admit  that 
air  has  been  rarefied  so  as  to  sustain  only  ,)b  of  an 
inch  of  barometrical  pressure,  and  that  this  mea- 
sure has  afforded  a  true  estimate  of  its  rarity,  we 
should  infer  from  the  law  of  elasticity  observed 
within  certain  limits,  that  the  atmosphere  extends 
at  least  to  the  height  of  forty  miles  with  proper^ 
ties  yet  unimpaired  by  extreme  rarefiiction.  Be- 
yond this  limit  we  are  left  to  conjecture,  founded 
on  the  supposed  divisibility  of  matter ;  and  if  this 
be  infinite,  so  also  must  be  the  extent  of  the  at- 
mosphere, except  so  fiir  as  regards  the  centrifiigal 
force  to  which  we  have  already  referred ;  for  if 
the  density  be  throughout  as  the  compressing 
force,  then  must  a  stratum  of  given  thickness  at 
every  height  be  compressed  by  a  superincum- 
bent atmosphere,  beanng  a  constant  ratio  to  its 
own  weight,  whatever  be  its  distance  from  the 
earth.  But  if  air  consists  of  any  ultimate  par- 
ticles no  longer  divisible,  then  must  expansion 
of  the  medium  composed  of  them  cease  at  ^at 
distance  where  the  force  of  gravity  downwards 
upon  a  single  particle  is  equal  to  tiie  resistance 
arising  from  the  repulsive  force  of  the  medium. 

On  the  supposition  of  limited  divisibility,  the 
atmosphere  which  surrounds  us  must  be  con- 
ceivea  to  be  a  medium  of  finite  extent,  and  may 
be  peculiar  to  our  planet,  since  its  properties 
would  afford  no  ground  to  presume  that  similar 
matter  exists  in  any  other  planet.  But  if  we 
adopt  the  supposition  of  unlimited  expansion, 
we  must  conceive  the  same  kind  of  matter  to 
pervade  all  space,  where  it  would  not  be  in 
equilibrio  unless  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  all  the 
planets  possessed  their  respective  shares  of  it 
condensed  around  them,  in  degrees  depending 
upon  their  respective  force  of  attraction,  unless 
in  those  instances  where  the  tendency  to  accu- 
mulate majr  be  counteracted  by  the  interference 
of  other  kinds  of  matter,  or  of  other  powers  of 
which  we  have  no  experience,  and  concerning 
which  we  cannot  be  supposed  to  reason  cor- 
rectly. 

Now  on  this  supposition,  since  we  know  the 
masb  and  diameter  of  the  principal  bodies  in  our 
system,  we  should  know  also  tiie  density  of  their 
atmospheres  at  their  respective  surfiuxs;  and 
also  at  what  distance  from  the  surface  of  each, 
the  density  would  be  the  same  as  at  the  surface 
of  the  earth ;  at  which  height  a  senlible  degree 
of  refraction  that  is  more  than  a  degree,  ought  to 
be  produced  on  a  ray  of  light  passing  through  it. 
For  example,  if  the  mass  of  the  sun  be*  consider- 
ed as  330,000  times  that  of  the  earth,  the  dis- 
tance at  which  his  force  is  equal  to  that  of  ter- 
restrial gravity  at  our  surfece,  will  be^  330,000, 
or  about  575  times  the  earth's  radius ;  and  if  his 


radius  be  111*5  times  that  of  the  earth  then  the 

575 
distance  will  be  s=  5'15  times  the  sun's 

1  ll*d 

radius.    Now  the  mean  appa^rent  semi-diameter 
of  the  sun  being  15'49",  we  have  15'  49^  x  515 
=  1®  2r  29",  for  die  distance  from  the  sun's 
centre,  where  the  refractive  power  of  his  atmos- 
phere is  equal  to  that  at  the  earth's  surface ;  that 
IS  where  it  would  produce  a  deviation  oi  a  degree 
to  a  ray  passing  through  it  at  that  distance.  We 
are  able,  as  Dr. WoUaston  has  shown,  to  observe 
Venus  within  this  distance  of  the  sun;  and 
since  in  this  observation  we  find  no  effect  pro- 
duced by  refraction^  the  observed  and  computed 
E  laces  agreeing  to  a  fraction  of  a  minute,  we 
ave  a  right  to  infer  that  at  the  distance  we  have 
computed,  the  density  of  the  sun's  atmosphere  is 
not  such  as  it  would  be  if  each  body  in  the  system 
possessed  an  atmosphere  proportional  to  its  own 
attractive  power ;  but  this  must  be  the  case  if  the 
elastic  matter  of  the  atmosphere  were  infinitely 
divisible,  henoe  then  again  we  may  conclude 
that   matter    is   not   infinitely    divisible,    and 
consequently  that  the  atmosphere  of  this  earth 
is  of  a  finite  and  limited  height,  and  may  be 
peculiar   to  it.    But   some   doubt  will   bang 
over  this  deduction  in  respect  to  the  sun,  on 
account  of  the  probable  heat  near  his  sur&ce, 
which  may  produce  a  rarefiiction  fiir  exceeding 
any  thing  that  we  can  form  an  idea  of;  but  this 
will  not  be  the  case  if  we  select  Jupiter  as  the 
body  for  observation. 

Since  the  mass  of  Jupiter  is  full  309  times 
that  of  the  earth,  the  distance  at  which  his  attrac- 
tion b  equal  to  gravity  must  be  about  ^309,  or 
17*6  times  the  earth^s  radius;  and  since  his 
diameter  is  nearly  11  times  greater  than  (hat  of 

1  ^'d 

the  earth,  we  shall  have        :=  1*6  times  his  own 

radius ;  for  the  distance  from  his  centre  at  which 
an  atmosphere  equal  to  our  own  should  occasion 
a  refraction  exceeding  one  degree  to  the  fourth 
satellite.    This  distance  would  subtend  an  angle 
of  about  3^  37',  so  that  an  increase,  of  density  to 
3|  times  our  common  atmosphere,  would  be 
more  than  sufficient  to  render  the  fourth  satellite 
visible  to    us  when  behind  the  centre  of  the 
planet ;  and  consequently  to  make  it  appear  on 
both  or  all  sides  at  tne  same  time.  Hence,  what- 
ever doubt  may  remain  on  the  deduction  made 
from  observations  on  Venus  seen  through  the 
solar  atmosphere,  in  consequence  of  the  possible 
effects  of  heat  which  cannot  be  appreciated,  it  is 
evident  that  no  error  from  this  source  can  be 
apprehended  in  regard  to  Jupiter.     This  planet 
therefore  does  not  possess  an  atmosphere  pro- 
portional to  his  mass,  as  he  would  do  if^the 
matter  composing  it  were  infinitely  dirisible,  and 
therefore,  as  we  have  seen,  common  to  the  whole 
solar  system.    Hence  then  we  have  a  right  to 
conclude,  that  matter  is  not  infinitely  divisible, 
and  that  each  planet  possesses  an  atmos^^ere 
peculiar  to  itself  of  limited  height,  composed  of 
ultimate  atoms  of  definite  magnitude,  no  longer 
divisible  by  the  repulsion  of  their  parts. 

We  may,  in  conclusion,  observe  that  to  the 
refractive  and  attractive  power  of  the  atmosphere 
we  owe  all  the  blessings  and  phenomena  of 
twilight.    By  the  former  the  rays  of  light  are 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


A  T  O  O  I. 


231 


bent  frem  the  rigfat-lined  direction^  by  the  latter    claims  of  justice  and  equity  by  making  repara 


objects  are  enlightened  more  uniformly  on  all 
sides.  The  want  of  this  power  would  occasion 
a  strange  alteration  in  the  appearance  of  things; 
shadows  would  be  totally  dark,  and  the  en- 
lightened sides  of  objects  overpoweringly  blight; 
so  that  probably  we  could  see  no  more  of  them 
than  their  bright  halTes ;  and  for  a  view  of  the  other 
halves  must  turn  them  round,  or,  if  immovable^ 
wait  until  the  sun  could  come  round  upon  them. 
Such  a  pellucid  unreilectiTe  atmosphere  mighl 
be  very  commodious  for  astronomical  obsenra* 
tions  on  the  course  of  the  sun  and  planets  among 
the  fixed  stars  visible  by  da^  as  well  as  by  night; 
but  such  a  sudden  transition  from  darkness  to 
light,  and  from  light  to  darkness  immediately 
upon  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  without 


tion  and  expiation ;  to  enjoy  the  renewed  friend- 
ship and  regard  of  the  injured  party. 

Paul  sayth,  1  Timothy  ii.  One  God,  one  Mediator 
(that  is   to  My,  adaootte,  intercessor,  or  an  atone- 
ntaker),  betweene  God  and   man;  the  man  Christ 
Jesus  which  gaoe  himselfe  a  rannsom  for  all  men. 
The  Whole  Worhet  of  W.  TyndaU,  fol.  158.  c.  i. 
He  seeks,  to  make  atonement, 
Between  the  duke  of  Glo'ster  and  your  brothers. 

ShaJupeare, 
fle  and  Aufidius  can  no  more  atone. 
Than  violentest  contrariety.  Id,  CorioUmue, 

From  a  mean  stock,  the  pious  Decii  came ; 
Yet  such  their  virtues,  that  their  loss  alone,  , 
For  Rome  and  all  our  legions,  did  atone, 

Dtyden.  Juoenai, 
The  good  intention  of  a  man  of  weight  and  worth,  • 


any  twilight,  and  even  upon  turning  to  or  from    or  a  real  friend,  seldom  atona  for  the  uneasiness 


the  sun  at  noon  day,  would  be  very  incon- 
venient and  offensive  to  our  eyes.  See  JUiPt 
Astron,  Ltd.  20,  &c.  See  also  Light  and  Re- 
fraction in  our  alphabet. 

ATOLLENS  Oculi,  in  anatomy,  a  name 
given  by  Albinus  to  one  of  his  quatuor  recti 
muscttli  oculi.  This  is  the  muscle  called  by 
Molinett,  and  others,  the  superbus,  and  1^ 
Cowper,  the  elevator  oculi. 

From  a,  privative,  and  rt/i- 

vw,tocut.  Something  so  small 

^  as  not  to  be  cut  into  smaller 


produced  by  his  grave  representations  Locke. 

Let  thy  sublime  meridian  course 
For  llary's  setting  rays  atone : 

Our  lustre,  with  redoubled  force. 
Must  now  proceed  from  thee  alone.         Prior. 
His  virgin  sword  MgjtthuM'  veins  imbrued ; 
The  murd'rer  fell,  and  blood  aton'd  for  blood. 

Pope. 


owpei 

ATOM, 

Atou'ical, 

A'tomist, 

Atom'like, 

Atom'oloot, 

At^omy. 


Soon  should  yon  boasters  cease  their  haughty  strife ; 
Or  each  atone  his  guilty  love,  with  life.  Id, 

And  the  Levites  were  purified ;  and  Aaron  made 

an  atonement  for  them,  to  cleanse  them.        Numbers. 

.  ,.  ..w.  -^   ..w  ^...  ...^  .^..«.«.        Surely,  it  is  not  a  sufficientotonanen/  for  the  writers  ^ 

rides ;  so  simple  as  not  lo    ^hat  they  profess  loyalty  to  the  government,  and 
capable    of    reduction   to    •prinkle  some  argumento  in  favour  of  the  dissenters 


simpler  elements. 
It  is  as  easy  to  count  atoms,  as  to  resolve  the  pro- 
positions of  a  lover.  Shakepeare.  A*  Y<m  Like  it. 
Drawn  with  a  team  of  little  atomies. 
Athwart  men's  noses,  as  they  lie  asleep. 

Shakipeaare, 

Vitrified  and  pellucid  bodies  are  clearer  in  their 

continnitiea,  than  la  powders  and  alomical  divivtons. 

Brown's  Vulgar  Errours, 

TImm  aiomie  thoists  ntteriy  evacuate  that  grand 

argument  for  a  God,  taken  from  the  phenomenon  of 

the  artifidai  frame  of  things,  which  has  been  so  much 

insisted  apon  in  all  ages. 

Cudworth's  InteOeehud  System. 
Innumerable  minute  bodies  are  called  atoms;  be- 
cause, by  reason  of  their  perfect  solidity,  they  were 
really  indivisible.  Ht^* 

The  atomists  (who  define  motion  lo  be  a  passage 
from  one  place  to  another)  what  do  they  more,  than 
put  one  synonymous  word  for  another  ?  Locke. 

See  plastick  nature,  working  toithis  end ! 
The  single  atoms,  each  to  other  tend ; 
Attract,  attracted  to,  the  next  in  place, 
Foim'd  and  impell'd  its  neighbour  to  embrace. 

Pope. 
Now  can  judicious  atomists  conceive. 
Chance  to  the  sun  could  his  just  impulse  give  t 

Blaekmore. 

Vacuum  b  another  principal  doctrine  of  the  atomi- 

eal  philosophy.  _  Bentlejf's  Sermons. 


and,  under  the  shelter  of  popular  politicks  and  reli- 
gion, undermine  the  foundations  of  all  piety  and 
virtue.  Sufift. 

If  any  contention  arose,  he  knew  none  fitter  to  be 
their  judge,  to  atone,  and  make  up  their  quarrels,  but 
himself. 


Atonemsnt.  The  word  n5a,trahslated  atone- 
ment in  the  sacred  writings,  some  writers  say, 
signifies  covering;  and  thus  it  would  seem  to 
imply  that  man  can  only  be  at-one  with  an  in- 
finitely just  God,  when  that  for  which  his  pro- 
genitor was  banished  God's  presence,  and  that 
which  he  has  himself  acquired  by  following  a 
similar  course,  is  covered.  See  Expiation  and 
Sacrifice. 

ATONICS,  in  grammar,  words  unaccented. 

ATONY ;  from  a,  and  rovoc,  tone ;  in  medi- 
cine, a  defect  of  tone  or  tension,  or  a  laxity  or 
debility  of  the  solids  of  the  body. 

ATOOI,  one  of  the  Sandwich  islands. — 
Towards  the  north-west  and  north-east  the  fiu^e 
of  the  country  is  ragged  and  broken ;  but  to  the 
southward  it  is  more  even.  The  hills  rise  from 
the  sea  side  with  a  gentle  acclivity,  and,  at  a 
little  distance  back,  are  covered  with  wood.  Its 
produce  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  other  islands 
of  this  cluster;  but  its  plantations  are  managed 
much  better  than  those  of  all  the  neighbouring 


Atom  ;  atomus,  Lat.  arofio^;  such  a  small  par-    islands.    In  the  low  grounds,  contiguous  to  the 
tide  as  cannot  be  physically  divided ;  and  these    bay  wherein  our  navigators  anchored,  they  were 


are  the  first  rudiments,  or  the  component  parts 

of  all  bodies. 
Atomic  A  L  Philosophy.    See  Attraction. 
ATONE',  v.k  ad.^     To  he  at  one.    Imply- 
Atone'mekt,  >ing    a    state    of  former 

ATtiNE'MAKER.       J  estrangement,     and    ex- 


regularly  divided  by  deep  ditches;  the  fences 
were  formed  with  a  neatness  approaching  to 
elegance,  and  the  roads  through  them  were 
finished  in  such  a  manner  as  would  have  re- 
flected credit  even  on  an  European  engiueet. 
The  anchoring  place,  which  our  vessel  occupit^d, 


pressing  present  reconciliation.    To  satisfy  the    is  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  island,  about  two 


Digitized  by 


)yG00gl( 


232 


A  T  O  O  I. 


leagues  from  the  west  end,  before  a  village  named 
Wymoa.  As  ^  as  iwas  sonnded,  the  bank  was 
free  from  rocks,  except  to  the  eastward  of  the 
village,  where  there  projects  a  shoal,  on  which  are 
some  rocks  and  breakers.  This  road  is  some- 
what exposed  to  the  trade  wind,  notwithstanding 
which  defect,  it  is  &r  from  being  a  bad  station, 
and  gready  superior  to  those  which  necessity  con- 
tinually obliges  ships  to  use,  in  countries  where 
the  winds  are  not  only  more  variable,  but  more 
boisterous ;  as  at  Madeira,  Teneriffe,  the  Azores, 
&c.  The  landing  too  is  not  so  difficult  as  at 
most  of  those  places ;  and,  unless  in  very  bad 
weather,  is  always  practicable.  The  water  in 
the  neighbourhood  is  excellent,  and  may  be  con- 
veyed with  ease  to  the  boats.  But  no  wood  can 
be  cut  at  any  convenient  distance,  unless  the 
islanders  could  be  prevailed  upon  to  part  with 
the  few  etooa  trees  (cordia  sebestina)  tnat  grow 
about  their  villages,  or  a  species  called  dooe 
dooe,  which  grows  farther  up  the  country. 
Atooi  is  about  300  miles  in  circumference.  Long. 
200^  2(/  E.,  lat.  21°  57'  N. 

The  natives  of  Atooi  are  of  the  middle  size, 
and  in  general  stoutly  made.  They  are  neither 
remarkable  for  a  beautiful  shape  nor  for  striking 
features.  Their  visage,  particularly  that  of  the 
women,  is  sometimes  round,  but  others  have  it 
long;  nor  can  it  justly  be  said  that  they  are  dis- 
tinguished as  a  nation  by  any  general  cast  of 
countenance.  Their  complexion  is  nearly  of  a 
nut  brown ;  but  some  individuals  are  of  a  darker 
hue.  They  are  far  from  being  ugly,  and  have, 
to  all  appearance,  few  natural  deformities  of  any 
kind.  Their  skin  is  not  very  sof%  nor  shining ; 
but  their  eyes  and  teeth  are,  for  the  most  part, 
pretty  good.  Their  hair  in  general  is  straight; 
and  though  its  natural  color  is  usually  black, 
they  stain  it,  as  at  the  Friendly  and  other  Islands. 
They  are  active,  vigorous,  and  most  expert 
swimmers,  leaving  their  canoes  upon  the  most 
frivolous  occasion,  diving  under  them  and  swim- 
ming to  others,  though  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. Women  with  infants  at  the  breast,  when 
the  surf  was  so  high  as  to  prevent  their  landing 
in  the  canoes,  frequently  leapt  overboard,  and 
swam  to  the  shore  without  endangering  their 
little  ones.  They  appeared  to  be  of  a  frank 
cheerful  disposition,  and  are  equally  free  from 
the  fickle  levity  which  characterises  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Otaheite,  and  the  sedate  ca&t  which  is 
observable  among  many  of  those  of  Tons^taboo. 
They  seem  to  cultivate  a  sociable  intercourse 
with  each  othei ;  and  except  the  propensity  to 
thieving,  which  is  as  it  were  innate  m  most  of 
the  people  in  those  seas,  they  appeared  extremely 
friendly.  It  was  pleasing  to  observe  with  what 
affection  the  women  managed  their  intots,  and 
with  what  alacrity  the  men  contributed  their  as- 
sistance in  such  a  tender  office ;  thus  distinguish- 
ing themselves  from  those  savages  who  consider 
a  wife  and  child  as  things  rather  necessary  than 
desirable,  or  worthy  of  Aeir  regard  and  esteem. 
From  the  numbers  that  were  seen  assembled  at 
every  village,  in  coasting  along,  it  was  conjec- 
tured that  the  inhabitants  of  this  island  are  pretty 
numerous.  Including  the  straggling  houses,  it 
was  computed  there  might  perhaps  be,  in  the 
whole  island,  sixty  such  villages  as  that  near 


which  our  ships  anchored;  and,  allowing  five 
persons  to  each  house,  there  would  be  in  eveiv 
village  50s>,  or  30,000  in  all  upon  the  islam). 
This  is  by  no  means  exaggerated ;  for  there  weie 
sometimes  3000  people  at  least  collected  upoa 
the  beach,  when  it  could  not  be  supposed  that 
above  a  tenth  part  of  the  natives  were  present. 

The  groun<f,  from  the  wooded  part  to  the  sea, 
is  covered  with  an  excellent  kind  of  grass,  about 
two  feet  in  height,  which  sometimes  grows  in 
tufts,  and  appeared  capable  of  being  converted 
into  abundant  crops  of  fine  hay.  But  on  this  ex- 
tensive spot  not  even  a  shrub  grows  naturally. 
Besides  taro,  the  sweet  potatoe,  and  other  simi- 
lar vegetables  used  by  our  crews  as  refreshments, 
among  which  were  at  least  five  or  six  varieties  or 

Elantains,  the  island  produces  bread  fruit ;  which, 
owever,  seems  to  be  scarce.  There  are  also  a 
few  cocoa  palms ;  some  yams ;  the  kappe  of  the 
Friendly  Islands,  or  Virginian  arum ;  tne  etooa 
tree,  and  odoriferous  gardenia  or  cape  jasmine. 
Our  people  also  met  with  several  trees  of  the 
dooe  dooe,  that  bear  the  oily  nuts,  which  are 
stuck  upon  a  kind  of  skewer,  and  made  use  of  as 
candles.  There  is  a  species  of  sida,  or  Indian 
mallow;  also  the  mormda  citrifolia,  which  is 
here  called  none ;  a  species  of  convolvulus ;  the 
ava  or  intoxicating  pepper,  besides  great  quanti- 
ties of  gourds.  These  last  grow  to  a  very  large 
size,  and  are  of  a  remarkable  variety  of  shapes, 
which  are  perhaps  the  effect  of  art.  The  scarlet 
birds,  which  were  brought  for  sale,  were  never 
met  with  alite ;  except  one  small  one,  about  the 
size  of  a  canary  btiu,  of  a  deep  crimson  color. 
A  large  owl,  two  brown  hawks  or  kites,  and  a 
wild  duck,  were  also  seen.  Other  birds  were 
mentioned  by  the  natives ;  among  which  were  the 
otoo,  or  bluish  heron,  and  the  torata,  a  sort  of 
whimbrel.  It  is  probable  that  this  species  of 
birds  are  numerous,  if  we  may  judge  by  the 
quantity  of  fine  yellow,  creen,  and  small,  vdvet 
like,  blackish  feathers,  used  upon  the  cloaks  and 
other  ornaments  worn  by  these  people.  Fish, 
and  other  productions  of  the  sea,  were  to  appear- 
ance not  various.  The  only  tame  or  domestic 
animals  found  here  were  hogs,  dogs,  and  fowls^ 
which  were  all  of  the  same  kind  that  had  been 
met  with  at  the  islands  of  the  South  Pacific. 
There  were  also  small  lizards,  and  some  rats. 

ATOP.    On  top,  at  the  top.    See  Top. 
Atop  whereof,  but  Ux  more  rich,  appeared 

The  work,  as  of  a  kingly  palace-gate. 

Pandue  ImU 

What  is  extracted  by  water  from  coffee  is  the  oil, 
which  often  Bwimi  atop  of  the  decoction. 

Arhaknoi  on  AUmemt. 

ATRA  BILIS,  black  bile,  or  melancholy. 
According  to  the  ancients  it  hath  a  two-fold  ori- 
gin :  first,  from  the  erosser  parts  of  the  blood, 
and  this  they  called  the  melancholy  humor. 
Second,  from  yellow  bile  being  highly  concocted. 
Dr.  Perdval,  in  his  Essays  Medical  and  Experi- 
mental, suggests  that  it  is  the  gall,  rendered 
acrid  by  a  stagnation  in  the  gall-bladder,  and 
rendered  viscid  by  the  absorption  of  all  its  fluid 

Sarts.  Bile  in  this  state  discharged  into  the 
uodenum,  occasions  universal  disturbance  and 
disorder  until  it  is  evacuated ;  it  occasions  vio- 
lent vomiting  or  purging,  or  bqth ;  and,  previous 


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to  ihls,  the  putse  is  qiuck,  the  head  aches,  a  de- 
lirium conies  on,  a  hiccough,  intense  thirst, 
inward  heat,  and  a  fetid  breath.  Some  describe 
this  kind  of  bile  as  being  acid,  harsh,  corroding, 
and,  when  poured  on  the  ground,  bubbling  up, 
and  raising  ti)e  earth,  after  the  manner  of  a  fer- 
ment. Dr.  Percival  says,  that  by  the  use  of  the 
infris.  sens  lirooniat.,  wanned  with  the  tinct. 
columb.,  he  had  checked  the  yomitings  occa- 
sioned by  this  matter. 

ATRACTOCERUS,  in  entomology,  a  genus 
of  the  order  coleoptera,  and  family  malacodermi. 
Its  generic  characters  are :  antenns  simple,  and 
fusiform;  short  elytra,  and  sub-quadrate  thorax. 
There  is  but  one  species,  A.  necydaloides,  the 
necydalis  brevicomis  of  Unnsus. 

ATRACTYLIS,  distaff  thistle,  a  genus  of  the 
polygamia  equalis  order,  and  syngenesia  class  of 
plants.  Its  generic  characters  are  :  cal.  many 
leaved :  cor.  compound  radiate:  stam.  fiYe  fila- 
ments; cylindric anther:  pist.  germen  very  short; 
style  filiform ;  stigma  bifid :  per.  none :  seeds 
turbinate.  Tlie  species  are:  1.  A.  cancellata,  or 
small  cnicus,  an  annual  plant,  rising  about  eight 
or  nine  inches  high,  with  a  slender  stem,  gar- 
nished with  hoary  leaves,  having  spines  on  their 
edges.  2.  A  gummifera,  or  prickly  gum-bearing 
cnicus,  known  among  physicians  by  the  name  of 
carline  thistle,  is  a  perennial  plant.  It  sends  out 
many  narrow  leaves,  which  are  armed  with  spines 
on  their  edges,  and  lie  close  on  the  ground ;  be- 
tween them  the  flower  is  situated,  without  a 
stalk,  and  having  many  florets  enclosed  in  a 
prickly  empalement.  Its  roots  were  formerly 
used  as  a  warm  diaphoretic  and  alexipharmic ; 
but  never  came  much  into  use  in  Britain,  and 
the  present  practice  has  entirely  rejected  them. 
3.  A  humilis,  or  purple  prickly  cnicus,  a  peren- 
nial plant,  rising  about  a  foot  high,  with  in- 
dented leaves,  having  small  spines  on  their 
edges.  All  these  plants  are  natives  of  the  warm 
parts  of  Europe,  as  Spain,  Sicily,  and  the  Archi- 
pelago islands. 

ATHADI£S,inantiauity.  The  word  literally 
imports  a  black  day ;  a  denomination  taken  from 
the  color,  which  is  the  emblem  of  death  and 
mourning.  Whence  the  Thracians  had  a  custom 
of  marking  all  their  happy  days  with  white 
stones  or  calculi,  and  their  unhappy  days  with 
black  ones ;  which  they  cast,  at  the  close  of  each 
day,  into  an  urn.  At  the  person's  death  the 
stones  were  taken  out ;  and,  from  a  comparison 
o(  the  numbers  of  each  complexion,  a  judgment 
was  made  of  the  felicity  or  infelicity  of  his  course 
of  life.  The  dies  atrs,  or  atri,  were  denominated  > 
fiefasti,  and  posteri.  Such,  in  particidar,  was 
the  day  when  the  tribunes  were  defeated  by  the 
Gauls  at  the  river  AUia,  and  lost  the  city ;  also 
that  whereon  the  battle  of  Canns  was  fought; 
and  several  others  marked  in  the  Roman  calen- 
dar as  atrsc  or  unfortunate. 

ATRAGENE,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  planU, 
class  polyandria,  order  polygnia.  Its  generic 
characters  are :  cal.  four-leaved  perianth:  coa. 
twelve  petals :  stam.  filaments  very  many ;  ob- 
long antberse :  pist.  germs  many ;  villose  style ; 
ritigraa  siihple:  per.  none:  seeds  very  many. 
The  species  are  shrubs,  as  atragene  japonica, 
atTdgene  alpina,  &c. 


ATRAMENTAL,  )     Lat  atramentum,  ink. 

Atrament'ous.  (Having  the  blackening 
property  of  ink. 

If  we  enquire^  in  what  part  of  vitriol  this  airemum' 
kd,  and  denigrating  condition  lodgeth;  it  will  teein» 
especially  to  lie  in  the  more  fixed  talt  thereof. 

Bnum't  Fii^  Erroun. 

I  am  not  satisfied,  that  those  black  and  atmmm 
font  spots,  which  seem  to  lepraaeat  them,  are  ocular. 

Brown, 

ATRAPHAXIS,  in  botany,  a  genu}  of  the 
digynia  order  and  class  of  plants;  natural  order, 
twelfth,  holoraceee.  Cal.  two  leaves ;  the  petals 
are  two,  and  sinuated ;  stigmas  capitate ;  and 
there  is  but  one  seed.  There  are  two  species, 
both  natives  of  warm  countries 

ATRATUS  (Hugh),  was  bom  at  Evesham,  in 
Worcestershire.  He  made  such  proficiency  in 
the  knowledge  of  the  sciences,  partknikriy  mathe- 
matics, medicine,  and  philosophy,  that  he  was 
called  the  phoenix  of  the  age.  Pope  Martin  II. 
gave  him  a  cardinal's  hat  in  1281.  He  died  of 
the  plague  in  1287.  He  wrote  Genealogiis 
Humanis  Problemata;  and  also  Canones  Medici- 
nalis. 

ATRAX,  in  fabulous  history,  a  son  of  TEtolus, 
or,  as  others  say,  of  the  river  Peneus.  He  was 
king  of  Thessaly,  and  built  a  town  which  he 
named  Atrax  or  Atracia ;  which  became  so  fii- 
mous  that  the  word  Atracius  was  commonly 
nven  to  an  inhabitant  of  Thessaly.  He  was  the 
father  of  that  Hippodamia  who  married  Pirithous, 
and  who  must  not  be  confounded  with  die  wife 
of  Pelops,  who  was  so  named. 

ATREBATES,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Gallia  Belgica,  who  possessed  that  part  of  Gaul 
now  called  Artois.  A  colony  of  them  settled  in 
Britain.  They  are  mentioned  by  Cesar  among 
the  nations  which  composed  the  Belgic  con- 
federacy against  him ;  and  the  quota  ^  troops 
which  they  engaged  to  fiimish  on  that  occasion 
was  15,000. 

Atrebatbs,  or  Atrebatii,  a  people  of  Britain^ 
seated  next  to  the  Bibroci,  in  part  of  Berk- 
shire, and  Oxfordshire ;  and  one  ot  those  Belgic 
colonies  which  came  out  of  Gaul  into  Bri- 
tain, and  there  retained  their  ancient  name. 
Comius  of  Arras  was  a  king  or  chieftain  among 
the  Atrebates  in  Gaul,  in  Caesar's  time :  and  he 
seems  to  have  possessed  some  authority  over  our 
Atrebatii  in  Britain ;  for  he  was  sent  by  Ciesar 
to  persuade  them  to  submission.  This  circum- 
stance makes  it  probable  that  this  colony  of  the 
Atrebatii  had  not  been  settled  in  Britain  very 
long  before  that  time.  The  Atrebatii  were 
among  those  British  tribes  which  submitted  to 
Cssar ;  nor  do  we  hear  of  any  remarkable  re- 
sistance they  made  against  the  Romans,  at  their 
next  invasion,  under  Claudius. 

ATRESIA;  from  a,  and  rpma,  whence nrpaw, 
to  perforate;  in  medicine,  imperforation,  or  the 
state  of  those  persons  who  want  some  natural 
aperture. 

ATRETI,  those  persons  of  either  sex  in  whom 
the  anus,  or  genitals,  are  imperforate,  whether 
naturally,  or  occasioned  by  some  accident  or 
disease ;  as  the  growth  of  some  fleshy  excrescence, 
or  membrane,  which  stops  the  orifice 

ATREUS,  in  fiibulous  history,  the  supposed 


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king  of  Mycena  and  Aigos,  about  A.  A*  C  1228. 
He  wa»  tie  son  of  Pelops  by  Hippodamia,  and 
brother   to   Pittheus^    Troezen,  Thyestes,   and 
ChryiipDus.    The  latter  being  an  illegitimate 
son,  ana  a  £etyorite  with  his  father,  Hippodamia 
resolved  to  remoTe  him;  and  fiv  thi^  purpose 
she  endeavoured    to   persuade   Thyestes    and 
Atseus  to  murder  him;  but  her  arguments  prov- 
ing rain,  she  executed  it  herself.    Pelops  was 
griev^,  at  his  son's  death ;  and  the  brothers  being 
suspectef  y  they  Aed  from  his  presence.    Atreus 
retired  to  the  court  of  his  nephew,  £urystheu8 
king  of  Argos,  on  whose  death  he  succeeded  to 
that   throne.     Some    writers  say  he  married 
^rope^  his  predecessor's  daughter,  by  whom  he 
had  Plisthenes,  Menelaus,  and  Agamemnon; 
hut,  according  to  others,  ^rope  was  the  wife  of 
Plisthenesy  by  whom  she  had  Agamemnon  and 
Menelaus,  who  are  the  reputed  sons  of  Atreus, 
because  he  took  care  of  their  education,  and 
brought  them  up  as  his  own.    Thyestes  had 
fpUowed  his  brother  to  Argos,  where  he  lived 
with  him,  and  debauched  his  wife,  by  whom  he. 
had  some  children.    When  Atreus  discovered 
this  incestuous  commerce,  he  banished  his  brother 
from  his  court;  but,  determined  to  have  more 
ample  revenge  for  the  violence  offered  to  his  bed, 
he  soon  aft^  recalled  him,  and  invited  him  to  a 
sumptuous  feast.    Thyestes  ivas  served  up  with 
the  flesh  of  the  children  he  had  by  his  sister-in* 
law  U>e  queen ;  and,  vrhen  the  entertainment  was 
^ver,  to  convince  him  of  what  he  had  feasted 
upon,  the  arms  and  the  headji  of  the  murdered 
children  were  shown  him.    This  action  appeared 
so  horrid  that  the  sun  is  said  to  have  vnthdrawn 
his  light.    Thyestes  fled  directly  to  the  court  of 
Thesprotus,  and  thence  to  Sicyon,  where  he 
ravisned  his  own  daughter  Pelopea,  in  a  grove 
sacred  to  Minerva,  not  knowing  who  she  was ; 
though  some  say  he  committed  thb  incest  in- 
tentionally, to  revenge  himself  on  his  brother 
AUeus,  as  tlie  oracle  had  promised  him  satisfac- 
tion for  the  cruelties  he  hadsuflered,  only  by  the 
ha^d  of  a  son  by  himself  with  his  own  daughter. 
Pelopea  brought  forth  a  son  whom  she  named 
i&gisthus,  and  soon  after  she  married  Atreus, 
who  had  lost  his  wife.    Atreus  adopted  ^gis- 
thus,  and  sent  him  to  murder  Thyestes,  who  had 
beeii  made  prisoner.    Thyestes  knew  his  son, 
and  made  himself  known  to  hjm ;  when,  instead 
of  murdering  his  father,  he  espoused  his  cause, 
and  avenged  his  wrongs  by  returning  to  Atreus 
and  ttff^asffiF^^^ipg  him. 

ATJEII,  or  Atbia,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  AJjruxzo, 
in  Naples.  It  lies  %6  miles  west  of  Aauila,  and 
was  the  birth  pl^ce  of  th^  emperor  Adrian.  It 
is.  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  is  seated  on  a  crag- 
gy mountain,  five  miles  from  the  Adriatic  sea. 
Long.  15°  20'  E.,  lat.  42°  40'  N. 

ATRICAPILLA,  in  ornithology,  a  litdebird, 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the  black  cap, 
and  called,  bv  some  authors,  ficedala,  sycalis,  or 
melanchom>hus.  and  by  the  Italians,  caponegro. 

AtklCJ^,  or  Atteices,  in  medicine,  small 
tubercles  about  the  <mus,  which  sometimes  dis- 
appear, and  then  return  again,  at  least  in  their 
early  state.  Ther  are  ranked  in  the  number  of 
conaylomata,  or  hci.  Some  authors  also  give  the 
denomination  atrici  to  a  kind  of  latent  wounds 


in  the  extremity  of  the  rectum,  which  howevei 
do  not  perforate  it. 

ATRICILXA,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of  tbe 
larus. 

ATRIDES,  a  patronymic  of  Agamemnon  and 
Menelaus,  the  sons  of  Atreus. 

ATRIENSES,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  servants 
in  the  great  families  at  Rome,  who  had  the  ca^e 
of  the  atria,  and  the  things  lodged  therein.  See 
Atrium.  They  were  also  called  atriarii,  though 
some  make  a  distinction  between  atrienses  and 
atriarii ;  suggesting,  that  the  latter  were  an  infe- 
rior order  of  servants,  employed  in  the  more  ser- 
vile offices  of  the  atrium,  as  to  attend  at  the  door, 
sweep  the  area,  &c.  and  to  assist  the  former. 
The  atrienses  are  represented  as  servants  who 
had  command  over  the  rest,  and  acted  %s  agents 
for  their  master,  in  selling  his  goods,  &c.  To 
their  care  were  committed  die  images  of  the  mas- 
ter's ancestors,  &c.  which  were  placed  round  the 
atrium ;  and  which  they  carried  in  procession  at 
funerals,  &c.  In  the  country  houses,  the  atrien- 
ses had  the  care  of  the  other  furniture  and  uten- 
sils, particularly  those  of  metal,  which  they  were 
to  keep  from  nut.  Other  things  they  were  to 
hang  m  the  sun,  to  keep  them  dry,  &c.  They 
were  clothed  in  a  short,  white  Imen  habit,  to 
distinguish  them,  and  prevent  their  loitering  from 
home. 

ATRIP,  in  nautical  language,  is  applied  either 
to  the  anchor  or  sails.  The  anchor  is  atrip,  when 
it  is  drawn  out  of  the  ground,  in  a  perpendicular 
direction,  either  by  the  cable  or  buoy  rope. 
The  top  sails  are  atrip,  when  they  are  hoisted  up 
to  the  mast  head,  or  to  their  utmost  extent 

ATRIPLEX,  Ora.ch,  or  Ar&ach,  a  genus 
of  the  moncBcia  order  and  polygamia  class  ot 
plants ;  natural  order  twelfth,  holoraces.  Cal. 
the  hermaphrodite  flower,  five-leaved;  cor. 
none;  stam.  five;  stt.  bifid;  seed,  one,  de- 
pressed. There  are  fourteen  species,  of  wliich 
the  following  are  the  roost  remarkable:  1.  A. 
halimus,  the  broad  leafed  orach,  formerly  culti- 
vated in  gardens  as  a  shrub,  by  some  formed 
into  hedges,  and  constantly  sheared  to  keep  them 
thick.  It  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings,  and 
planted  in  any  of  the  summer  months,  in  a  shady 
border;  where  they  vrill  soon  take  root,  and  be 
fit  against  the  following  Michaelmas  to  trans- 
plant. 2.  A.hortensis,  the  garden  orach,  was  for- 
merly cultivated  in  gardens,  and  used  a>  a 
substitute  for  spinage.  There  are  three  or  four 
varieties  of  this  plant,  whose  only  difference  is 
their  color ;  one  is  a  deep  green,  another  a  dark 

ale,  and  a  third  has  green  leaves  and  purple 
ers.  They  are  all  annual,  and  must  be  pro- 
paj;ated  by  seeds.  These  are  to  be  sown  at 
Michaelmas,  soon  after  they  are  ripe.  This  spe- 
cies b  an  article  of  the  materia  meoica;  a  decoc- 
tion of  the  leaves  is  recommended  in  costiveness 
where  the  patient  is  of  a  hot  bilious  disposition. 
3.  A.  petulacoidcs,  the  shrubby  sea  ora<£,  grows 
wild  by  the  sea  side,  in  many  places  of  Britain. 
It  is  a  low  under  shrub,  seldom  rising  above  two 
feet  and  a  half,  or  at  most  three  feet  high;  but 
becomes  veiy  bushy. 

ATRItfM,  in  antiquity,  the  large  room  or 
court  at  the  first  entrance  into  the  house,  in  which 
the  Romans  used  to  sup,  and  in  which  they  kept 


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tkettatoes  and  images  of  their  anceaton.  In 
ecclesiastical  antiquity  it  signified  an  open  place 
or  court  before  a  church,  making  part  of  what 
was  called  the  narthex,  or  antetemple.  The  atri- 
urn  in  the  ancient  churches  was  a  large  area  or 
square  plat  of  ground,  suitounded  wiUia  portico 
or  cloister,  situtate  between  the  porch  or 
vestibule  of  the  church  and  the  body  of  the 
church.  Some  have  mistakenly  confounded  the 
atrium  with  the  porch  or  vestibule,  from  which 
it  was  distinot;  others  with  the  narthex,  of  which 
it  was  only  a  part.  The  atrium  was  the  mansion 
of  those  who  were  not  suffered  to  enter  farther 
into  the  church.  More  particularly,  it  was  the 
place  where  the  first  class  of  penitents  stood  to 
oeg  the  prayers  of  the  fiuthiul,  as  they  went  into 
the  churoh.  Atrium,  in  the  canon  law,  the  ceme- 
tery or  church  yard.  In  this  sense,  we  find  a  law, 
prohibiting  buildings  to  be  raised  in  atrio  eccle- 
sic,  except  for  the  clergy ;  which  the  glossary 
explains  tnus,  id  est  in  csmeterio,  which  includes 
the  space  of  forty  paces  around  a  large  church, 
or  thirty  round  a  small  church  or  chapel. 
ATRO'CIOUS,  A  Lat.  atror.  Perhaps  «, 
Atro'ciously,  rintentive,  and  trur,  fierce, 
ATfto'cioi7SNE8S,i  savage,  rough  in  manners. 
Ativ>'citt.  y  Used  in  the  sense  of  inflez- 

hie,  terrible,  dreadfiil,  enonnously  wicked. 

An  advocate  is  necessary ;  and  therefore  aadience 
ought  not  to  be  denied  him  m  defending  causes,  un- 
less it  be  aft  alroeUmt  offence.  Ajfliffis'i  Ptutetyim, 

I  never  r«eal  it  to  mind,  withont  a  deep  astonish- 
ment of  the  very  horror  and  atroeUy  of  die  fact  in  a 
Christian  court.  IfbMon. 

They  desired  justice  might  be  done  upon  offenders, 
as  the  olrscily  of  their  crimes  deserved.       Clmmidim^ 

Bad  as  Herod  was,  the  peution  of  Salome  at  first 
shocked  him.  '  The  king  was  sorry.'  He  thonght 
of  John's  character,  the  airoeiomnm  of  the  sunder, 
and  the  opinion  which  the  world  wvuld  entertain  olF 
the  murderer. 

Horn0  of»  Oe  Ufe  and  DmUH  of  Si,  John  Uu 
Baptitt, 

ATROPA,  Deadly  Night-shade  :  A  genus 
of  the  monogynia  order,  aud  pentandria  class  of 
plants  ;  natural  order  twenty-fiftti,  Lurids.  The 
corolla  is  campanulated ;  the  stamina  are  distant ; 
the  berry  is  globular,  and  consisting  of  two  cells. 
There  are  eight  species;  the  most  common  are : 
1 .  A.  belladonna,  growing  wild  in  many  parts  of 
Britain.  It  hath  a  perennial  root,  which  cends 
out  strong  herbaceous  stalks  of  a  purplish 
color.  These  rise  to  the  height  of  four  or  five 
feet,  garnished  with  entire  oblong  leaves,  which, 
towards  autumn,  change  to  a  purplish  color. 
The  flowers  are  large,  and  oome  out  singly  be- 
tween the  leaves,  upon  long  foot  stalks ;  bell- 
shaped,  and  of  a  auaky  color  on  the  outside, 
but  purplish  within.  After  the  flower  is  past, 
the  germen  turns  to  a  red  berry,  a  little  flatted  at 
the  top,  about  the  siie  of  a  dierry.  It  b  first 
greeo ;  but  when,  ripe,  turns  to  a  shining  black, 
sits  close*  upon  the  empalement,  and  contains  a 
purple  juice  of  a  nauseous  sweet  taste,  and  full 
of  small  kidney-shaped  seeds.  This  species  be- 
ing remarkable  for  its  poisonous  qualities,  is  very 
seldom  admitted  into  gardens,  nor  should  it  ever 
be  cultivated  or  allowed  to  grow  in  those  places 
to  which  children  have  access.  The  symptoms 
produced  by  this  poison  are  vertigo,  delirium, 


.  great  thirsty  oainfiil  deglutition,  ana  retching,  feV- 
bwed  by  furor,  stridor  dentium,  and-  convul- 
sions ;  the  eye-lids  are  drawn  down,  the  uvea 
dilated  and  immovable,  the  face  becomes  red 
and  tumid,  and  spasms  affect  the  mouth  andjaw ; 
iike  sensibility  and  irritability  of  the  body  suffer 
such  great  diminution,  that  laige  and  repeated  do*> 
ses  of  the  strongMt  emetics  produce  no  sensible 
effect;  the  pulse  is  small,  hard,  quick ;  and  snb« 
sultus  tendmum,  rbus  sardoBius,  and  coma, 
close  the  fatal  scene.  Vinegar  liberally  drank 
has  been  found  most  efficacious  in  obviating  the 
efiects  of  this  poison.  The  leaves  of  the  bella- 
donna were  first  used  externally  to  discuss  scirr- 
hous and  cancerous  tumors,  and  as  am  appli- 
cation to  ill-conditioned  ulcers;  and  their  good 
effects  in  this  way  at  length  induced  physicians 
to  employ  them  internally  for  the  same  disor- 
ders; and  we  find  a  considerable  number  of 
well-authenticated  (acts,  which  prove  them  to 
have  been  of  important  service.  2.  Afnitesoens, 
is  a  native  of  Spain,  and  rises  with  a  shrubby 
stem  to  the  hei^t  of  six  or  eight  feet ;  dividing 
into  many  branches,  garnished  with  round  leaves, 
in  shwe  like  those  of  the  storax  tree :  these  are 
placed  alternately  on  the  branches.  The  flowers 
come  out  between  the  leaves,  on  short  foot  stalks, 
shaped  like  those  of  the  former,  but  much  less ; 
of  a  dirty  yellowish  color,  with  a  few  brown 
stripes ;  but  these  are  never  succeeded  by  berries 
in  Britain.  3.  A  berbacea,  is  a  native  of  Cam- 
peachy,  and  has  an  herbaceous  stalk  and  a  peren- 
nial root,  which  puts  forth  several  channelled 
herbaceous  stalks,  rising  about  two  feet.  Towards 
the  top  they  divide  into  two  or  three  small 
branches,  garnished  with  oval  leaves,  four  inches 
long,  and  three  broad,  having  severalprominent 
transverse  ribs  on  their  under  side.  Tne  flowers 
come  out  firom  between  the  leaves;  on  short 
loot  stalks;  they  are  white,  and  shaped  like 
those  of  the  common  sort,  but  smaller,  it  flowers 
in  July  and  August,  but  seldom  ripens  its  fruit 
in  Britain.  4.  A  mandragora,  the  mandrake,  has 
been  distinguished  into  the  male  and  female. 
The  male  mandrake  has  a  very  large,  long,  and 
diick  root :  it  b  largest  at  the  top  or  head,  and 
from  thence,  gradually  grows  smaller.  Some- 
times it  is  single  and  undivided  to  the  bottom ; 
but  more  frequently  it  is  divided  into  two  or 
more  parts.  From  this  root  arise  a  number  of 
very  long  leaves,  broadest  in  the  middle,  narrow 
towards  the  base,  and  obtusely  pointed  at  the 
end  :  they  are  a  foot  or  more  in  length,  and  about 
five  inch^  in  breadth ;  of  a  dusky  and  disagree- 
able green  color,  and  of  a  very  feted  smell. 
The  female  mandrake  perfectly  resembles  the 
other  in  its  growth ;  but  tne  leaves  are  longer  and 
narrower,  and  of  a  darker  color,  as  are  also  the 
seeds  and  roots.  It  grows  naturally  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  Italy,  and  the  Levant  These  three  hist 
species  are  propagated  by  seeds,  and  placed  in 
stoves.  This  plant  has  been  recommended  as  a 
cure  for  barrenness.  Its  fresh  root  is  a  violent 
purge,  the  dose  being  from  ten  to  twenty  grains 
in  substance,  and  from  half  a  dram  to  a  dram  in 
infusion.  It  has  been  found  to  do  service  in 
hysteric  complaints;  but  must  be  Vised  with 
great  caution,  otherwise  it  will  bring  on  convul- 
sions, and  other  mischievous  symptoms.  It  has 
also  a  narcotic  quality.     At  present  only  the 


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fmh  leaves  are  sometimes  used  in  anodyne  and  . 
emollient  cataplasms  and  fomentations.  It  used 
to  be  an  ingredient  in  one  of  the  old  officinal 
unguents ;  but  both  that  and  the  plant  itself  are 
now  Injected  from  our  pharmacopceias.  It  still, 
however,  retains  a  place  in  the  foreign  ones,  and 
may  perhaps  be  considered  as  deserving  fsurther 
attention.  No  modem  botanist  will  admit  tlie 
human  figure  ordinarily  ascribed  to,  its  roots, 
especially  since  the  discovery  of  the  artifice  of 
charlatans  in  fashioning  it,  to  surprise  the  credu- 
lity of  the  people.  Moses  informs  us,  (Gen. 
XXX.  14.)  that  Reuben,  being  in  the  field,  hap- 
pened to  find  mandrakes,  which  he  brought  home 
to  his  mother  Leah.  Rachel  wished  fur  them, 
and  obtained  them  firom  Leah,  upon  a  certain 
condition.  The  term  O^inil  dudaim,  here  made 
use  of  by  Moses,  is  one  of  those  words  of  which 
the  Jews  at  this  day  do  not  understand  the  true 
signification.  Some  translate  it  violets,  others 
lilies  or  jessamine.  Junius  calls  it  agreeable 
flowers ;  Codurquus  makes  it  truffle,  or  mush-* 
room ;  but  Calmet  will  have  it  to  be  the  citron. 

ATROPHY.    From  a,  privative,  and  rpc^, 

I  nourish.    Want  of  nounshment;  a  disorder, 

in  which  what  is  taken  at  th/e  mouthy  cannot 

contribute  to  the  support  of  the  body. 

Pinixig  atropl^, 

Manamiu,  and  wide-waiting  pestilence.   MUUm. 

The  moatbi  of  the  lactealt  may  be  that  up  by  a 
▼iarid  mucus;  in  which  case  the  chyle  paaseth  by 
stool,  and  the  person  faUeth  into  an  olropAy. 

Arhuttmot  an  AUmemU, 
The  shaking  head,  and  the  contracted  limb ; 

And  lingering  atrcj^,  and  hoary  age.  Jago. 

Atrophy.    See  Medicine,  Index. 

ATROPOS,  in  heathen  mythology,  the  name 
of  the  third  of  theParcse,  or  rates.  Her  business 
was  to  cut  the  thread  of  life. 

ATTACH',      )     Fr.  attachery  to  fasten  by 

Attach'ment.  \  means  of  some  tie.  To  bind 
both  literally  and  metaphorically. 

Eftxoons  the  guards,  which  on  his  state  did  wait, 
Attaeh'd  that  traitor  false,  and  bound  him  strait. 

The  Tower  was  chosen;  that  if  Clifford  should 
accuse  great  ones,  they  mi^t  ^(without  suspicion  or 
noise)  be  presentiy  attached,  BawtCt  Henry  YII. 

Bohemia  greets  you : 
Desires  you  to  attaeh  his  son,  who  has 
Hu  dignity  and  duty  both  cast  off. 

Skahpean, 
'       Attack  thee  firmly  to  the  Tirtuoos  dteds 

And  offices  of  life :  to  life  itself. 

With  all  its  vain  and  transieat  joys,  sit  loose. 

MaUet. 

It  must  be  conflessed  a  happy  aUachmcni,  which 
can  reconcile  the  Laplander  to  his  freezing  snows, 
and  the  African  to  his  scorching  sun.        CumbedaiuL 

A  sensible  mind  cannot  do  violence  even  to  a  local 
attaehmaU  without  much  pain.  Cowper*i  Letten, 

ATTACHIAMENTA  Bonorum,  in  ancient 
law  books,  denotes  a  distress  taken  upon  the  goods 
or  chattels  of  any  person  sued  for  a  personal 
estate,  or  debt,  by  tne  legal  attachiators,  as  a  se- 
curity to  answer  the  action. 

Attachment,  in  the  law  of  England,  im- 
plies the  taking  or  apprehending  a  person  by 
virtue  of  a  writ  or  precept.  It  is  distinguished 
from  an  arrest,  by  proceeding  out  of  a  higher 
court,  by  precept  or  writ;  whereas,  the  latter 


proceeds  out  of  an  inferior  court,  by  precept  only 
An  arrest  lies  only  on  the  body  of  aman» 
whereas,  an  attachment  lies  ofWn  on  the  goods 
only,  and  sometimes  on  the  body  and  goods. 
Attachment  by  Writ  differs  from  distress, 
in  not  extending  to  lands,  as  the  latter  does ; 
nor  does  a  distress  touch  the  body  as  4n  attach- 
ment does. 

Attachment,  Foreign,  is  aii  attachment  of 
money  or  goods  found  within  a  liberty  or 
dty,  to  satisfy  some  creditor  within  sach 
liberty  or  city.  By  the  custom  of  London, 
and  several  other  places,  a  man  can  attach  money 
or  goods  in  the  bands  of  a  stranger,  to  satisfy 
himself.  If  a  plaint  be  exhibited  in  the  mayor's 
or  the  sheriffs  court  (the  proceeding  in  the  for- 
mer being  the  most  advantageous)  against  A, 
and  the  process  be  returned  nihil,  and  mereupon 
the  plaintiff  suggests  that  another  person  within 
London  is  indebted  to  A,  the  debtor  shall  be 
warned  (whence  he  is  called  the  garnishee),  and 
if  he  does  not  deny  himself  to  be  indebted  to  A, 
the  debt  shall  be  attached  in  his  hands.  But 
nothing  is  attachable,  but  for  a  certain  and  due 
debt ;  thojigh  bv  the  custom  of  London,  money 
may  be  attached  before  due,  as  a  debt,  but  not 
levied  before  due.  Sid.  327.  1  Nels.  Abr.  282, 
283. 

Attachment  of  Privilege  is,  by  virtue 
of  a  man's  privilege,  to  call  another  to  that 
court  whereto  he  himself  belongs,  and  in 
respect  whereof  he  is  privileged  to  answer  some 
action. 

Attachment  of  the  Forest,  is  one  of  the 
four  courts  held  in  the  king's  forests.  The  lowest 
court  is  called  the  court  of  attachment,  or  wood- 
moto  court ;  the  second  is  the  court  of  regard,  or 
survey  of  dogs ;  the  third  is  that  of  sweio-mote, 
the  highest,  the  Justice  in  eyre's  seat.  This  at- 
tachment is  by  three  means :  by  goods  and  chat- 
tels, by  body,  pledges,  and  mainprize ;  or  by  body 
only.  This  court  is  heldevery  forty  days  through- 
out the  year;  whence  it  is  also  denominated 
forty  days'  court 

Attachment  out  of  the  Chakcert,  i« 
obtained  upon  an  affidavit  made,  that  the  de- 
fendant was  served  with  a  subpoena,  and  made 
no  appearance ;  or  it  issues  upon  not  perform- 
ing some  order  or  decree.  Upon  the  return 
of  tiiis  attachment  by  the  sheriff,  quod  non 
est  inventus  in  balliva  sua,  another  attachment, 
with  a  proclamation,  issues ;  and  if  he  still  refu- 
ses to  appear,  a  commission  of  rebellion. 

ATTACK',  V.  &  n.    Fr.  attaquer  ;  from  atta- 
cker^ to  come  into  close  contact  with  hostile  in- 
tentions ;  to  be  the  aggressor,  to  offend. 
Satan  who  that  day 
Prodigious  power  had  shown,  and  met  in  arms 
No  equal  ranging  through  the  dire  attack 
Of  fighting  Seraphim,  confus'd  at  length 
Saw  where  the  sword  of  Michael  smote.       Miiliou, 
An  indiscreet  man  is*  more  httrtfal  than  an  ill- 
natured  one,  for  as  the  latter  will  only  attack  his  ene- 
mies and  those  he  wishes  ill  to ;  the  other   injures 
indi£ferently  both  friends  and  foes.  Addtton. 

Hector  opposes ;  and  continues  the  attack ;  in  which 
Sarpedon  makes  the  first  breach  in  the  wall. 

Popa.  nSad. 

ATTACOTTI,  an  ancient  people  of  Britain, 
mentioned  by  Ammianus  MarcellinuSy  aixi  St. 


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Jerome^  as  well  as  in  the  Notitia  Imperii.  They 
are  represented  as  allies  of  the  Scots  and  Picts, 
and  were,  therefore,  probably  their  neighbours ; 
though  their  precise  situation  has  not  been  deter- 
mined by  antiquaries. 

ATTAGEN,  arrayac,  or  arraytv ;  inomitho- 
lofiy,  the  same  with  our  gor-cock,'  moor-cock,  or 
red  game. 

ATTAIN',  N     haA.attineo;  from  ad, 

Attain'able,         r  and  teneo,  to  hold.    To 
Atta^i'ablbiiess,  t  reach  as  the  object  of  pur- 
Attaih'ment.        -/suit  or  eflFort,  to  realize 
one's  desire,  to  procure. 

Crowns  and  diadems,  the  most  splendid  terrene 

mttauu,  are  akin  to  that ;  which,  to-day  is  in  the  field, 

and  to-morrow  is  cat  down.  GloMoiile't  Soeptit, 

He  wilfully  neglects,   the  obtaining  anqieaJuible 

good ;  which,  he  is  persuaded  is  certain  and  attaimMe, 

TiUotson. 

^  Persons  become  often  enamoured  of  outward  beauty, 

without  any  particular  knowledge  of  its  possessor,  or 

its  attamableneu  by  them.  Cheque, 

So  plens'd  at  first  the  tow'ring  Alps  we  t^. 
Mount  o'er  the  vales,  and  seem  to  tread  the  sky ; 
The  eternal  snows  appear  already  past. 
And  the  first  clouds  and  mountains  seem  the  last  2 
But  those  aHamed,  we  tremble  to  survey 
The  growing  labour  of  the  lengthened  way. 
The  increasing  prospect  tires  our  wondering  eyes. 
Hills  peep  o'er  hills,  and  Alps  on  Alps  arise. 

,    Pope't  Eaay  on  CriHcmu 
Among  nations,  as  well  as  individuals,  the  powers 
of  imagination  eMam  some  degree  of  vigour  before 
the  intellectual  faculties  are  much  exercised  in  spe- 
culative or  abstract  disquisition.  Robertmm, 
Attainder,  in  law,  is  the  immediate  con- 
sequence, when  sentence  of  death,  the  highest 
judgment  in  our  laws,  is  pronounced.  For  when 
It  is  now  clear  beyond  all  dispute,  that  the  crimi- 
nal is  no  longer  fit  to  live  upon  the  earth,  but  is 
to  be  exterminated  as  a  monster  and  a  bane  to 
human  society,  the  law  sets  a  note  of  infemy 
upon  him,  puts  him  out  of  its  protection,  and 
takes  no  ferther  care  of  him  than  barely  to  see 
bim  executed.    He  is  then  called  attaint,  attinc* 
tos,  stained,  or  blackened.    He  is  no  longer  of 
any  credit  or  reputation ;  he  cannot  be  a  witness 
m  any  court ;  neither  is  he  capable  of  perform- 
mg  the  functions  of  another  man :  for,  by  an 
anticipation  of  his  punishment,  he  is  already 
dead  m  law.    this  b  after  judgment ;  for  there 
IS  a  great  difference  between  a  man  convicted  and 
attainted ;  though  they  are  frequenUy  confound- 
ed together.    After  conviction  only,  a  man  is 
hable  to  none  of  these  disabilities ;  for  there  is 
still  in  contemplation  of  law  a  possibility  of  his 
innocence.    Something  may  be  offered  in  arrest 
of  judgment :  the  indictment  may  be  erroneous, 
which  will  render  his  guilt  uncertain,  and  there- 
upon the  conviction  may  be  quashed :  he  may 
obtam  a  pardon,  or  be  allowed  the  benefit  of 
clergy ;  both  which  suppose  some  latent  sparks 
of  merit,  which  plead  in  extenuation  of  his  fiiult 
ifiT*^^  judgment  is  pronounced,  both  law 
and  fact  conspire  to  prove  him  completely  guilty ; 
and  there  is  not  the  remotest  possibility  left  of 
any  thing  to  be  said  in  his  favor.    Upon  judg- 
ment, therefore,  of  death,  the  attainder  of  a  cri- 
mmal  commences  :  or  upon  such  circumstances 
*s  are  equivalent  to  judgment  of  outlawry  on 


a  capital  crime,  pronounced  for  absconding  from 
justices  which  tacitly  confesses  the  guilt :  and 
therefore,  upon  judgment,  either  of  outlawry,  or 
of  death,  for  treason  or  felony,  a  man  is  said  to 
be  attainted.  A  person  attainted  of  high  treason, 
forfeits  all  his  lands,  tenements,  and  heredita- 
mento ;  his  blood  is  corrupted,  and  he  and  his 
posterity  rendered  base.  See  Corruption,  For- 
feiture, &c.    Attainders  may  be  reversed  or 
falsified,  (i.  e.  proved  to  be  false)  by  writ  of 
error,  or  by  nlea.    If  by  writ  of  error,  it  must  be 
by  the  kings  leave,  &c.  and,  when  by  plea,  it 
may  be  by  denying  the  treason,  pleading  a  par- 
don by  act  of  parliament,  &c.    Persons  may  be 
attainted  by  act  of  parliament   Acts  of  attainder 
of  criminab  have  biBen  passed  in  several  reigns, 
on  the  discovery  of  plots  and  rebellions,  from  the 
reigu  of  king  Charles  II.  when  an  act  was  made 
for  the  attainder  of  several  persons,  guilty  of  the 
murder  of  king  Charles  I.    Among  acts  of  this 
nature,  that  for  attainting  Sir  John  Fenwick,  for 
conspiring  against  king  William,  is  the  most  re- 
markable ;  it  being  made  to  attaint  and  convict 
him  of  high  treason,  on  the  oath  of  one  witness, 
just  after  a  law  had  been  enacted,  *  That  no  per- 
son should  be  tried  or  attainted  of  high  treason, 
where  corruption  of  blood  is  incurred,  but  by  the 
oath  of  two  lawfiil  wimesses,  unless  the  party 
confess,  stand  mute,  &c.'    Stat.  7  and  8  WAli: . 
cap.  3.    But  he  was  indicted  of  treason,  on  the 
oaths  of  two  witnesses,  though  but  only  one  could 
be  produced  against  him  on  his  trial.    By  the 
VTIth  Ann.  chap.  21,  all  corruption  of  blood, 
and  the  forfeiture  for  ever  of  a  traitor's  estate  of 
inheritance,  were  to  have  ceased  on  the  death  of 
the  then  Pretender ;  but  the  legislative  policy  or 
panic  of  the  reign  of  George  II.  caused  a  further 
extension  of  these  vindictive  principles  of  law, 
to  the  time,  of  the  death  of  the  Pretender's  sons. 
And,  by  an  act  of  the  39th  of  the  late  king,  the 
Drovision^  of  the  statutes  of  Anne  and  of  George 
II.  for  the  future  abrogation  of  these  hard  conse- 
quences of  attainder,  were  repealed,  and  the  law 
stood  in  its  original  severity.  But  by  an  act,  in- 
troduced by  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  in  the  54th 
year  of  his  Ute  Majesty's  reign,  corruption  of 
blood,  and  forfeiture  beyond  the  term  of  the 
offender's  own  life  were  abolished,  except  in 
cases  of  treason,  petty  treason,  and  murder; 
thus,  in  part,  realising  the  hope  expressed  by 
Mr.  Justice  Blackstone  (Coram,  b.  iv.  c.  29), 
•That  as  every  other  oppressive  mark  of  feudal 
tenure  is  happily  worn  away,  corruption  of  blood, 
with  all  its  connected  consequences,  not  only  of 
present  escheat,  but  of  future  incapacities  of  in- 
heritance, even  to  the  twentieth  generation,  may 
in  ptocess  of  time  be  abolished  by  act  of  Par- 
liament' 
ATTAINS,  V.  n.  &  a4$.-\     Old  Fr.  attaindre; 
Attain'der,  (from     tangere,    to 

Attain'ture,  (touch,    says    Min- 

Attain'ment.  Jshen,    because    he 

who  is  attainted  is  touched,  caught,  or  taken  : 
or,  from  tingere,  to  stain,  which  is  more  pro- 
bable.   To  stain,  to  impute  charge,  or  accuse. 

Were  it  not  an  endless  trouble^  that  no  traitor  or 

felon  should  bo  aitamted,  bat  a  parliament  most  be 

*^«**-  Spcnmr. 

I  must  ofiend,  before  I  be  attainted,       SM^tean. 


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Hifl  wariiks  shield 
Was  all  of  diamond,  perfect,  pure,  and  clean ; 
For,  80  exceeding  thone  bis  g^tering  ray. 
That  Phoebus'  golden  face  it  did  attaint ; 
As,  when  a  dcttd  his  beams  doth  oveilay. 

8peMor*i  Faerie  Queeae. 
My  tender  youth  vas  neirer  yet  attaint 
With  any  pasdon  of  inflaming  love.         Shaketp* 

So  smooth  he  dcab'd  his  vioe  with  shew  of  Tirtae ; 
He  liv'd,  from  all  attainder  of  sospecL  Jd. 

Home's  knavery  will  be  the  duchess's  wreck. 
And  her  attaintare  will  be  Humphrey's  fall.        Id. 

The  ends  in  calling  a  parliament  were  chiefly,  to 
have  the  attainden  of  all  his  party  reversed  ;  and,  on 
the  other  side,  to  attaint  by  parliament  his  enemies. 

Bacon. 

How  would  the  sons  of  Troy  ia  arms  lenown'd, 
jtnd  Troy's  proud  dames  whose  gaxments  sweep  the 

ground. 
Attaint  the  lustre  of  their  former  name. 
Should  Hector  basely  quit  the  field  of  fame  t 

Pope.  Homer. 

ArtkiTSTy  in  the  English  law,  is  a  writ  that 
lies  after  judgment  against  a  jnry  of  twelve  men, 
that  have  given  false  verdict  in  any  court  of 
record,  in  an  action  real  and  personal,  where  the 
debt  or  damages  amount  to  aoove  forty  shillings, 
'stat.  5  and  34  Ed.  III.  c.  7.  It  is  called  attaint, 
because  the  party  that  obtains  it  endeavours 
thereby  to  stain  or  taint  the  credit  of  the  jurr 
with  peijurv,  by  whose  verdict  he  is  grieved. 
The  jury  who  are  to  try  this  false  verdict  must 
be  twenty-four,  and  are  called  the  grand  jury ; 
for  the  law  wills  not  that  the  oath  of  one  jury  of 
twelve  men  should  be  attainted  or  set  aside  by 
an  equal  number,  nor  by  less  indeed  than  double 
the  former.  And  he  that  brings  the  attaint  can 
give  no  other  evidence  to  the  grand  jury,  than 
what  was  originally  given  to  the  petit,  r  or,  as 
their  venlict  is  now  trying,  and  the  question  is, 
whether  or  no  they  did  right  upon  the  evidence 
that  appeared  to  them,  the  law  adjudged  it  the 
highest  absurdity  to  pit)duce  any  subsequent 
proof  upon  such  trial,  and' to  condenm  the  prior 
jurisdiction  for  not  believing  evidence  which 
they  never  knew.  But  those  against  whom  it  is 
brought,  are  allowed,  in  the  affirmance  of  the 
first  verdict,  to  produce  new  matter:  because  the 
petit  jury  may  have  formed  their  verdict  upon 
evidence  of  their  own  knowledge,  which  never 
appeared  in  court;  and,  because  very  terrible 
was  the  judgment  which  the  common  law  inflicted 
upon  them,  if  the  grand  jury  found  their  verdict 
a  false  one.  The  judgment  was,  1.  That  they 
should  lose  their  liberam  legem,  and  become  for 
ever  infiunous.  2.  That  fhey  should  forfeit  all 
their  goods  and  chattels.  3.  That  their  lands  and 
tenements  should  be  seised  te  the  king.  4.  That 
their  wives  and  children  should  be  thrown  out  of 
doors.  5.  That  their  houses  should  be  rased.  6. 
That  their  trees  should  be  rooted  up.  7.  That 
their  meadows  should  be  ploughed.  8.  That  their 
bodies  should  be  cast  into  iail.  9.  That  the  party 
should  be  restored  to  all  that  he  lost  b^  reason  of 
the  unjust  verdict.  But,  as  the  seventy  of  this 
punishment  had  its  usual  effect,  in  preventing  the 
law  from  being  executed,  therefore,  by  the  sta- 
tute 1 1  Uen.  VII.  c.  24,  revired  by  23  Hen.VIII, 


c.  3,  and  made  perpetual  by  13  £lix.  c  25,  it  is 
allowed  to  be  brought  after  the  death  of  the 
party,  and  a  more  moderate  punishment  was 
mflicted  upoh  attainted  jurors;  viz.  perpetual 
infamy,  and  if  the  cause  of  action  were  above 
forty  pounds  value,  a  forfeiture  of  twenty  pound) 
a-piece  by  the  jurors ;  or,  if  under  forty  pounds, 
then  five  pounds  a^-piece ;  to  be  divided  between 
the  king  and  the  psfty  injured.  So  that  a  num 
may  now  bring  an  attaint,  either  upon  the  statute 
or  at  common  law,  at  his  .election ;  and  in  both 
may  reverse  the  former  judgment.  But,  the 
practice  of  setting  aside  yodiols  upon  mo* 
tion,  and  granting  new  trials,  has  so  superseded 
the  use  of  both  sorts  of  attaints,  that  there  is 
hardly  any  instance  of  an  attaint  later  than  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Ateaint,  or  Arrcnrr,  in  horsemanship,  a 
hurt  in  a  horse*s  leg,  proceeding  either  from  a 
blow  with  another  horse*s  foot,  or  from  an  over- 
reach in  frosty  weather,  when  a  horse,  being 
rough-shod,  or  having  shoes  with  long  caulkers, 
strikes  his  hinder  feet  against  his  fove  legs. 

ATTALIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  sea-port 
of  Pamphylia,  seated  on  a  bay  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea;  founded  by  one  of<  the  Attali,  kings 
of  Pergamus.  In  this  city  Paul  and  Bumabas 
preached,  about  A.  D.  49 ;  and  it  had  bishops 
m  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  It  is  now  called 
Sattalia. 

ATTALICiE  Vestis,  in  antiquity,  garments 
made  of  a  kind  of  doth  of  gold.  They  took  the 
denomination  from  Attalus,  sumamad  Philo- 
meter,  a  wealthy  king  of  Pergamus,  who  was  the 
first,  according  to  PUny,  who  caused  gold  to  be 
woven  into  cloth. 

ATTELABUS,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  of  coleoptera,  or  the  beetle 
kind.    It  has  four  wings,  of  which  the  superior 
are  crustaceous,  and  serve  as  a  sheath  or  cover  to 
the  inferior,  which  are  membranous.    The  head 
tapers  behind,  and  is  inclined ;  the  feelers  turn 
thicker  towards  the  apex.    The  species  are  thir- 
teen.  1 .  A.  apiarus  is  bluish,  with  red  elytra,  and 
three  black  belts.  It  is  a  native  of  Germany.  2.  A. 
^vellana  is  black,  with  the  breast,  feet,  and  elytra 
red.  3.  A.  betula  has  springy  legs,  and  the  whole 
body  is  of  a  dark  red.    It  frequents  the  leaves  of 
the  birch.    4.  A.  buprestoides  is  of  a  dark  color, 
with  a  globular  breast,  and  nervous  elytra.    It  is 
a  native  of  Europe.    5.  A.  ceramboides,  is  of  a 
blackish  red  color,  and  the  elytra  b  furrowed.   It 
frequents  the  spongy  boletus,  a  species  of  mush- 
room.   6.  A.  coryli  is  black,  with  red  elytra,  or 
crustaceous  wings.    7.  A.  curculionoides  is  black, 
with  red  elytra  and  breast    These  two  last  spe- 
cies, and  the  avellana,  frequent  the  leaves  of  the 
hazel  and  filbert-nut  trees.    8.  A.  fonnicarius  is 
black,  with  red  elytra,  and  a  double  white  belt 
towards  the  base.    It  is  a  native  of  Europe.    9. 
A.  melanurus  is  black,  with  testaceous  elytra, 
black  at  the  apex.    It  is  a  native  of  Sweden.  10. 
A.  mollis  is  hairy  and  yellowisb,  with  pale  ely- 
tra, and  three  belts.    It  is  a  native  of  Europe. 
11 .  A.  Pennsylvanicus  is  black,  with  red  elytra, 
a  black  belt  round  the  middle,    and   another 
towards  the  apex  of  the  elytra.     It  is  a  native  of 
Philadelphia.    12.  A.  sipylns  is  gxeen,  with  a 
hairy  brrast,  and  a  double  yellow  belt  upon  the 


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'•"J 

f  die  ages,  attempero. 
iLat.  tenqterare,  to 
J  abate,  the  predomi- 
To  moderate,  to  ac- 


elytra.  18.  A.  Surinamensis  has  a  double  indeti- 
-.ation,  or  two  teeth,  in  the  top  of  the  elytra. 

ATTEM'PER,  i;.  &  adj.'\     Lat.  of  the  mid- 
Attem'perate, 

AlTEM'PERANCEy 

Attem'perly. 
nant  qualities  of  a  thing, 
commodate. 

A  man  should  lore  his  wyf  by  discretieu,  padently 
and  aUempniff,  and  than  is  she  as  thoagh  it  were  his 
sister.         Chaucer,  The  Penones  Taie,  v.  ii.  p.  363. 
The  jojrous  birds  shrouded  in  cheerfal  shade. 

Their  notes  unto  the  voice  aitempered  sweet. 

The  angel-call,  soft  trembling  voices  made. 

To  the  instruments'  divine  respondence  meet. 

Spemer, 

A  monarchy,  where  is  no  nobility  at  all,  is  ever  a 
pure  and  absolute  tyranny,  as  that  of  the  Turks ;  for 
nobility  attempen  sovereignty,  and  draws  the  eyes  of 
the  people  somewhat  aside  from  the  line  royal :  but 
for  democracies  they  need  not  Bacon'i  Eteaye^ 

Phemius !  let  aits  of  gods  and  heroes  old. 

Attempered  to  the  lyre,  your  voice  employ.     Pope. 

Hope  must  be  proportioned  and  attewtperafe  to  the 
promise,  if  it  exceed  that  temper  and  proportion,  it 
becomes  a  tumour  and  tympany  of  hope, 

Hammond**  Pract.  CaiechUm, 
Attempered  suns  arise, 
Sweet-beam'd,  and  shedding  oft  thro'  lucid  deuds 
A  pleasing  calm.  ThomtM. 

In  the  midst  a  form  divine ! 
Her  eye  proclaims  her  of  the  Biiton  line ; 
Her  lion-port,  her  awe-commanding  face, 
A  ttemptr'd  sweet  to  virgin-grace. 

Gfwy*t  Bmd, 

ATTEMPT,  V.  &  n.^      Fr.    attenter;   from 
Attempt'kb,  I  tenter,  irhich  is  from 

Attempt'ablb,         t  the   Latin    tewtart,  to 
Attentate.  ^try.    To  make  eitperi- 

ment;  to  make  an  effort  to  accomplish  an  ob- 
ject ;  to  ttndertake. 

The  gentleman,  vouching  his  to  be  more  fair,  vir- 
tuous, wise,  and  less  attemptaiile,  than  the  rarest  of 
our  ladies.  Shahipeare. 

Locio.  Our  doubts  axe  traitors. 
And  make  us  lose  the  good  we  oft  might  win 
By  fearing  to  attempt.       Id.  Mmmtreftr  Meamre. 
Alack!  I  am  ainid,  they  have  awak'd. 
And  'tis  not  done  ;  th'  attempt,  and  not  the  deed. 
Confounds  OS.  Id,  MaebeOt, 

He  flatt'ring  his  displeasure, 
Tript  me  behind  ;  got  praises  of  the  king. 
For  him  attempting,  who  was  self-subdu'd.       Id, 
He  would  have  cry'd ;  but,  hoping  that  he  dreamt. 
Amusement  tied  his  tongue,  and-stopp'd  th'  attempt* 

Drydem, 

If  we  be  always  prepared  to  receive  an  enemy ;  we 

shall  long  live  in  pdace  and  quietnass,  without  any 

attempte  upon  us.  Aioon. 

I  have  nevertheless  attempted  to  send  unto  yon, 

for  the  renewing  of  brotherhood  and  friendship. 

IJlM.xii.  17. 
Who,  in  all  things  wise  and  just, 
Hinder'd  not  Satan  to  aiteu^  the  mind 
Of  man,  with  strength  entire  and  free-will  arm'd. 

mUea. 
The  Son  of  Qod,  with  godlike  linree  endu'd. 
Against  th'  attempter  of  thy  Father's  throne.      Id. 
Yon  are  no  factors,  for  glory  or  treasure ;  but  dis- 
inteieated  afteeipten,  for  the  universal  good. 

OUmeiUe'e  Seepek. 


Fools  only  malce  attethpte  beyond  their  will, 
A  wise  man's  pow'r's  the  limit  of  his  will. 

He  that  would  succeed  in  a  project  of  gain,  must 
never  attempt  to  gain  too  mudi;  and  uoon  proper 
occasions,  must  know  how  to  lose. 

HawheHDorth^f  Telemaekae, 

A  lion  of  Numidia,  that  hunger  has  made  more 
furious,  rushes  among  the  flocks ;  he  kills  and  tears 
to  pieces  without  resistance ;  and  the  shepherds,  in- 
stead of  attempting  to  defend  their  sheep,  fly  with 
terror  and  trepidation  to  preserve  themselves.         Id, 


ATTENJy, 

Attend'ance, 

Attend'amt,  n.  &  adj. 

Attend'er, 

Attent', 

Atten'tion, 

Atten'tive, 

Atten'tively, 

Atten'tiveness. 


")  Lat.  attendo;  from 
a</and  tendo,  to  stretch 
to  or  towards.  To 
direct  the  mirid  to; 
>^to  look  to  what  one  is 
about;  to  have  the 
faculties  enraged  or 
the  afihir  in  huid ;'  to 
wait. 


The  fifth  had  charge,  sick  persons  to  attemd; 
And  comfort  those,  in  point  of  death  which  lay. 


He  that  goeth  about  to  persuade  a  multitude,  that 
they  are  not  so  well  governed  as  they  ought  to  be, 
shaJl  never  want  attenihoe  and  favourable  hearers. 

Hooker^t  Be.  Felitjf, 
1  will  be  returned  foithirith :  dismiss  your  attend 
amt  there ;  look  it  be  done !       Shahipeate.    Othette. 
England  is  so  idly  king'd. 
Her  sceptre  so  fantastically  home ; 
That  fear  attende  her  not.  Id, 

.  Fm  never  menry,  when  I  hear  sweet  musick : 
The  reason  is,  your  s  irits  are  attent9oe. 

Id,  Merehaat  of  Venioe. 
My  pray'rs  and  wishes  always  shall  attend 
The  friends  of  Rome.  Addiam'i  Cote. 

A  vehement,  burning,  fixed,  pungent  pain  in  the 
stomach,  attended  with  a  fever.       Arbuthnot  on  Diet, 
I  saw  most  of  them  attentive  to  three  Sirens,  dis* 
tinguished  hy  the  names  of  Sloth,  Ignorance,  and 
Pleasure.  Tatter, 

The  diligent  pilot,  in  a  dangerous  tempest,  doth 
not  attend  the  unskilful  words  of  a  passenger.  fiSUMy. 
The  gypsies  were  there, 
like  lords  to  appear; 
With  each  their  attenden. 
As  you  thought  offenders.      Ben  Jemmm, 
Now  mine  eyes  shall  be  open;  and  mine  ears 
attent  unto  the  prayer,  that  is  made  in  this  place. 

2  Chron.  vii.  15. 
What  can  then  be  less  in  me,  than  desire 
To  see  thee,  and  approach  thee,  whom  I  know 
Declar'd  the  Son  of  God ;  to  hear  attent 
Thy  wisdom,  and  behold  thy  godlike  deeds  t 

Other  suns  perhaps. 
With  their  attendant  moons,  thou  wilt  descry. 
Communicating  male  and  female  light. 

Id.  ParaOae  Lett, 
Unknown  sins  have  their  guilt  and  shame,  and  are 
justly  atiendtd  with  known  punishments. 

HaU'i  Contemptatkae, 

We  all  are  never  weary  of  receiving  soon  weary  of 

^tending.  Id, 

At  length  her  lord  descends  upon  the  plain 

In  pomp  attended  with  a  numerous  train.     Ihydem, 

Hush'd  winds  the  topmast  branches  scarcely  bend. 

As  if  thy  tmefbl  song  they  did  attend.  Id. 

Plant  anemonies  after  the  first  rains,  if 'you  will 

have  flowers  very  forwsCrd :  but  it  is  surer  to  attend 

till  October.  " 


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With  these  four  more  of  lesser  fame. 

And  humble  rank  attendant  rame ; 

Hypocrisy  with  smiling  gra^^ 

And  Impudence  with  brazen  face» 

Contention  bold  with  iron  lungs, 

And  Slander  with  her  hundred  tongues.  Moore, 
He  [Termosiiis  priest  of  Apollo]  related  past  events 
with  such  force  of  expression  that  they  seemed  to  be 
present ;  and  with  such  comprehensive  brevity*  that 
attentien  was  not  wearied ;  and  he  foresaw  the  future 
by  a  sagacity  that  discovered  the  true  characters  and 
dispositions  of  mankind^  and  the  events  which  they 
would  produce.  Hawketwortli's  Tdemaehm, 

Attention  has  also  been  defined,  a  due  appli- 
cation of  the  ear,  or  the  eye,  as  well  as  ot  the 
mind,  to  any  thing  said  or  done,  in  order  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  thereof. 

Attention  of  mind  is  not  properly  an  act  of 
the  understanding,  but  rather  of  the  will,  by 
which  it  calls  the  understanding  from  the  con- 
sideration of  other  objects,  and  directs  it  to 
the  thing  ip  hand.  Nevertheless,  our  attention 
is  not  always  voluntary;  an  interesting  object 
seizes  and  fixes  it  beyond  the  power  of  control. 
Attention,  in  respect  of  hearing,  is  the  stretching 
or  straining  of  tne  membrana  tympani,  so  as  to 
make  it  more  susceptible  of  sounds,  and  better 
prepared  to  catch  even  a  feeble  agitation  of  the 
air :  or,  it  is  the  adjusting  the  tension  of  that 
membrane  to  the  deeree  of  loudness  or  lowness 
of  the  sound  to  which  we  are  attentive.  Accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  attention,  objects  make  a 
stronger  or  weaker  impression,  fiacon,  in  his 
Natural  History,  observes,  that '  Sounds  are  me- 
liorated by  the  intension  of  the  sense,  where  the 
common  sense  is  collected  most  to  the  particular 
sense  of  hearing,  and  the  sight  suspended.  There- 
fore sounds  are  sweeter,  as  well  as  greater,  in  the 
night  than  tn  the  day ;  and  I  suppose  they  are 
sweeter  to  blind  men  than  to  others ;  and  it  is 
manifest,  that  between  sleeping  and  waking,  when 
all  the  senses  are  suspended,  music  is  far  sweeter 
than  when  one  is  fully  waking/  Attention  is  re^ 
quisitc  even  to  the  simple  act  of  seeing :  the  eye 
can  take  in  a  considerable  field  at  one  look;  but 
no  object  in  the  field  is  seen  distinctly  but  that 
singly  which  fixes  the  attention :  in  a  profound 
reverie  that  totally  occupies  the  attention,  we 
scarce  see  what  is  directly  before  us.  In  a  train 
of  perceptions,  no  particular  object  makes  such 
a  figure  as  it  would  do  singly  and  apart :  for, 
when  the  attention  is  divided  among  many  ob- 
jects, no  particular  object  is  entitled  to  a  large 
share.  Hence,  the  stillness  of  night  contributes  to 
terror,  there  being  nothing  to  divert  the  atten- 
tion. In  matters  of  slight  importance,  attention 
is  mostly  directed  by  the  will;  and,  for  that 
reason,  it  is  our  0¥m  fault  if  thfiing  objects  make 
any  deep  impression.  Had  we  power  equally  to 
withhold  our  attention  from  matters  of  imports 
ance,  we  might  be  proof  against  any  deep  im- 
pression. But  our  power  fails  us  here;  and, 
while  our  attention  is  thus  forcibly  attached  to 
one  object,  others  will  solicit  it  in  vain. 

ATTENUANTS,  or  Attenuating  Medi- 
cines, are  such  as  subtilise  and  break  tlie  hu- 
mors into  finer  parts ;  and  tlius  dispose  them  for 
motion,  circulation,  excretion,  &c.  They  are 
of  extensive  use  in  physic,  and  come  under 
different  denominations,  according  to  the  differ- 


ent effects  theyiproduce.     Thus,  when  tenacious 
and  viscid  juices  not  only  stagnate  in  the  cavities 
of  the  vessels,  but  obstruct  tht  minute  ducts  of 
the  viscera  and  emunctories,  thew  medicines,  by 
their  inciding  and  attenuating  qualities,  discharge 
the  humors,  and  remove  the  obstructions;  for 
which  reason  they  are  not  improperly  called  ape- 
rients.   Attenuants  produce  so  great  a  variety  of 
effects,  that  it  is  proper  we  should'  be  well  ac- 
quainted with  their  several  kindsj  as  appropriated 
to  the  several  disorders,  and  know  which  wttl 
prove  most  serviceable  in  each.    According  to 
Hoffman,  the  dissolving  and  attenuating  of  viscid 
crudities  in  the  stomach  and  primce  viae,  is  well 
answered  by  the  roots  of  arum,  acorus,  pepper, 
ginger,  and  the  like ;  as  also  by  sal  ammoniac, 
vitriolated  tartar,  the  fixed  alkaline  salts,  and  the 
simple  or  dulcified  spirit  of  salt.    When  crude 
and  unconcocted  humors  are  to  be  evacuated  by 
stool,  this  intention  is  very  well  answered  by  the 
neutral  salts,  as  the  salts  of  the  purging  waters, 
and  the  sal  polycrestum,  with  a  suflScient  quan- 
tity of  a  watery  vehicle.    When  viscid  humors, 
occasioning  disorders  of  the  breast,  are  to  be  at- 
tenuated and  expectorated,  the  intention  is  most 
effectually  answered  by  elecampane  and  orrice 
roots ;  and  by  gum  ammoniacum,  myrrh,  or  ben- 
jamin, and  balsam  of  Peru ;  or  by  regenerated 
tartar,  oxvmel  of  squills,  a  solution  of  crabs' 
eyes  in  distilled  vinegar,  and  the  syrup  of  to- 
bacco, and  the  like.    When  the  mass  of  blood  is 
tainted  by  thick  and  tenacious  sordes,  and  the 
emunctories  are  by  that  means  obstructed,  and 
the  humors  contaminated  by  a  saline  sulphureous 
and  scorbutic  dyscrasy,  the  most  efficacious  of 
the  attenuants  are  the  horse-radish,  scurvy-grass, 
water  and  garden  cresses,  mustard,  gum  ammo- 
niac, benjamin,  myrrh,  the  oil  of  fixed  nitre,  oil 
of  tartar  per  deliquium,  solutions  of  nitre,  spirit 
of  sal  ammoniac,  salt  of  wormwood  with  lemon 
juice,  and  tlie  salts  of  the  medicinal  waters. 
When  grumous  or  coagulated  blood,  occasioned 
by  contusions  or  blows,  is  to  be  attenuated  and 
again  dissolved,  the  intention  is  sure  to  be  an- 
swered by  the  rooto  of  Solomon's  Seal,  vinegar, 
and  crabs'  eyes,  the  regenerated  tartar,  and  nitre 
prepared  with  antimony.    And  in  cases  where 
the  lymph  has  acquired  a  preternatural  thickness 
and  viscidity,  especially  if^firom  a  venereal  taint, 
the  curative  intention  is  most  effectually  an- 
swered by  guaicum,  the  acrid  tincture  of  anti- 
mony, calomel,  ^hiop's  mineral,  and  the  like; 
which,  when  skilfully  used,  are  of  singular  effi- 
cacy in  dissolving  and  attenuating  the  viscid 
juices  impacted  in  the  glands  of  the  liver. 

ATTEN'UATE,i;.&n. )      Lat.    attenuo,  to 

Attenua'tion  I  thin;  from  ad  and 

temisy  to  thin ;  from  tendo,  to  stretch.  To  draw 
out  in  length  or  superficial  extent ;  to  lessen  or 
thin ;  to  dilate. 

Chiming  with  a  hammer  upon  the  outside  of  a  bell» 
the  sound  will  be  according  to  the  inward  concave  of 
the  bell ;  whereas  the  elision^  or  eMenuatum  of  the 
air,  can  be  only  between  the  hsmmfr  and  tha  outside 
of  the  bell.  Bacon, 

Yivification  ever  oonsisteth  in  apirtts  mitemiate, 
which  the  cold  doth  congeal  and  coagulate.  /d. 

The  ingredients  are  digested  and  attenmated  by  beat ; 
they  are  stirred  and  constandy  agitated  by  winds. 

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t>f  tadi  eoneenunent  too  is  4rmk  and  food, 
T*  encnMate  or  attemiaie  the  blood. 

Drjfden't  Trandatum  of  LmsnHiu. 

Attenuation  is  defined  more  generally  by 
Chauvin,  the  dividing  or  separating  of  the  mi- 
nute parts  of  any  body,  which  before,  by  their 
mutual  nexus  or  implication^  formed  a  more 
continuous  mass.  Accordii^ly,  among  alche- 
mists we  sometimes  find  the  word  used  for  pul- 
verisation, or  the  act  of  reducing  a  body  into  an 
impalpable  powder,  by  grinding,  pounding,  or 
the  like. 

Attenuation,  in  medicine,  the  lessening  the 
power  or  quanti^  of  the  morbific  matter. 

ATTERBURY  (Bishop  Prancis),  son  of  Dr. 
Lewis  Atterbury,  was  boin  at  Milton  in  Buck- 
inghamshire, in  1662;  educated  at  Westminster, 
and  thence  elected  to  Christ-Church,  in  Oxford, 
where  he  soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  ge- 
nius. In  1687  he  was  made  MA.,  when  he 
exerted  himself  in  the  controversy  with  the 
papists,  vindicated  Luther  in  the  strongest 
manner,  and  displayed  an  uncommon  fund  of 
learning,  enlivened  with  great  vivacity.  Ib 
1690  he  married  Miss  Osbom,  a  lady  of  great 
beauty,  but  moderate  fortune.  About  1690  he 
took  orders,  and  in  1691  was  elected  lecturer  of 
St.  Bnde*s  church  in  London,  and  preacher  at 
Bridewell  chapel.  He  was  soon  after  appointed 
chaplain  to  king  William  and  queen  Mary.  The 
share  he  took  in  the  controversy  against  Bentley, 
(about  the  authenticity  of  Phalaris's  Epistles)  is 
now  clearly  ascertained.  In  1700  a  still  larger 
field  of  activity  opened,  in  which  Atterbury  was 
engagted  four  years  with  Dr.  Wake  (afterwaids 
archbishop  of  Canterbury),  and  others,  concern- 
ing *  the  Rights,  Powers,  and  Privileges  of  Con- 
vocations;' in  which  he  displayed  so  much 
learning  and  zeal  for  the  interests  of  his  order, 
that  the  lower  house  of  Convocation  returned 
him  their  thanks,  and  the  university  of  Oxford 
complimented  him  with  the  degree  of  D.D. 
January  29, 1700,  he  was  installed  archdeacon 
ofTotness.  The  same  year  he  was  engaged, 
with  some  other  learned  divines,  in  revising  an 
intended  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  with 
Greek  Scholia,  collected  chiefly  from  the  flBithers, 
by  Mr.  Ajchdeacon  Gregory.  At  this  period  he 
was  popular,  as  preacher  at  the  Rolls  chapel ; 
an  office  which  had  been  conferred  on  him  by 
Sir  John  Trevor,  in  1698,  when  he  resigned 
Bridewell.  Upon  the  accession  of  queen  Anne, 
in  1702,  Dr.  Atterbury  was  appointed  one  of 
her  chaplains;  and  in  October  1704,  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  deanery  of  Carlisle.  About  two 
years  afier  this,  he  was  engaged  in  a  dispute 
with  Mr.  Hoadly,  concerning  we  advantages  of 
virtue,  with  regard  to  the  present  life;  occa- 
sioned by  his  sermon,  preached  August  30, 
1706,  at  the  funeral  of  Mr.  Thomas  Bennet,  a 
bookseller.  In  1707  Sir  Jonathan  Trelawney, 
bishop  of  Exeter,  appointed  him  -one  of  the 
canons  residentiaries  of  that  church.  In  1709 
he  was  engaged  in  a  fresh  dispute  with  Mr. 
Hoadly,  concerning  *  Passive  Obedience;'  oc- 
casioned by  his  Latin  sermon,  entitled  '  Concio 
ad  Clemm  Londinensem,  babita  in  Ecctesia  S. 
Elphegi.'  In  1710  came  on  the  famous  trial  of 
Dr.  Sacheverell,  whose  remarkable  silleech  on 
Vol.  III. 


that  occasion  was  generally  supposed  to  hav« 
been  drawn  up  by  our  author,  m  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Smalndge  and>Dr.  Freind.  The  same 
year  Dr.  Atterbury  was  unanimously  chosen 
prolocutor  of  the  lower  house  of  Convocation, 
and  had  the  chief  management  of  affairs  in  that 
house.  May  11, 1711,  he  vms  appointed  by  the 
convocation  one  of  the  committee  for  comparing 
Mr.  \Vhiston's  doctrines  with  those  of  the  church 
of  England ;  and  in  June  following,  he  had  the 
chief  Land  in  drawing  up  '  A  Representation 
of  the  present  State  of  Religion.'  In  1712  he 
was  made  dean  of  Christ  Church,  notwithstand- 
ing the  strong  interest  and  warm  applications  of 
several  great  men  in  behalf  of  his  competitor. 
Dr.  Smalndge.  In  the  beginning  of  June,  171 3, 
the  queen  advanced  him  to  the  bishopnc  of  Ro- 
chester, with  the  deanery  of  Westminster  in 
commendam.  He  was  confirmed  July  4,  and 
consecrated  at  Lambeth  next  day.  The  death  of 
the  queen,  in  1714,  put  an  end  to  all  farther 
hopes  of  advancement;  for  the  new  king  treated 
him  with  great  coolness,  doubtless  aware  of  either 
the  report  or  the  fact  of  his  offer,  on  the  death 
of  Anne,  to  proclaim  the  Pretender  in  full  canon- 
icals, if  allowed  a  sufficient  guard.  This  dislike 
operated  like  oil  on  the  inflammable  mind  of 
Atterbury,  who  not  only  refused  to  sign  the 
loval  declaration  of  the  bishops  in  the  rebellion 
of  1715,  but  suspended  a  clergyman  for  lend- 
ing his  church  for  the  performance  of  divine 
service  to  the  Dutch  troops  brought  over  to  serve 
against  the  rebels.  Not  content  with  a  consti- 
tutional opposition,  he  entered  into  a  correspond- 
ence with  the  Pretender's  party,  in  favor  of  the 
dispossessed  fiimily ;  for  which  offence  he  was 
apprehended  in  August  1722,  and  committed  to 
the  Tower ;  and  in  the  March  following  a  bill 
was  brought  into  the  House  of  Commons,  for  the 
infliction  of  pains  and  penalties.  This  measure, 
which  on  constitutional  grounds  can  never  be 
defended,  and  which  indeed  was  supported 
chiefly  on  the  urgency  of  the  particular  time  and 
case,  met  with  considerable  opposition  in  the 
Lords,  and  was  resisted  with  great  firmness  and 
eloquence  by  the  bishop,  who  maintained  his 
innocence  with  his  usual  acuteness  and  dexte- 
rity. His  guilt  however  has  been  tolerably  well 
proved  by  documents  since  published;  and 
noUiing  more  is  necessary  to  warrant  a  con- 
firmed moral  distaste  to  his  character,  than  the 
contemplation  of  such  a  scene  of  smooth  dissi- 
mulation and  hypocrisy.  By  this  bill  the  bishop 
was  deprived  and  outlawed,  and  no  British  suh- 
ject  was  permitted  to  visit  him  abroad,  without 
the  king's  sign  manual ;  which  however  was  not 
refused  to  his  relatives. 

On  the  27th,  this  pi^late  liaving  that  day 
taken  leave  of  his  frienas,  who,  from  the  time  of 
passing  the  bill  against  him  to  the  day  of  his  de- 
parture, had  free  access  to  him  in  the  Tower,  em- 
oarked  on  board  the  Aldborough  man  of  war,  and 
landed  the  Friday  following  at  Calais.  When 
he  went  on  shore,  having  been  informed  that 
lord  Bolingbroke,  who,  af^er  the  rising  of  the 
parliament,  had  received  the  king's  pardon,  was 
arrived  at  the  same  place  on  his  return  to  Eng- 
land, he  said,  with  an  air  of  pleasantry, '  Then 
I  am  exchanged !'    When  bishop  Atterbury  first 

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entered  upon  his  banishment,  Bnistels  was  the 
place  destined  for  bis  residence ;  but  he  was 
compelled  to  leave  that  place,  and  retire  to 
Paris.  He  next  changed  his  abode  for  Mont- 
pelier,  in  1728 ;  and,  after  residing  there  about 
two  years,  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died  Feb^ 
ruary  15, 1731.  As  a  composer  of  sermons, 
Dr.  Atterbury  still  retains  the  highest  reputation ; 
his  periods  are  easy  and  eleganf,  his  style  flowing 
and  beautiful;  but  as  a  critic  or  disputant,  he  is 
rather  dexterous  than  accurate,  and  ralfaer  po- 
pular than  profound. 

AiTERBURr  (Dr.  Lewis),  eldest  son  of  the 
Dr.  and  brother  to  the  bishop,  was  bom  at  Cal- 
decot,in  Bucks,  in  1656 ;  educated  at  Westmini- 
ster, and  sent  to  Oxford  in  1674.  In  1679  he 
entered  into  orders,  and  commenced  A.  M.  in 
1680;  in  1683  he* was  made  chaplain  to  Sir  W. 
Pritchard;  in  1684  rector  of  Symel;  in  1687, 
L.L.D.  and  in  1691  lecturer  of  St.  Mary-at-Hill, 
London.  In  1695  he  was  elected  preacher  at 
Highgate,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  six 
preaching  chaplains  to  the  princess  Anne  of 
Denmark,  at  Whitehall  and  St  James's;  in 
which  place  he  was  continued  after  she  became 

?[ueen,  and  during  part  of  the  reign  of  George  I. 
n  1707  the  queen  appointed  him  rector  of 
Shepperton,  and  in  March  1709,  the  bishop  of 
London  collated  him  to  the  rectory  of  Ilornsey. 
He  died  at  Bath,  of  a  paralytic  disorder,  in  1731. 
He  published,  during  his  life,  2  vols,  of  Ser- 
mons, and  four  occasional  ones,  besides  other 
pieces.  He  was  remarkably  benevolent  and 
charitable.  While  he  resided  at  Highgate,  ob- 
serving that  the  poor  in  that  neighbourhood  were 
much  at  a  loss  for  medical  advice,  he  studied 
physic,  and  practised  it  gratis  among  them: 
Ike  also  gave  £lO  annually  to  a  teacher,  to  in- 
struct young  giris  at  Newport  Paguel,  and  bur- 
dened his  estate  with  this  annual  payment  for 
ever.  He  left  200  volumes  of  pamphlets  to  the 
library  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 

ATTES,  in  fabulous  history,  a  son  of  Calaus 
of  Phiygia,  who  was  bom  impotent.  The  wor- 
ship of  Cybele  was  introduced  among  the  Ly- 
dians  by  him,  after  which  he  was  highly  honored 
by  the  goddess.  Hjs  success  awakened  a  jeal- 
ousy in  Jupiter,  and  he  sent  a  wild  boar  to 
lay  waste  the  country,  that  Attes  might  be  de- 
stroyed. 

ATTEfer,i7.  fen."^     Lat.  attestor;  ad  and 
Attest'e*,  *  >testory  to  call  to  witness. 

Attest a'tion.  j  To  corroborate  or  strength- 
en by  witness,  i.  e.  by  one  who  has  had  the  evi- 
dence of  one  or  more  of  the  senses. 

With  the  voice  divine 
Nigh  thandentruck,  th'  ex&lted  man,  to  whom 
Such  high  atteit  was  giv'n,  a  while  surveyM     • 
With  wonder.  Paradise  Renamed. 

Many  particular  facts  are  recorded  in  holy  writ, 
attested  by  particular  pagan  authors.    •  Adduon, 

We  may  derive  a  probability,  from  the  attestation 
of  wise  and  honest  men,  by  word  or  writing ;  or  the 
concurring  witness  of  multitudes,  who  have  seen  and 
known,  what  they  relate.  Watts. 

Prodigious  actions  may  as  well  be  done 
By  weaver's  issue,  as  by  prince's  son. 
This  arch-oWertor  of  the  publick  good. 
By  that  one  deed  ennobles  all  his  blood. 

Drsfden's  Absakm  and  Adtitephel. 


ATTHIS,  a  daughter  of  Cmnatts,  the  secotid 
king  of  Athens.  According  to  ApoUodonls  stie 
gave  her  name  to  Attica. 

ATTIC  any  thing  relating  to  Attica,  or  Athens, 
or  any  thing  peculiarly  elegant  or  excellent. 

Attic  Base,  a  peculiar  kind  of  base  used  by 
the  ancient  architects  in  the  Ionic  order;  and 
by  Palladio,  and  some  others,  in  the  Doric. 

Arric  Ordeb,  or  Attics,  in  architecture,  a 
kind  of  order,  after  the  manner  of  a  pedestal, 
raised  upon  another  larger  order,  by  way  of 
crowning,  or  to  fiUish  the  building. '  See  Archi- 
tecture, Index. 

Attic  Salt,  a  delicate,  poignant  kind  of  wit, 
peculiar  to  the  ancient  Athtoians.  The  term  is 
applied  to  any  similar  piece  of  humor  in  mo- 
dem writings. 

Attic  Story,  in  architecture,  a  story  in  the 
upper  pert  of  a  house,  where  ^  windows  are 
usually  square. 

Attic  Witness,  a  witness  incapable  of  cor- 
ruption. 

ATTICA,  an  ancient  state  of  Greece,  situated 
along  the  north  coast  of  the  gulph  of  Saron, 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Megara,  mount  Ci> 
thsron,  and  part  of  Boeotia ;  on  the  north  by  the 
gulf  of  Euripus  (now  called  Stretto  di  Negro- 
ponte,  or  the  Strait  of  Negropont),  and  the  rest 
of  Boeotia ;  and  on  the  east  by  the  Euripus.  It 
extended  in  length  from  north-west  to  soudi- 
east,  about  sixty  miles ;  its  breadth  from  north  to 
south  was  fifty-six,  decreasing  as  it  approached  the 
sea.  The  soil  of  this  country  was  naturally  barren 
and  craggy,  though  by  the  industry  of  its  inha- 
bitants it  produced  all  the  necessaries  of  life. 
On  this  account,  Attica  was  less  exposed  to  in- 
vasions than  other  more  fertile  countries;  and 
hence,  it  preserved  its  ancient  inhabitants, 
beyond  all  the  other  kingdoms  in  its  neigfaboar- 
hood ;  so  that  they  were  reputed  to  be  the  spon- 
taneous productions  of  the  soil ;  and  as  a  badge 
of  this,  Thucydides  tells  us,  they  wore  golden 
grasshoppers  in  their  hair. 

The  principal  mountains  of  Attica  were  Lau- 
rium,  celebrated  for  its  silver  mines,  and  situated 
near  the  Sunian  promontory ;  Pentelicus,  famous 
for  its  quarries  of  white  marble ;  and  Hymettus, 
near  Adiens,  remarkable  for  the  abundance  and 
fineness  of  its  honey.  Other  mountains  men- 
tioned in  history,  are  ^gtaleus,  Brilessus,  Ica- 
rius,  Lycabettus,  and  Pamethus.  Its  principal 
rivers  were  the  Cephisus,  Eridanus,  and  Ilissus. 
Althoneh  the  mountainous  character  of  the  coun- 
try rendered  it  unpromising  and  sterile  for  grain 
generally,  barley  was  produced  in  abundance ; 
and  Aristode  observes  that  the  fruits  of  Attica 
had  a  peculiar  sweetness.  The  culture  of  the 
olive  tree  was  protected  by  law,  and  a  fine  of 
200  drachms  (upwards  of  £8  sterling)  was  paid, 
by  any  person  who  rooted  up  on  his  grounds 
more  than  two  trees  in  a  year,  unless  for  the 
service  of  tlie  gods.  The  olives  called  colym- 
bades,  considered  larger  and  of  richer  flavor  than 
any  other,  retain  their  name  to  this  day,  and 
were,  until  the  late  civil  wars,  monopolised  for 
the  personal  use  of  the  grand  signior. 

The  chief  cities  of  Attica  were  Athens,  the  ca- 
pital. See  Athens.  Next  to  it  Eleusis,  situ- 
ated on  the  same  gulf,  nef^r  the  coasts  of  M^ara ; 


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«nd  next  t»  (faat  Rhamnus,  famed  for  the  temple 
of  Amfihiarausy  and  the  statue  of  the  goddess 
Nemesis,  scttlptured  by  Phidias,  from  a  Uock  of 
Parian  marble,  whieh  «be  Persians  bad  bioi^^ht 
thither  to  assist  in  eretting  a  tropliy  of  thar  pro- 
posed Tictocy.  It  was  ten  cubits  high,  and  was 
inscribed  with  the  name  of  his  &yoiite  pupil 
Agoracritus,  Nor  ought  we  to  omit  to  mention 
the  town  of  Marathon,  ten  miles  north-east  of 
Athens,  immortaliaed  by  the  victory  gained  these 
birMiltiades  over  the  Persians.  On  the  plain 
ot  the  batUe  the  Athenians  esected  tmaU  oo- 
lumns,  on  which  the  names  of  those  wwrriois 
who  fell  were  insccibed.  A  monument  aftes- 
wards  raised  to  Mtltiades  himself,  was  set  apart, 
a  small  distance  fnAn  the  rest :  in  the  intervals 
between  these  .coiomns  were  trophies,  bearing 
4he  arms  of  the  Persians. 

Attica  was  divided  into  ten  tribes,  icaUed 
fvkat ;  and  these  again  were  subdivided  'into 
174  boroughs,  or  ^9^01.  The  inhabitants  wiere 
of  three  classes:  1.  Citizens,  iroXtrm;  whose 
numbers  underwent  little  change  frqm  the  time 
of  Ceccops,  and  averaged  about  20,000.  iThey 
had  a  right,  from  »  certain  property^  to  vote  in 
the  general  assonbly ;  about  60^0  others  were 
freemen  without  (his  privilege.  Those  wh0 
sprung  from  parents  boih  of  whom  were  Athe- 
nian citizens,  were  considered  freebom,  though 
occasionally  the  privilege  was  extended  to  such 
as  had  one  parent  only  of  this  class.  The  honor 
was  confecrod  on  foreigners  by  a  yot^  of  the 
people,  ratified  at  two  solemn  assemblies ;  at  the 
second  of  which  it  was  loauisite  ^that  6^000  citi- 
zens should  be  pceaent  JBut  no  one,  except  a 
fret  bom  Athenian,  could  hold  an  arcbonwip. 
2.  Foreigners  settled  in  Attica,  and  enrolled  in 
ithe  public  tegisten,  /urotfoc  They  were  pro- 
tected oy  the  state ;  but  were  not  permitted  to 
hold  any  public  office.  Each  /urpueoc  selected  a 
citizen  as  his  protector,  wpo^arijc;  who  stood 
•to  him  much  in  th^  same  relation  as  the  Roman 
patronus  did  to  his  cliens.  They  paid  an  an- 
nual tribute  to  the  state  of  twelve  drachmse 
(about  nine  shillings),  and  in  default  of  payment 
they  were  sold  as  slaves.  Their  nmnber  (males 
only)  in  the  time  of  Demetrius  of  Phaleiwm, 
(307  B.  C.)  was  10,000.  3.  Slaves,  dovXiM,  who, 
.when  numbered  at  the  same  time,  amounted  to 
400,000.  The  agricultural,  mining,  and  menial 
labor  was  performed  by  them ;  as  well  as  the 
greater  part  of  that  of  the  public  works,  and  of 
private  manufactures.  The  entire  population  of 
ancient  Attica  may  be  .taken  at  about  half  a  mil- 
lion, or  nearly  900  to  a  square  mile ;  about  ono- 
fourth  of  that  of  Middlesex.  For  the  political 
history  of  this  interesting  country,  incluaing  tlie 
details  of  its  recent  struggles  -for  liberty,  see 
our  article  Grebce. 

ATTICISE,^ 

At'ticism,     (     Gr.   ArruuZm,  to  speak   or 


A<  TICX, 
Al'xiCAl 


4  write  after  the  Attic  dialect 


There  while  they  acted  and  overacted,  among  ether 
young  icholan,  I  vaa  a  epectaior-,  they  thought 
themselvea  gallant  men,  and  I  thought  them  fools; 
they  made  sport,  and  I  laughed ;  they  mispronounced, 
and  I  misliked ;  and  to  make  up  the  oAictmi,  they 
were  oal^  and  X  hist.  Milton. 


U  any  will  still  excuse  the  tjvaat  £v  tUtkismg  in 
those  circumstances,  it  is  hard  to  deny  thebi  the  glory 
of  being  the  faithfullest  of  his  vassal^. 

BenOey.  JH^arUUion  on  Phalaru. 
ATTICUS  (Titus  Pompooius),  090  of  tiie 
most  remarkable  characters  of  ancient  Rome, 
lie  managed  himself  with  such  addir^s,  that  he 
preserved  the  esteem  and  affection  of  all  parties. 
He  sent  money  to  the  younger  Marius,  and  yet 
vas  a  fevorite  with  Sylla.  He  pleased  Cnsar 
wijthout  offending  Pompey.  He  sent  supplies  .to 
Brutus,  while  he  was  doing  kind  offices  to  An- 
tony. His  strict  friendship  .with  Cicero  did  not 
hinder  him  from  having  great  intimacy  with 
Hortensius ;  and  in  the  contests  between  Antoioy 
and  Augustus,  he  preserved  the  regard  of  both. 
The  contests  at  Rome  :between  2ie  parties  of 
Sylla  and  JVlarius^  however,  induced  him  to  re- 
tiire  to  Athens,  where  he  gainedx  the  affection  of 
the  Athenians  so  much,  that  the  day  he  left  them 
was  a  day  of  mourning.  He  was  very  fond  of 
learning,  and  kept  several  librarians  9iii.  readera. 
He  might  have  obtained  .the  most  considerable 
posts  in  the  republic ;  but  chose  rather  not  to 
^neddle,  because  in  the  corruption  and  faction 
which  then  prevailed^  he  could  ^qt  discharge 
them  according  to  the  Jkws.  ^  He  w^ote  annal}^ 
which  Cicero  praises,  as  having  .been  of  great 
use  to  him.  He  married  his  daughter  to  Agupps^ 
.and  died  at  the  ^e  of  77. 

Attictts  (Herodes),  a  celebrated  orator  of 
antiquity,  was  bpm  at  Marathon.  His  lectures 
on  docution  were  heard  with  such  applause,  that 
he  was  sent  for  by  Titus  Antoninu^  to  instruct 
Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Lucius  Verus.  He  .was 
honored  with  the  consulship,  and  other  high 
.offices.  He  generously  erected  ^  aqueduct  at 
Troas,  of  which  he  had  been  made  governor, 
and  some  other  publip  buildiz:^  in  different 
places  of  the  empire,  equally  useful  and  mag- 
nificent. He  was  particularly  liberal  as  a  bene- 
hcxoi  to  Athens.  He  died  a^  Marathon,  at  die 
age  of  76. 

Atxicvs,  patriarch  of  ConsUmtinople,  was  by 
birth  an  Armenian,  and  flourished  in  the  fifth 
century.  In  A.D.  406,  he  condemned  John 
..Chrysostom,  by  which  he  got  possession  of  the 
patriarchate;  but  Pope  Innocent  I.  being  of- 
fended at  his  proceedings,  excommunicated  him. 
However,  when  Chrysostom  died,  he  was  al- 
lowed to  reUin  his  seat.    He  died  in  427. 

ATTILA,  king  of  the  Huns,  lived  in  die 
fifth  century.  He  was  sumamed  '  the  Scourge 
of  God,'  a  title  which  all  offensive  conquerors 
have  more  or  less  merited,  though  none  but  At- 
tila  is  said  to  have  assumed  and  gloried  in  it. 
.He  may  jusdy  be  ranked  among  the  greatest  con- 
.querors,  for  there  was  scarcely  any  province  in 
Europe  which  did  not  feel  the  weight  of  his 
victorious  arms.  Attila  deduced  his  descent 
from  the  ancient  Pluns,  who  had  formerly  con- 
tended with  the  monarchs  of  China.  His  fea- 
tures, according  to.  the  observation  of  a  Gothic 
historian,  bore  the  stamp  of  his  national  origin ; 
and  the  portrait  of  Attila  exhibits  the  genuine 
deformity  of  a  modem  Calmuck ;  a  large  head, 
a  swarthy  complexion,  small,  deep-seated  eyes, 
a  hooked  nose,  a  few  hairs  in  toe  place  of  a 
beard,  broad   shoulders,   and   a  short  square 

U  2 


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body,  of  nervous  ttreneth,  though  of  a  dispro- 
portioned  form.     The  naughty  demeanor  of  this 
tyrant  expressed  the  idea  he  entertained  of  his 
superiority  above  the  rest  of  mankind ;  and  he 
had  a  custom  of  fiercely  rolling  his  eyes,  as  if  he 
wished  to  enjoy  the  terror  which  he  inspired. 
Yet  this  savage  hero  was  not  inaccessible  to  pity ; 
his  suppliant  enemies  might  confide  in  his  as- 
surance of  peace  or  pardon ;  and  he  was  con- 
sidered by  his  subjects  as  a  just  and  indulgent 
master.    He  delig^ited  in  war ;  but,  after  he  had 
ascended  the  throne  in  a  mature  age,  his  head« 
rather  than  his  hand,  achieved  the  conquest  of 
the  north ;  and  the  hme  of  an  adventurous  sol- 
dier was  usefully  exchanged  for  that  of  a  prudent 
and  successful  general.    The  effects  of  mere  per- 
sonal valor  are  indeed  so  inconsiderable,  that 
victory,  even  among  barbarians,  depends  on  the 
degree  of  skill,  with  which  the  passions  of  the 
multitude  are  guided  for  the  service  of  a  single 
man.    The  arts  of  Attila  were  skilfully  adapted 
to  his  age  and  country.    It  was  natural  that  the 
Scythians  should  adore  the  god  of  war ;  but  as 
they  were  incapable  of  forming  either  an  ab- 
stract idea,  or   a   corporeal    representation  of 
him,  they  worshipped  him  under  the  symbol  of 
an  iron  scymitar.    One  of  the  shepherds  of  the 
Huns  perceived  that  a  heifer,  who  was  grazing, 
had  wounded  herself  in  the  foot ;  and  curiously 
followed  the  tract   of  the   blood,  till   he  dis- 
covered among  the  long  grass,  the  point  of  an 
ancient  sword ;  which  he  dug  out  of  the  ground, 
and  presented  to  Attila.    T^t  ardiil  prince  ac- 
cepted with  pious  gratitude  diis  celestial  favor ; 
and,  as  the  rightful  possessor  of  the  sword  pf 
Mars,  asserted  his  divine  and  indefeasible  claim 
to  the  dominion  of  the  earth.    Thus  this  fiivorite 
of  Mars  acquired  a  sacred  character,  which  ren- 
dered his  conquests  easy  and  f>ermanent ;  and 
the  barbarian  princes  confessed,  in  the  language 
of  devotion  or  flattery,  that  they  could  not  pre- 
sume to  gaze  with  a  steady  eye  on  the  divine 
majesty  of  the  king  of  the  Huns.    His  brother 
Bleda,  who  reigned  over  a  considerable  part  of 
the  nation,  was  compelled  to  resign  his  sceptre 
and  his  life.    Yet  even  this  cruel  act  was  attri- 
buted to  a  supernatural  impulse ;  and  the  vigor 
with   which  Attila  wielded  the  sword  of  Mars 
convinced  the  world  that  it  had  been  reserved 
alone  for  his  invincible  arm.    But  the  extent  of 
his  empire  affords  the  only  remaining  evidence  of 
the  number  and  importance  of  his  victories ;  and 
the  Scythian  monarch,  however  ignorant  of  Uie 
value  of  science  and  philosophy,  might  lament 
that  his  illiterate  subjects  were  destitute  of  the  art 
which  could  perpetuate  the  memory  of  his  ex- 
ploits.   Attila,  indeed,  may  claim  the  tide  of  su- 
preme and  sole  monarch  of  the  barbarians.    He 
alone,  among  the  conquerors  of  ancient  and  mo- 
dem times,  united  the  two  mighty  kingdoms  of 
Germany  and  Scythia.  Thuringia,  which  stretched 
beyond  its  actual  limits  as  &r  as  the  Danube, 
was  in  the  number  of  his  provinces :  he  inter- 
posed, with  the  weight  of  a  powerful  neighbour, 
m  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  Franks ;  and  one  of 
his  lieutenants  chastised,  and  almost  extermi- 
nated, the  Burgundians  of  the  Rhine.    He  sub- 
dued the  islands  of  the  ocean,  the  kingdoms  of 
Scandinavia,  encompassed  and  divided  by  the 


waters  of  the  Baltic ;  and  the  Uiins  derived  a 
tribute  of  furs  from  that  northern  region,  whidi 
has  been  protected  from  all  other  conquerors  by 
the  severity  of  the  climate,  and  the  courage  of  the 
natives.    Towards  the  east,  it  is  difficult  to  cir- 
cumscribe the  dominion  of  Attila  over  the  Scy- 
thian deserts;  vet  we  may  be  assured  that  he 
reigned  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga ;  that  he  was 
dr^ed,  not  only  as  a  warrior,  but  as  a  magi- 
cian ;  that  he  vanquished  the  khan  of  the  formi- 
dable Geougen ;  and  that  he  sent  ambassadors  to 
negociate  an  equal  alliance  with  the  empire  of 
Clnna.    In  the  proud  review  of  the  nations  who 
acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Attila,  and  who 
never  entertained  during  his  lifetime  the  thought 
of  a  revolt,  the  Gepidse  and  the  Ostrogoths  were 
distinguished  by  meir  numbers,  their  bravery, 
and  the  personal  merit  of  their  chiefs.    Ardaric, 
king  of  the  Gepidae,  was  the  faithful  and  saga- 
cious counsellor  of  the  monaroh ;  who  esteemed 
his  intrepid  genius,  whilst  he  loved  the  mild  and 
discreet  virtues  of  die  noble  Walamir,  king  of  the 
Ostrogoths.    The  crowd  of  vulgar  kings*,  who 
served  under  the  standard  of  Attila,  were  ranged 
in  the  submissive  order  of  guards  and  domestics 
round  the  person  of  their  masters.  They  watched 
his  nod ;  thev  trembled  at  his  frown ;  and  at  the 
first  signal  of  his  will  they  executed  without  he- 
sitation his  absolute  commands.     In  time  of 
peace  the  dependent  princes  with  their  national 
troops  attended  the  royal  camp  in  regular  suc- 
cession ;  but  when  Attila  collected  his  military 
force  he  was  able  to  bring  into  the  field  an  army 
of  five,  or  according  to  some,  700,000  barbarians. 
See  Huns.  The  circumstances  attending  Attila's 
death  (about  A.  D.  453)  were  remarkable ;  from 
the  festive  throng,  which  celebrated  his  nuptials 
with  a  beautiful  virgin  named  IldicOy  he  retired 
late  to  bed,  oppressed  with  vrine,  and  during 
the  night  a  blood-vessel  burst  and  suffocated 
him.    In  the  morning  the  bride  was  found  by 
the  bed-side,  bewailing  his  death  and  her  own 
danger.    His  body  was  exposed  in  the  plain, 
while  the  Huns  marched  round  it   in   martial 
order,  singing  funeral  songs  to  his  praise;  and 
was  aftem^uxls  enclosed  in  coffins  of  gold,  silver, 
and  iron,  and  interred  privately  in  the  night  To 
prevent  the  violation  ot  his  remains,  by  the  dis- 
covery of  his  grave,  the  slaves  who  were  em- 
ployed on  the  occasion  were  put  to  death. 

ATTILATUS  Equus^  in  old  law  Latin,  a 
horse  dressed  in  his  harness,  for  the  plough  or 

cart. 

ATTILUS,  in  ichthyology,  a  river-fish,  of  the 
sturgeon  kind,  called  by  some  adello,  adano,  and 
adeno.  It  grows  to  a  very  iar^  size,  and  when 
full  grown,  casts  its  scales,  and  never  has  any 
fresh  ones,  but  remains  perfectly  smooth;  in 
which  it  differs  from  the  common  sturgeon.  But 
it  seems  not  to  differ  in  any  essential  point  from 
the  hussu  germanorum.  It  is  an  eatable  fish, 
but  is  greatly  inferior  in  taste  to  the  sturgeon. 

ATTINGA,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of  the 

diodon. 

ATTIR'E,  V.  &  n.  ^     Of  uncertain  derivation. 

Attir'ing,  >  It  may  be  observed,  wiih- 

Attou'r.  j  out  deciding  the  question 

of  etymology,  that  the  tiara  was  an  head-dress 

worn  by  Phrygian  and  Persian  priests  and  kings 


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at  sacrifices.  Hence  the  word  is  found  in  Gieek 
authors,  and  is  probably  deriyed  from  the  Persic — 

Phrygia  restitiir  bucca  tiara.  Juoentd, 

The  high  crowned  covering  for  the  head,  still 
worn  by  the  natives  of  Persia,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  low  turban  of  the  Turks,  is  worthy  of 
remarlc.  The  word  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
mitres  of  bishops.  The  French  attirery  is  to 
draw  to ;  attiraUf  is  the  apparatus  necessary  to 
an  equipage  or  adorning. 

Let  it  likewise  yoar  gentle  breast  inspire. 
With  sweet  infxision ;  and  put  you  in  mind 
Of  that  proud  maid^  whom  now  thosa  leaves  aUire, 
Proud  Daphne.  Spetuer. 

It  is  no  more  disgrace  to  Scripture,  to  have  left 
things  free,  to  be  ordered  by  the  church ;  than  for 
Nature,  to  have  left  it  to  the  wit  of  man,  to  devise  his 
own  attire.  Hooker. 

My  Nan  shall  be  the  queen  of  all  the  fairies ; 
Finely  aUXxrei  in  a  robe  of  white. 

ShaJupeare.  Mmry  Wkot  of  Wmiaor, 
With  the  linen  mitre  shall  he  be  ottirod. 

Leo,  xvi.  4. 
After  that,  the  Roman  attkre  grew  to  be  in  account, 
and  the  gown  to  be  in  use  among  them. 

Daniet  on  Ireiamd. 
Now  the  sappy  boughs 
Attiro  themselves  with  blooms.        FhxUpt, 
Whose  herds  with  milk,  whose  fields  with  bread. 

Whose  flocks  supply  him  with  atdro. 
Whose  trees  in -summer  yield  him  shade. 

In  winter  fire.  Pope*$  Wo  om  SdUude, 

Attire,  in  hunting;  the  attire  of  a  stag,  if 
perfect,  consists  of  bur,  pearls,  beam,  gutters, 
antler,  fur-antler,  royal,  fur-royal,  and  crotches ; 
and  that  of  a  buck,  of  the  bur,  beam,  brow- 
antler,  advancer,  palm,  and  spellers. 

ATTIRET  (John  Denis),  a  French  Jesuit  and 
painter,  was  bom  at  Dole,  in  Franche  Comt^, 
in  1702,  and  died  in  1768  at  Pekin,  whither  he 
had  accompanied  the  mission.  He  was  employed 
by  the  emperor  Kien  Long  to  paint  many  battle- 
pieces,  with  which  he  was  so  much  pleased,  that 
ne  offered  him  the  dignity  of  a  mandarin,  and 
when  he  declined  the  honor  of  the  title,  he  granted 
him  the  revenues  of  the  post. 

ATTITUDE.  Ital.  attitudme.  Supposed  to 
be  corrupted  from  low  Latin  aptitudo,  from  opto, 
I  fit.  A  term  used  by  the  Italians  in  the  art  of 
design,  to  denote  the  gesture  fitted  for  the  display 
of  grace,  beauty,  or  other  quality  of  form ;  ex- 
pressive posture. 

Bernini  would  have  taken  his  opinion,  upon  the 
beauty  and  oiHtyde  of  a  figure.  Prior^t  Ded. 

They  were  ftmous  originals,  that  gave  rise  to 
statues,  with  the  same  air,  posture,  and  at^iudea. 

Addum. 

ATTIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  promon- 
tory on  the  north-west  of  Corsica,  now  called 
Punta  di  Acciuolo. 

ATTLEBOROUGH,  a  town  in  Norfolk,  once 
the  capital  of  the  county,  on  the  road  from  Thet- 
ford  to  Norwich,  about  twelve  miles  from  each, 
and  ninety-three  frt>m  London.  It  is  also  called 
Attleburv.    Market,  Thursday. 

ATTOCK,  a  river  of  Asia,  which  rises  in  the 
Tartarian  mountains,  north  of  Ilindostan,  and 
passing  by  •Cabul,  falls  into  the  Indus.  By  a 
treaty  between  Kouli  Khan,  Schah  of  Persia,  and 


the  Great  Mogul,  it  was  made  the  boundary  b^ 
tween  Persia  and  India. 

Attock,  Atac,  a  limit,  a  town  in  the  province 
of  Lahore,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Indus,  which  is 
here,  in  the  month  of  July,  from  three-fourths  to 
one  mile  across.  Lat.  33**  6'  N.,  long.  71°  15'  E. 
The  ancient  name  of  Attock,  to  this  day,  is  Va- 
ranas,  or  Benares ;  but  it  is  more  generally  known 
by  the  name  of  Attock.  The  fortress  was  built 
by  Acber,  A.D.  1581. 

^  It  is  remarkable,'  says  Mr.  Hamilton, '  that  the 
three  great  invaders  of  Hindostap,  Alexander, 
Tamerlane,  and  Nadir  Shah,  in  three  distant 
ages,  and  with  views  and  talents  extremely  dif- 
ferent, advanced  by  the  same  route,  with  hardly 
any  deviation.  Alexander  had  the  merit  of  dis- 
covering the  way :  after  passing  the  mountains 
he  encamped  at  Alexandria  Paropamisana,  on 
the  same  site  with  the  modem  city  of  Candahar; 
and  having  subdued  or  conciliated  the  nations 
seated  on  the  north  west-bank  of  the  Indus,  he 
crossed  the  river  at  Taxila,  now  Attock,  the  only 
place  where  the  stream  is  so  tranquil  that  a  bridge 
can  be  thrown  over  it.' 

ATTOLLEIi^,  in  anatomy,  an  appellation 
given  to  several  muscles  otherwise  called  levatO'^ 
res  and  elevatores. 

ATTONITUS  Morbus,  Attonitus  Stlpor, 
an  apoplexy ;  also  being  planet-struck  or  blasted. 

ATTOR'N,  ■\     Fr.  attoumer;  aiior- 

Attob'ney,  V,  k  n.  ynarCf  Du  Fresne,  to  turn 

Attor'nsyship.      3  over  to,  or  transfer;  to 
perform  service.    Ang.-Sax.  tyrnan,  to  turn. 
As  I  was  then. 
Advertising  and  holy  to  your  business, 
Kor  changing  heart  with  habit ;  I  tm  still 
AUomiod  to  your  service.  Shaktpemre* 

But  marriage  is  a  matter  of  more  worth. 

Than  to  be  dealt  in  attomesfihip.  Id, 

I  will  attend  my  husband !  it  is  m  j  office ; 

And  will  have  no  attomotf  but  myself ; 

And  therefore  let  me  have  him  home.  Id, 

I  am  a  sulgeet. 

And  challenge  law  :  attomejft  are  deny'd  me  -, 

And  therefore  personally  I  lay  my  claim. 

To  mine  inheritance.  Id, 

The  king's  attomoy  on  the  contrary, 

Urgi'd  on  examinations,  proofs,  confusions.         Id, 
Despairing  quadn  with  curses  lied  the  place ; 

And  vile  atiornoya,  now  an  useless  race.         Pope. 

An  attonnesf  at  law  answers  to  the  procurator,  or 
proctor,  of  the  civilians  ai^d  canonists.  And  he  is 
one  who  is  put  in  the  place,  stead,  or  ram  of  another, 
to  manage  his  matters  of  law. 

BladuUme*t  CommenUariee, 

ATTORNARE  Personam,  in  conmion  law, 
to  depute  a  representative,  or  proxy,  to  appear 
and  act  for  another. 

Attornare  Rem,  to  turn  over  money  and  goods, 
that  is,  to  assign  and  appropriate  them  to  certain 
persons  or  uses. 

ATTORNATO  Faciendo,  vel  Recipiendo, 
in  common  law,  a  writ  to  conmiand  a  sheriff,  or 
steward,  to  receive  and  admit  an  attorney  to  ap- 
pear for  the  person  that  oweth  suit  of  court,  to  a 
cpunty  or  hundred.  Every  person  that  owes 
suit  to  the  county  court,  court-baron,  &c.  may 
make  an  attorney  to  do  his  suit. 

Attorney  at  Law  is  one  who  is  put  in  the 
place,  stead,  or  turn  of  another,  to  manage  his 


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ATTORNEY. 


matters  at  law.  Formerly  erery  stntot  was 
obliged  to  appear  in  person,  to  prosecute  or  de- 
fend his  snit  (according  to  the  old  Gothic  consti- 
tution,) unless  by  special  licence  under  the  king's 
letters  patent.  This  is  still  the  law  in  criminal 
cases ;  and  an  idiot  cannot  to  this  day  appear  by 
attorney,  but  in  person ;  for  he  hath  not  discre- 
tion to  enable  him  to  appoint  a  proper  substitute ; 
and,  upoi}  his  being  brought  before  the  cotirt  in 
so  defenceless  a  condition,  the  judges  are  bound 
to  take  caire  of  his  interests,  and  they  shall  admit 
the  best  plea  in  his  behalf  that  any  one  present 
can  suggest.  But,  as  in  £he  Roman  law,  when  it 
was  in  use,  one  person  couM  not  act  in  the  name 
ofi  another;  yet,  as  this  was  attended  mtk  no 
small  inconvenience,  men  were  allowed  to  litigate 
by  procurators ;  so  with  us,  on  the  same  principle 
of  convenience,  it  is  now  permifted  in  general, 
by  divers  ancient  statutes,  whereof  the  first  is  sea^ 
tute  West.  2,  c.  10,  that  attonieys  may  be  made 
to  prosecute  or  defend  any  action  in  the  absence 
of  the  parties  to  the  snit.  Attorneys  are  now, 
^erefore,  formed  into  a  fegnlar  profession ;  they 
are  admitted  to  the  execution  of  their  office  by 
the  superior  courts  of  Westminster  hall ;  are  in 
aSl  points  officers  of  the  respective  courts  in  which 
they  are  admitted ;  and  as  they  have  many  priti- 
leges  on  account  of  their  attendance  there,  so  (hey 
are  peculiarly  subject  to  the  censure  and  animad- 
version of  the  judges.  No  man  can  practise  as  an 
attorney  ttk  any  of  these  courts,  mit  soch  as  is 
admitted  and  sworn  an  attorney  of  that  particu- 
lar court.  To  fyractise  in  the  court  of  chanoery, 
it  is  also  necessary  to  be  admitted  a  solicitor 
therein  :  and  by  tAe  stattite  23  Geo.  II.  c.  49, 
no  person  shall  act  as  an  attorney  in  the  court  of 
<ivarter  sessions,  but  such  as  has  been  regularly 
admitted  in  some  superior  court  of  record.  So 
early  as  the  statute  4  Hen.  IV.  c.  18,  it  was  en- 
acted that  none  Should  be  admitted  attorneys  but 
such  as  were  virtuous,  learned,  and  sWom  to  do 
their  duty.  And  many  subsequent  statutes  have 
laid  them  under  farther  regulations. 

By  2  Geo.  II.  c.  23,  all  attornies  shall  be 
sworn,  administered,  and  enrolled,  before  they 
are  allowed  to  sue  writs  in  the  courts  of  West- 
minster; and,  after  the  1st  of  December,  1730, 
none  shall  be  permitted  to  practise  but  such  as  have 
served  a  clerkship  of  four  yeaw  to  an  attotftey, 
and  they  shall  be  examined,  swom,  and  admitted 
in  open  court.  Any  person  duly  admitted  a  so- 
licitor, may  be  admitted  an  attorney,  and  vice 
versa.  An  attorney's  bill  msy  be  taxed,  and  if 
it  be  reduced  a  sixth  part,  he  is  to  pay  the  costs 
of  taxation.  , 

By  34  Geo.  Itl.  c.  14,  every  person  bound 
as  clerk  to  an  attorney  of  the  courts  at  West- 
minster, pays  £l  00  stamp  duty.  After  admission 
in  one  court,  no  further  duties  are  required  for 
the  others.  Nor  are  farther  duties  required  for 
new  contracts  with  new  masters.  An  attorney  is 
privileged  from  being  pressed  as  a  soldier,  but  he 
may  be  drawn  for  the  militia.  lie  need  not 
serve  any  parochial  or  borough  office  against  his 
will.  They  may  sue  and  be  sued  only  in  their 
own  courts.  Special  bail  is  not  required  of* 
them  as  defendants;  as  plaintifR  they  may  de- 
mand it  Paymetit  to  the  attorney  is  payment 
lo  the  principal.    An  attorney  has  a  lien  on  the 


money  recovefed  fM  hin  clfwt^  and  Iks  nu^  re- 
tain the  amount  of  his  bill.     Attornies  may  be 

summarily  punished  by  an  attacfamenty  or  by 
being  struck  off  the  rolls  of  the  court  for  ilf- 
practice,  fraud,  or  corruption;  and  sometimes 
(in  order  to  be  called  to  the  bar)  they  are  struck 
off  the  roll  on  their  own  application. 

Attorney  General,  a  great  la^-officer  of  the 
crown,  whose  business  is  to  exhibit  informations, 
and  prosecute  for  the  crown,  in  matters  criminal;, 
also  to  file  hills  in  the  exchequer,  for  any  thing 
concerning  the  king  in  inheritance  or  profits; 
and  others  may  bring  bills  against  (he  king*s 
attorney.  His  proper  place  in  court,  upon  ani 
special  matters  of  a  criminal  nature,  wherein  his 
attendance  is  required,  is  under  the  judges  oo 
the  left  hand  of  the  clerk  of  the  crown ;  but  this 
is  only  upon  solemn  and  extraordinary  occasiobs ', 
for  usnally  he  does  not  sit  there,  but  within  the 
bar  in  the  hce  of  the  court  The  queen  consort 
is  also  privileged  to  hafe  an  attorney-general. 

AtTORHET    op    the    DUCHT    C0T7BT  OP  L.A1I- 

CASTER  is  the  second  officer  in  that  court ;  placed 
as  assessor  to  the  chancellor  of  the  court 

ATTORNMENT,  attoumer,  old  French,  to 
turn  over  to;  under  the  feudal  system,  the  assent 
of  a  tenant  to  his  lord's  alienation  of  the  seignoiy ; 
thus  securing  him  against  having  his  fealty  and 
services  transferred  to  another  without  his  know- 
ledge. There  was  a  reciprocal  obligation  on  the 
tenant  to  obtain  the  lord's  consent  to  any  aliena- 
tion. 

ATTRACT' ».«&». 
Attractabil'itt, 
Attrac'tiok, 
Attrac'tivb,  a.  &  atff, 
ArrKAc'tivELv^ 

AtTRAC'tIT  EN  ESS, 

Attrao'tor. 
real  but  subtle  agency  in' drawing  an  object  to 
its  subject;  to  conoiliale,  to  win  the  heart,  to 
gain  the  affections^ 

Setting  the  tfMroeAM  nf  tty  good  paita  aride,  I  havt 
BO  other  ckanao. 


Lat«MrwAo,al/rar- 
turn,  to  draw  to; 
from  ad  and  traho, 
*'ftom  tram  veho,  lo 
cany  over,  Voscius. 
To  draw  to^  bn^ 
over;  to  exercise  a 


The  drawing  of  amknr  atfd  jet,  and  other  eleclrick 
bodies ;  and  the  oMrtteffon  in  gold,  of  the  spirit  of 
qnickulver  at  distance  ;  and  th«  attnetim  of  heat,  at 
distance;  and  that  of  fire^  to  naphtha;  and  that  of 
tome  herbs  to  water,  though  at  diistance;  and  divas 
others,  we  shall  handle.  Boco*. 

What,  if  the  sun 
Be  centre  to  the  world ;  and  other  Stan, 
By  his  aUtaetiu  virtue  and  theh*  own 
Indeed,  dance  aboct  him  tariods  rounds  T 

MUton. 
AdomM 
She  was  indeed,  and  lovely,  to  attract 
Thy  love  ^  not  thy  anbjeetion.  Id. 

Loadstones  and  tonched  needles,  laid  long  in  qnick- 
silver,  have  not  amitted  their  atinction. 

Brown't  Vmigar  Emmn. 

If  the  straws  be  in  oil,  amber  draweth  them  net ; 

oil  makes  the  straws  to  adhere  so,  that  they  cannot 

rise  onto  the  attraetar.  id, 

A  man  should  scarce  persuade  ^o  affections  of  the 

loadstone,  or  that  jet  and  amber  ottractefA  amwa  and 

light  bodies.  Id, 

Shew  the  care  of  approving  all  actioifs  so,  as  may 

most  effectnally  aUract  all'to  this  pcofiMsion. 


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F«eli  dastft  and  chanat  mttrmtt  and  flanesy 
•  And  woo  and  contract  in  their  names.  JSudibrat, 
There  were  then  the  aame  incentivet  of  desire  on 
the  one  sidoj  the  same  ottraetmeMts  in  riches,  the 
same  relish  in  sovereignty.  8ouih.  Sennan  xiv.  293. 
AUraetUm  may  be  perfoimed  by  impolse,  or  some 
other  means ;  I  nse  that  word,  to  signify  any  force 
by  which  bodies  tend  towards  one  another. 

Newton'M  OpHekt, 
Attract,  attracted  to,  the  next  in  place, 
Form'd  and  impell'd  its  neighboar  to  embrace. 

Pope, 
Deign  to  be  lor'd,  and  ev'iy  heart  tnbdoe ! 
What  nymph  coold  e'er  attract  soeh  crowds,  as  yon  f 

id. 
Homer  hwries  and  transports  vs  with  a  oo«iBian4« 
ing  impetnoeity,  Virgil  leads  as  with  an  attnutioe  ma« 
jesty.  Id, 

As  the  atirtictne  power  in  bodies  is  the  most  ujbuu 
veisal  principle  which  produceth  innomerable  effects, 
so  the  corresponding  social  appetite  in  human  soolj 
is  the  great  spring  and  source  of  moral  actions. 

Berhelejf. 
Ah !  why  was  nun  so  atfracthe  made. 
Or,  why  fond  man  so  easily  betrayM  f 
Why  heed  we  not,  while  mad  we  haste  along. 
The  gentle  voice  of  Peace,  or  Pleasnre's  song  Y 

CbffMf. 
Fovoflts  in  every  age  must  b«ve  had  mttraetm  hor* 
ton:   otherwise  so  many  nations  would  not  have 
resorted  thither  to  eelebrato  tha  xitea  ol  sopeistition. 

Beattie. 

Attraction.  The  wofd  attraction  i|  em- 
ployed  to  express  the  power  by  which,  bodies 
approach  each  other ;  or  rather  that  whidh  gives 
them  the  tendency  to  this  approximaikkm.  It  is 
considered  and  designated  mfferently  as  its  ope- 
ration is  upon  greater  or  less  distances,  and  as 
the  masses  or  particles  of  matter  are  affected  1^ 
it.  In  the  first  instance,  m.  that  of  operation 
throu^  distance,  and  npoQ  mass,  the  power  is 
termed  gravitatum,  while  contiguous  attraction 
denotes  tne  agency  of  the  power  as  exerted  upon 
minute  particles,  and  as  operating  upon  dis- 
tances that  are  not  sensil}le. 

AU  bodies  composing  the  material  system  of 
*he  universe  are  considered  as  having  a  mutual 
disposition  to  approadi  each  other,  what- 
ever may  be  the  distances  at  which  Ihey  are 
placed.  The  nature  or  absolutely  essential  prin- 
ciple of  this  gravitating  tendency  is  of  course 
unknown ;  but  many  of  its  laws  hare  been  in- 
▼estigated  and  satisfactorily  applied  to  the  explar 
nation  of  phenomena.  'Die  main  and  leaning 
•circnmstances  which  dharaetense  gravitation  aie 
Ihese,  that  its  action  on  bodies  is  direcdy  as  the 
mass  or  quantity  of  matter,  and  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance.  These,  theoy  are  die 
laws  of  gravitation  generally.  (See  Gravita- 
tion.) But  there  are  other  species  of  attractions 
-which  likewise  seem  to  be  m  opetation  upon 
mass  and  at  distance,  but  which  are  apparently 
peculiar  in  modification.  Snch  are  the  magnetic 
«id  electric  attractions,  which  some  philosopben, 
liowever,  are  disposed  to  generalize  mto  an  iden- 
tity with  the  power  just  s^dverted  to.  See  Mag- 
VETiSM  and  Electricity. 

But  masses  of  matter  are  necessarily  composed 
of  minute  particles,  and  the  power  by  which 
this  combination  of  sepamte  particles  into  a  whole 
ut  mass  is  efiectad,  is  termed,  as  wc  have  above 


staled}  contiguous  aUiaction;  this  being  again 
subdivided  into  the  attractiou  of  cohesion  or 
aggregation;  and  into  chemical  attraction  or 
acuity ;  the  former  being  exerted  between  par- 
ticles of  difieieot  kinds  of  matter :  the  first  unites 
bodies  so  as  to  form  aggregates,  the  essential 
properties  of  whidi  are  the  same  as  that  of  the 
particles  which  compose  it ;  the  second  forming 
substances  which  have  qualities  different  from 
those  of  the  bodies  that  have  entered  into  com- 
bination. 

These  two  varieties  of  contiguous  attraction 
may  perhaps  be  viewed  as  ultimately  the  same 
power,  the  difference  of  their  effects  being  rather 
referoble  to  the  difference  of  the  material  operated 
upon ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  consider  them  dis- 
tinctly, as  the  effects  which  they  respectively  pro- 
dnce,  are  themselves  so  differrat. 

The  attraction  of  cohesion  or  aggregation  is 
exerted  with  the  greatest  force  and  effect  when 
the  boAy  is  at  its  maximum  of  solidity.  In  this 
case  ^e  particles  which*  compose  the  mass  v» 
united  by  a  reciprocal  attraction  of  such  energy, 
that  they  oppose  mechanical  attempts  at  sepa« 
ration,  as  is  instanced  in  the  force  requixed  to 
Ifreak  a  solid  compact  stone ;  but  the  attractive 
energy  seems  in  different  states  of  solidification 
to  be  exerted  with  different  degrees  of  strength ; 
then,  again,  firom  loose  solid,  the  gradation  pro- 
ceeds to  absolute  liquid,  and  ultimately  to  gaseous 
and  vaporous  existence ;  in  the  ratio  indeed  of 
departure  from  solidity  does  the  attraction  of 
cohesion  become  weaker  and  weaker.  In  the 
condition  of  fluidity  '  it  is  only  exerted  under 
such  a  modification,  that  a  slight  impulse  is  suffi- 
cient to  disunite  the  parts,  and  scarcely  any  re- 
sistance is  now  opposed  to  any  force,  the  opera- 
tion of  which  is  to  bring  these  into  new  arrange- 
ments ;*  and^  when  vaporous  exiatepce  obtains^ 
this  resistance  is  entirely  overcome,  <  the  paiti* 
des  instead  of  attracting,  now  repel  each  oiher ; 
they  are  made  to  approximate  only  by  pressure, 
and  they  recede  when  this  is  withdrawn.  Bodies, 
therefore,  exist  in  the  aeriform,  the  liquid,  or  tha 
solid  sute,  according  as  this  attraction  is  exerted 
between  their  particles,  and  it  is  this  power  which 
unites  their  particles.* 

It  was  supposed  by  the  eariier  philosophers, 
that  as  the  attraction  of  gravitation  influences 
bodies  with  a  force  inversely  as  the  squares  of  the 
distance,  so  the  laws  of  attraction  between  the 
particles  themselves  follow  the  same  ratio;  but 
the  acUiesion  of  bodies  is  found  to  be  much 
fpeabet  than  could  be  inferred  from  this  source 
and  it  was  therefore  conceived  that  cohesive 
attraction  is  governed  by  a  much  higher  ratio, 
and  probably  the  cube  of  the  distances.  *  The 
modems  on  the  contrary,  among  whom  are 
Bergman,  Guyton  Morveau,  and  others,  have 
remariLcd  that  these  deductions  are  too  general, 
because  fotr  the  most  part  drawn  from  the  con- 
sideration of  sphericaU  bodies,  which  admit  of 
no  contact  but  such  as  is  indefinitely  small,  and 
exert  the  same  powers  on  each  other,  whichever 
side  may  be  obverted.  They  remade  likewise, 
that  the  consequence  depending  upon  the  sum 
of  the  attractions  in  bodies  not  spherical,  and  at 
minute  distances  from  each  other,  will  not  follow 
the  inverted  ratio  of  the  square  of  the  distanoa 


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taken  from  any  point  •ssumed  as  the  centre  of 
gravity,  admitting  the  particles  to  be  governed 
by  that  law ;  but  that  it  will  greatly  differ  accord- 
ing to  the  sides  of  the  solids  which  are  presented 
to  each  other,  and  their  respective  distances ;  in- 
somuch that  the  attractions  of  certain  particles 
indefinitely  near  each  other  will  be  indefinitely 
increased,  though  the  ratio  of  the  powers  acting 
upon  the  remoter  particles,  may  continue  nearly 
the  same.'^l/re. 

Much  however  is  requisite  in  application  to 
the  rationale  of  minute  attraction,  if  it  may  be  so 
expressed,  before  a  generalisation  of  its  laws  can 
be  admitted,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  with 
respect  to  the  principle  of  gravitation  generally. 
<  Speculation  on  these  heads  (says  the  same  able 
autnor  from  whom  we  have  above  extracted,) 
may  be  regarded  in  ihe  present  state  of  science 
as  standing  much  in  the  same  situation  as  the 
theory  of  gravity,  Which  is  minutely  described  in 
Plutarch,  did  with  regard  to  astronomy  "before 
tiie  time  of  Newton.  A^tbe  celestial  phenomena 
were  formerly  arranged  from  observation  merely, 
but  are  now  computed  from  the  physical  cause, 
gravitation,  so,  at  present,  the  science  now  re- 
ferred to,  is  ihe  science  of  matter  of  fiict  dul^ 
arranged,  without  the  assistance  of  any  extensive 
theory,  immediately  deduced  from  the  figures, 
volumes,  densities,  or  mutual  actions  of  the  par- 
ticles of  bodies.' 

As  matter  of  fiict,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  that  to  the  power  of  cohesive  attraction 
is  opposed  those  influences  which  alter  the  forms 
of  bodies  from  solids  to  fluids,  and  from  fluids 
to  vapor ;  and  that  aggregation  is  thus  weaken- 
ed or  overcome  by  three  opposing  influences, 
viz.  mechanical  violence,  heat,  and  chemical 
agency.  The  first  is  instanced  in  the  operation 
of  powdering  or  pulverising,  and  other  processes 
by  which  separation  to  a  greater  than  natural 
distance  is  effected  of  the  constituent  particles  of 
matter.  With  respect  to  heat  it  is  to  be  observed, 
that  if  a  solid  substance  be  exposed  to  it  under 
circumstances  favorable  to  its  action,  the  volume 
of  the  substance  is  enlarged,  the  particles  com- 
posing it  are  therefore  separated  from  each  other, 
and  the  attraction  by  which  they  were  kept  in 
noion  is  counteracted.  The  enlargement  of 
Tolume  continuing  to  proceed  as  the  heat  is  in- 
creased, until  the  point  is  reached,  at  which  the 
attraction  is  so  frur  modified  that  the  body  passes 
into  a  fluid  form.  If  the  application  of  heat  be 
continued,  the  particles  are  still  further  separated 
from  each  other ;  and  this  still  continues  increasr 
ing  until  the.attraction  between  them  is  overcome, 
a  repulsion  is  established,  and  the  fluid  passes 
into  the  aerial  form.  Chemical  action,  as  we 
have  above  remarked,  is  capable  of  efiecting  the 
same  formative  change.  If^  a  liquid  be  poured 
on  a  solid,  it  often  happens  that  from  the  mutual 
attraction  exerted  between  them,  the  aggregation 
of  tlie  s61id  is  subverted,  its  particles  are  detach- 
ed and  diffused  through  the  liquid  so  as  to  be  no 
longer  perceptible,  end  not  even  to  impair  the 
transparency.  This  constitutes  the  chemical 
process  named  solution,  which  is  merely  a  case 
of  chemical  combination,  differing  from  others 
in  the  circumstance  that  one  of  the  bodies  exists 
iu  the  liquid  form,  and  communicates  that  form 


to  the  other.  It  is  the  result  of  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  mutual  affinity  of  the  liquid  and 
solid  over  the  cohesion  of  the  solid.  The  affinity 
exerted  to  a  solid  by  a  substance  in  tbp  aeria! 
form  may  in  like  manner  overcome  its  cohesion 
and  cause  it  to  pass  into  the  aeriform  state.  And 
even  the  mutual  attraction  exerted  between  two 
^  solids  is  sometimes  Such  as  to  diminish  the  power 
of  cohesion  in  each  so  as  to  admit  of  their  union 
and  their  transition  to  a  liquid  state. 

We  have  now  to  notice  those  changes  in  bo- 
dies, which,  as  opposed  to  their  mere  formatrre 
existence,  may  be  regarded  as  the  manifestatioir 
more  directly  and  unequivocally  of  what  would 
be  called  chemical  agency ;  vix.  that,  in  which 
the  power  is  exerted  between  the  particles  or 
atoms  of  different  kinds ;  the  result  of  the  union 
effected  by  this  affinity  not  being  a  mere  aggregate, 
having  the  same  essential  properties,  though  per- 
haps different  in  form,  but  being  altogether  a 
new  material. 

It  is  remarkable  that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  the 
first  to  indicate  with  precision,  the  nature  and 
extent  of  this  power,  as  well  as  that  of  gravita- 
tion. In  his  letter  to  Mr.  Boyle,  containing  ob- 
servations on  the  nature  of  acids,  and  m  other 
publications,  he  speaks  of  bodies  combining  in 
tome  cases,  and  refusing  to  unite  in  others,  be- 
cause in  the  one  instance  an  attracti(>n  exbts,  iir 
the  other  it  does  not ;  and  he  iurtlier  talks  of 
comppunds  being  again  decomposed  by  the 
agency  of  another  body,  owing  to  an  attraction 
exerted  by  that  body  to  one  of  the  principles  of 
the  compound,  superior  in  force  to  the  first  at- 
traction. 

Since  the  time  of  Newton,  the  subject  of  chemi- 
cal attraction,  or  the  attraction  of  affinity,  has  been 
investigated  with  abundant  ardor,  and  vnth  great 
success ;  minute  observation  of  its  laws  and  the  phe- 
nomena it  produces,  has  devdopeda  multituaeof 
most  interesting  facts  and  principles  which  will 
fall  to  be  noticed  under  the  head  of  Chemistry, 
and  in  other  parts  of  this  work.  But  there  is 
one  leading  principle  by  which  it  is  regulated 
that  demands  to  be  noticed  in  the  present  article ; 
it  is  this,  that  there  is  ^  general  reciprocity  of 
saturating  proportions  in  uniting  bodies ;  or,  in 
other  woras,  that  combioatiou  is  effected  in 
definite  proportions ;  the>  full  development  of 
this  law  was  made  by  Mr.  Dalton,  who  has  thus 
overturned  the  doctrine  of  indefinite  affinity 
taught  by  the  celebrated  Berthollet,  and  has  been 
successful  in  showing  *  that  the  different  com- 
pounds of  the  same  principles  do  not  pass  into 
each  other  by  imperceptible  gradations,  but  pro- 
ceed in  successive  proportions,  each  a  multiple 
of  the  first.' 

So  far  indeed  as  the  hd  of  definite  proportions 
goes,  we  ought  to  give  the  credit  ot  discovery 
and  detection  to  Richter  of  Berlin.  Mr.  Iliggins 
too,  in  his  Comparative  View  of  the  Phlogistic 
and  Antiphlogistic  Theory,  published  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  1789,  had  plainly  indicated 
Uie  doctrine  of  multiple  proportion,  with  respect 
to  the  successive  compounds  of  the  same  consti- 
tuents ;  but  to  Mr.  Dalton  is  due  the  merit  of 
having,  to  use  the  language  of  Dr.  WoUaston, 
shown,  *  that  in  all  cases  the  simple  elements  of 
bodies  are  disposed  to  unite  atom  to  atom  aingly ; 


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or  if  either  is  in  exoeis,  it  exceeds  by  ft  ratio  to 
be  expressed  by  some  multiple  of  the  number  of 
its  atoms.' 

In  the  course  of  our  researches,  undertaken  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  the  reader  a  correct  notion 
of  tnis  theory,  we  have  found  no  statement  more 
dear  and  explicit  on  the  subject  than  that  which 
we  have  met  with  in  the  last  edition  of  Dr. 
Henry's  Elements  of  Chemistry.  We  proceed, 
therefore,  to  extract  largely  from  that  section  of 
this  work  which  is  devoted  to  the  consideration 
of  the  atomic  theory ;  the  several  objections  that 
have  been  proposed  to  this  theory,'  we  purpose 
canvassing  in  the  article  Chemistry,  under  wnich 
head  many  opportunities  will  necessarily  occur 
of  repeatedly  adverting,  both  in  direct  and  inci- 
dental ways,  to  the  doctrine  under  notice.  We 
shall  here,  however,  take  occasion  to  say,  with 
the  author  from  whom  we  are  about  to  extract, 
that  the  instances  in  which  the  theory  agrees  with 
the  results  of  analysis  are  too  numerous  to  be 
considered  as  accidental  coincidences ;  and  no 
phenomena  have  hitherto  been  shown  to  be  irre- 
concileable  with  the  hypothesis.  Its  value  and 
importance,  if  not  contradicted  by  new  &cts,  will 
be  scarcely  less  felt  as  a  guide  to  further  inves- 
tigations into  the  constitution  of  bodies,  than  as 
a  test  of  the  accuracy  of  our  present  knowledge  ; 
and  the  umyersalx^r  of  its  application  to  chemical 
phenomena,  will  be  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of 
the  law  of  gravitation,  in  explaining  the  facts  of 
natiiral  philosophy. 

In  the  chemical  combination  of  bodies  with 
each  other,  says  Dr.  H.  a  few  leading  circum- 
stances deserve  to  be  remarked. 

1st.  Some  bodies  unite  in  all  proportions;  for 
example,  water  and  sulphuric  acid,  or  water  and 
alcohol. 

2dly.  Other  bodies  combine  in  all  proportions, 
as  far  as  a  certain  point,  beyond  which,  combina- 
tion no  longer  takes  place.  Thus  water  will  take 
up  successive  portions  of  common  salt,  until  at 
length  it  becomes  incapable  of  dissolving  any 
more.  In  cases  of  this  sort,  as  well  as  in  those  in- 
cluded under  the  first  head,  combination  is  weak 
and  easily  destroyed,  and  the  qualities,  which 
belonged  to  the  components  in  their  separate 
state,  continue  to  be  apparent  in  the  compound. 

3dly.  There  are  many  examples  in  which  bo- 
dies unite  in  one  proportion  only ;  and  in  all 
such  cases  the  proportion  of  the  elements  of  a 
compound  must  be  uniform  for  the  species.  Thus 
hydrogen  and  chlorine  unite  in  no  other  propor- 
tions than  those  constituting  muriatic  acid, 
which,  by  weight,  are  1  of  the  former  to  36  of  the 
latter.  In  cases  of  this  sort,  combination  is  ge- 
nerally energetic ;  and  the  characteristic  qualities 
of  the  components  are  no  longer  observable  in  the 
compound. 

4tnly.  Other  bodies  unite  in  several  propor- 
tions ;  but  these  proportions  are  definite,  ana,  in 
the  intermediate  ones,  no  combination  ensues. 
Thus  six  parts  by  weight  of  charcoal  combine 
with  8  of  oxygen,  or  with  16,  but  not  with  inter- 
mediate quantities;  64  parts  copper  combine  with 
8  of  oxygen,  or  with  16,  and  with  tliose  propor- 
tions only. 

It  is  further  remarkable,  that  when  one  body 
enters  into  combination  with  another,  in  several 


different  proportions,'  the  numbers  indicating  the 
greater  proportions  are  exacdy  simple  multiples 
of  that  denoting  the  smallest  proportion.  In 
other  words,  if  Uie  smallest  proportion  in  which 
B  combines  with  A,  be  denoted  by  10,  A  may ' 
combine  with  twice  10  of  B,  or  with  three  times 
10,  and  so  on :  but  with  no  intermediate  quan- 
tities. There  cannot  be  more  striking  instances 
of  this  law  than  those  above  mentioned,  of  the 
compounds  of  copper  and  charcoal  with  oxygen; 
in  wnich  the  oxygen  of  the  last  compound  may,. 
in  both  cases,  be  observed  to  be  a  multiple  of 
that  of  the  first  by  the  number  2.  Examples, 
indeed,  of  this  kind  have,  of  late,  so  much  in- 
creased in  number,  that  the  Taw  of  simple  multi- 
ples, first  discovered  by  Mr.  Dalton,  bids  fair  to 
become  universal  with  respect  at  least  to  chemi- 
cal compounds,  the  proportions  of  which  are 
definite. 

Facts  of  this  kind  are  not  only  important  in 
themselves,  but  also  on  account  of  the  generali- 
sations that  have  been  deduced  from  them ;  for 
on  them  Mr.  Dalton  has  founded  what  may  be 
termed  the  atomic  theory  of  the  chemical  con- 
stitution of  bodies.  Till  this  theory  was  pro- 
posed, we  had  no  adequate  explanation  of^the 
uniformity  of  the  proportions  or  chemical  com- 
pounds; or  of  the  nature  of  the  cause  which 
renders  combination,  in  other  proportions,  im- 
possible. In  this  place  I  shall  offer  only  a  brief 
illustration  of  the  theory ;  for  in  the  course  of 
the  work  I  shall  have  occasion  to  apply  it  to  the 
explanation  of  a  variety  of  phenomena. 

Though  we  appear,  when  we  effect  the  chemi- 
cal union  of  booies,  to  operate  on  masses,  yet  it 
is  consistent  with  the  most  rational  view  of  the 
constitution  of  bodies  to  believe,  that  it  is  only  . 
between  their  ultimate  particles,  or  atoms,  that 
combination  takes  place.  By  the  term  atoms,  it 
has  been  already  stated,  we  are  to  understand 
the  smallest  parts  of  which  bodies  are  composed. 
The  infinite  divisibility  of  matter,  indeed,  against 
which  powerful  arguments  before  existed,  has 
been  rendered  still  less  probable  by  Dr.  Wollas- 
ton,  in  his  essay  on  the  *  Finite  Extent  of  the 
Atmosphere'  (Phil.  Trans.  1822);  all  the  phe- 
nomena according  with  the  supposition  that  the 
earth's  atmosphere  *  is  of  finite  extent,  limited 
by  the  weight  of  ultimate  atoms  of  definite  mag- 
nitude, no  longer  divbible  by  repulsion  of  their 
parts.'  An  atom,  therefore,  must  be  mechani- 
cally indivisible,  and  of  course  a  fraction  of  an 
atom  icannot  exist,  and  b  a  contradiction  in 
terms. 

The  atoms  of  all  bodies  probably  consist  of  a 
solid  corpuscle,  forming  a  nucleus,  and  of  an  at- 
mosphere of  heat,  by  which  that  corpuscle  is 
surrounded ;  for  absolute  contact  is  never  sup- 
posed to  take  place  between  the  atoms  of  bodies. 
The  figure  of  a  simple  atom  may  readily,  there- 
fore, be  conceived  to  be  spherical.  But  in  com- 
pound atoms,  consisting  of  a  single  central  atom, 
surrounded  by  other  atoms  of  a  different  kind,  it 
is  obvious  that  the  figure  (contemplating  the  solid 
corpuscles  only)  cannot  be  spherical ;  yet  if  we 
include  the  atmosphere  of  heat,  the  figure  of  a 
compound  atom  may  be  spherical,  or  some  shape 
approaching  to  a  sphere.  •  To  determine  tne 
relative  diameters  of  the  atoms  of  bodies  is  a 


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ATTRACTION. 


problem  of  considerable  difficulty.  With  respect 
to  those  of  elastic  fluids,  it  was  some  time  ago 
efl*ected  by  Mr.  Dalton  (New  Syst  p-  226),  and 
the  same  principle  has  been  lately  extended  by 
Mr.  Emmett  to  solid  and  liquid  bodies.  (Ann. 
Phil.  N.  S  .  ix.  110). 

Takmg  for  granted  that  combination  takes 
place  between  the.  atoms  of  bodies  only,  Mr. 
Dalton  has  deduced,  from  the  relative  weights 
in  which  bodies  unite,  the  relative  weights  of 
their  ultimate  particles,  or  atoms,  which  is  all 
that  we  are  likely  to  determine  respecting  them; 

1  atom  of  A  +  1  atom  of  B 

1  atom  of  A  -j-  2  atoms  of  B 

2  atoms  of  A  -f  1  atom  of  B 
1  atom  of  A  4-  3  atoms  of  B 

3  atoms  of  A  +  ^  &tom  of  B 


for  it  is  not  probable  that  our  knowledge  will 
ever  extend  beyond  the  ratios  of  these  w^ts. 
When  only  one  combination  of  any  two  elemeiv 
tary  bodies  exists,  he  assumes,  unless  the  con- 
trary can  be  proved,  that  its  elements  are  united 
atom  to  atom  singly.  Combinations  of  this  son 
he  calls  binary.  But  if  several  compounds  can 
be  obtained  from  ihe  same  elements^  they  com- 
bine, he  supposes,  in  proportions,  expre»ed  by 
some  simple  multiple  of  the  number  of  atoms. 
The  following  table  exhibits  a  view  of  some  of 
these  combinations: 

=  1  atom  of  C,  binary. 
=  1  atom  of  D,  ternary. 
=  1  atom  of  E,  ternary. 
=  1  atom  of  F,  quaternary. 
==  1  atom  of  G,  quaternary. 


A  different  classification  of  atoms  has  been  pro-  with  2  of  •  A,  or  with  3,  4,  &c.  When  such  a 
posed  by  Berzelius,  viz.  1st,  elementary  atoms;  ^series .of  compounds  exists,  the  relative  propor- 
2dly,  compound  atoms.    The_  compound  atoms    tion  of  their  dements  oa^  necessarily,  on  ana- 


he  divides  again  into  three  different  species,  viz. 
1st,  atoms  formed  of  only  two  elementary  sub- 
stances united,  or  compound  atoms  of  the  first 
order :  2dly,  atoms  composed  of  more  than  two 
elementary  substances ;  and  these,  as  th^  are 
only  found  in  organic  bodies,  or  bodies  obtained 
by  the  destruction  of  o^rganic  matter,  he  calb  or- 
ganic atoms  :  3dly,  atoms  formed  by  the  union 
of  two  or  more  compound  atoms ;  as  for  exam- 
ple, the  salts.  These  he  calls  compound  atoms 
of  the  second  order. 


lysis,  to  be  proved  to  be  5  of  A  to  4  of  B ;  or 
5  to  (4  -f  4  =)  8 ;  or  5  to  (4  +  4  =)  12,  &c.; 
or  contrariwise,  4  of  B  to  5  of  A;  or  4  to  (5  + 
5  =)  10 ;  or  4  to  (5  +  5  +  5  =)  15.  Be- 
tween  these  there  ought  to  be  no  intermediate 
compounds :  and  the  existence  of  any  such  (as 
5  of  A  to  6  of  B,  or  4  of  B  to  7i  of  A)  would,  if 
deariy  established,  militate  againsi  the  hypo- 
thesis. 

To  verify  these  numbers,  it  may  be  proper  to 
examine  the  combinations  of  A  and  B  with  some 


If  elementary  atoms  of  different  kinds  were  of  third  substance,  for  example,  with  C.    Let  us 

the  same  size,  the  greatest  number  of  the  atoms  suppose  that  A  and  C  form  a  binary  compound, 

of  A  thoX  could  be  combined  with  an  atom  of  B  in  which  analysis  discovers  5  parts  of  A  aiid  3  of 

would  be  12 ;  for  this  is  the  ^eatest  number  of  C.    Then,  if  C  and  B  are  also  capable  of  foim- 

sphencal  bodies  that  can  be  arranged  in  contact  ing  a  binary  compound,  the  relative  proportion 

with  a  sphere  of  the  same  diameter.     But  this  of  its  elements  ought  to  be  4  of  B  to  3  of  C ;  for 

equality  of  size,  though  adopted  by  Berzelius,  is  these  numbers  denote  the  relative  weights  of 

not  necessary  to  the  nypothesis  of  Mr.  Dalton^  their  atoms.    Now  this  is  precisely  the  method 

and  is,  indeed,  supposed  by  him  not  to  exist.  by  which  Mr.  Dalton  has  deduced  the  relative 

As  an  illustration  of  the  mode  in  which  the  weights  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen ;  the 

weight  of  the  atoms  of  bodies  is  determined,  let  two  first  from  the  known  composition  of  water, 

us  suppose  that  any  two  elementary  substances,  and  the  two  last  from  the  proportion  of  the  ele- 

A  and  B,  form  a  binary  compound ;  and  that  ments  of  ammonia.    Extending  the  comparison 

they  have  been  proved  experimentally  to  unite  in  to  a  variety  of  other  bodies,  be  has  obtained  a 

the  proportion,  oy  weigh^  of  5  of  the  former  to  scale  of  the  relative  weights  of  their  atoms. 
4  01  the  latter ;  then,  since,  according  to  the       In  several  instances,  aidditional  evidence  is  ac- 

hypothesis,  they  unite  particle  to  particle,  those  quired  of  the  accuracy  of  the  weight,  assigned  to 

numbers  will  express  me  relative  weights  of  their  an  element,  by  our  obtaining  the  same  number 

atoms.  '  But  besides  combining  atom  to  atom  from  the  investigation  of  several  of  its  oom- 

singly,  1  atom  of  A  may  combine  with  2  of  B,  pounds.    For  example : 
or  wi^  3,  4,  &c.    Or  1  atom  of  B  may  unite 

1.  In  water,  the  hydrogen  is  to  the  oxygen  as    .    1  to  8. 

2.  In  olefiant  gas,  the  hydrogen  is  to  the  carbon  as  1  to  6. 

3.  In  carbonic  oxide,  the  oxygen  is  to  the  carbon  as  8  to  6. 

Whether,  therefore,  we  determine  the  weight        In  selecting  the  body,  which  should  be  as- 

of  the  atom  of  carbon,  from  the  proportion  in  sumed  as  unity,  Mr.  Dalton  has  been  induced  to 


which  it  combines  with  hydrogen,  or  with  oxy- 
gen, we  arrive  at  the  same  number  6 :  an  agree- 
ment which,  as  it  occurs  in  various  other 
instances^  can  scarcely  be  an  accidental  coinci- 
dence. In  a  similar  manner,  8  is  dfeducible,  as 
representing  the  atom  of  oxysen,  both  from  the 
combination  of  that  base  with  hydrogen  and  widi 
caibon;  and  1  is  inferred  to  be  the  reUtive 
weight  of  the  atom  of  hydrogen  from  the, two 
principal  compounds  into  which  ttenten. 


fix  on  hydrogen,  because  it  is  that  body  which 
unites  with  others  in  the  smallest  proportion. 
Thus,  in  water,  we  have  1  of  hydrogen  by  weight 
to  8  of  oxygen ;  in  olefiant  gas,  1  of  hydrogen 
to  6  of  carbon ;  and  in  sulphureted  hydrogen, 
1  of  hydrogen  to  16  of  sulphur.  Taking  for 
granted  that  all  these  bodies  are  binary  com- 
pounds, we  have  the  following  scale  of  numbers, 
expressive  of  the  relative  weights  of  the  atoms  of 
their  elements : 


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A  T  T  R  A 

Uydfogen 1 

Oxygen 8 

*     Carbon 6 

Sulphur 16 

Drs.  t^llaston  and  Thomson^  and  Professor 
Berzelius,  on  the  other  hand,  have  assumed 
•xygen  aa  the  decimal  unit  (the  first  making  it 
10,  the  second  1,  and  the  third  100),  chiefly  with 
a  view  to  facilitate  the  estimation  of  its  numer- 
ous compounds  with  other  bodies.  This,  it 
appears  to  me,  i^  to  be  regretted,  even  though 
the  change  may  be  in  some  respects  for  the  bet- 
ter, because  it  is  extremely  desirable  that  chemi- 
cal writers  should  employ  an  universal  standard 
of  comparison  for  the  weights  of  the  atoms  of 
bodies.  It  is  easy,  however,  to  reduce  their 
numbers  to  Mr.  Dalton's  by  the  rule  of  propor- 
tion. Thus  as  8  (Mr.  Dalton's  number  lor  oxy- 
gen, corrected  by  the  latest  experiments),  is  to  1 
(his  number  for  hydrogen),  so  is  10  (Dr.  Wolla»- 
ton's  number  for  oxygen),  to  1*25,  the  number 
for  hydrogen. 

Sir  H.  Davy  has  assumed,  vrith  Mr.  Dalton, 
the  atom  of  hydrogen  as  unity :  but  tbit  philo- 
sopher, and  Berzelius  also,  have  modified  the 
theory,  bv  taking  for  granted  that  water  is  a 
compound  of  one  proportion  (atom)  of  oxygen, 
and  two  proportions  (atoms)  of  hydrogen.  This 
is  founded  on  the  fact,  that  two  measure^  of  hy- 
drogen gas,  and  one  of  oxygen  gas,  are  neces- 
sary to  form  water;  and  on  the  supposition, 
that  equal  measures  of  different  gases  contain 
equal  numbers  of  atoms.  And  as,  in  water,  the 
hydrogen  is  to  the  oxygen  by  weight  as  one  to 
eiglit,  two  atoms  or  volumes  of  hydrogen  must, 
on  this  hypothesis,  weigh  one,  and  one  atom  or 
volume  of  oxygen  eight;  or  if  we  denote  a  single 
atom  of  hydrogen  by  one,  we  must  express  an 
atom  of  oxygen  by  sixteen.  It  is  objectionable, 
however,  to  this  modification  of  the  atomic 
theory,  that  it  contradicts  a  fundamental  propo- 
sition of  Mr.  Dalton,  the  consistency  of  which 
with  mechanical  principles  he  has  fully  shown ; 
namely,-  that  that  compound  of  any  two  ele- 
ments^ which  is  with  most  difiiculty  decomposed, 
must  be  presumed,  unless  the  contrary  can  be 
proved,  to  be  a  binary  one. 

It  is  easy  to  determine,  in  the  manner  al- 
ready explained,  the  relative  weights  of  the 
atoms  of  two  elementary  bodies,  which  unite 
only  in  one  proportion.  But  when  one  body 
unites,  in  different  propprtions,  with  another,  it 
is  necessaiy,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  weight  of 
its  atom,  that  we  should  know  the  smallest  pro- 
portion in  which  the  former  combines  with  the 
falter.  Thus,  if  we  have  a  body  A,  100  parts  of 
•which,  by^ weight,  combine  with  not  less  than 
thirty-two  of  oxygen,  the  relative  weight  of  its 
atom  will  be  to  thaX  of  oxygen  as  100  to  thirty- 
two;  or,  reducing  these  numbers  to  their  lovrest 
terms,  as  twenty-five  to  eight;  and  the  number 
twenty-five  will,  therefore,  express  the  relative 
weig:ht  of  the  atom  of  A.  But  if,  in  the  progress 
of  science,  it  should  be  found,  that  100  parts  of 
A  are  capable  of  uniting  with  sixteen  parts  of 
oxygen,  then  the  relative  weight  of  die  atom  of 
A  must  be  doubled ;  fbr  as  100  is  to  sixteen,  so 
is  fif^  to  eight  This  example  will  serve  to  ex- 
plain the  changes  that  have  been  sometimes 


C  T  I  o  N. 


261 


made  in  the  weights  of  the  atoms  «f  certain  bo- 
dits ;  changes  which,  it  may  be  observed,  always 
consist  either  in  the  multiplication  or  division  of 
the  original  weight  by  some  simple  number. 

There  are,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  a  few 
cases  in  which  .one  body  combines  vnth  another 
.in  different  proportions;  and  yet  the  greater 
proportions  are  not  multiples  of  the  less,  by  any 
entire  number.  For  exampte,  we  have  two 
ooddes  of  iron,  the  first  of  which  consists  of  100 
iron  and  about  thirty  oxygen;  the  second  of 
100  iron  and  about  forty-five  oxygen.  But  the 
numbers  thirty  and  forty-five  are  to  each  other 
as  one  to  one  and  one-half.  It  will,  however, 
render  these  numbers  (one  and  one-half)  con- 
sistent with  the  law  of  simple  multiples,  if  we 
multiply  each  of  them  by  two,  which  will  change 
them  to  two  and  three ;  and  if  we  suppose  that 
there  is  an  oxide  of  iron,  though  it  has  not  yet 
been  obtained  experimentally,  consisting  of  100 
iron  and  fifleen  oxygen ;  for  the  multiplication 
of  this  last  number  by  two  and  three,  will  then 
give  us  the  known  oxides  of  iron. 

In  some  cases,  the  peroxide  of  iron  for  in- 
stance, where  we  have  the  apparent  anomaly  of 
one  atom  of  one  substance,  united  vnth  one  and 
one-half  of  anqther,  it  has  been  proposed  by  Dr. 
Thomson,  Annals  of  Philosophy,  p.  87,  to  re- 
move the  difficulty,  by  multiplying  bbtii  num- 
bers by  two;  and  by  assuming  that,  in  such 
compounds,  we  have  two  atoms  of  the  one  com- 
bined with  three  atoms  of  the  other.  Such  com- 
binations, it  is  true,  are  exceptions  to  a  law 
deduced  by  Berzelius;  that  in  all  inorganic 
compounds,  one  of  the  constituents  is  in  the 
state  of  a  single  atom.  But  they  are  in  no  re- 
spect inconsistent  with  the  views  of  Mr.  Dalton ; 
and  are,  indeed,  expressly  admitted  by  him  to 
be  compatible  with  his  hypothesis,  as  well  as 
confirmed  by  experience. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  an  able  account  of 
the  atomic  theory,  published  by  Mr.  Ewart, 
in  the  sixth  volume  of  Thompson's  Annals. 
Under  the  word  Equivalents  too,  in  Ure's  Dic- 
tionary of  Chemistrjr,  the  subject  will  be  found 
handled  in  a  masterly  manner. 

On  elective  affinity,  or  the  unequal,  and 
selecting  attraction  of  bodies,  and  on  the  causes 
which  modify  this  action,  both  in  a  simple  and 
complex  manner,  let  the  reader  consult  the  arti- 
cle Chemistry,  in  the  present  work. 

Attractives,  or  Attractive  remeoies,  me- 
dicines which  are  to  be  externally  applied,  and 
which  b}r  their  activity  and  warmth  penetrate  the 
pore^,  mix  with,  and  rarefy,  any  obstructed  mat- 
ter, so  as  to  render  it  fit  for  discharge,  upon  lay- 
ing open  the  part  by  a  canstic  or  incision. 

ATTRAH£NTS,  in  medicine,  are  tiie  same 
with  maturants,  digestives,  &c. 

ATTRAP'.  Fr.  attraper^  to  catch,  seize,  ap- 
prehend, over-reach  ;  used  as  we  now  use  entr^. 
See  Trap. 

Bat  Riduurd  hit  brother  being  an  expert  and  poK- 
tiqne  tawn,  fo  craftilye  conaeyed,  and  to  wisely  or- 
dered kimselfe  in  his  stormy  tempest,  that  he  was 
not  attrcqpped  eyther  with  net  or  snare.  GrafUm,  ▼.  2. 
For^  all  hxB  armour  was  like  salvage  weed 

With  woody  mosse  bedight,  and  all  his  steo  \ 

With  oaken  leaues  attraft,  that  seemed  fit 

For  saluage  weight.  Spenaer^t  Faerie  Quecne, 


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"\    Lat  attribuoy  from 
farfi 


ATTRIBUTE, 

Attrib'otablb,  tad  and  trihuoy  to  lay 

Attribu'tion,  ^a  thing  to.    To  ap- 

Attribu'tive,  n.  &  adj. }  portioDy  to  give  a 
proper  share;  to  yield  as  aue,  to  impute,  to 
ascribe,  assign,  charge. 

It  (enyy)  is  also  the  vilest  Affection,  and  the  moft 
depraved :  for  which  caiue  it  is  the  aUrittUe  of  the 
Devil,  who  is  called  the  envious  man,  that  soweth 
tares  amongst  the  wheat  by  night:  as  it  always^ 
Cometh  to  pass,  that  Envy  woiketh  subtily,  and  in  the 
dark,  and  to  the  pr^adice  of  good  things,  such  as  is 
the  wheat.  Lord  Baoon't  Emayt. 

It  takes 

From  our  achievements,  tho'  performed  at  height. 

The  pith  and  manow  of  our  aUrHmU,    SuUupeam, 
If  speaking  truth. 

In  this  fine  age>  were  not  thought  flattery ; 

Such  attribution  should  the  Douglas  haxe. 

As  not  a  soldier  of  this  season's  stamp. 

Should  go  so  general  current  through  the  world. 

Id. 

We  snfier  him  to  persuade  us  we  am  as  gods;  and 
never  suspect,  these  glorious  aUribaikm  may  be  no 
more  than  flattery.  Deoajf  if  Pietff. 

We  attribmU  nothing  to  God,  that  hath  any  repug- 
nancy or  contradiction  in  it.  Power  and  wisdom  have 
no  repugnancy  in  them.  tiBotaim, 

Much  of  the  originatioh  of  the  Americans  seems 
to  be  aUribiuiUMB  to  the  migrations  of  the  Seres. 

HaU. 
Your  vain  poets  alter  did  mistake. 
Who  ev'xy  aUriSmU  a  god  did  make.    Dr$fden. 

All  the  perfections  of  God  are  called  his  attribute$; 
for  he  cannot  be  without  them.  JVait^i  Logich, 

1  have  observed  a  campania  determine,  contrary  to 
appearances,  by  the  caution  and  conduct  of  a  general, 
which  were  attributed  to  his  infirmities.  Temple, 

The  imperfection  of  telescopes  is  attributed  to  sphe- 
rical glasses ;  and  mathematicians  have  propounded, 
to  figure  them  by  the  conical  sections.' 

Newton*t  Optieke. 

As  to  be  perfectly  just  is  an  attribate  of  the  Divine 
Nature ;  to  be  so,  to  the  utmost  of  our  abilities,  is  the 
glory  of  a  man.  Addum. 

Perhaps  it  may  appear  upon  examination  that  the 
most  polite  ages  are  the  least  virtuous.  This  may  be 
attributed  to  the  folly  of  admitting  wit  and  learning 
as  merit  in  themselves,  without  considering  the  appli- 

■    lof  ■ 


Beneficence,  would  the  followers  of  Bpicurus  say, 
ii  all  founded  on  weakness ;  and  whatever  be  pi^ 
tended  the  kindness  between  men  and  men,  is  by 
every  man  directed  to  bimielf.  This,  it  must  be  con- 
fessed, is  of  a  piece  with  that  hopefii]  philoaophy 
which  having  patched  man  up  out  of  the  four  ele- 
ments, attributet  his  being  to  cluuice.  Groos. 

Attribute,  in  physics,  a  quality  determining 
■omething  to  be  afteic  a  certain  manner.  Thus 
understanding  is  an  attribute  of  mind,  and  exten- 
sion an  attribute  of  body.  That  attribute  which 
the  mind  conceives  as  the  foundation  of  all  the 
rest  is  called  its  essential  attribute ;  thus  extension 
is  by  some,  and  solidity  by  others,  esteemed  the 
essential  attributes  of  body  or  matter. 

Attributes,  in  logic,  the  predicates  of  any 
subject,  or  what  may  be  affirmed  or  denied  of 
any  thing. 

Attributes,  in  painting  and  sculpture,  mo- 
bols  added  to  sereral  figures  to  intimate  their 
particular  office  and  character.    Thus  the  eagle 


is  an  attribute  of  Jupiter;  a  peacock,  of  Juno; 
a  caduceus,  of  Mercury ;  a  club,  of  Hercules;  and 
a  palm,  of  Victoiy. 

Attributives,  in  grammar,  are  words  which 
are  significant  of  attributes;  and  thus  include 
adjectives,  verbs,  and  particles,  which  are  at- 
tributes of  substances ;  and  adverbs,  which  de- 
note the  attributes  only  of  attributes.  Mr.  Harris^ 
who  has  introduced  ibis  distribution  of  words, 
denominates  the  former  attributives  of  the  first 
order,  and  the  latter  attributives  of  the  second. 
ATTRITfi,  )  Lat.  atteroy  attrUumj  to  mb 
Attrition,  ^against;  ad  and  tero,  to  beat 
small,  to  wear  out  by  rubbing.  The  act  of  rub- 
bing used  figuratively  by  theological  wi  iters. 

Or,  by  collision  of  two  hodies,  grind 

Their  air  attrite  to  fire.  MUtem. 

From  these  premises  it  follows,  that  if  the  priest 

can  absolve  him  that  is  attrite,  he  may  pardon  him 

who  hath  affections  to  sin  still  remaining ;  that  is,  one 

who  feaa  hell,  but  does  not  love  God. 

Ta^or't  Petemieal  Dieoeunet, 

Attritum  is  a  trouble  for  sin,  merely  for  fear  of  the 
punishment  of  it,  TUlotiem. 

This  vapour,  ascending  mcessantly  out  of  the 
abyss,  and  pervading  the  strata  of  gravel  and  die 
rest,  decays  the  bones  and  vegetables  lodged  in  those 
strata;  this  fluid,  by  its  continual  attriOom,  fretting 
the  said,  bodies.  Woedatard, 

The  change  of  the  aliment  is  effected,  by  attritiom 
of  the  inward  stomach,  and  dissolvent  Kquor,  assisted 
with  heat.  Arbutbuot, 

ATTROW,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by  the 
people  of  Guinea  to  a  plant  which  they  use  in 
cases  of  swellings,  boiling  the  leaves  in  water, 
and  using  the  decoction  by  way  of  a  fomentation. 
It  is  a  species  of  kali,  and  is  called  by  Petiver, 
kali  Guineense  foliis  polygoni,  floribus  verticilli 
in  modum  dispositis,  from  its  leave»  resembling 
the  common  knot-grass,  and  its  flowers  growing 
in  rundles  round  the  stalks. 

ATTRUMMAPHOC,  in  botany,  a  name  given 
by  the  people  of  Guinea  to  a  shrub  which  they 
boil  in  water,  and  give  the  decoction  in  the 
venereal  disease.  The  juice,  when  fresh  pressed 
out,  is  sttufied  up  the  nostrils  to  promote  sneering, 
and  cure  disorders  of  the  head  and  eyes.  It  is  a 
species  of  colutea.  Dr.  Herman  calls  it  astra- 
galus. 

ATTUAL,  a  town  of  ^Arabia,  in  Tehama,  in 
the  province  of  Yemen.*  Long.  42®  lO*  E.,  lat. 

ATTUDSJE,  a  town  of  Arabia,  in  Yemen, 
between  Kusma  and  Sai-id.  Long.  43®  25'  £., 
lat.  14®  40'  N. 

ATTUIE,  a  fort  of  Arabia,  in  Tehama,  seated 
on  the  coast  of  the  Arabic  Gulf.  LoDg#41®40'£.» 
lat  17®  Zr  N. 

ATTUNE.    To  tune,  to  set  to  a  tune. 

Aixs,  vernal  airs. 
Breathing  the  smell  of  field  and  grov«,  mttime 
The  trembling  leaives.  MOtoa, 

Th'  ethereal  glow  that  stimulatea  thy  fraoie. 
When  all  th*  according  powers  hmrmonions  move. 
And  wake  to  energy  each  social  aim» 
Attumed  spontaneous  to  the  will  of  Jove; 
Be  these,  O  man,  the  triumphs  of  thy  aool. 

Judgmma  of  Pant. 


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ATTURNATUS,  in  old  law  Latin,  an  at- 
torney. 

ATUR^,  a  town  of  ancient  Gaul,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Novempopulana  in  Aquitania,  on  the 
Atarus ;  now  called  Aire.  Long^.  0^  16^  £.^  lat. 
43*  42'  N. 

ATURUS,  a  river  of  ancient  Gaul  in  Aqui- 
tania,  now  called  the  Adour. 

ATVVAI'NE,^ 

Atwee'n,       f     In  twain,  in  two.    Gothic 

At'wixt,        ^twoSy  two. 

Atwo.  } 

And  Jheras  gaf  out  a  great  ciy  and  diede.  And 
the  veyl  of  the  temple  was  to  rent  a  two  from  the 
liigheste  to  bynethe.  WieUf.  'Mark,  c.  xr. 

And  with  that  word  he  gan  sigh  as  sore. 

Like  as  his  heart  rive  would  afwaine. 

And  held  his  peace,  and  spake  no  more. 

Gkaveer,     The  CompUmi  of  the  Black  Knight. 
Her  loose  loi^;  yellow  locks  (like  golden  wire. 

Sprinkled  with  pearl,  and  perling  flowers  tUween) 

Do,  like  a  golden  mantle,  her  atdre.  Spetuer, 

With  them  an  hideous  storm  of  wind  arose 

With  dreadful  thunder,  and  lightning  atwist. 

And  an  eazthipiake,  as  if  it  straight  would  loose, 

Tlie  world's  foundations  from  its  eentre  fixt. 

/d.     Faerie  Qaeeae,  b.  ii. 

ATWOOD  (George),  a  celebrated  author  in 
mathematical  and  mechanical  investigations, 
was  bom  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  1746. 
He  was  educated  at  Westminster  school,  where 
lie  was  admitted  in  1759.  Six  years  afterwards 
he  was  elected  to  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
and  took  his  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  in  1769, 
with  the  rank  of  third  wrangler.  This  distine- 
tion  was  amply  sufficient  to  give  him  a  claim  to 
farther  advancement  in  his  own  college,  on  the 
list  of  which  he  stood  foremost  of  bis  contempo- 
raries ;  and,  in  due  time,  he  obtained  a  fellow- 
ship, and  was  afterwards  one  of  the  tutors.  He 
became  Master  of  Arts  in  1772 ;  and,  in  1776, 
was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London.  The  higher  branches  of  the  mathe- 
matics having  previously  made  some  important 
advances  at  Cambridge,  under  the  auspices  of 
Dr.  Waring,  Mr.  Atwood  delivered,* for  several 
successive  years,  a  course  of  lectures  in  the  ob- 
servatory of  Tirinity  college,  which  were  very 
generally  attended.  In  1 784,  or  soon  afterwards, 
Mr.  Pitt,  who  had  become  acquainted  with  his 
merits  by  attending  his  lectures,  bestowed  on 
bim  a  patent  office,  which  required  but  little  of 
bis  attendance,  in  order  to  have  a  claim  on  the 
employment  of  his  mathematical  abilities  in 
financial  calcoMons.  He  died  universally 
respected  in  1807.  The  following,  we  believe, 
is  a  correct  list  of  Mr.  Atwood's  publications : — 
1.  A  Description  of  Experiments  to  illustrate  a 
Course  of  Lectures,  8vo.  1775,  or  1776.  2.  This 
work  was  reprinted  with  additions,  under  the 
title  of  An  Analysis  of  a  Course  of  Lectures  on 
the  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy,  8vo. 
Cambridge,  1784.  3.  A  General  Theory  for 
the  Mensuration  of  the  Angle  subtended  by  two 
objects,  of  which  one  is  observed  by  Rays  after 
two  Reflections  from  plane  Sur&ces,  and  the 
other  by  Rays  coming  airectly  to  the  Spectator's 
Eye.  Phil.  Trans.  1781,  p.  395.  4.  A  Treatise 
on    the   Rectilinear  Motion  and   Rotation  of 


Bodies,  with  a  Description  of  Original  Experi- 
ments relative  to  the  subject,  8vo.  Cambridge, 
1784.  5.  Investigations  founded  on  the  Tlieory 
of  Motion,  for  determining  the^'imes  of  Vibra- 
tion of  Watch  Balances.  Phil.  Trans.  1794.  p. 
119.  6.  The  Construction  and  Analysis  of 
Geometrical  Propositions,  determining  the  posi- 
tions assumed  by  homogeneal  bodies,  which  float 
freely,  and  at  rest,  on  a  fluid  surfiau^e ;  also  De- 
termining the  Stability  of  Ships^  and  .of  other 
Floating  Bodies.  Phil.  Trans.  1796,  p.  46. 
7.  A  Disquisition  on  the  Stability  of  Ships. 
Phil.  Trans.  1798,  p.  201.  8.  A  Review  of  the 
Statutes  and  Ordinances  of  Assize,  which  have 
been  established  in  England  from  the  4th  year 
of  King  John,  1202,  to  the  37th  of  his  present 
Majesty,  4to.  London,  1801.  9.  A  Dissertation 
on  the  Construction  and  Properties  of  Arches, 
4to.  London,  1801.  10.  A  Supplement  to  a 
Tract  entitle^  a  Treatise  on  the  Construction 
and  Properties  of  Arches,  published  in  the  year 
1801 ;  and  containing  Propositions  for  Deter- 
mining the  weights  ot  the  several  sections  which 
constitute  an  arch,  inferred  from  the  angles. 
Also  containing  a  Demonstration  of  the  angles  of 
the  several  sections,  when  they  are  inferred  from 
the  weights  thereof.  To  which  is  added,  a 
Description  of  original  experiments  to  verify 
and  illustrate  the  principles  in  this  treatise* 
With  occasional  remarks  on  the  construction  of 
an  iron  bridge  of  one  arch,  proposed  to  be 
erected  over  the  river  Thames  at  London.  Part 
II.  By  the  author  of  the  first  part,  4to.  London, 
1804.  Dated  24di  Nov.  1803.  li.  A  Treatise 
on  Optics  is  mentioned  by  Nichols,  as  having 
been  partly  printed  by  Bowyer,  in  1776,  but 
never  completed. 

ATYCHIA,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  in- 
sects of  the  Older  lepidoptera,  and  family  zygse- 
nides.  Its  generic  characters  are :  palpi  rising 
considerably  beyond  the  clypeus,  anteriorly  very 
hirsute  with  long  hairs,  wings  short;  posterior 
tibiae  with  scales  and  elongat^  spurs. 

ATYPOS ;  from  a  negative,  and  nnroc,  form; 
irregular,  a  word  used  by  the  old  writers  in  medi- 
cine, for  such  diseases  as  did  not  observe  any 
regularity  in  their  periods.  Others  have  used 
the  word  for  deformities  in  the  limbs ;  and  others 
for  defects  in  the  organs  of  speech. 

ATYPUS,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of  the  class 
arachoides,  order  acera,  and  family  araneides. 
Its  generic  characters  are.:  eyes  on  each  side 
geminate ;  labium  inserted  under  the  base  of  the 
maxillae,  very  small,  quadrate ;  palpi  placed  at 
the  base  of  the  external  dilatation  of  the  maxillse. 
The  A.  sulzeri  has  been  found  in  this  coyntry  by 
Dr.  Leach,  and  inhabits  turfy  declivities,  where 
it  forms  a  deep  cylindrical  excavation,  seven  or 
eight  inches  long,  in  which  it  weaves  a  kind  of 
funnel  of  white  silk.  The  cocoon  in  which  the 
eggs  are  deposited,  is  fixed  at  the  bottom  of  this 
cavity  by  means  of  threads  attached  to  each  end. 

ATYS,  the  soil  of  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  is 
reported  to  have  been  bom  tonsue-tacked,  and 
of  consequence  to  have  been  dumb  for  many 
years ;  till  observing  one  of  Cyrus's  soldiers  going 
to  kill  his  father,  his  passion  suddenly  broke  the 
membrane  that  held  his  tongue, -and  he  cried  out 
'  Save  the  king  1' 


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Atts,  in  fabulous  history^  a  celebrated  ihep- 
herd  of  Phiygia,  with  whom  Cybele,  commoiuy 
called  the  mother  of  the  goda,  A\  passionately  in 
love.  Slie  gava  him  the  care  of  her  temp^,  ax 
the  same  time  making  him  vow  he  would  always 
live  in  celibacy.  He  afterwards  violated  his 
promise  by  an  amour  with  the  nymph  Sangaris, 
on  which  account  the  goddess  brougnt  upon  him 
such  a  species  of  insanity  which  made  him  castrate 
himself  with  a  sharp  stone.  The  same  operation 
was  purposely  performed  by  his  sacerdotal  suc- 
cessors, in  Ae  service  of  Cybele,  that  their  vows 
of  perpetual  chastity  might  not  be  broken.  This 
is  the  most  generally  received  account ;  though^ 
according  to  some  writers,  the  cause  of  the  fond- 
ness of  tlie  goddess  for  A^s,  was  his  introduciiif 
her  festivals  into  the  greatest  part  of  Asia  Minor; 
and  that  she  herself  mutilatea  him.  Ffom  Pan* 
aanias  we  learn  that  Atys  was  the  son  of  a 
nymph  of  the  Sangar,  who  became  pregnant  by 
placmg  the  branch  of  an  almond  tree  in  her 
ixMom.  AoGording  to  the  passage  (Achaie.  c. 
17),  Jupiter  having  had  an  amorous  dream,  some 
of  the  impurity  of  Aie  god  dropt  upon  ihe  evih, 
from  which  ti  monster  of  an  human  form  was 
produced,  with  the  parts  of  both  sexes.  This 
monster  was  named  Agdistis,  and  was  by  the 
gods  deprived  of  the  characteiteties  of  the  male 
sex.  The  mutilated  parts  having  been  thrown 
on  the  ground,  an  almond  tree  sprung  from 
them,  a  branch  of  which  one  of  the  daughters  of 
the  Sangar  took  and  put  in  her  bosom.  As  soon 
as  Atys  was,  bom,  he  was  exposed  in  a  wood, 
where  a  she-goat  nourished  and  preserved  him. 
While  in  the  wood,  he  was  observed  by  Agdistis, 
who  was  captivated  with  his  beauty ;  and  when 
Atys  was  aoout  to  celebrate  his  nuptials  with 
the  king  of  Pessinus's  daughter,  Agdistis,  jealous 
of  a  rival,  mfused  into  the  king  and  his  intended 
son-in4aw  such  a  spirit  of  madness  as  led  than 
to  attack  and  mutilate  one  another  in  the  struggle. 
We  fiurther  learn  from  Ovid,  that  as  Atys  was 
going  to  lay  violent  hands  upon  himself^  he 
was  changed  by  Cybele  into  a  pine-tree ;  and 
that  from  that  time  the  pine-tree  was  held  sacred 
to  the  mother  of  the  gods.  Divine  honors  were 
paid  to  Atys  after  his  death,  and  temples  erected 
to  his  memory,  among  which  that  at  Dyms  was 
the  most  famous. 

Atts,  a  Trojan,  who  accompanied  iElneas  to 
Italy,  and  from  whom  it  is  supposed  the  family 
of  the  Atii  at  Rome  descended. 

AVA,  or  Akgwa,  a  city  of  the  Birman  empire, 
fiiur  miles  west  of  Umroarapura,  the  metropolis. 
It  is  in  lat  21''  51'  N.,  and  long.  95"*  58'  £. ;  and 
was  once  the  capital,  but  is  now  in  ruins.  Here 
are  two  large  temples,  one  of  which  contains  an 
image  of  Gaudma,  (Gautama)  or  Buddlia,  twenty- 
four  feet  in  height,  and  ten  feet  across  the  breast. ' 
There  are  also  tbe  reliques  of  many  other  temples 
in  decay.  For  Ata,  as  an  empire,  see  Bikman 
Empire,  its  more  usual  and  modem  designation. 

AVA-AVA,  a  plant,  so  called  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Otsdieite,  from  the  leaves  of  which  Aey 
express  an  intoxicating  juice.  It  is  drank  very 
freely  by  dieir  chiefs,  who  vie  with  each  other  in 
drinking  the  greatest  number  of  draughts,  each 
draught  being  about  a  pint;  but  they  keep  it 
carefully  from  their  women. 


AVA 


AUACH,  or  Atach,  the 
Avoch. 

AUAD,  a  mountainous  district  of  Arabia,  in  * 
the  province  of  Yemen,  near  the  city  of  Udden. 
Long.  44°  IC  E.,  lat.  14°  5'  N. 

AvACHA,  AwATSCHA,  a  considerable  river  of 
Kamschatka,  falling,  afiter  a  course  of  ninety 
miles  from  west  to  easty  into  a  bay  which  bears 
the  same  name.  Its  mouth  is  rather  narrow, 
but  deep  enough  to  admit  ships  of  the  greatest 
burden,  and  abounding  in  good  anchorage ;  the 
bes^  of  which  is  the  harbour  of  St.  Peter  and  St 
Paul.  On  the  north  side  of  the  bay  is  the  \^ol- 
cano  of  Avacha,  which  constantly  smokes,  though 
it  has  had  no.  considerable  eruption  since  1734, 
and  that  only  lasted  twenty-four  hours.  A  small 
town  called  the  Avachinski  Ostrog  was  begun  in 
1740;  it  is  in  a  tolerably  flourishing  state,  and 
principally  supported  by  die  trade  in  beaver 
skins.  The  river  Avacha  has  a  course  of  about 
ninety  miles. 

AVADOUTAS,  a  sect  of  Indian  Brahmins, 
who  in  austerity  surpass  all  the  rest.  Tlie  other 
sects  retain  eartlien  vessels  to  hold  their  provi- 
sions, and  a  stick  to  leaa  on :  but  none  of  these 
are  used  by  tbe  Aradoutas;  they  only  oover 
afaeir  nakedness  with  a  piece  of  cloth,  and  some 
of  them  even  lay  that  aside,  and  go  stark  naked, 
besmearing  meir  bodies  with  eow^ung !  When 
hungry,  some  go  into  houses,  and,  without  speak- 
ing, hold  out  their  hand;  eating  on  the  spot 
whatever  is  given  them.  Others  retire  to  the 
sides  of  holy  rivers,  and  there  expect  the  peasants 
to  bring  them  pcovisioos,  whicn  they  generally 
do  very  liberally. 

AVAIL',  v.&n.  %     Ft.val^ir,  to  bewortii; 

Atail'able,         >Lat.  vaUoy  to  be  strong,  to 

Atail'ableness.  )  be  in  health.  To  possess 
advantageous  properties ;  to  be  of  force  or  signi- 
fication.   Tlie  M  is  intemive. 

All  diingt  subject  to  actioa,  the  will  does  so  far  in* 
dine  unto ;  as  lesson  judges  them  more  mmlable  to 
mm  bliss.  ifiwfecr. 

L&ws  hamaa  are  anaSatle  by  consent.  14. 

Drake  put  one  of  his  men  to  death,  having  no  au- 
thority nor  commission  aoaiUMe.  Raie^h. 
For  sll  that  else  did  come,  were  sure  to  fail; 
Yet  would  be  further  none,  but  for  aoaU.     Sjpetuer. 
I  chftxgethee^ 
As  heav'n  shall  work  in  me  for  thine  anaU, 
To  tell  me  truly.                              •      Shaktpeare, 
We  differ,  from  that  stpposition  of  the  eflkacy,  or 
availablatev,  ot  suitableness^  of  these  to  the  end. 

Those  excellent  means  God  has  bestowed  on  us, 
well  employed,  cannot  but  much  acail  us :  but  if  other- 
wise perverted,  they  mine  and  confound  us. 

Bvrton't  Amattm^  of  Meiameholg. 

Truth  light  upon  this  way,  is  of  no  idoi«  ewaU  to 

us  than  errour.  Lodte, 

Nor  can  my  strength  omnl;  vnleM,  by  thee 

j&iduM  with  force,  1  gain  the  victory.  JPrydflw- 

When  real  merit  is  wanting ;  it  «M«a(s  nothing,  to 

hsve  been  encouraged  by  the  great. 

Pops'*  Pre/hot  to  ku  ITorAt. 
Mean  time  he  royag'd,  to  explora  the  will 
Of  Jove,  on  high  Dodona's  holy  hill ; 
Vhat  means  might  best  his  safe  letwa  avaiL 

Pupc. 


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I  Afa !  what  oDoiU  the  lore  of  Rome  sad  Greece, 

All  that  arty  fortune,  enterpriae  can  bring, 
£,  If  envy,  scorn,  remorse,  or  pride,  the  bosom  inrring. 

Beattie, 

Avail  of  Mabeiage,  in  andent  Scofs  law, 

that  casuality  in  inward-holding,  by  which  the 

superior  was  entitled  to  a  certain  sum  from  his 

vassal,  upon  bis  attaining  the  age  of  puberty,  or 

/.  fourteen  years,  as  the  avail  and  ^ue  of  his  todier. 

AVAL,  or  Bahhkein,  the  lar^st  of  the  Bah- 

hrein  islands  in  the  gulf  of  Persia.    It  is  about 

.  thirty  miles  in  length,  and  twelve  wide,  where  it 

is  broadest.     Besides  the  fortified  town  of  Bah- 

hrein,  it  contains  about  sixty  poor  villages.  Long. 

48°  4'  E.,  lat.  26°  36'  N. 

AVAXANCHES,  prodigious  masses  of  snow 
and  ice  that  roll  down  the  mountains  in  Savoy, 
particularly  mount  Blanc,  to  the  extreme  danger 
^  of  travellers. 

'Oft  rushing  sadden  from  the  loaded  clifi. 

From  steep  to  steep,  loud  thund'iing  down  they  come, 

A  wintry  waste  in  dire  commotion  all ; 

And  herds  and  flocks,  and  travellers  and  swains. 

And  sometimes  whole  brigades  of  marching  troops. 

Or  hamlets  sleeping  in  the  dead  of  night. 

Are  deep  beneath  the  smothering  ruin  hurl'd.' 

Some  of  them  are  150  or  200  feet  diameter ; 
being  fragments  of  the  ice-rocks  which  break  by 
their  own  weight  from  the  tops  of  the  precipices. 
See  Blanc,  Mount. 

AVAL.ON,  or  Avalloh,  the  chief  town  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  department  of  the  Yonne 
in  France,  situated,  with  its  strong  castle,  on  the 
river  Cousin.  Population  4200;  that  of  the 
arrondissement  is  42,800.  It  is  twenty  leagues 
west  of  Dijon. 

AvALON,  or  AvoLONy  a  peninsula  of  New- 
foundland. 

AvALON,  or  AvALONiA,  the  ancient  name  of 
Glastonbury,  where  king  Arthur  was  buried.  See 
Arthu&,  and  Glastonbury. 

AVALOS  (Ferdinand  Francis  d'),  marquis  of 
Pescara,  was  bom  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
lie  entered  into  ihe  service  of  Charles  V.  atad  ac- 
companied the  army  to  the  battle  of  Ravenna, 
where  he  was  made  prisoner.  During  his  cap- 
tivi^  he  amused  himself  in  writing  a  Dialogue 
on  Love,  and  dedicated  it  to  his  wife.  Ailer  his 
f  release  be  again  entered  into  the  emperor's  ser- 

vice, and  was  present  at  (he  taking  of  Milan, 
where  he  4ied  in  1525,  aged  thirty-six. 

AvALOs  (Alphonso  d'),  marquis  del  Vasto,  was 
bom  in  1502.  He  was  a  near  relation  of  the 
above ;  and  was  likewise  a  zealous  officer  in  the 
armies  of  Charles  V.    He  died  in  1546. 

AVANIA,  in  the  Turkish  legislature,  a  fine  for 
crimes,  and  on  deaths,  paid  to  the  governor  of 
the  place.  In  the  places  wherein  several  nations 
live  together  under  a  Turkish  governor,  he  takes 
this  profitable  method  of  punishing  all  crimes 
amoi^  the  Christians  or  Jews,  unless  it  be  the 
murder  of  a  Turk. 

AVANT,  the  front  of  an  army.    See  Van. 

AvANT  is  defined  by  Mr.  Chalmers,  a  French 
preposition,  signifying  before,  or  any  priority  in 
respect  of  time  or  place ;  sometimes  used  in  000^ 
position,  in  our  language^  but  more  usually  con- 
tiacted,  and  wrote  vaunt,  vant,  or  van. 

AvANT  Fosse,  &c.    See  Van  Fosse. 


AvANT-ouARD,  avautgarde,  French.  The  van 
the  first  body  of  an  army< — ^The  horsemen  might 
issue  forth  without  disturbance  of  the  foot,  and 
the  avant-guard  without  shuffling  with  the  battail 
or  arriere. — Hatoard,    . 

AvANT  Mure,  an  outward  wall. 

AvANT  Peach,  a  peach  early  ripe. 

AvANT  Ward,  the  yan  of  an  army. 

AVANTE,  among  ancient  medical  authors, 
a  name  given  to  a  disease,  seeming,  from  their 
accounts  of  it  to  be  the  same  with  hypochon- 
driasis. 

AVANTIO  (Jobn  Mario),  an  Italian  lawyer 
of  great  eminence,  bom  in  1564.  He  displayed 
his  abilities  first  at  Ferrara,  and  afterivards  at 
Padua;  at  which  last  place  he  died  in  1622. 
Besides  several  other  pieces,  be  wrote  an  eccle- 
siastical history,  from  the  commencement  of  the 
reformation. 

AvANTio  (Charles),  a  celebrated  physician, ' 
was  a  son  of  the  abbve.    He  was  author  of  a 
commentary  on  the  work  of  Bapt.  Fiera,  printed 
at  Padua,  in  1649. 

AVANTURINE,  in  mineralogy,  a  species  of 
common  quartz,  containing  a  number  of  minute 
fissures,  and  sometimes  crystals  of  mica.  These 
lie  in  parallel,  or  n^rly  parallel  planes  :  so  that 
when  the  stone  is  cut  into  a  double  convex  figure, 
the  imaginary  plane  of  junction  of  the  two  sphe- 
rical segments  being  parallel  to  the  planes  in 
which  the  fissures  lie,  a  play  of  light  is  produced 
on  the  suriace  of  the  stone.  The  most  beautiful 
varieties  have  been  found  in  Spain. 

AVARA,  a  river  of  Gallia  Celtica,  mentioned 
by  Ctesaiy  in  the  county  of  Brituriges,  now  called 
^jiion. 

AVARES,  one  of  the  predatory  tribes  in  the 
north  of  Asia  Minor,  who  made  great  ravages  in 
tlie  eastern  empire.  Having  penetrated  the 
Sclavonian  and  Greek  territories,  they  first  ap- 
peared on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  A.  D.  560, 
and  established  themselves  at  Sirmium,  and  in 
Upper  Hungary.  Their  riches,  and  their  alliance 
witn  Thassilo,  chief  of  the  Baii,  alarmed  Charle- 
magne, who,  in  A.  D.  803,  attacked  them  in  per- 
son, and  drove  them  into  Corinthia.  They  have 
been  conjectured  to  be  the  Aorsi,  or  Adorsi,  of 
Strabo. 

There  is  still  on  the  banks  of  the  K6ij^,  in 
Lezgist&o,  and  on  the  eastern  side  of  Mount  ' 
Caucasus,  a  tribe  called  Aor  or  Avar,  whose 
language  is  a  peculiar  one,  but  has  an  affinity  with 
several  others  used  in  the  neighbouring  districts. 
There  is  also  a  city  of  this  name  conjvisting  of 
about  600  houses,  die  residence  of  a  hereditary 
prince  or  chief.  He  has  considerable  influence ; 
and,  on  a  lato  occasion,  a  neighbouring  potentate 
purchased  his  sister  in  marriage  for  £25,000. 
In  his  palace,  the  only  one  wi£  glass  windows  , 
in  eastern  Caucasus,  there  is  a  large  hall,  well 
provided  with  provisions,  constantly  «>Den  to  all 
strangers.  In  me  city  of  Avar  fine  shawls  are 
manu&ctured  from  the  wool  of  Caucasian  sheep ; 
one  of  which,  an  ell  and  a  half  long,  may  be 
drawn  through  a  ring.  These  people  are  war- 
like and  courageous ;  and  their  chief,  the  Avar 
Kh^  is  roudi  courted  by  the  Russians.  He 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  lieutenant-general, 
with  a  pension  of  io,000  silver  rubles  (£2000) 


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in  1807.     He  can  bring  20,000  men  into  the 
field,  and  his  dependant  khan  10,000  more. 

AVARIA,  in  the  Turkish  and  Persian  domi- 
nions, a  sum  of  money  exacted  from  the  Christians 
or  Europeans,  to  be  quit  of  some  fiilse  accusation 
framed  on  purpose. 

AVARICE,  -N  Jjii.  avaritia,  avarus ; 
AvARic'ious,  /from  avarcy  to  covet,  to 
AvARic'iousLT,  b- desire  greedily.  Applied 
AvARic'iousNESSjitoone  whose  ruling  pas- 


AVARICUM,  an  ancient  town  of  the  Bituriget 
in  Gallia  Celtica,  situated  on  the  Avara,  in  a  very 
fertile  soil ;  now  called  Bourges.  Long,  2**  iff  E^ 
lat.  47°  5'  N. 

AVAROMO  Temo,  in  botany,  a  siliquose 
tree,  which  grows  in  the  Brasils.  The  bark  is 
externally  of  a  cineritious,  and  internally  of  a 
deep  red  color,  and  is  the  only  part  of  the  plant 
used  for  medicinal  purposes,  though  some  indeed 
use  the  leares.     But  the  bark,  which  is  bitter. 


Av'arous.  J  sion  is  the  acquisition  of   whether  reduced  to  a  powder,  or  boiled  and  used 


wealth  for  its  own  sake. 

Now  good  men !  God  forgive  you  your 
And  waie  you  fro  the  tixme  of  avarice, 
]tf  in  holy  pardon  may  you  all  warice ; 
So  that  ye  olfre  noblei  or  ftarUnges, 
Or  ellea  silver  brochet,  sponey,  ringes. 

Chaaear.  Pardmmnt  Tai€. 

But  father  I  herde  you  say 
How  the  amorom  hath  yet  some  way 
Whereof  he  maie  be  glad.     For  bee 
Maie,  whan  hym  list,  his  treture  see. 
And  grope,  and  fele  it  all  aboute. 

G&wer.  Con.  A.  book  v. 
This  speech  hat  been  condemned  as  anaricwu ;  and 
Eustathius  judges  it  to  be  spoken  artfully. 

Broome  on  the  Odyeeey, 
Luxurious,  Morieioiw,  false,  deceitful. 

ShaJup,  Maeheih, 
There  grows 
In  my  most  ill-<ompo8*d  affection,  such 
A  stanchless  aeaeiee;  that,  were  I  king, 
I  should  cut  off  the  nobles  for  their  lands. 


This  anairiee  of  praise  in  times  to  come ; 
Those  long  inscriptions,  crowded  on  the  tomb. 

Dryden. 
Kor  love  fiis  peace  of  mind  destroys. 
Nor  wicked  anorice  of  wealth.  /''* 

Avarice  is  insatiable ;  and  so  he  went,  still  pushing 
on  for  more.  L'EOrange, 

Though  the  apprehensions  of  the  aged  may  justify 
a  cautious  frugality,  they  can  by  no  means  excuse  a 
sordid  ooarice.  Bfoar. 

An  insatiable  thirst  of  riches  renders  Pygmalion 
every  day  more  wretched  and  detestable.  In  his  do- 
minions it  is  a  crime  to  be  wealthy :  ovoribs  makes 
him  jealous,  suspicious,  and  cruel :  he  persecutes 
the  rich,  and  he  dreads  the  poor. 

Mawkeeworth't  Telemachui, 

Avarice,  of  all  the  various  passions  by  which 


as  a  fomentation,  cures  inveterate  ulcers,  and,  it 
is  said,  has  been  found  to  cure  even  cancers.  It 
is  also  used  as  a  corroborant,  on  account  of  its 
astringent  quality,  by  way  of  bath. 

Avast,  from  basta,  Ital.  it  is  enough :  enough ; 
cease.  A  word  used  among  seamen.  It  always 
precedes  some  orders,  or  some  conversation,  and 
answers  the  same  purpose  as — ^harkye,  list,  attend, 
take  heed,  hold.  Like  the  Ital.  avacci,  I  think 
it  means — ^be  attentive,  be  on  the  watch,  i.  e. 
awake.— Tooke,  ii.  362. 

AVATAR,  in  the  Hindoo  my thology,  an  incar- 
nation of  the  Deity.  Ten  of  these  are  incarna- 
tions of  VishnO,  the  supreme  God,  in  his  cha- 
racter of  preserver.  Four  are  the  subjects  of 
Puranas,  or  sacred  poems.  Nine  of  them  are 
believed  to  be  past,  and  the  tenth  is  yet  to  come. 

The  first  is  the  Matsya  Avatar,  or  descent  of 
the  deity  in  the  form  of  a  fish.  Of  what  species 
this  fish  was,  the  sages  have  not  determined ;  but 
Vishnus'  object  was  the  recovery  of  the  holy  Vedaa 
from  the  ocean,  in  which  they  remained  after 
one  of  the  periodical  dissolutions  of  the  univene. 

The  second  is  the  Rachyapa,or  KGrma  Avatar, 
in  which  the  same  god  appeared  in  the  form  of  a 
tortoise,  in  order  to  sustain  and  give  stability  to 
the  newly  created  earth. 

The  third  is  the  Vai^ha  Avat^,  when  he  ap- 
peared in  the  shape  of  a  boar,  and  plunging  into 
the  waters  which  had  overwhelmed  the  earth,  in 
one  of  its  periodical  destructions,  fixed  bis  tusks 
in  it  and  arew  it  up. 

The  fourth  is  the  Nara-^ingfha,  or  man-lion 
Avatlir.  Kas  vapa,  one  of  the  descendants  of 
Daksha,  the  first  created  man,  had  two  wives, 
whose  characters,  to  judge  from  their  children, 
were  very  difierent,  for  one  produced  the  gods, 
and  the  other  the  giants.     Among  the  latter 


mankind  is  governed,  is  the  least  to  be  accounted  were  two  Hirany&ksha  and  HiranyakaS'ipu,  who 

for,  as  it  precludes  its  subject  from  all  pleasure  it  seems  stole  a  march  on  Brahnui,  and  almost 

except  that  of  hoarding.    Tlie  ambitious  man,  compelled  him,  by  dint  of  their  austerities,  to 

the  gamester,  or  even  the  prodigal,  have  all  grant  what  he  had  no  mind  to  give  them — ^im- 

something  to  plead,  by  way  of  palliative  for  their  mortality.    Their  strength  was   already   quite 

inordinate  anections  to  their  respective  objects  terrific,  so  that  to  give  it  an  endless  duration 

and  pursuits ;  but  the  subject  of  avarice  gratifies  was  more  than  the  god  thought  prudent.     IIow- 

his  passion  at  the  expense  of  every  conveniency,  ever,  he  could  not  resist  the  claim  of  austerities 

indulgence,  or  even  necessary  of  life.     And  practised  for  sotne  thousands  of  years,   and, 

though  convinced  tl^at  money  is  only  the  means  therefore,  to  release  himself  from  this  dilemma, 

of  enjoyment,  not  the  end,  and  that  it  is  only  he  engaged  that  no  ordinary  being  should  destroy 

valuable  as  fiir  as  it  is  useful  for  attaining  that  them;  ahd  that  they  should  not  die  either  hj 

end,  yet  such  is  his  infatuation,  that  the  images  day  or  by  night,  in  earth  or  in  heaven,  by  fire. 


of  his  bags  and  shining  metal,  with  all  the  an- 
nexed ideas  of  property,  enjoyment,  security 
against  vtrant,  independence,  &c.  prevent  him 
from  using  the  means,  and  make  him  appear 
without  property,  in  misery,  in  want,  and  de- 


by  water,  or  by  the  sword.  Satisfied  with  this 
assurance,  they  immediately  began  to  show  bow 
well  they  understood  the  value  of  their  powers, 
they  conquered  the  whole  earth,  and  then 
dethroned  Indra,  king  of  heaven.     He  immedi- 


pendent.'  Ko  passion  is  more  opposite  to  the    diately  carried  his  complaint  to  Brahm^  who 
nope  of  a  future  life  than  avarice.  very  coolly  answered  that  he  could  take  no  part 


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against  those  upon  ^hom  he  had  bestowed  a 
blessing ;  but  that  perhaps  Vishnii  would.  This 
latter  deity  kindly  undertook  to  settle  the  busi- 
ness, and  restore  Indra  to  his  kingdom.  To 
effect  that  purpose  he  assumed  a  mixed  form, 
half  man  and  half  lion ;  he  concealed  himself  in 
a  column  in  Hiranya-kas'ipu's  palace,  and,  when 
that  gigantic  monster  struck  the  column  in  a  fit 
of  rage  and  profaneness,  out  started  Nerasing^a, 
seized  the  giant  by  his  thigh,  and  ripped 
him  up  in  an  instant.  This  was  certainly  the 
action  neither  of  fire,  water,  nor  the  sword ;  it 
was  cettainly  not  done  by  any  ordinary  being; 
neither  was  it  done  by  day  or  night,  for  it  was 
in  the  evening,  and  it  was  also  under  the  eares, 
and  consequently  between  earth  and  heaven. 
Thus  was  Brahma's  promise  fulfilled.  How 
the  other  worthy  Hiranvaksha,  or  Gold-eye,  was 
killed  we  are  not  told;  but  Vishnd  consoled 
Pralhdda,  Ilyranya-kaslpu's  pious  son,  by  assur- 
ing him  that  his  father  would  ascend  to  heaven. 
The  fifth,  or  V&mana  incarnation,  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  same  family.  Pralhad'ha  had  a 
very  audacious  sou,  named  Bali,  who  daringly 
made  offerings  to  himself,  and  performed  the 
as'wa-m^d'ha,  or  sacrifice  of  a  horse  so  of^en, 
that  scarcely  any  thing  could  be  refused  to  him, 
and  he  demanded  the  throne  of  heaven.  Vishnd, 
having  been  applied  to  for  relief  against  this 
troublesome  giant,  conveyed  himself  into  the 
body  of  Aditi,  the  wife  of  Kas'ypa,  the  grand- 
&ther  of  the  giants,  and  was  bom  a  dwarf— V&- 
mana.  His  diminutive  size  charmed  the  tyrant 
Bali,  who,  to  gratify  him,  promised  to  give  what- 
ever he  should  ask.  He  modestly  demanded  as 
much  land  as  could  be  measured  by  three  steps : 
and,  placing  one  foot  on  earth  and  another  on 
heaven,  out  started  a  third  from  his  belly,  for 
which  he  demanded  a  resting-place;  the  king's 
head  was  the  only  one  that  could  be  found,  and 
to  make  up  matters  with  the  god,  whose  power 
was  now  indisputable,  Bali  consented  to  go 
down  to  Patala,  or  hell,  on  a  promise  of  Vishnu's 

1)rotection.    Thus  did  a  dwarf  repress  tlie  turbu- 
ence  of  a  giant. 

In  the  sixth,  or  Parasii-Rama  Avat^,  Vishnd 
came  into  the  world,  as  the  son  of  Jamadagni,  a 
descendant  of  the  sage  B'hrigu,  in  order  to  chas- 
tise the  military  caste,  or  Kshatriyas,  whose  in- 
dolence and  disorder  had  become  insufferable. 
One  of  them,  a  king,  named  Arjuna,  took  a  fancy  to 
a  marvellous  cow,  named  K&ma-d'h^nu,  the  pro- 
perty of  Jamadagni,  and  attacking  her  possessor 
witli  a  large  army,  routed  and  slew  him.  Kama, 
tlie  son  of  tlie  luckess  sage,  determined  to  avenge 
his  Other's  death,  and  going  to  Kailasa  (Olympus), 
knocked  down  Siva's  porters,  who  refused  ad- 
mittance to  him,  presented  himself  to  the  god, 
and  received  from  him  a  paras'u,  or  weapon  with 
which  he  slew  Arjuna.  These  incarnations  all 
took  place  in  the  SatyaYuga,  or  Golden  Age :  the 
•emainder  are  more  modern. 

The  seventh,  or  Rama-chandra  Avatar,  was 
VishnCi's  descent  for  the  purpose  of  subduing 
another  giant  Ravana,  who  reigned  in  Lank^,  or 
Ceylon,  and  carried  off  Sita,  the  wife  of  Kama, 
in  his  absence  from  home.  Their  contests  and 
the  final  victory  of  llama  are  the  suoject  of  the 
celebrated  epic  poem  called  tlie  llamayana. 
Vol.  III. 


Pralamba,  and  other  troublesome  giants,  who. 
it  appears,  were  not  confined  to  the  golden  age  of 
the  Hindoo  mythology,  made  an  eighth  incarna- 
tion requisite,  and  Vishnu  again  descended  in  the 
form  of^Bala-Hama.  This  took  place  in  theDw^- 
par,  or  Brazen  Age,  and  brings  us  nearer  to  the 
period  of  something  like  genuine  history. 

Budd'  ha,  tfie  ninth,  overcame  the  giants,  his 
adversaries,  by  a  veiy  singular  artifice ;  he  pro- 
duced, by  his  preaching,  an  universal  scepticbm, 
so  that  the  gods,  no  longer  compelled  to  grant 
prayers,  had  no  difficulty  in  ridding  the  world  of 
Its  scourges,  these  all-powerful  giants. 

The  Kalkt,  or  tenth  Avatar,  is  yet  to  come! 
He  will  be  the  son  ofaBifthman,  and  be  bom  in 
the  city  of  Samb'hala  at  the  close  of  the  Kali 
Yuga,  or  Iron  age.  IJe  will  appear,  say  the 
Brsihmans,  mounted,  like  a  crowned  conqueror, 
on  a  white  steed,  with  a  scymitar  blazing  like  a 
comet,  to  mow  down  all  his  foes.  Plates  of  the 
incarnations  of  Vishnd  from  Indian  drawings, 
were  first  given  by  Athanasius  Kircher,  in  his 
China  Illustrata,  in.  1667.  They  are  to  be  found 
also  in  Baldens  (ChurchilFs  collection),  whence 
they  were  copied  in  Mr.  Maurice's  Indian  An- 
tiquities :  which  see. —  War^s  View  of  Hiiuloo 
Literature,  ffc, 

AVAUNCHERS,  among  hunters,  the  second 
branches  of  a  deer's  horns. 

A  VAUNT.  Fr.  avant,  a  word  of  abhorrence, 
by  which  any  one  is  driven  away. 

O,  he  is  bold,  and  blushes  not  at  death ; 

Avaunt,  thou  hateful  villain,  get  thee  gone ! 

ShahMpeare, 

AVAUX,  a  town  of  Champagne,  in  France, 
with  1500  inhabitants,  belonging  to  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Ardennes,  arrondissement  of  Rhetel 
It  is  seated  on  the  Aisne,  not  far  from  Rheims, 
and  formerly  belonged  to  tlie  family  of  de  Memes, 
from  whom  sprung  the  celebrated  diplomatist 
Claudius  corate  dAvaux,  ambassador  of  France 
at  the  treaty  of  Westphalia. 

AUB,  or  Auw,  a  baliwick  and  town  of  Fran- 
conia,  on  the  GoUach,  between  Uffenheim  and 
Ochsenfurt.  It  had,  in  1804,  about  160  houses, 
and  1120  inhabiUnU,  and  belonged  to  the  dis- 
trict of  Rottingen,  in  the  principality  of  Wurt^ 
burg,  but  was  united  to  Bavaria  in  1815.  The 
hospital  is  well  endowed.  It  is  seventeen  miles 
south  of  Wurtzburg.  Long.  10°  10'  E.,  lat. 
49°  37'  N. 

AUBAINE,  in  the  ci-devant  customs  of 
France,  was  a  right  vested  in  the  king  of  being 
heir  to  all  foreigners  that  died  within  his  do- 
minions. By  this  right  the  French  king  claimed 
the  whole  inheritance  of  foreigners,  notwithstand- 
ing any  testament  the  deceased  could  make. 
But  an  ambassador  was  not  subjected  to  it ;  and 
the  Swiss,  Savoyards,  Scots,  and  Portuguese, 
were  also  exempted. 

AUBE,  a  department  of  France,  so  named 
from  the  river  bounded  on  the  north  by  (hat  of 
Mame;  on  the  east  by  Upper  Mame;  on  the 
south  by  those  of  the  Cote  d'Or  and  Yonne; 
and  on  the  west  by  that  of  Seine  and  Mame. 
Its  chief  town  is  Troyes, 

AuBE,  a  river  of  France,  which  rises  in  the  de- 
partment of  Unner  Ma rne,  and,  running  through 


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AUB 


that  of  Aube,  passes  by  Bar-sur-Aube  and  Arcis, 
and  falls  into  the  Seine,  near  Nogent. 

AUBENAS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  Lower 
Vivarais,  in  Languedoc,  now  included  in  the 
department  of  the  Ardeche,  arrondissement  of 
Privas.  It  was  for  some  time  the  capital  of  an  ar- 
rondissement, but  is  now  only  the  head  of  a  canton. 
The  population  is  about  3315.  Aubenas  is  a  manu- 
facturing place  of  some  consequence,  containing 
silk-mills  and  extensive  cloth-works.  The  twisted 
silk,  called  organs] n,  is  wrought  here  by  a  mill, 
constructed  by  the  ingenious  Vaucanson;  the 
average  quantity  manufactured  in  a  year  being 
550  cwt.  Here  also  are  made  handkerchiefs, 
neckcloths,  chintzs,  and  stuffs,  partly  consumed 
in  the  country,  and  partly  exported  to  the 
Levant.  The  raw  material  is  brought  chiefly 
from  Spain.  The  cloths  dyed  here  are  also  in 
great  repute.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  a  famous 
medicinal  spring,  and  mines  of  coal.  It  lies  on 
^e  Ardeche,  five  leagues  S.  W.  of  Privas,  and 
135S.S.E.  of  Paris. 

AUBERT  (Peter),  an  eminent  French  lawyer, 
bom  at  Lyons  in  1642.    He  appeared  very  early 


AuBESPiNE  (Charles  de  V)j  marquis  of  Cha- 
teau-Neuf.  He  was  chancellor  of  France,  but 
was  imprisoned  ten  years.  After  his  liberation 
he  was  taken  into  fiivor  by  Henry  I V,  He  died 
in  1653. 

AuaESPiNE  (Gabriel  de  1*),  was  of  the  same 
family  with  the  above.  He  became  bishop  of 
Orleans,  in  which  station  he  showed  himself  a 
man  of  great  learning.  He  died  in  1630,  ag^ 
fifty-two. . 

AuBESPiNE  (Magdalen  de  T),  a  celebrated 
French  lady.  She  was  the  wife  of  de  NeuviUe, 
seigneur  de  Villeroi,  and  author  of  several  ex- 
cellent pieces  in  prose  and  verse.  She  died 
in  1596. 

AUBIER,  or  Aubour,  the  French  name  ibr 
that  soft  wliitish  substance  which  lies  round 
a  tree  between  the  bark  and  the  solid  wood. 
Mr.  Barkley  thinks  it  performs  the  ofEce  of 
veins.  It  may  be  considered  as  a  third  baik, 
whose  fibres  are  less  compact  than  those  of  the 
others,  and  is  properly  the  hi  of  the  tree.  It 
hardens  gradually,  and  becomes  imperceptibly  a 
part  of  the  woody  substance.    There  are  few 


in  the  world  as  an  author,  by  the  publication  of    trees  without  some  aubier,  which  is  more  or  less 
a  romance,  called  R^tour  d'Isle  d'Aroour.     He    ^^^f^  anevwAiner  tn  *\\a  «itiioHnn  in  «Vii««ii  *Ua 


filled  several  important  stations  in  the  city  of 
Lyons,  and  established  an  extensive  public  li- 
brary. In  1710  he  published  two  volumes  of 
Cases,  and,  in  1723,  a  new  edition  of  RicheWs 
Dictionary,  three  volumes,  folio. 

AUBERTIN  (Edmund),  a  French  Protestant 
divine, — was  bom  in  1595,  and  in  1631  was 
chosen  minister  of  the  reformed  church  at  Paris. 
In  1633  he  published  a  work  on  the  Eucharist 
of  the  ancient  church,  which  was  attacked  by 
Amauld  and  other  Catholic  writers.  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1652. 

AUBERY  (Anthony),  a  French  lawyer,  and 
historical  writer,  bom  in  1617.  He  was  very 
much  given  to  study,  taking  no  pleasure  in  the 
bustle  of  public  business,  but  preferring  a  retired 
life.  The  following  are  the  principal  froits  of 
his  labours :  1.  The  History  of  the  Cardinals,  five 
volumes,  4to.  1642.  2.  Memoirs  of  the  Cardinal 
de.Richelieu,  two  volumes,  folio,  1660;  in  which 
the  character  of  the  cardinal  is  more  respected 
than  tmth,  which  is  sometimes  sacrificed  to  his 
praise.  3.  The  History  of  Cardinal  Mazarin, 
four  volumes,  12mo.  1751.  4.  On  the  Pre- 
eminence of  the  kings  of  France,  4to.  1649.  5. 
A  Treatise  on  the  Pretensions  of  the  king  of 
France  to  the  Empire,  4to.  1667.  He  died  in  1695. 
AuBERY  (John),  a  French  physician  of  tlie  se- 
venteenth centurv.  He  was  author  of  an  Apology 
for  Physic,  in  Latin,  8vo.  printed  at  Paris  in 
1608,  and  an  Antidote  to  Love,  in  French, 
12mo.  1559. 

AuBEBY  (Louis  de  Maurier),  a  French  writer. 
In  1682  he  published  Memoirs  for  a  History  of 
Holland,  two  volumes,  12mo.  He  died  in  1687, 
leaving  Memoirs  of  Hamburgh,  Lubeck,  Hol- 
stein,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  which  were  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam,  in  1737. 

AUBESPINE  (Claude  de  T),  baron  of  Cha- 
teau-Neuf.  He  was  a  descendant  of  a  noble  family 
at  Chartrain,  and  filled  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state  under  several  of  the  kings  of  France.  He 
died  in  1567. 


thick  according  to  the  situation  in  which  ^e 
trees  are  planted,  for  the  more  they  are  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  die  sun  the  less  aubier  will  be 
found  in  mem.  In  the  oak  it  is  seldom  above 
an  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a  half  thick.  When 
a  tree  is  cut  down,  or  dies  in  the  ground,  the 
aubier  remains  always  of  the  same  consistency 
without  being  turned  into  solid  wood.  It  is 
liable  to  rot,  and  therefore  merchants  ougbt  to 
take  care  that  as  litde  aubier  is  left  on  their 
wood  as  possible. 

AUBIGNAN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  Ve- 
naissin,  with  the  title  of  marquisate,  and  1330  in- 
habitants, now  included  in  the  department  of 
Vaucluse,  arrondissement  of  Orange.  It  is  famed 
for  its  oil.  Five  leagues  and  a  half  N.  E.  from 
Avignon. 

AUBIGNE  (D'  Theodore  Agrippa),  an  illus- 
trious French  author,  was  bom  m  1550.  He 
made  such  an  early  progress  in  letters,  that  he  it 
said  to  have  translated  Plato's  Crito,  from  the 
Greek  into  French,  when  he  was  only  eig:ht 
years  old.  His  fatlier  dying  when  he  was  thir- 
teen, he  attached  himself  to  the  cause  of  Henry 
IV.  under  whom  he  fouglit,  and  who  made  him 
gentleman  of  his  bedchamber.  He  soon  became 
a  favorite  with  Henry,  who  raised  him  to  several 
other  high  offices ;  but  he  at  length  lost  his  fa- 
vor, partly  by  refusing  to  comply  with  liis  pas- 
sions, and  partly  by  a  democratic  kind  of  inflexi- 
bility. Quitting  France,  he  took  refuge  in  Ge- 
neva, where  he  was  highly  honored,  and  spent 
tlie  remainder  of  his  days  in  writing  different 
works.  His  chief  production  is  his  Histoire  Uni- 
verselle,  from  1550  to  1601 ;  with  a  short  Ac- 
count of  the  Death  of  Henry  IV.  three  volumts, 
folio.  The  first  volume  was  scarcely  publbhed 
when  the  parliament  of  Paris  condemned  it  to  be 
burnt,  as  '  a  work  wherein  kings  are  treated  not 
only  with  little  respect,  but  even  outraged  V  He 
died'at  Geneva,  in  1630,  aged  eighty. 

AtjBiGNE,or  AuBiGNY,  a  small  town  of  Franc» , 
in  the  department  of  Cher,  seated  on  the  Nttrrtf. 
in  a  fine  plain,  twenty-four  miles  north  of  Bourses 


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AUB 


It  is  surrounded  with  strong  walls,  wide  ditches,' 
and  high  counterscarps.  The  castle  is  within  the 
town,  and  is  very  handsome.  Long.  2°  28'  £.,  lat. 
47^  31'  N. 

AufiiGNY,  a  ci-derant  dukedom  in  France, 
belonging  to  the  duke  of  Richmond  in  Eng- 
land, as  descendant  of  the  duchess  of  Portland, 
the  favorite  mistress  of  Charles  II.,  at  whose  so- 
licitation it  was  given  her.  It  was  confirmed  to 
the  duke  of  Richmond  and  registered  in  the  Par- 
liament of  Paris  in  1777,  but  abolished  with 
other  French  titles  in  1790. 


Anglicanum.  lie  succeeded  to  several  good  es- 
tates, but  law-suits  and  other  misfortunes  con- 
sumed them  all,  so  that  he  was  reduced  to  abso- 
lute want.  In  this  extremity  he  found  a  valuable 
benefiau:tress  in  lady  Long,  of  Dracot,  who  gave 
him  an  apartment  in  her  house,  and  supported 
him  till  his  death,  which  happened  about  A.  I). 
1700.  He  was  a  good  Latin  poet,  and  an  excel- 
lent naturalist,  but  somewhat  credulous,  and 
tinctured  with  superstition.  He  wrote,  1 .  Mis- 
cellanies. 2.  A  Perambulation  of  the  county  of 
•Surry,  in  five  volumes,  8vo.    3.  The  Life  of  Mr. 


AUBIN,  in  horsemanship,  a  broken  kind  of    Hobbes  of  Malmsbuiy.    4.  Monumenta  Britan- 


gait,  between  an  amble  and  a  gallop, — accounted 
a  defect. 

AuBiN  (St.),  sometimes  called  Hodiere,  a 
market  town,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name, 
in  the  island  of  Jersey,  three  miles  from  St.  Hil- 
lier's.  The  port  is  defended  by  a  pier,  which 
runs  out  into  the  sea,  in  the  same  manner  as  that 
at  Guernsey.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  much 
frequented  by  merchants.  The  parish  church 
being  at  some  distance,  there  is  here  a  chapel  of 
ease.  Market  on  Mondays.  Latitude  49°  T,  N. 
long.  2°  15' W. 

AUBL£TIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  class 
and  order  polyandria  monogynia.  The  essential 
characters  are,  calyx  five-leaved,  corolla,  five  pe- 
talled,  capsule  many  celled,  echinate,  with  many 


nica,  or  a  Discourse  concerning  Stonehenge,  and 
Roll-Rich  Stones  in  Oxfordshire.  5.  Architec- 
tonica  Sacra.  6.  The  Natural  History  of  Wilt- 
shire. 7.  Universal  Education,  and  several  other 
works  still  in  MS. 

AUBRIOT  (Hugo),  a  Frencn  reformer,  from 
whom  the  appellation  Hugonots.  He  was  trea- 
surer of  the  finances,  and  mayor  of  Paris ;  and 
under  his  magistracy  the  Bastile  was  built,  in 
1369.  Soon  after  he  was  accused  of  heresy,  and 
sentenced  to  confinement  between  two  walls, 
from  which  the  Maillotins,  a  set  of  insurgents, 
released  him,  in  1381.  He  however  left  them, 
and  retired  into  Burgundy,  where  he  died  tlie. 
following  year. 

AUBUSSON  (Peter  d*),  grand  master  of  the 


seeds  in  each  cell.    There  are  three  species,  all  knights  of  Rhodes,  was  born  in  La  Marche,  in. 

trees,  and  natives  ofSouth  America.  1423.     Having  entered  into  the  order  of  St.  John 

AU  BONNE,  a  district  or  bailiage  of  Switzer-  of  Jerusalem,  be  was  elected  grand  master,  in 

land,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  and  territory  of  1476 ;  and,  in  1480,  when  the  Turks  made  an 

Vaud,  which  contains  several  villages,  mostly  at  attack  upon  the  island,  it  was  by  his  vigorous  con- 

the  foot  of  mount  Jura.  duct  tliey  were  repulsed.    He  obtained  a  car- 

AuBONNE,  a  rapid  river  of  Switzerland,  which  dinaFs  hat  by  very  dishonorable  means — the  de- 
runs  through  the  above  district,  and  falls  into  the  livering  up  to  the  pope  prince  Zizim,  brother  of 


lake  of  Geneva.  In  mount  Jura  there  is  a  very 
deep  cave,  which  is  a  natural  and  perpetual  ice- 
house. At  the  bottom  is  heard  a  great  noise, 
like  that  of  a  subterraneous  river,  which  is  sup- 


Bajazet,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Rhodes,  from 
the  vengeance  of  the  sultan.    He  died  in  1503. 

AU'BURN .   Sometimes  written  Abron ,  which 


Irf   u    :u7T*u    A   K  "^"V  ^^^"  '?/"P-    it  is  suggested  may  be  the  past  participle  of  to 
posed  to  be  that  of  the  Aubonne  because  it  fim    ^^    J-^^    ^  ^^^  V  broVned.^  Others 

appears  with  several  sources,  about  a  hundred  '.-'..  -'»..' 


paces  from  the  foot  of  that  mountain 

Aubonne,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in  the  above 
district,  situated  near  the  river,  seven  miles  north 
of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  upon  an  eminence  which 
has  a  gentle  declivity,  at  the  foot  of  which  runs 
the  river,  with  an  impetuous  torrent.  It  is  built 
in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre ;  on  the  upper 
part  of  which  stands  a  castle  with  a  court,  and  a 
portico  supported  by  pillars  of  a  single  stone  each. 
The  castle  stands  hi^,  and  there  is  a  most  de- 
lightful prospect,  not  only  of  the  town  and  neigh- 
bouring fielas,  but  of  the  whole  lake  of  Geneva 
and  the  land  that  surrounds  it.  Aubonne  is  si- 
tuated eighteen  miles  W.  of  Lausanne.  Long.  6® 
15'  E.,  lat.  46®  30'  N. 

AUBREY  (John),  F.R.S.  a  famous  English 
antiquary,  bom  at  Eston-Piers,  in  Wiltshire,  in 
1626,  and  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Oxford. 
In  1646  he  was  entered  of  the  middle  Temple, 
Imr  quitt(*<i  the  study  of  the  law  on  account  of 
some  embarrassments  in  his  private  affairs.  He 
contracted  an  intimacy  with  several  learned  men. 


contend  for  albtamy  from  whiteness,  regarding  it 
as  a  color  inclining  to  white. 

His  faire  aubeme  haire  had  nothing  upon  it  but 
white  ribbin.  Pembrohe'a  Arcadia, 

Not  wanton  white,  but  such  a  manly  colour 
Next  to  an  ahron,  tough,  and  nimble  set ; 
Which  shows  an  active  soul. 
Beaumont  and  FUtcher.     The  Two  Ndbk  Kmmen, 

These  curious  locks  so  aptly  t\\'in'd. 
Whose  every  hair  a  soul  doth  bind. 
Will  change  their  auburn  hue  and  grow 
White  and  cold  as  winter  snow. 

Carew.     Penuanoni  to  Love, 
Close  to  her  side,  in  radiant  arms,  a  youth. 
Who  like  the  brother  of  the  Graces  moves. 
His  head  uncas'd,  discovers  auburn  locks 
CurlM  thick,  not  flowing. 

Ohfter^a  Leonidat,  book  ii. 

And  not  a  year  but  pilfers  as  he  goes 
Some  youthful  grace  that  «ge  would  gladly  keep, 
A  tooth,  or  auburn  lock.  Coteper'a  Pnema, 

AUBUSSON,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the 


and  was  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  department  of  Creuse,  thirty-seven  miles  north- 
Socict}'.  He  made  the  history  and  antiquities  of  east  of  Limoges.  Its  situation  is  very  irregular, 
j!.ngiand  his  peculiar  study ;  and  contributed  on  the  river  Creuse,  in  a  bottom  surrounded  with 
ct>Qsiderable  astintanoe  to  the  famous  Mon^tiopn    rocks  and  mountains. 

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AUCAGUREL,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Adel,  in  Africa,  seated  on  a  mountain.  Long. 
44*^  25'  E.,  lat.  9°  10'  N. 

AUCH,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  the  Gers.  It  has  a  beautiful  cathedral,  and 
is  sixteen  leagues  west  of  Toulouse. 

AncH,  or  Ach,  in  the  Gaelic,  signifies  a  field 
of  some  extent,  generally  arable  and  horizontal. 
In  composition,  Auchen,  Auchin,  or,  as  it  ought 
rather  to  be  spelt,  Auch-an,  signifies  the  field  of, 
the  particle  an,  in  Gaelic,  being  always  the  sign 
of  the  genitive,  when  placed  between  two  sub- 
stantives ;  although  when  prefixed  to  one  sub- 
stantive, it  implies  only  the  definite  article  the. 

AUCHABER,  or  Achaber,  a  hill  in  Aber- 
deenshire, in  the  parish  of  Forgue,  on  the  south- 
east declivity,  of  which  there  are  the  remains  of 
an  elegant  circular  Roman  redoubt. 

AUCIIINLECK,  in  Gaelic,  a  field  of  rock; 
a  parish  of  Scotland,  in  Ayrshire,  eighteen 
miles  in  length,  and  two  in  breadth ;  memorable 
for  being  the  birth-place,  as  well  as  the  property, 
of  the  late  James  Boswell,  Esq.  The  soil,  ex- 
cept upon  the  rocks  and  banks  of  the  rivers, .  is 
poor ;  but  this  is  compensated  by  its  abounding 
m  excellent  coals,  free-stone,  a  black  stone, 
which  is  fire-proof,  used  for  building  ovens,  and 
other  minerals.  It  has  also  a  lead  mine,  which 
some  think  rather  a  silver  mine,  but  it  has  never 
been  wrought;  and  two  mineral  wells.  It  has 
the  ruins  of  an  ancient  castle,  of  whose  age 
there  is  no  tradition;  and  is  ornamented  with 
an  elegant  mansion-house,  built  by  the  late  lord 
Auchinleck. 

AUCIIINLILY  Linn  Spout,  a  cataract  in 
the  parish  of  Fintiy,  in  Stirlingshire,  over  which 
the  Carron  rushes  in  its  course  from  Carron  bog 
to  the  carse  of  Falkirk. 

AUCUL()SSEN,LocH  op,  a  lake  in  the  parish 
of  Lumphanan,  in  Aberdeenshire,  nearly  a  mile 
in  lengtn,  and  above  half  a  mile  broad  ^t  the 
south  end.  It  produces  eels  and  pikes ;  some 
of  the  latter  six  feet  long,  and  twenty-five  pounds 
in  weight.  It  often  overflows  its  banks  in  summer. 

AUCUMUTY  (Sir  Samuel),  lieutenant-ge- 
neral, G.  C  B.  and  colonel  of  the  78th  regiment 
of  foot,  entered  the  army  in  1776,  as  a  volunteer 
in  the  45th  regiment ;  and  served  with  Sir  W. 
Howe  in  North  America,  the  three  following 
campaigns.  In  1783  he  held  a  company  in  the 
75th  foot  in  the  East  Indies,  and  was  present  at 
the  first  siege  •f  Seringapatam,  under  lord  Com- 
walUs.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general  to  the  expedition  against  Egypt.  He 
was  ordered  out  to  South  America  in  1806,  where 
he  assumed  the  command  of  the  troops,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier-general ;  and  in  February, 
1807,  carri^  Monte  Video  W  assault,  after  a 
most  determined  resistance  ;  for  which  services 
he  received  the  thanks  of  parliament.  In  1809 
he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Caraatic;  and  in  1811  reduced  the  settlements 
of  Java  and  Batavia  under  the  dominion  of 
(ireat  Britain,  for  which  he  again  obtained  the 
thanks  of  both  houses.  On  his  return  tu  Europe, 
Sir  Samuel  succeeded  Sir  P.  Baird,  as  chief  of 
the  staff  in  Ireland.  His  death,  occasioned  by 
apoplexy,  took  place  August  11,  1822,  in  the 
sirxty-sixtli  yen  of  his  age.  His  remains,  after 
lying  in  state  at  Kilmainham  hospital,  were  in- 


terred in  the  royal  vault  in  Christ  Church  Cathe> 
dral,  Dublin. 

AUCHTER,  a  Gaelic  word,  signifying  high, 
or  upper,  which  in  composition  makes  part  of 
many  ancient  names  of  places. 

AUCHTERMUCHTY,  a  town  of  ScoUand, 
in  Fifeshire,  which  was  constituted  a  royal  burgh 
by  James  IV.  confirmed  by  James  VI.  and  still 
enjoys  all  the  privileges,  except  that  of  electing 
a  representative  in  parliament.  It  has  three 
bailies,  fourteen  counsellors,  a  treasurer  and 
clerk ;  and  four  fairs,  viz.  on  21st  August,  first 
Tuesday  of  November  and  April,  and  13th  July, 
which  last  is  one  of  the  most  considerable  in  Fife, 
for  horses,  cattle,  &c.  The  church  was  built  in 
1780,  and  an  elegant  manse  in  1792.  The  chief 
manufacture  is  white  and  brown  linens. 

AUCKLAND,  Bishop,  a  market  town  in  the 
county  palatine  of  Durham,  with  a  population 
of  near  2000.  Here  is  the  palace  of  the  Bishop 
of  Durham,  began  in  1283,  by  bishop  Beck,  and 
is  a  noble,  though  irregular,  structure.  It  is  257 
miles  north-west  of  London,  and  ten  miles  and  a 
half  south-west  of  Durham. . 

Auckland  (William  Eden,  lordX  was  the  third 
son  of  Sir  Robert  Eden,  bart.  of  West  Auckland, 
in  the  county  of  Durham.    Educated  at  Eton 
and  Oxford,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  by  the  so^ 
ciety  of  the  Middle  Temple  in  1769,  and  accom- 
panied the  earl  of  Carlisle,  in  1778,  to  negociate 
terms  with  tlie  revolted  colonies  of  America.   He 
was  chief  secretary  during  the  same  nobleman's 
viceroyalty  in  Ireland.    In   1785   he  was  sent 
ambassador  extraordinary  to  negociate  a  com- 
mercial treaty  with  France;  and  in  1788  per- 
formed a  similar  service  with  Spain.    In  1789 
he   concluded,  at  the  Hague,  a  treaty  between 
Great  Britain,  the  emperor,   and   the  king  of 
Prussia,  in  settlement  ot  the  affairs  of  the  Nether- 
lands ;  and  the  same  year  he  was  created  baron 
Auckland,  of  the  kingdom  of  Ireland.     In  1793 
he  was  advanced  to  the  English  peerage  by  the 
same  title.    Lord  Auckland  was  considered  an 
able  diplomatist,  and  is  the  author  of  the  fol- 
lowing works :    The  Principles  of  Penal  Law, 
8vo.  1771 ;  Five  Letters  to  the  earl  of  Carlisle, 
8vo. ;  On  the  Population  of  England,  in  Ans\\cr 
to  Dr.  Price,  8vo.;  View  of  the  Treaty  of  Com- 
merce widi  France,  8vo. ;  The  History  <rf  New 
Holland,  8vo.;  Remarks  on  the  War,  8vo.  1795; 
and  various  speeches  in  the  House  of  Lords.  He 
died  in  1814. 

AUCTION,   •)     Lat.   augeo,   auetum.    Gr. 

Auc'tiomary,  >  Av(w,  increase ;  auctio,  an  in- 

Auc'tioneer.  j  creasing.  Auction  is  a  selling 
to  those  who  will  give  the  highest  price  for  the 
article  offered.  Aiter  successive  biddings  at  a 
price  constantly  advancing,  the  last  bidder  is  the 
Duyer. 

And  modi  more  honest,  to  be  hir**!,  and  stand 

With  auetumary  hammer  in  thy  hand  ; 

Provokmg,  to  give  more,  and  knocking  thrice. 

Tor  the  old  household  stuff,  or  picture's  price. 

Ihryden**  JuoemaL 
Estates  are  landscapes,  gaz'd  upon  awhile. 

Then  advenis'd,  and  auctumeer'd  away. 
Cowper'a  Poems.  The    Task,    book  iii. 

Auction,  in  old  medical  writings,  the  nourish- 
ment of  an  animal  body,  whereby  it  is  increased 
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Auction^  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  originally 
a  kind  of  sale,  performed  by  the  public  crier  sub 
hasta,  i.  e.  under  a  spear  stuck  up  on  the  occa- 
sion, and  by  a  roE^istrate,  who  delivered  the 
goods.  It  vtas  temied  auctio,  q.  d.  increase,  be- 
cause  the  goods  were  sold  to  him,  qui  plurimum 
rem  augeret,  who  bid  most  for  them.  The  auc- 
tioneer was  called  Auctor ;  and  the  term  aiicto- 
ritas  denoted  the  right  of  property  which  the 
sale  vested  in  the  purchaser.  A  spear  being  set 
up  in  the  .forum  as  the  sign  of  an  auction,  the 
phrase  sub  hast&  venire ;  (literally,  to  be  sold 
under  the  spear)  denoted  a  sale  by  auction. 

The  civil  law,  according  to  Huber,  Pnelec- 
liones,  xviii.  2.  7.  held  private  biddings,  by  or 
on  behalf  of  the  seller,  to  be  fraudulent :  and 
this  principle  was  adopted  by  the  courts  of  law 
in  this  country,  in  the  days  of  Lord  Mansfield, 
whose  inclination  to  adopt  the  maxims  of  the 
civil  code  is  well  known ;  but  latterly  the  legis- 
lature seems  to  recognise  the  practice,  by  ex- 
empting such  private  biddings  from  the  duty  im- 
posed on  sales  by  auction.  A  sale,  however, 
cannot  be  supported  where  the  purchaser  was 
the  only  real  bidder,  and  public  notice  was  not 
given  of  the  owner's  intention  to  bid ;  but  that 
public  notice  is  not  essential  to  the  validity  of  a 
sale,  if  there  be  a  contest  between  one  or  more 
real  bidders.  (See  Sugden's  Law  of  Vendors). 
In  a  Dutch  auction,  the  auctioneer  commences 
by  naming  a  high  price,  and  gradually  reduces 
it,  until  some  person  closes  with  his  offer. 

AUCTORATI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  persons 
who  entered  the  lists  as  gladiators,  and  received 
wages,  or  hired  themselves  to  perform  in  the 
public  games. 

Auctor  ATI  Milites,  soldiers  bound  by  oath, 
and  the  receipt  of  wages,  to  serve  in  war.  They 
stood  opposed  to  the  exauctorati,  who  were  dis- 
banded. The  paynnent  they  received  for  their 
service  was  denominated  auctoramentum. 

AUDA'CIOUS,  -N  Lat.  audax,  daring;  from 
Alda'ciously,  f  fluflfco,  Idare.  These  words 
Avda'ciouskess,  J  describe  that  bold  enter- 
Auda'city.  J  prising    incautious   spirit, 

which,  without  deliberation,  undertakes  to  try  to 
vanquish. 

Your  reasons  at  dinner  have  been  bharp  and  sen- 
tentious ;  pleasant  without  scurrility,  witty  without 
affectation,  audacioui  without  impudency. 

Shalupeare,  Low'i  Lahour  Loat. 

Excusing,  cavilling  upon  mandates  and  directions, 
is  a  kind  of  shaking  off  the  yoke  and  assay  of  disobe- 
dience ;  especially,  if  in  those  disputings  they  which 
arc  for  the  direction  speak  fearfully  and  tenderly,  and 
thottc  that  are  against  it,  audacioudy. 

Lord  Baeon'a  Eaaayt, 

Anniball  took  his  losse  and  dammage  nothing  neere 
the  heart,  but  rather  made  full  reckning,  that  he  had 
caught  (as  it  were)  with  a  bait,  and  fleshed  the  audik- 
eiotumene  of  the  foolehastie  <*onsuIl,  and  of  the  soul- 
dioon  especially.  HoUand'a  Lwy, 

As  when  the  wolf  has  torn  a  bullock's  hide, 
I   At  unawares,  or  ranch'd  a  shepherd's  side ; 
i    Conscibtts  of  his  midadout  deed  he  flies. 

And  claps  his  quiv'ring  tail  between  his  thighs. 

Drydm'a  VhyU.  JEn,  11. 

As  Knowledge  without  justice  ought  to  be  called 
canning  rather  than  wisdom,  so  a  mind  prepared  to 


meet  danger,  if  excited  by  its  own  eagerness,  and  not 
the  public  good,  deserves  the  name  oHf  audaeiiy  rather 
than  of  fortitude.  Steele. 

AUDE,  a  department  of  France,  bounded  by 
that  of  Arriege  on  the  west,  Upper  Garonne  on 
the  north-west,  Tarn  on  the  north,  Herault  on 
the  north-east,  the  Mediterranean  on  the  east, 
and  the  eastern  Pyrenees  on  the  south.  It  is 
named  from  the  river. 

AunE,  ariver  in  France,  which  rises  in  the 
Cerdagne  among  the  Pyrenees,  and,  running 
north  by  Alet,  visits  Carcassone,  and,  directing 
its  course  by  Quillan  and  Limouse,  fiadls  into 
the  Mediterranean,  a  little  to  the  north-east  of 
Narbonne.  llie  Romans  dug  up  gold  from  its 
banks  and  channel. 

AUDEANISM,  the  same  with  anthropomor- 
phism.   See  Anthropomorphite. 

AUDEBERT,  Germain,  a  counsellor  of  Or- 
leans, on  whom  the  senate  of  Venice  conferred 
the  order  of  knight  of  St.  Mark,  for  a  panegyric 
in  verse,  upon  the  republic,  written  by  him  while- 
at  that  city.  Uenty  II.  honored  him  with  a  par- 
tent  of  nobility.  He  died  in  1598 ;  and  his  poems 
were  collected  and  published  in  1602. 

Audedert,  John  Baptist,  a  French  natural- 
ist, and  a  celebrated  engraver  of  natural  history, 
was  born  at  Rochefort,  in  1759.  So  much  did 
he  excel  in  the  just  and  elegant  representation 
of  animals,  that  his' productions  are  accounted 
among  the  most  valuable  in  the  line.  His  first 
piece  was  L'Hist.  Nat.  des  Singes  des  ISIakis  et 
des  Galeopith^ques ;  a  folio  volume,  published  in 
1800.  This  work  drew  the  attention  of  the  pro- 
fessors of  the  museum  of  natural  histoiy  at  Paris, 
who  recommended  it  and  the  author  in  honor- 
able  terms  to  the  minister  of  the  interior.  He 
did  not  live  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  labors :  but 
died  in  1800,  while  engaged  in  other  works  of 
equal  splendor. 

AUDEUS,  or  Audius,  the  chief  of  the  Aude- 
ans,  obtained  the  name  of  a  heretic,  and  the 
punishment  of  banishment,  for  celebrating  eastef 
m  the  manner  of  the  Jews,  and  attributing  a 
human  form  to  the  Deity.  He  died  in  the 
country  of  the  Goths,  about  A.  D.  370. 

AUDIANISM,  the  system  of  Audius  and  his 
followers;  particularly  as  to  the  belief  of  the 
human  figure  of  the  Deity.   See  Anthropomor- 

PHITES. 

AU'DIBLE,  n.  &  adj.^^     Lat.  audio,  I  hear ; 

Au'dibly,  f  that  which   may  be 

Au'dience,  a  heard.   Loud  enough 

Au'niENT.  3  to  be  heard;  sounding. 

But  when  this  lady  comen  was 

To  th'  emperour,  in  his  presence. 

She  said  aloud  in  audience. 

Gower,  Con.  A.  book  it. 
Visibles  are  twiftUer  carried  to  the  sense  than  ai»- 
dibleai  ^  appeareth  in  thunder  and  lightning,  flame 
and  report  of  a  piece.  BacoiCt  Workt,  rol.  i. 

Therefore  the  Omnipotent 
Eternal  Father  (for  where  is  not  he 
Present),  thus  to  his  Son  audilfly  spake. 

MiUan.  Paradiae  Loti,  b.  vii. 

Don  Quixote  did  prosecute  his  discourse,  in  such 

wrt,  and  with  so  pleasing  terms,  as  he  had  almost 

induced  his  audietUa  to  esteem  him  to  be  at  that  time 

at  least  exempt  from  his  frensie. 

SheUon*a  Tram,  of  Don  QtUsote. 


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Audience  Court;  a  eouit  belonging  to  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  of  equal  authority 
with  the  arches  court,  though  inferior  both  in 
dignity  and  antiquity.  The  original  of  this  court 
was,  because  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  heard 
several  causes  extrajudicially  at  home  in  his  own 
palace ;  which  he  usually  committed  to  be  dis- 
cussed by  men  learned  in  the  civil  and  canon 
laws,  whom  he  called  his  attditors ;  and  so  in 
time  it  became  the  power  of  the  man,  who  is 
called  causarum  negotiorumque  audientix  Can- 
tuarensis  auditor,  seu  oificialis.    Cowel. 

Audience  Courts  are  chiefly  concerned  in 
deciding  differences  arising  upon  elections,  con- 
secrations, institutions,  marriages,  &c. 

Audience  is  also  the  name  of  a  court  of 
justice  established  in  the  West  Indies  by  the  Spa^ 
niards,  answering  in  effect  to  the'  parliament 
under  the  old  government  of  Franco.  These 
courts  take  in  several  provinces,  called  also  audi- 
ences, from  the  names  of  the  tribunal  to  which 
they  belong. 

Audience  of  Ambassadors:  a  ceremony  ob- 
served in  courts  at  the  admission  of  ambassadors 
or  public  ministers  to  a  hearing.  In  England, 
auaience  is  given  to  ambassadors  in  the  presence 
chamber :  to  envoys  and  residents,  in  a  gallery, 
closet,  or  in  any  place  where  the  king  happens  to 
be.  Upon  being  admitted,  as  is  the  custom  of  all 
courts,  they  msie  three  bows ;  after  which  they 
cover  and  sit  down ;  but  not  before  the  king  has 
covered  and  sat  down,  and  has  given  them  the  sign 
to  put  on  their  hats.  When  the  king  does  not 
wish  to  have  tnem  covered,  and  sit,  be  himself 
stands  uncovered ;  which  is  taken  as  a  slight.  At 
Constantinople,  minister  usually  have  audience 
of  the  prime  vizier. 

AUDIENDO  ET  TERsy NANDO,  a  writ,  or 

'  rather  a  commission   to  certain  persons,  when 

any  insurrection  or  great  riot  is  committed  in 

any  place^  for  the  appeasing  and  punishment 

thereof. 

AUDIENTES,  or  Auditores,  in  church  his- 
tory, an  order  of  catechumens,  consisting  of  those 
newly,  instructed  in  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian 
religion,  and  not  yet  admitted  to  baptism. 

AUDIFIIET  (J  ohn  Baptbt),an  eminent  French 
geographer,  bom  in  1657.  He  was  employed  on 
embassies  to  the  courts  of  Mantua,  Parma,  and 
Modena ;  and  was  author  of  Ancient  and  Mo- 
dern Geography,  3  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1689.  He 
died  at  Nancy,  in  1733. 

AUDIGUIER  (Vital  d'),  a  French  nobleman, 
bom  at  Menor,  near  Ville-franche  de  Rouergue, 
about  1565.  Besides  several  other  pieces,  he 
wrote  a  treatise  on  Duels,  printed  at  Paris  in 
1617;  and  Poems  on  different  subjects,  2  vols. 
8vo.  1614.    He  died  in  1630. 

AU'DIT,  w.  &  n.      -\     Lat.  audio,  I  hear. 

Au'ditor,  f  To  audit   is   to  hear 

Au'ditory,  n.  k.adj.  ^whatever  may  be  said 

Au'oiTREss.  /  on  the  subject  in  hand 

with  a  view  of  passing  a  judgment ;  generally 
applied  to  the  examination  and  passing  of  ac- 
counts by  persons  denominated  auditors,  but 
who  are,  perhaps,  in  these  transactions,  more 
properly,  inspectors..  Auditory  applies  to  per- 
sons who  hear,  and  sometimes  to  the  place  in 
%Thich  they  are  assembled. 


In  vun  shall  this  be  expected  from  our  younger 

yean;  which  the  vise  philosopher  excludes  from 

being  meet  audUort,  muck  less  judges  of  true  morality. 

Bp,  HaU't  Balm  of  GUead, 

Yet  went  she  not ;  as,  not  with  such  discourse 
Delighted ;  or  not  capable  her  ear. 
Of  what  was  high  :  such  pleasure  she  reserv'd, 
Adam  relating,  she  sole  auditrets,  Milton. 

Met  in  the  church,  I  look  upon  yon,  as  an  auditmy, 
fit  to  be  waited  on  (as  you  are)  by  both  universities. 

SotOk, 

Several    of   this    auditory  were,    perhaps,   entire 
strangers  to  the  person  w^ose  death  we  now  lament. 

Atterhurjf, 

Foh!  'twas  a  bribe  that  left  it ;  he  has  touch'd 
Corruption !  whoso  seeks  an  audit  here 
Propitious,  pays  his  tribute,  game  or  fish. 
Wild  fowl  or  ven'son ;  and  his  errand  speaks. 

Cowper*s  Poem. 

Will  make  your  very  heart  strings  ake 
With  loud  and  everlasting  clack^ 
And  beat  your  auditory  drum. 
Till  you  grow  deaf,  or  they  grow  dumb. 

Beattie,   The  Wolf  and  Shepherdt, 

AUDITA  Querela,  a  writ  which  lies  against 
him  who  has  taken  a  recognizance  in  the  nature 
of  a  statute-staple,  or  the  like,  and  has  asked,  or 
obtained,  execution  from  the  mayor  and  bailiffs, 
or  judges,  before  whom  it  was  entered,  &c.  It 
is  granted  by  the  lord  chancellor,  upon  view  of 
the  exception  suggested,  to  the  judges  of  either 
bench,  willing  them  to  grant  summons  to  the 
sheriff  of  the  county  where  the  creditor  is,  for 
his  appearance  at  a  certain  day  before  them. 
But  toe  indulgence  now  shown  by  the  courts  in 
granting  a  summary  relief  upon  motion,  in  cases 
of  evident  oppression,  has  almost  rendered  this 
writ  useless,  and  driven  it  quite  out  of  practice. 
A  late  learned  judge,  Ch.  J.  Eyre,  i.  B.  and  p. 
428,  states  that  the  court  will  grant  relief  upon 
motion  in  all  cases  where  a  party  would  have 
been  entitled  to  relief  by  audita  queiell^. 
The  legal  student  will  find  this  subject  clearly 
expounded  in  Mr.  Serjeant  Williams's  notes  to 
Saimders's  lleports,  in  the  ca&e  of  Turner  v.  Da- 
vies,  vol.  ii.  p.  137,  d. 

AUDITfONALlS  Scholasticus,  in  writers 
of  the  middle  age,  an  advocate  who  pleads  causes 
for  his  clients  in  audiences. 

Auditors  of  the  Revenue,  or  of  the  exche- 
quer, officers  who  take  the  accounts  of  those 
who  collect  the  revenue  and  taxes  raised  by  par- 
liament, the  accounts  of  the  sheriffs,  escheators, 
collectors,  tenants,  customers,  &c.  The  auditor 
of  the  exchequer,  an  office  enjoyed  for  life,  is 
one  of  considerable  trust.  He  is  to  file  the  tel- 
ler's bills,  by  which,  they  charge  themselves  with 
all  the  monies  received ;  and  by  warrant  from 
the  lord  treasurer,  or  the  commissioners  of  the 
treasury,  he  draws  all  orders  to  he  signed  by 
him  or  tliem,  for  issuing  forth  all  monies,  by 
virtue  of  privy  seals,  which  are  recorded  in  the 
clerk  of  the  Pells'  office,  and  entered  and  bdged 
in  the  auditor's  office.  He  also,  by  warrant  of 
the  lord  treasurer,  or  commissioners  of  the  trea- 
sury, makes  debentures  to  such  as  have  fees,  an- 
nuities or  pensions,  by  letters  patent  from  the 
king,  out  of  the  exchequer,  and  directs  them 
for  payment  to  the  tellers.  He  daily  receives 
the  state  of  the  account  of  each  teller^  ioA  wedily 


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eertificates  the  whole  to  the  lords  of  the  trea<mry. 
At  Michaelinus  and  lady-day  the  auditor  of  the 
exchequer  makes  a  declaration ;  that  is,  he  de- 
livers an  abstract  of  all  accounts  and  payments 
made  in  the  preceding  half  year,  one  for  the 
lords  of  the  treasury,  and  the  other  for  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer.  The  office  is  holden 
for  life. 


in  1356 ;  where,  having  obtained  leave  of  Edward 
the  Black  Prince,  to  charge  in  front  (in  conse- 
quence of  a  vow  he  liad  made),  he  performed 
extraordinary  feats  of  personal  valor :  out  being 
at  last  dangerously  wounded,  was  carried  out  of 
the  field.  In  1360  he  again  attended  Edward 
III.  to  the  wars  in  France;  and  after  the  peace, 
in  1361,  was   made   constable   of  Gloucester 


AUDITOR£S,  in  church  history,  a  branch  of  Castle,  governor  of  Aquitain,  <ind  seneschal  of 

the  Manichean  sect,  who  were  divided  into  electi  Poictou.    He  died  April  1, 1386. 
and  auditores ;  corresponding,  according  to  some        Audlet  (Sir  Thomas),  descended  of  an  ancient 

writers,  to  clergy  and   laity ;  and  according  to  fiEimily  in  Essex,  was  bom  in  1488 ;  and,  having 

others,  to  the  faithful  and  catechumens  among  the  advantage  of  an  ufiiversi^  education,  was 

the  catholics.    By  the  Manichean  rule,  a  differ-  taken  notice  of  by  Henry  VIII.  and  appointed 

ent  course  of  life  was  prescribed  to  the  elect  from  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  m  1529. 


that  of  the  auditors.  The  latter  might  eat  flesh, 
drink  wine,  bathe,  marry,  traffic,  possess  estates, 
bear  magistracy,  and  the  like ;  all  which  things 
were  forbidden  to  the  elect.  The  auditors  were 
obliged  to  maintain  the  elect,  and  kneeled  down 
to  ask  their  blessing.    Beausobre  observes,  that 


Having  pleased  the  king  in  this  station,  he  pro- 
moted him  farther  next  year;  and  in  1532,  ap- 
pointed him  Lord  keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  on 
the  resignation  of  the  famous  Sir  Thomas  More. 
In  1533  he  made  him  Lord  Chancellor,  with 
suitable  emoluments.    In  1535  Audley  sat  in 


the  elect  were  ecclesiastics,  and  in  general  such    judgment,  and  pronounced  sentence  of  death 


(  m^e  profession  of  observing  certain  c(}unsels, 
called  evangelic ;  such  as  the  clergy  and  monks, 
and  they  were  called  the  perfect  by  Tbeodoret 
The  auditors  were  the  laity,  and  so  denominated 
because  they  heard  in  the  church,  while  others 
taught  and  instructed.    See  Audientes. 

AUDITORIUM,  in  the  ancient  churches,  was 
that  part  where  the  audientes  stood  to  hear  and 
be  instructed.  The  auditorium  was  the  part  now 
called  navis  ecclesie.  See  Nave.  In  the  primi- 
tive times,  the  church  was  so  strict  in  keeping 
people  together  in  that  place,  that  the  person 
who  went  from  thence  in  sermon-time  was 
ordered  by  the  council  of  Carthage  to  be  excom- 
municateu. 

AUDITORIUS  Meatus,  the  auditory  passage 
or  entrance  of  the  ear,  called  also  aurium  alveare, 
on  account  of  the  wax  collected  in  it. 

Auditory,  in  ancient  churches.  See  Audi- 
torium. 

Auditory  is  also  used  for  the  bench  whereon 
a  magistrate,  or  judge,  hears  causes.    At  Rome, 


upon  Sir  Thomas  More,  as  guilty  of  high  treas6n, 
in  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  king's  supremacy 
in  the  church!  Upon  receiving  sentence,  Sir 
Thomas  More  said  '  he  had  studied  this  subject 
for  seven  years,  but  could  find  no  authority  for  a 
layman  being  head  of  the  church ;'  to  which 
Audley  gave  this  decisive  answer ;  *  Sir,  will  you 
be  reckoned  wiser,  or  of  a  better  conscience,  than 
all  the  bishops,  the  nobility,  and  the  whole  king- 
dom?' For  these  and  the  like  services,  Henry 
created  Audley  a  baron  and  a  knight  of  the  gar- 
ter in  ,1538.    He  died  in  1544.     * 

Audley  Castle,  a  fort  of  Ireland,  built  on  a 
promontory  in  the  county  of  Down,  which  has 
a  prospect  of  the  whole  lake  of  Strangford. 

Audley  Road,  a  part  of  Strangford  Bay,  on 
the  west  side,  on  the  coast  of  Down  in  Ulster, 
where  ships  may  lie  in  safety. 

AUDRAN  (Benoit,  or  Benedict),  the  second 
son  of  Germain  Audran,  was  bom  at  Lyons  in 
1661,  where  he  learned  the  first  principles  of 
design  and  engraving  under  his  father.    But  soon 


'  the  magistrates  had  auditories,  according  to  their  after  going  to  Paris,  his  uncle  Gerard  Audran 
dignity.  'Those  of  the  superior  officers  were  took  him  under  his  tuition ;  and  he  profited  so 
called  tribunals ;  those  of  the  inferior,  subsellia.  greatly  by  his  instructions,  that  though  he  never 
The  pedanei  had  their  auditories  in  the  portico  of  equalled  the  sublime  style  of  his  tutor,  yet  he 
the  imperial  palace.  Those  of  the  Hebrews,  at  deservedly  acquired  great  reputation.  Abbe 
the  gates  of  cities.  The  judges  appointed  by  the  Fontenai  says,  •  We  admire  in  his  works  a  share 
ancient  lords  distributed  justice  under  an  elm,  of  those  beauties  which  we  find  in  the  engravings 
whidi  was  usually  planted  before  the  manor-  of  the  illustrious  Gerard.'  He  was  appointed 
house,  and  served  them  for  an  auditory.  the  king's  engraver,  received  the  royal  pension. 

Auditory  Nerves,  the  seventh  pair,  arising  was  made  an  academician,  and  admitted  into  the 
from  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  distributed,  the  council,  in  1715.  He  died  unmarried  at  Lou- 
one  to  the  ear,  the  other  to  the  tongue,  eye,  &c.      zouer,  where  he  had  an  estate,  in  1721.    His 

AUDLEY  (Edmund),  the  son  of  Lord  Aud-  manner  was  founded  upon  the  bold  clear  style  of 
ley,  bishop  of  Rochester  and  Hereford,  under  his  uncle.  His  outlines  were  firm  and  deter- 
Heniy  VII.,  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and 
generosity.  He  gave  £400  to  Lincoln  College, 
to  purchase  lands,  and  was  also  a  benefactor 
to  St  Mhry's  Church,  Oxford.  He  died  in 
1524. 

Audley  (James,  Lord  Audley),  one  of  the 
English  heroes  who  fought  under  Edward  III. 
was  bom  about  1314.  In  1343  he  was  made 
governor  of  Berwick.  In  1353  he  reduced  a 
great  part  of  the  country  of  Valois  in  France ; 
and  was  present  at  tlie  famous  battle  of  Poictiers 


mined ;  his  drawing  correct ;  the  heads  of  his 
figures  are  in  general  very  expressive ;  and  the 
other  extremities  well  marked .  His  works,  com- 
pared with  those  of  his  uncle,  appear  to  want 
that  mellowness  and  harmony  so  conspicuous  in 
the  latter;  and  the  round  dots  witli  which  he 
finishes  his  flesh  upon  the  lights  are  often  too 
predominant.  In  his  most  finished  plates  the 
mechanical  part  of  the  engraving  is  extremely 
neat,  and  managed  with  great  taste.  One  of  his 
neatept  prints  is  that  of  Alexander  sick,  drinkinj; 


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from  the  cup  which  his  physician  presents  to 
him ;  a  circular  plate,  from  lie  Sueur. 

AuDRAN  (Benoit\  the  second  engraver  of  that 
name,  the  son  of  John  Audran,  and  nephew 
to  the  former  Benoit;  was  also  established 
at  Paris.  A  little  attention  will  easily  distinguish 
his  works,  which  are  vastly  inferior  to  those  of 
his  uncle.  One  of  the  best  of  his  plates  is  ike 
aescent  from  the  cross,  from  a  picture  of  Poussin. 

AuDRAN  (Carl),  an  eminent  French  engraver, 
brother,  or  cousin  to  Claude,  was  bom  at  Paris 
in  1594.  In  his  infancy  he  discovered  much 
taste  for  the  arts ;  and  to  perfect  himself  in  en- 
graving he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  produced 
several  prints  that  did  him  great  honor.  At  his 
return,  he  adopted  that  species  of  engravii^  which 
is  performed  with  the  graver  only.  He  settled 
at  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1674,  unmarried. 
The  abb^  Marolles,  who  speaks  of  him  with 
great  praise,  attributes  130  prints  to  him: 
amongst  which,  the  annunciation,  a  middling 
sized  plate,  upright,  from  Annibale  Caracci ;  and 
the  assumption,  in  a  circle,  from  Dominichino, 
are  the  most  esteemed.  In  the  early  part  of  his 
life  he  marked  his  prints  with  C,  for  Carl,  till  his 
brother  Claude  punlished  some  plates  with  the 
same  initial,  when,  for  distinction  sake,  he  used 
the  letter  K,  or  wrote  his  name  Karl. 

AuDRAN  (Claude),  a  French  engraver,  the 
first  of  the  celebrated  artists  of  that  name,  was 
the  son  of  Lewis  Audran,  an  officer  belonging  to 
the  wolf  hunters  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France;  and  was  born  at  Paris  in  1592.  Al- 
though he  never  made  any  great  progress  in  the 
art,  yet  he  had  the  honor  to  be  the  father  of  three 
great  artists,  Germain,  Claude,  and  Gerard. 
The  last  of  whom  has  immortalised  the  name  of 
the  family.     He  died  at  Lyons,  in  1677. 

Audran  (Claude),  the  second  son  to  Claude, 
was  born  at  Lyons  in  1639,  and  went  to  Rome 
to  study  painting ;  where  lie  succeeded  so  well, 
that  at  his  return  he  was  employed  by  Le  Brun 
to  assist  him  in  the  battles  ot  Alexander,  which 
he  was  then  painting  for  Louis  XIV.  He  was 
received  into  the  Royal  Academy  in  1675,  and 
died  unmarried  at  Paris  in  1684.  His  virtues 
(says  abb^  Fontenai)  were  as  praise-worthy  as  his 
talents. 

Audran  (Gerard),  the  most  celebrated  artist 
of  his  family,  was  the  third  son  of  Claude,  and 
born  at  Lyons  in  1640.  He  learned  from  his 
father  the  first  principles  of  design  and  en<rraving 
at  Lyons ;  and  went  to  Paris,  where  his  genius 
soon  began  to  manifest  itself.  Le  Brun  em- 
ployed him  to  engrave  the  battle  of  Constantine, 
and  the  triumph  of  that  emperor ;  and  for  these 
works  he  obtained  apartments  at  the  Gobelins. 
At  Rome  he  is  said  to  have  studied  under  Carlo 
Maratti,  to  perfect  himself  in  drawing ;  and  in 
that  city  he  engraved  several  fine  plates.  M. 
Colbert  was  so  struck  with  the  beauty  of  Au- 
dmn^lk  works  while  he  resided  at  Rome,  that  he 
persuaded  Louis  XIV.  to  recal  him.  On  his 
return,  he  was  appointed  engraver  to  the  king. 
In  1681  he  was  named  counsellor  of  the  Royal 
Academy;  and  died  at  Paris  in  1703.  He  had 
been  married,  but  left  no  male  issue.  The 
greatest  excellency  of  this  artist,  above  that  of 
Hny  other  engraver,  was,  that  though  he  drew 


admirably  himself,  yet  he  contracted  no  manner 
of  his  own ;  but  transcribed  on  copper  simply, 
with  great  truth  and  spirit,  the  style  of  the  mas- 
ters whose  pictures  he  copied.  On  viewing  b» 
prints,  we  lose  sight  of  the  engraver,  and  natu- 
rally say,  it  is  Le  Brun,  Poussin,  Mignard,  or 
Le  Sueur,  &c.  as  we  turn  to  the  prints  which  he 
engraved  from  those  masters.  'This  sublime 
artist,'  says  the  abb^  Fontenai,  'far  from  con- 
ceiving tKat  a  servile  arrangement  of  strokes,  and 
the  too  frequently  cold  and  affected  clearness  of 
the  graver,  were  the  great  essentials  of  historical 
engraving,  gave  worth  to  his  works  by  a  bold 
mixture  of  free  hatchings  and  dots,  placed  toge- 
ther apparently  without  order,  but  with  an  inimi- 
table degree  of  taste ;  and  has  left  to  posterity 
most  admirable  examples  of  the  style  in  which 
grand  compositions  ought  to  be  treated.  His 
greatest  works,  which  have  not  a  very  flattering 
appearance  to  the  ignorant  eye,  are  the  admira- 
tion of  true  connoisseurs  and  persons  of  fine 
taste.  He  acquired  the  most  profound  know- 
ledge of  the  art,  by  the  constant  attention  he 
bestowed  upon  the  science  of  design,  and  the 
frequent  use  he  made  of  painting  from  nature. 
He  knew  how  to  penetrate  into  the  genius  of  the 
painter  he  copied  from ;  often  improved  upon, 
and  sometimes  even  surpassed  him.  Without 
exception,  he  was  the  most  celebrated  engraver 
that  ever  existed  in  the  historical  line.  We  have 
several  subjects  which  he  engraved  from  his  own 
designs,  that  manifested  as  much  taste  as  cha- 
racter and  facility.  But,  in  the  batdes  of  Alex- 
ander, he  suroassed  e?en  the  expectations  of  Le 
Bnm  himself.^  These  consist  of  three  very  large 
prints,  length-ways,  each  consisting  of  four 
plates,  which  Join  together,  from  Le  Brun,  viz. 
The  passage  of  the  Granicus ;  The  batUe  of  Ar- 
bela ;  and  Porus  brought  to  Alexander,  after  his 
defeat.  To  this  set  are  added  two.  large  prints, 
length-ways,  on  two  plates  each,  also  from  Le 
Brun,  viz.  Alexander  entering  the  tent  of  Darius, 
and  the  triumphal  entry  of  Alexander  into  Ba- 
bylon. Tlie  former  was  engraved  by  Gerard 
£!delink,  and  the  latter  by  Gerard  Audran.  Of 
all  these  plates,  those  impressions  are  most  es- 
teemed which  have  the  name  of  Goyton  the 
printer  marked  upon  them. 

Audran  (Germain),  the  eldest  son  of  Claude, 
was  bom  in  1631  at  Lyons,  where  his  parents 
then  resided.  Not  content  with  the  iustructions 
of  his  father,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  perfected 
himself  under  his  uncle  Cad.  Upon  his  return 
to  Lyons,  he  published  several  pnnts  which  did 
him  great  honor.  His  merit  was  in  such  esti- 
mation, that  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  aca> 
demy,  and  chosen  a  professor.  He  died  at 
Lyons  in  1710,  and  left  behind  him  four  sons, 
all  artists;  namely,  Claude,  Benoit,  John,  and 
Lewis. 

Audran  (John),  the  third  son  of  Genn.^tn 
Audran,  was  bom  at  Lyons  in  1667 ;  and,  after 
being  instmcted  by  his  father,  went  to  Paris  to 
perfect  himself  in  the  art  under  his  uncle  Ge- 
rard. At  the  age  of  twenty  he  began  to  display 
his  genius  in  a  surprising  manner  ;  and  his  suc- 
cess was  such,  that  in  1707  he  obtained  the  title 
of  engraver  to  tlie  king,  and  had  a  pension  al- 
lowed him,  with  apartments  in  the  Gobelins; 


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and  the  following  year  he  was  made  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  was  eighty -years 
of  age  before  he  quitted  the  graver ;  and  near 
ninety  when  he  died,  at  the  apartments  assigned 
him  by  the  king.  He  left  three  sons,  one  of 
whom  was  also  an  engraver.  *  The  most  mas- 
terly and  best  prints  of  this  artist  (in  Mr.  Strutt*s 
opinion)  are  those  which  are  not  so  pleasing  to 
the  eye  at  first  sight.  In  these  the  etching  con- 
stitutes a  great  part ;  and  he  has  finished  them 
in  a  bold  rough  style.  The  scientific  hand  of 
the  master  appears  in  them  on  examination. 
The  drawing  of  the  human  figure,  where  it  is 
shown,  is  correct.  The  heads  are  expressive 
and  finely  finished;  the  other  extremities  well 
marked.  He  has  not,  however,  equalled  his 
uncle.  He  wants  that  hannony  in  the  effect; 
his  lights  are  too  much  and  too  equally  covered; 
and  there  is  not  sufficient  difference  between  tlie 
style  in  which  he  has  engraved  his  back  grounds 
and  his  draperies.  This  observation  refers  to  a 
line  print  by  him  of  Athaliah,  and  such  as  he 
engraved  in  that  style.  At  other  times  he  seems 
almost  to  have  quitted  the  point,  and  substituted 
the  graver.  But  here  I  think  he  has  not  so  well 
succeeded.  The  effect  is  cold  and  silvery :  see 
for  example,  the  Andromache  from  Svlvestre. 
One  of  his  best  finished  prints,  in  this  neat 
style,  seems  to  be  Cupid  and  Psyche  from  Ant 
Coypel.' 

AxJDRAN  (Lewis),  the  last  son  of  Germain 
Audran,  was  bom  at  Lyons  in  1670 ;  from  whence 
he  went  to  Paris  in  1712,  before  he  had  produced 
any  great  number  of  prints.  The  most  esteemed 
are  his  seven  acts  of  mercy,  on  seven  middling- 
siied  plates,  from  Sebastian  Bourdon. 

AUDREY,  or  Ethelreda,  an  Anglo-Saxon 

grincess,  wife  of  Egfrid,  king  of  Northumber- 
tnd.    She  turned  abbess,  and  was  canonized 
after  her  death. 

AVE,  )     A  corruption  of  the  Latin 

Av'e  Mary.  )  Ave  Maria,  Hail  J^aiy !  A 
reverential  address  used  by  Catholics  to  the 
Virgin  Mary. 

All  his  mind  is  bent  on  holiness. 
To  number  Ave  Mariaa  on  his  beads.  Suiitp^e. 

Ave  Mary.  In  the  Romish  church,  their 
chaplets  and  rosaries  are  divided  into  so  many 
ave-marias  and  so  many  paternosters.  It  has 
been  observed  by  Bingham  and  others,  that 
among  all  the  short  prayers  used  by  the  ancients 
before  their  sermgns,  there  is  not  die  least  men- 
tion of  an  ave-mary;  and  that  its  original  can 
be  carried  no  higher  than  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  Vincentius  Ferrerius,  who 
was  a  celebrated  preacher,  fi^t  used  it  before 
his  discourses;  from  his  example  it  obtained 
such  authority,  as  not  only  to  be  prefixed  to  all 
the  sermons  of  the  Romish  preachers,  but  fo  be 
joined  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  their  breviary. 

AVEIRO,  a  considerable  town  of  Portugal, 
in  Beira,  seated  near  the  head  of  a  small  gulf  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Vouga ;  which  forms  a  haven 
with  a  bar,  over  which  vessels  may  pass  that  do 
not  draw  above  eight  or  nine  feet  water.  The  city 
stands  in  a  long  plain,  well  watered,  and  very 
fertile.  This  plain  is  nine  miles  broad,  from 
Porto  to  Coimbra ;  and  is  bounded  on  the  east 


by  a  chain  of  mountains  called  Sierra  d'Al- 
coba,  which  reach  ^m  the  one  town  to  the 
other.  Near  this  city  salt  is  made  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  serve  two  or  three  provinces.  It  has 
a  nunnery,  where  none  are  admitted  but  the 
daughters  of  the  nobility.  Many  English  are 
settled  here,  on  account  of  the  thriving  trade  in 
oil,  salt,  and  fish,  especially  sardels.  It  lies  thirty 
miles  S.  of  Oporto.  Long.  8**  30'  W.  lat.  40''40'  N. 

AVEIRON,  a  department  of  France,  bounded 

by  that  of  Cantal  on  the  north,  by  those  of  Lo- 

.  zere  and  Gard  on  the  east,  Herault  and  Tarn  on 

the  south,  and  Lot  on  the  west.    It  is  named 

from  Uie  nver. 

Ave  I  ROM,  a  river  of  France,  which  rises 
near  Severac,  and  flowing  by  Rhodes  and  Vil- 
lefranche,  falls  into  the  Garonne  below  Mont- 
auban. 

AvEL,  avello,  Lat.  to  pull  away. 

The  beaver  in  chase  makes  some  divulsion  of  paits, 
yet  aze  not  these  parU  oodled  to  be  tenned  testicles. 

Jn'OMM. 

AVELLA,  a  town  of  Campagni  di  Roma. 

AvELLA.    See  Aquila. 

AVELLANA,  in  botany,  nux  pontica,  filbert, 
a  sort  of  nut,  anciendy  so  called,  from  Avellaaum, 
a  town  of  Campania,  where  they  abounded.  See 
AvELLiNO  It  is  the  corylus  avellana  of  Lin- 
neus.    Plin.l.  25,  c.  23. 

Avellana  Purgatrix,  in  the  materia  me- 
dica,  the  fruit  of  a  species  of  ricinus. 

AVEIJ-ANDA,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by 
the  Spaniards  to  the  rodu  of  the  Torsi,  or  sweet 
cyperus.  These  are  esculent,  and  of  a  veiy  de- 
licious taste :  they  seem  to  have  had  the  name 
from  their  likeness  to  the  avellana,  or  hazel  nut. 
Garcias,  and  some  others,  have  thought  that  the 
curcas  of  Malabar  vras  the  same  with  the  aveU 
landa  of  Europe.  But  this  does  not  seem  to  be 
the  case;  for  the  curcas,  though  of  the  same 
size  and  shape  with  the  aveHanda,  has  a  hard 
coat  like  the  common  filbert. 

AVELLANE,  in  heraldry,  a  cross,  the  quarters 
of  which  somewhat  resemble  a  filbert-nut.  Syl- 
vanus  Morgan  says,  that  it  is  the  cross  which 
ensigns  the  sovereign's  globe. 

AVELLINO,  a  city  of  Italy,  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  with  a  bishop's  see.  It  was  almost 
ruined  by  an  earthquake  m  1 694.  It  is,  however, 
at  present  a  pretty  considerable  place,  extending 
a  mile  in  length  down  the  decHvity  of  a  hill, 
vnth  ugly  streets,  but  tolerable  houses.  The 
churches  have  nothing  to  recommend  them,'  be- 
ing crowded  with  monstrous  ornaments  in  the 
barbarous  style,  which  the  Neapolitans  seem  to 
have  borrowed  from  tlie  Spamaids.  The  ca- 
thedral is  a  poor  building,  in  a  wretched  situation, 
with  little  to  attract  the  eye.  The  good  catholics 
need  not  run  to  Naples  to  see  the  blood  of  St. 
Januarius;  for  they  have  a  statue  of  St.  Law- 
rence, with  a  phial  of  his  blood;  which,  for 
eight  days  in  August,  entertains  them  here  with 
a  similar  miraculous'  liquefiustion.  The  oftly 
edifice  of  note  is  a  public  granary,  of  the  Com- 
posite order,  adorned  with  antique  statues,  and 
a  very  elegant  bronse  one  of  Charles  II.  of 
Spain,  while  a  boy,  cast  by  Cavalier  Cosimo. 
The  number  of  inhabitants  amounts  to  8000^ 
some  say   10,000.      The  bishop's  revenue  is 


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about  6000  ducats  (£1125)  a-year.  The  ma- 
gistracy consists  of  a  syndic  and  four  eletti,  all 
annual ;  which  offices  are  engrossed  by  a  certain 
number  of  families  of  distinction.  Avellino  has 
a  considerable  manu^ture  of  cloth  of  various 
qualities  and  colors,  but  chiefly  blue.  Majiy 
wealthy  merchants  have  a  concern  in  this  busi- 
ness. The  second  article  of  trade  is  maccaroni, 
and  paste  of  many  kinds,  which,  being  of  an  ex- 
cellent quality,  are  in  high  repute  all  over  the 
country.  Wooden  chairs  are  also  made  and 
sold  in  great  quantities.  Avellino  abounds  with 
provisions  of  every  sort;  each  street  is  supplied 
with  wholesome  water;  but  the  wine  is  indif- 
ferent. The  soil  of  this  district,  which  consists 
chiefly  of  volcanic  substances,  produces  little 
com,  but  fruit  in  abundance,  of  wnich  the  apple 
is  deservedly  held  in  great  esteem.  The  most 
profitable,  however,  of  all  its  fruit-trees  is  tJie 
Jnazel.  Nut-bushes  cover  the  face  of  the  valley, 
and  in  good  years  bring  in  a  profit  of  60,000 
ducats  (£11,250).  The  nuts  are  mostly  of  the 
large  round  species  of  filbert,  which  we  call  Spa- 
nish. These  bushe^i  were  originally  imported  into, 
Italy  from  Pontus,  and  known  among  the  Ro- 
mans by  the  appellation  of  nux  Pontica,  which, 
in  process  of  time,  was  changed  into  that  of  nux 
Avellana,  from  the  place  where  they  had  been  pro- 
pagated with  the  greatest  success.  The  proprietors 
plant  them  in  rows,  and  by  dressing,  form  them 
into  large  bushes  of  many  stems.  Every  year 
they  refresh  the  roots  with  new  earth,  and  prune 
off  the  straggling  shoots  with  great  attention. 
Between  Avelli|io  and  Benevento  is  the  Val  di 
Gargano,  better  known  in  history  by  the  name  of 
Furcs  Condins,  where  the  Romans  were  blocked 
up  by  the  Samnites,  and  compelled  to  pass  under 
the  yoke,  in  the  433d  year  ot  Rome.  Avellino 
is  situated  twenty-five  miles  N.  £.  of  Naples. 
Long.  15*  20^  E.,  lat,  41*^  11'  N. 

AVELTON.    See  Alton. 

AVEN,  one  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  better 
known  by  the  name  of  Sanda. 

Av£N,  the  Scriptural  name  of  several  ao- 
cient  places;  particularly,  1.  of  Bethel,  by  way 
of  metaphor,  Uos.  x.  8.  2.  of  Heliopolis,  a 
city  of  Egypt,  Ezek.  xxx.  17.  See  Heliopolis. 
S.  of  a  plain  in  Syria,  between  Lebanon  and 
Antilibanus,  Amos,  i.  5 ;  supposed  to  be  the 
same  with  Baal-beck,  or  the  valley  of  Lebanon. 
See  Baal-Beck. 

AVENA,  Oats,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
dyginia  order,  and  triandria  class  of  plants ;  rank- 
ing in  the  natural  method  under  the  fourth 
order,  gramina.  The  calyx  has  a  double  valfe, 
and  the  awn  on  the  back  is  contorted.  Jhere 
are  thirteen  species,  of  which  the  first  six  fol- 
lowing are  natives  of  Britain :  viz.  1.  A.  elatior, 
the  taU  oat-grass.  2.  A.  fiitoa,  the  bearded  oat- 
grass.  3.  A.  flavescens,  the  yellow  oat-grass. 
4.  A.  nuda,  the  naked  oat.  5.  A.  pratesis,  the 
meadow  oat-grass.  6.  A.  pubescens,  the  rough 
oaC-grass.  7.  A.  sativa,  the  common  oat  culti- 
vated in  our  fields.  It  is  remarkable,  that  the 
original  native  place  of  this  plant  b  almost  to- 
tally unknown.  Anson  says,  that  he  observed 
it  growing  wild  or  spontaneously  in  the  island 
of  Juan  Fernandez:  but  a  vague  observation 
from  a  single  author  is  not  to  be  depended  on. 


For  the  culture,  tee  Husbivdrt.  Oats  are  an 
article  of  the  materia  medica.  Gruels  made 
from  them  have  a  kind  of  soft  mucilaginous 
quality;  by  which  they  obtund  acrimonious  hu- 
mors, and  prove  useful  in  inflammatory  dis- 
eases, coughs,  hoarseness,  and  exulcerations  of 
the  fauces. 

AVENACEOUS,  something  belonging  to,  or 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  oats. 
AVENANT,  agreeable;  beautiful.— C*«ic. 
AVENCHE,  an  ancient   city  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  canton  of  Bern,  formerly  the  capital  of  all 
Switzerland,  but  now  greatly  decayed.    It  lies 
four  miles  S.  W.  of  Murat,  and  fift^n  W.  ol 
Bern.    Long.  6**  52*  E.,  lat.  46°  50*  N. 
AVEN'GE,  V.  &  n.'\     Fr.  venger,  Lat  vm 
Aven'geance,  /  dicare  {vim  dicert,  Vos 

Aven'oement,         >  sius),  to  repel  force  widi 
Aven'ger,  i  force.    To  deal  out  the 

Aven'oeress.  j  measure  allowed  by  the 

Jewish  law — *  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,'  &c. ;  to  de- 
nounce vengeance,  to  retaliate  an  injury,  to  exact 
punishment  not  sanctioned  by  good  laws,  or  the 
benign  spirit  of  Christianity. 

That  he  might  work  th'  aoengemeni  for  his  shame. 
On  those  two  caitives,  which  had  bred  him  blame. 

Speimt 
All  thoM  great  battles  (which  thou  boasts  to  win 
Through  strife  and  bloodshed,  and  aoei^ement 
Now  praised)  hereafter  thoa  shalt  repent. 

Td,  Faerie  Queeut 
There  that  cruel  queen  anengeren 
Heap  on  her  new  waves  of  weary  wretchedness. 

Id 
This  neglected,  fear 
Signal  aoengmnee ;  such  as  overtook 
A  miser.  PhiUpt. 

I  will  oMMf*  me  of  mine  enemies.  /somA. 

They  stood  against  their  enemies,  and  were 
menged  of  their  adversaries.  WUdim, 

I  will  menge  the  blood  of  Jeareel,  upon  the  house 
of  Jfhu.  Uoiea. 

Till  Jove,  no  longer  patient,  took  his  time, 
T'  anenge  with  thunder  your  audncious  crime. 

Dryden, 
The  just  avenger  of  his  injured  ancestors,  the  vic- 
torious Louis,  was  darting  his  thunder.  Id, 
But  jnst  disease  to  luxury  succeeds  *, 
And  ev'ry  death  its  own  atoenjer  breeds.      Popr. 
Too  daring  bard !  whose  unsnoceasfol  pride 
TK'  immortal  Muses  in  their  ait  defied ; 
Th'  anengmg  Muses  of  the  light  of  day 
Deprived  his  eyes,  and  snatch'd  his  voice  away. 

Id. 
The  day  shall  come,  that  great  aoenghig  day. 
When  Troy's  proud  glories  in  the  dust  shall  lay. 

Id, 
Send  thy  arrows  forth. 
Strike,  strike  these  tyrants  and  anenge  my  teatv. 

Little  did  I  dream  .that  I  should  have  lived  to  see 
sndi  disasters  fallen  upon  her  [the  queen  of  FraDce] 
in  a  nation  of  gallant  men — in  a  nation  of  men  of 
honour  and  of  cavaliers.  I  thought  ten  thousand 
swords  must  have  leaped  out  of  their  scabbards  to 
aoenge  even  a  look  that  threatened  her  with  insult.—' 
But  the  age  of  chivalry  is  gone.  Burke. 

AUENHEIM,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
circle  of  Suabia,  near  O  ffenbourg. 

AVEN  10  an  ancient  town  of  Cavares,  and 
one  of  the  most  opulent  in  Gallia  Narbonensis; 
now  called  Avignon. 


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AVENPACE,  a  Spanish  Moor  of  the  tweiah 
century,  who  wrote  a  commentary  upon  Euclid; 
but  having  adopted  the  peripatetic  philosophy, 
he  attempted  to  explain  the  Koran,  by  the  sys- 
tem of  Aristotle,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned 
at  Corduba. 

AVENS,  in  botany.    See  Caryophtllus. 

AVENTINE  (John),  was  bom  in  1466,  in 
Abensperg,  in  Bavaria.  He  studied  first  at  In- 
golstadt,  and  afterwards  at  Paris.  In  1503  he 
taught  eloquence  and  poetry  at  Vienna ;  and  in 
1507  he  taught  Greek  at  Cracow,  in  Poland. 
In  1509  he  read  lectures  on  Cicero,  at  Ingold- 
stadt ;  and  in  1512  was  appointed  preceptor  to 
the  princes  Lewis  and  Ernest,  sons  of  Albert 
the  Wise,  duke  of  Bavaria;  and  travelled  with 
the  latter.  After  this  he  wrote  the  Annals  of 
Bavaria,  being  encouraged  by  the  dukes,  who 
settled  a  pension  on  him.  This  work,  which 
gained  great  reputation,  was  first  published  in 
1534,  by  Jerome  Ziegler,  professor  of  poetiy  in 
the  university  of  In^olstadt;  and  afterwards  at 
Basil,  in  1580,  by  Nicolas  Cisner.  In  1529  he 
was  forcibly  taken  out  of  his  sister's  house  at 
Abensperg,  and  hurried  to  a  jail;  the  true  cause 
of  which  violence  was  never  known;  but  it 
would  probably  have  been  carried  to  a  much 
greater  length,  had  not  the  duke  of  Bavaria  in- 
terposed, and  taken  this  learned  man  under  his 
protection.  Mr  Bayle  remarks,  that  the  in> 
curable  melancholy,  which  from  this  time  pos- 
sessed Aventine,  was  so  fiur  from  determining 
him  to  lead  a  life  pf  celibacy,  as  he  had  done 
till  he  was  sixty-four,  that  it  induced  him  to 
think  of  marrying.  He  advised,  however,  with 
two  of  his  friends,  and  consulted  certain  pas- 
sages of  the  Bible  relative  to  marriage.  The 
result  was,  that  it  was  best  for  him  to  marry ;  and 
having  lost  too  much  time,  considering  his  age, 
he  took  the  first  woman  he  met  with,  who  hap- 
pened to  be  his  own  maid,  ill-tempered,  ugly, 
amd  extremely  poor.  He  died  iu  1534,  aged 
sixty-eight;  leaving  one  daughter,  who  was  then 
but  two  months  old. 

AvENTiME,  or  AvENTiNus,  One  of  the  seven 
hills  on  which  Rome  was  built.  It  was  also 
called  Murcius,  from  Murcia,  the  goddess  of 
sloth,  who  had  a  little  chapel  there;  CoUis 
Dians,  from  the  temple  of  Diana ;  and  Remo- 
nius,  from  Remus,  who  was  buried  there.  It 
was  taken  within  the  compass  of  the  city  by 
Ancus  Marcus.  To  the  east  it  had  the  city 
walls ;  to  the  south  the  Campus  Figulimis ;  to 
the  west  the  Tiber ;  and  to  the  north  Mons  Pa- 
latinus ;  in  circuit  two  miles  and  a  quarter.     , 

AVENTUR7E,  in  our  ancient  wnters,  signify 
toumaments,  or  military  exercises  on  horseback. 

AVENUE.  Fr.  venir,  avenir;  participles 
venUy  avenu ;  Lat.  venire y  to  come.  Approach, 
opening,  passage. 

Good  gaanlfl  were  set  up,  at  all  the  aoemui  of 
the  city  ;  to  keep  all  people^  from  going  oat. 

The  regulations  that  are  established  at  Thebes  for 
keefnng  the  aeemie*  free  from  incumbrancet,  main- 
taiaing  the  aqueducts  and  rendering  the  baths  conve- 
nient, for  the  cultivation  of  arts,  and  for  the  security 
of  the  public^  are  the  most  excellent  that  can  be  ima- 
gined. Haufheaworth'i  Telemachui, 


Truth  is  a  strong  hold»  and  diligence  is  laying 
siege  to  it :  so  that  it  must  observe  all  the  aocnua 
and  passes  to  it.  South. 

Avenue,  in  fortification,  an  opening  or 
inlet  into  a  fort,  bastion,  or  the  like  place,  or  the 
passes  and  ways  to  and  from  it. 

Avenue,  in  gardening,  a  walk  planted  on  each 
side  with  treej,  and  leading  to  a  house,  garden- 
gate,  wood,  &c.  and  generally  terminated  by 
some  distant  object.  All  avenues  that  lead  to  a 
house  ought  to  be  at  least  as  wide  93  the  whole 
front  of  the  house;  if  vrider,  they  are  better 
still ;  and  avenues  to  woods  and  prospects  ought 
not  to  be  less  than  sixty  feet  wide.  The  trees 
should  not  be  planted  nearer  to  one  another 
than  thirty-five  feet,  especially  if  t}iey  are  of  a 
spreading  kind;  and  the  same  ought  to  be  the 
distance,  if  they  are  for  a  regular  grove.  The 
trees  most  proper  for  avenues  with  us,  are  the 
English  elm,  the  lime,  the  horse-chestnut,  the 
common  chestnut,  the  beech,  and  the  abele.  The 
English  elm  will  do  in  all  grounds,  except  such 
as  are  very  wet  and  shallow ;  and  this  is  pre- 
ferred to  all  other  trees,  because  it  will  bear  cut- 
ting, heading,  or  lopping,  in  any  manner,  better 
than  many  others.  The  rough  or  smooth  Dutch 
elm  is  approved  by  some,  because  of  its  quick 
growth;  this  is  a  tree  which  will  bear  removing 
very  we^l ;  it  is  also  green  almost  as  soon  as  any 
plant wliatever  in  spring,  and  continues  so  as  long 
as  any.  It  makes  an  incomparable  hedge,  and  is 
preferable  to  all  other  trees  for  lofty  espaliers. 
The  lime  is  valued  for  its  natural  growth  and 
fine  shade.  The  horse-chestnut  is  proper  for  all 
places  that  are  not  much  exposed  to  rough 
winds.  The  common  chestnut  will  do  very  well 
in  a  good  soil;  and  rises  to  a  considerable 
height  when  planted  somewhat  close;  though, 
when  it  stands  single,  it  is  rather  inclined  to 
spread  than  to  grow  tall.  The  beech  is  a  beautiful 
tree,  and  naturally  grows  well  with  us  in  its  wild 
state ;  but  it  is  less  to  be  chosen  for  avenues, 
because  it  does  not  bear  transplanting,  and  is 
very  subject  to  miscarry.  The  abele  is  fit  for 
any  soil,  and  is  the  quickest  grower  of  any  forest- 
tree.  It  but  seldom  fails  in  transplanting ;  and 
succeeds  very  well  in  wet  soils,  in  which  the 
others  are  apt  to  fiiil.  The  oak  is  little  used  for 
avenues,  because  of  its  slow  growth.  The  old 
method  of  planting  avenues  was  with  regular 
rows  of  trees,  and  this  has  been  the  practice  till 
of  late :  but  we  have  now  a  much  more  magnifi- 
cent method,  by  setting  the  trees  in  clumps, 
making  the  opening  much  wider,  and  placing 
the  clumps  at  about  300  feet  distant  from  one 
another.  In  each  of  these  clumps  there  should 
be  planted  either  seven  or  nine  trees ;  but  this 
is  only  prope^  where  the  avenue  is  to  be  of 
sonfe  considerable  length;  for  in  short  walks 
single  rows  of  trees  look  better.  Tlie  avenues 
made  by  clumps  are  fittest  of  all  for  parks.  The 
trees  in  eadt  clump  should  be  planted  about 
thirty  feet  asunder;  and  a  trench  should  be 
thrown  up  round  the  whole  clump,  to  prevent 
the  deer  from  coming  to  the  trees  to  bark  them. 
AVENZOAR,  or  Ebn-Zoar,  Abu  Mcrwan 
Abdalmalec^  an  eminent  Arabian  physician,  who 
flourished  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  and  be- 
ginning of  the  twelfth  century.    He  was  of  noble 


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descent,  and  bom  at  Seville,  where  he  exercised 
his  profession  wiUi  great  reputation.  His  grand- 
father and  father  were  both  physicians.  ^The 
large  estate  he  inherited,  set  him  above  prac- 
tising for  gain :  he  therefore  took  no  fees  from 
the  poor^  or  from  artificers,  though  he  refused 
not  the  presents  of  princes  and  great  men.  His 
liberality  w^is  extenaed  even  to  his  enemies;  for 
which  reason  he  used  to  say,  that  they  hated  him 
not  for  any  fault  of  his,  but  rather  out  of  envy. 
Dr.  Friend  writes,  that  he  lived  to  the  age  of 
135;  that  he  began  to  practise  at  forty,  others 
say  twenty,  and  had  the  advantage  of  a  longer 
experience  than  almost  any  one  ever  had,  for  he 
enjoyed  perfect  health  to  his  last  hour.  Ayen- 
zoar  was  contemporary  with  Averroes,  who,  ac- 
cording to  Leo  Africanus,  heard  the  lectures  of 
the  former,  and  studied  physic  under  him  ;  this 
seems  the  more  probable,  because  Averroes  more 
than  once  gives  Avenzoar  a  very  high  and  de- 
served encomium,  calling  him  '  admirable,  glo- 
rious, the  treasure  of  all  knowledge,  and  the 
most  supreme  in  physic,  from  the  time  of  Galen 
to  his  own.'  Avenzoar,  notwithstanding,  is  by 
the  generality  of  writers  reckoned  an  empiric : 
but  Dr.  Friend  observes,  that  this  character  suits 
him  less  than  any  of  the  Arabians.  *  He  was 
br^d,'  says  he,  '  in  a  physical  femily,  his  father 
and  grandfather  being  both  practitioners.  He 
had  a  regular  education;  and  not  only  learned 
what  properly  belongs  to  a  physician,  but  every 
thing  which  relates  to  pharmacy  or  surgery.' 
Dr.  FrienH  adds,  *  that  he  was  averse  to  quackery, 
rejected  the  idle  superstition  of  astrologers ;  and 
throughout  all  his  work  professes  himself  so 
much  of  the  dogmatical  sect,  that  he  has  a  great 
deal  of  reasoning  about  the  causes  and  symptoms 
of  distempers ;  and  as  in  his  theory  he  chiefly 
follows  Galen,  so  he  quotes  4iim  upon  all  occa- 
sions. Notwithstanding  he  is  so  Galenical,  there 
are  several  particulars  in  him  which  seldom  or 
never  occur  in  other  authors;  and  there  are 
some  cases  which  he  relates  from  his  own  expe- 
rience, which  are  worth  perusing.'  He  wrote  a 
book  entitled  Tayassir  n'lmad&w&t  w'altadb&r, 
i.  e.  The  method  of  preparing  medicines  and 
diet ;  which  is  much  esteemed.  This  work  was 
translated  into  Hebrew,  A.D.  1280,  and  thence 
into  Latin  by  Paravicius,  whose  version  has  had 
several  editions.  The  author  added  a  supple- 
ment to  it,  under  the  title  of  J&mfe,  or  a  collec- 
tion. He  also  wrote  a  treatise  Filadwiyat 
wa*lau8:hdiyat,  i.e.  Of  Medicines  and  Food; 
'  wherein  he  treats  of  their  qualities. 

Avenzoar,  or  Ebk-zoar,  the  son  of  the 
former,  followed  his  father's  profession ;  was  in 
great  favor  with  Almanzur,  emperor  of  Mo- 
rocco, and  wrote  several  treatises  on  physic^ 
AVER',  >  Fr.  averer;  Lat.  vereoTy  to 
Aver'ment.  S  fear  with  reverence.  Com- 
pounded of  ve  pro  valide,  greatly,  and  reovy  to 
think.    To  declare  positively,  solemnly. 

The  reason  of  the  thing  is  clear ; 
Would  Jove  the  naked  truth  voer.  Prior » 

Then  vainly  the  philosopher  aioers. 
That  reason  guides  our  deeds,  and  ifastinct  theirs ; 
How  can  we  justly  di£f 'rent  causes  frame. 
When  the  effects  entirely  are  the  same  ?  Id, 


To  avoid  the  oath,  for  aoermera  of  the  continuance 
of  some  estate,  which  is  eigne,  the  par^  will  sue  a 
pardon.  Bacon, 

We  may  aoer,  though  the  power  of  God  be  infinite, 
the  capacities  of  matter  are  within  limits.       BmlAeg, 

That  which  Bucer  and  his  associates  anerred  above 
a  hundred  years  ago,  we  still  say  and  maintain ;  that 
which  was  the  truth  then,  hath  been  so  ever  since, 
and  shall  be  to  all  eternity.    Bp,  HoU'm  Peaee-maket. 

AVERA,  in  our  ancient  customs,  a  day's 
work  of  a  ploughman,  or  other  laborer,  which 
the  king's  tenants  in  his  demesne  lands  were 
obliged  to  pay  the  sheriff. 

AVERAGE.  Low  Lat.  averagium,  to  make 
or  obtain  a  mean  proportion  by  collecting  the 
maxima  and  minima,  or  the  highest  and  lowest 
prices. 

Average,  in  commerce  and  navigation,  is 
divided  into  three  kinds.  1.  The  simple  average, 
which  consists  in  the  extraordinary  expences  in- 
curred for  the  ship  alone,  or  for  the  merchan- 
dizes alone ;  such'^as  the  loss  of  anchors,  masts, 
and  rigging,  occasioned  by  the  common  acci- 
dents at  sea;  the  damages  which  happen  to 
merchants  by  storm,  prizes,  shipwreck,  wet,  or 
rotting;  all  which  must  be  paid  and  borne  by 
the  thing  which  suffered  the  damage.  2.  The 
large  and  common  average,  being  those  expences 
incurred,  and  damages  sustained,  for  the  com- 
mon security  of  the  merchandizes  and  vessels, 
consequently  to  be  borne  by  the  ship  and  cargo, 
and  to  be  regulated  upon  the  whole.  Of  this 
number,  are  the  goods  or  money  given  for  the 
ransom  of  the  sWp  and  cargo,  things  thrown 
overboard  for  the  safety  of  the  ship,  the  ex- 
pences of  unloading,  for  entering  into  a  river  or 
harbour,  and  the  provisions  and  hire  of  the 
sailors,  when  the  ship  is  put  under  an  embargo. 
3.  The  small  averages,  which  arc  the  expences 
for  towing  and  piloting  the  sliip  out  of  or  into 
harbors,  creeks,  or  rivers,  one-third  of  which 
must  be  charged  to  the  ship,  and  two-thirds  to 
the  cargo. 

AveHage,  in  agriculture,  a  term  used  by 
the  fanners  in  many  parts  of  England,  for  the 
breaking  of  corn-fields. 

AVERANI  (Benedict),  a  native  of  Florence, 
who  became  Greek  professor  at  Pisa,  and  wrote 
several  critical  tracts  on  classical  authors.  He 
died  in  1707.  After  his  death,  his  works  were 
collected  and  printed  at  Florence,  in  3  vols.  8vo. 
1717. 

AvERANi  (Joseph),  brother  to  Benedict,  was 
bom  in  1662.  He  became  professor  of  law  at 
Pisa,  but  was  particularly  devoted  to  the  study 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy.  He 
died  in  1738.  Two  volumes  of  his  orations  in 
the  academy  at  Florence,  and  some  other  tracts, 
were  printed  after  his  death. 

AUERBACH,  a  town  of  Upper  Saxony,  in 
Voigtland,  fourteen  miles  south  of  Zwickau,  and 
sixty  W.  S.  W.  of  Dresden.  On  a  high  rock, 
about  four  miles  from  this  place,  is  found  a 
species  of  topaz,  called  kings-crown,  which  is 
said  to  excel  the  Spanish  and  Bohemian  in  hard- 
ness, and  to  equal  the  oriental  in  brilliancy. 

AVER-CORN,  in  ancient  writings,  such  com 
as  by  custom  is  brought  by  the  tenant's  car- 
riages to  the  lord's  granary. 


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AVERDUPOIS.    See  Avoirdupois. 

AVERDY  (Clement  Charles  de  T),  an  emi- 
nent French  statesman,  was  born  at  Paris  in 
1720.  He  was  counsellor  of  parliament,  mi- 
iiistet  and  comptroller  general  of  the  finances 
under  Louis  XV.  His  reputation  was  so  great, 
that  his  appointment  gave  general  satisfaction  to 
the  people,  but  falling  into  some  mismanage- 
ment, he  requested  his  dismission  in  1764.  He 
afterwards  retired  to  his  estate,  and  occupied 
himself  in  agricultural  pursuits.  Though  he  took 
no  part  in  the  revolution,  but  kept  perfectly  neu- 
tral, yet  'he  was  arrested  and  brought  to  the 
guillotine  in  1793.  He  wrote,  1.  Suite  des  Ex- 
periences de  Gambais  sur  le  bleds  i>oirs  ou  ca- 
ries, 8vo.  2.  Memoire  sur  le  Proems  criminal 
de  Robert  d'Aitois,  Comte  de  Beaumont  pair 
de  France. 

AVERIA,  in  our  old  law  books,,  properly 
signify  oxen  or  horses  used  for  the  plough ;  but 
in  a  general  sense  any  cattle.  When  mention  is 
made  of  one  beast,  they  say  *  quidam  equus,  vel 
quidam  bos ;'  when  of  two  or  more  they  do  not 
say  equi  or  boves,  but  averia. 

AvERiA,  in  commerce,  a  branch  of  the  Spanish 
revenue,  signifying  a  tax  paid  for  convoys  to 
guard  the  ships  trading  to  America.  It  was  first 
imposed  when  Sir  Francis  Drake  made  his 
voyage  to  the  South  Sea. 

AVERIIS  Captis  in  Withernam,  a  writ  for 
taking  cattle  when  unlawfully  distrained  and 
driven  out  of  the  country,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
replevied  by  the  sheriff. 

AVER-LAND,  in  our  old  writers,  such  lands 
as  the  tenants  ploughed  with  their  cattle^  and 
manured  cum  averiis  suis,  for  the  use  of  a  mo- 
nastery, or  the  lords  of  the  soil. 

AV'ERNAT,  a  sort  of  grape.    See  Vine. 

AVERNI ;  from  the  privative  a,  and  opvȣ,  a 
bird,  as  intimating  that  birds  could  not  fly  over 
them,  but  dropped  down  dead ;  among  the  an- 
cient naturalists  certain  lakes  and  other  places 
which  infect  the  air  with  poisonous  steams  or 
vapors';  called  also  mephites.  Averni  are  said 
to  be  common  in  Hungary,  on  account  of  its 
abundance  of  mines.  The  Grotto  del  Cani,  in 
Italy,  is  a  famous  one.    See  Avernus. 

AVERNO,  the  ancient  Avernus,  a  lake  of 
Lavoro  in  Naples,  lying  in  a  narrow  valley,  two 
miles  long  ana  one  broad.  It  is  180  feet  deep 
in  some  places,  and  the  old  walls  standing  upon 
its  banks  are  supposed  to  be  the  ruins  of  a  temple 
of  Apollo.  Vibus  Sequester,  and  other  an- 
cient authors  represented  it  as  bottomless.  Mr. 
Chambers  says  tne  modem  Italians  call  it  Lago 
di  Tripergola.    See  the  next  article. 

AVERNUS,  a  lake  of  Campania  in  Italy,  near 
Bais,  famous  among  the  ancients  for  its  poison- 
ous qualities.  It  is  described  by  Strabo  as  lying 
within  the  Lucrine  bay,  deep  and  darksome,  sur- 
rounded with  steep  banks  that  hang  threatening 
over  it,  and  only  accessible  by  one  narrow  pas- 
sage. Black,  aged  groves  stretched  their  boughs 
over  the  watery  abyss,  and  with  impenetrable 
foliage  excluded  almost  every  ray  of  wholesome 
light ;  mephitic  vapors  ascending  from  the  hot 
bowels  of  the  earth,  being  denied  free  passage  to 
the  upper  atmosphere,  floated  along  trie  surface 
in  poisonous  mist ;  and  killed  even  the  birds  that 


attempted  to  fly  over  it.  These  ciicumstancei 
produced  horrors  fit  for  the  gloomy  votaries  of 
the  infernal  deities.  A  colony  'of  CimroerianSy 
as  well  suited  to  the  rites  as  tlie  place  itself,  cut 
dwellings  in  the  bosom  of  the  surrounding  hills, 
and  officiated  as  priests  of  Tartarus.  Supersti- 
tion, always  delighted  in  dark  ideas,  early  and 
eagerly  seized  upon  this  spot,  and  represented  a 
cavern  near  it  called  the  Sybil's  cave,  as  the 
mouth  of  the  infernal  regions.  Hither  she  led 
hei  trembling  votaries  to  celebrate  her  dismal 
orgies;  here  she  evoked  the  manes  of  departed 
heroes — here  she  offered  sacrifices  to  the  gods  of 
hell,  and  attempted  to  dive  into  the  secrets  of 
futurity.  Poets  enlarged  upon  the  popular 
theme,  and  painted  its  awful  scenery  witn  the 
strongest  colbrs  of  their  art.  Homer  brings 
Ulysses  to  j^vemus,  as  to  the  mouth  of  the  in- 
fernal abodes ,  and,  in  imitation  of  the  Grecian 
bard,  Vir^l  conducts  his  hero  to  the  same 
ground.  Whoever  sailed  thither,  first  did  sacri- 
fice, and  endeavoured  to  propitiate  the  infernal 
powers,  with  the  asistauce  of  some  priest,  who 
attended  upon  the  place,  and  directed  the  mystic 
performance.  Within,  a  fountain  of  pure  water 
oroke  out  just  over  the  sea,  but  which  nobody 
tasted,  as  it  was  fancied  to  be  a  vein  of  the  river 
Styx ;  near  this  fountain  was  the  oracle ;  and  the 
hot  waters,  frequent  in  these  parts,  were  supposed 
to  be  branches  of  the  burning  Phlegethon.  The 
holiness  of  these  shades  remained  unimpeached 
for  many  years.  Hannibal  marched  his  army  to 
offer  incense  at  this  altar;  though  it  may  be  sus- 
pected he  was  led  to  this  act  of  devotion  rather 
by  the  hopes  of  surprising  the  garrison  of  Puteoli, 
than  by  his  piety.  After  a  long  reign  of  un- 
disturbed gloom  and  celebrity,  a  sudden  glare  of 
light  was  let  in  upon  Avernus ;  the  horrors  were 
dispelled,  and  with  them  vanished  the  sanctity  of 
the  lake  :  the  axe  of  Agrippa  brought  its  forest 
to  the  ground,  disturbed  its  sleepy  waters  with 
ships,  and  gave  vent  for  all  its  malignant  effluvia 
to  escape.  The  virulence  of  these  exhalations, 
as  described  by  ancient  authors,  has  appeared  so 
very  extraordinary,  that  modern  writers,  who 
know  the  place  in  a  cleared  state  only,  charge 
these  accounts  with  exaggeration  ;  but  Swinbum 
thinks  them  entitled  to  more  credit ;  for  even 
now,  he  observes,  the  air  is  feverish  and  danger- 
ous, as  the  jaundiced  foces  of  the  vine-dressers, 
who  have  succeeded  the  Sybils  and  theCimmerians 
in  the  possession  of  the  temple,  most  ruefully 
testify.  Boccaccio  relates,  that  during  his  resi- 
dence at  the  Neapolitan  court,  the  sur^ce  of  this 
lake  was  suddenly  covered  with  dead  fish,  black 
and  singed,  as  if  killed  by  some  subaqueous 
eruption  of  fire.  The  changes  of  fortune  in 
these  lakes,  is  singular  :  in  the  splendid  days  of 
imperial  Rome,  the  Lucrine  was  the  chosen  spot 
for  the  brilliant  parties  of  pleasure  of  a  volup 
tuous  court :  now,  a  slimy  bed  of  rushes  covers 
the  scattered  pools  of  this  once  beautiful  sheet  of 
water;  while  the  once  dusky  Avernus  is  clear 
and  serene,  offering  a  most  alluring  surface  and 
charming  scene  for  similar  amusements  Oppo- 
site to  the  temple  is  a  cave  ususilly  styled  the 
Sybil's  grotto ;  but  apparently  laoie  likely  to 
have  been  the  mouth  of  communication  between 
Cuma  and  Avernus,  than  the  abode  of  a  pro- 


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phetess ;  especially  as  the  Sybil  is  positively  said 
by  historians  to  have  dwelt  in  a  cavern  under 
the  Cumcan  citadel.  Mr.  Eustace  (Classical 
Tour)  describes  the  Avemus  as  a  circular  sheet 
of  water,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circum- 
ference, and  in  many  places  nearly  190  feet 
deep;  surrounded  by  ground  low  on  the  one 
side,  on  the  other  high,  but  not  steep,  in  rich 
cultivation,  and  slightly  wooded.  On  the 
southern  bank  stands  a  large  and  lofty  octagonal 
building,  vaulted,  and  of  brick,  with  halls  ad- 
joining. This  probably  was  the  temple  of  Pro- 
serpine, or  of  Avemus  itself.  It  is  surrounded 
by  vineyards.  On  the  northern  bank,  under  a 
steep,  overhung  with  shrubs  and  brambles,  is  a 
subterraneous  ^lery,  still  called  the  Grotto  della 
Sibilla.  The  first  gallery  runs  under  the  Monte 
Grillo,  in  the  direction  of  Baise.  It  opens  into 
a  second  on  the  right,  tending  towards  Cums; 
after  some  distance,  a  piece  of  water  crosses  it, 
called  the  Sybil's  bath.  The  ground  then  rises 
rapidly,  and  all  farther  progress  \s  stopped  by 
the  fallen  walls.  The  situation  and  appearance 
of  the  cavern  agree  very  closely  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  Virgil.  It  branched  out  into  several 
other  galleries;  and  probably  furnished  him  with 
much  of  the  sceneiy  in  the  sixth  book.  The 
Lago  di  Tripergola,  as  it  is  called  at  present,  has 
lost  all  claim  to  its  former  appellation,  since  in 
winter  it  abounds  in  water-fowl.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  lake  is  the  crater  of  an  ex- 
hausted volcano. 

AVER-PENNY,  q.  d.  Average  Penny, 
moneys  contributed  towards  the  king's  averages ; 
or  money  given  to  be  freed  thereof.  See  Ave- 
rage. 

AVERHOA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  decan- 
dria  order,  belonging  to  the  pentagynia  class  of 
plants ;  ranking  in  the  natural  method  under  the 
fourth    order,  gruinales.     The   calyx  has   five 
leaves,  the  petals  are  five,  opening  at  top  ;  and 
the  apple  or  fruit  is  pentagonous,  and  divided 
into  five  cells.      There  are  three  species,  viz. 
1.  A.  acida ;  2.  A.  blimbi ;  and  3.  A.  carambola, 
called  in  Bengal  the  carorue  or  camrunga.    This 
plant  is  remarkable  for  possessing  a  power  some- 
what similar  to  those  species  of  mimosa  which 
are  termed  sensitive  plants ;  its  leaves  on  being 
^touched  moving  very  perceptibly.     In  the  mi- 
mosa the  moving  faculty  extends  to  the  branches ; 
but  from  the  hardness  of  the  wood  this  cannot  be 
expected  in  the  cararobola.     The  leaves  are 
alternately  pinnated  with  an  odd  one  ;  and  their 
most  common  position  in  the  day-time    is  hori- 
zontal, or  on  the  same  plane  with  the  branch 
from  which  they  come  out.    On  being  touched 
they  move  themselves  downwards,  frequently  in 
so  great  a  dep-ee  that  the  two  opposite  almost 
touch  one  another  by  their  under  sides,  and  the 
young  ones  sometimes  either  come  into  contact, 
or  even  pass  each  other ;  the  whole  of  the  leaves 
of  one  pinna  move  by  striking  the  branch  with 
the  nail  of  the  finger,  or  other  hard  substance ; 
or  each  leaf  can  be  moved  singly,  by  making  an 
impression  that  shall   not  exceed  beyond  that 
leaf.    In  this  way  the  leaves  of  one  side  of  the 
pinna  may  be  made  to  move  one  after  another, 
whilst  tlie  opposite  ones  continue  as  they  were ; 
or  they  may  be  made  to  move  alternately  in  any 


order,  by  toudiing  properly  the  leaf  intended  to 
be  put  in  motion.    But  if  the  impression  even 
on  a  single  leaf  be  strong,  all  the  leaves  on  that 
pinna,  and  sometimes  on  the  neighbouring  ones, 
will  be  affected   by  it     Notwithstanding  this 
apparent  sensibility  of  the  leaf,  however,  large 
incisions  may  be  nuuie  in  it  vrith  a  pair  of  sharp 
scisaars,  without  occasioning  the  smallest  mo- 
tion ;  nay,  it  may  even  be  cut  almost  entirely  off, 
and  the  remaining  part  still  continue  unmoved, 
when  by  touching  ;the  wounded  leaf  with  the 
finger  or  point  of  the  scissars,  motion  will  take 
place  as  if  no  injury  had  been  offered.    The 
reason  is,  that  although  the  leaf  be  the  ostensible 
part  which  moves,  the  petiolus  is  the  seat  both  of 
sense  and  action:  for  although  the  leaf  may  be 
cut  in  pieces,  or  squeezed  with  great  force,  pro- 
vided its  direction  oe  not  changed  without  any 


motion  being  occasioned ;  vet  if  the  impiession 
on  the  leaf  be  made  in  such  a  way  as  to  affect 
the  petiolus,  the  motion  vrill  take  place.    When, 
therefore,  it  is  wanted  to  confine  the  motion  of  a 
single  leaf,  either  touch  it  so  as  only  to  affect  its 
own  petiolus,  or  without  meddling  with  the  leaf, 
touch  the  petiolus  with  any  small  pointed  body, 
as  a  pin  or  knife.    By  compressing  the  universal 
petiolus  near  the  place  where  a  partial  one  comes 
out,  the  leaf  moves  in  a  few  seconds  in  the  same 
manner  as  if  the   partial   petiolus  had   been 
touched.    Whether  the  impression  be  made  by 
puncture,  percussion,  or  compression,  the  motion 
does   not   instantly  follow;    generally  several 
seconds  intervene,  and  then  it  is  not  vrith  a  jerk, 
but  regular  and  gradual.    Afterwards  when  the 
leaves  return  to  their  former  situation,  which  i< 
commonly  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  less,  it  is  in 
so  slow  a  manner  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible. 
On  sticking  a  pin  into  the  universal  petiolus,  as 
its  origin,  the  leaf  next  it,  which  is  always  on  the 
opposite  side,  next  the  second  leaf  on  the  outer, 
and  so  on.    But  this  regular  progression  seldom 
continues  throughout;   for  the  leaves   on  the 
outer  side  of  the  pinna  seem  to  be  affected  both 
more  quickly,  ana  with  more  energy,  than  those 
of  the  inner ;  so  that  the  fourth  leaf  on  the  outer 
side  frequently 'moves  as  soon  as  the  third  on  the 
inner,  and  sometimes  a  leaf,  especially  on  tiie 
inner  side,  does  not  move  at  all,  whilst  those 
above  and  below  it  are  affected  in  their  proper 
time.    Sometimes  the  leaves  at  the  extremity  of 
the  petiolus   move  sooner  than  several  others, 
which  were  nearer  die  place  where  the  pin  was 
put  in.    On  making  a  compression  with  a  pair 
of  pincers  on  the   universal  petiolus,  between 
any  two  pair  of  leaves,  those  above  the  com- 
pressed part,  or  nearer  the  extremity  of  tiie  peti- 
olus, move  sooner  than  those  under  it,  or  nearer 
the  origin ;  and  frequentiy  the  motion  will  ex- 
tend upwards  to  the  extreme  leaf,  whilst  below 
it  perhaps  does  not  go  farther  than  the  nearest 
pair.    It  the  leaves  happen  to  be  blown  by  die 
wind  against  one  another,  or  against  the  branches, 
they  are  frequentiy  put  in  motion ;  but  when  a 
branch  is  moved  gentiy,  eitiier  by  the  hand  or 
the  wind,  without  striking  against  any  thing,  no 
motion  of  the  leaves  take  place.     When  left  to 
themselves  in  the  day-time,  shaded  from  the  sun, 
wind,  rain,  or  any  disturbing  cause,  the  appear- 
ance of  the  leaves  is  different  from  that  of  other 


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pinnated  plants.  In  the  latter  a  great  unifonnity 
subsUtS"  in  the  respective  position  of  the  leaves 
on  the  pinna ;  but  in  the  carambola,  some  will 
be  seen  on  ^e  horizontal  plane,  some  raised 
above  it,  and  others  fallen  under  it ;  and  in  an 
hour  or  so,  without  any  order  or  regularity  which 
can  be  observed,  all  of  them  will  have  changed 
their  respective  positions.  Cutting  the  bark  of 
the  branch  down  to  the  wood,  and  even  sepa- 
rating it  about  the  space  of  half  an  inch  all 
around,  so  as  to  stop  all  communication  by  the 
vessels  of  the  bark,  does  not  for  the  first  day 
affect  the  leaves,  either  in  their  position  or  their 
aptitude  for  motion.  In  a  branch,  which  was 
cut  through  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  it  sus- 
pended only  by  a  little  of  the  bark  no  thicker 
than  a  thread,  the  leaves  next  day  did  not  rise  so 
high  as  the  others ;  but  they  were  green  and 
fresh,  and,  on  being  touched,  moved,  but  in  a 
much  less  degree  than  formerly.  After  sun-set 
the  leaves  go  to  sleep,  first  moving  down  so  as  to 
touch  one  another  by  their  under  sides ;  they 
therefore  perform  more  extensive  motion  at  night 
of  themselves  than  they  can  be  made  to  do  in 
the  day-time  by  external  impressions.  With  a 
convex  lens  the  rays  of  the  sun  may  be  collected 
on  a  leaf,  so  as  to  bum  a  hole  in  it,  without  oc- 
casioning any  motion.  But  upon  trying  the  ex- 
periment on  the  petiolus,  the  motion  is  as  quick 
as  if  from  strong  percussion,  although  the  tays 
be  not  so  much  concentrated  as  to  cause  pain 
when  applied  in  the  same  degree  on  the  bacx  of 
the  hand.  The  leaves  move  very  hst  from  the 
electrical  shock,  even  although  very  gentle. 

AVERRHOISTS.    See  Averroists. 

AVERROES,  one  of  the  most  subtle  of  the 
Arabian  philosophers,  flourished  about  the  end 
of  the  eleventh  and  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
centuries.  He  was  the  son  of  the  high-priest 
and  chief  iudge  of  Cordova  in  Spain ;  and  edu- 
cated in  tiie  university  of  Morocco,  in  which  he 
was  afterwards  a  professor ;  and  studied  natural 
philosophy,  medicine,  mathematics,  law,  and  di- 
vinity. After  the  death  of  his  father  he  enjoyed 
his  posts ;  and  was  farther  promoted  by  Alman- 
zor,  emperor  of  Morocco,  to  be  judge  of  Mo- 
rocco and  Mauritania,  %vith  leave  to  appoint  de- 
legates, and  remain  at  Cordova.  But  notwith- 
standing his  great  emoluments,  his  liberality  to 
men  of  letters  in  necessity,  whether  they  were 
his  friends  or  his  enemies,  made  him  always  in 
debt.  He  was  afterwards  stripped  of  all  his 
po5t%  and  thrown  into  prison  for  heresy ;  but 
the  judge  who  succeedea  him,  being  convicted 
of  oppression,  he  was  restored  tQ  his  former  em- 
ployments. He  died  at  Morocco  in  1206.  Aver- 
roes  was  excessively  corpulent,  though  he  eat  but 
once  a-day.  He  spent  his  nights  in  the  study  of 
philosophy ;  and  when  fatigued,  amused  himself 
with  poetry  or  history.  But  was  never  seen  to 
play  at  any  game,  or  to  partake  in  any  diversion. 
He  wai  extremely  fond  of  Aristotle's  works,  and 
wrote  commentaries  on  them,  whence  he  was 
styled  Jhe  commentator,  by  way  of  eminence. 
lie  likewise  wrote  Colliget,  i.  e.  Universal ;  or, 
The  Whole  Art  of  Physic ;  and  many  amorous 
▼eises ;  but  these  he  burnt  when  he  grew  6ld. 
His  other  poems  are  lost.  As  to  religion,  his 
opinions  were,  that  Christianity  is  absurd ;  Ja- 


daism,  the  religion  of  children :  and  Mahommed- 
anism,  the  religion  of  swine. 

AVERROISTS,  a  sect  of  peripatetic  philoso- 
phers, who  appeared  in  Italy  some  time  before 
the  restoration  of  learning,  and  attacked  fhe  im- 
mortality of  the  soul.  They  took  their  denomi- 
nation from  Averroes,  the  celebrated  interpreter 
of  Aristode,  above  mentioned.  Although  they 
held  the  soul  to  be  mortal,  according  to  reason 
or  philosophy,  yet  they  submitted  to  the  Christ- 
ian theology,  which  declares  it  immortal.  But 
their  distinction  was  held  suspicious ;  and  this 
divorce  of  faith  from  reason  was  condemned  by 
the  last  council  of  Lateraii,  under  Leo  X. 

AVERRUN'CATE,  i      Lat.  averrunco,  I  turn 

Averrunca'tion.  S  or  take  away  whatever 
harts.  To  weed,  to  avert  an  evil,  to  cut  off  what 
is  superfluous. 

I  wiBb  myself  a  pseudo-prophet. 
But  sure  some  mischief  will  come  of  it. 
Unless  by  providential  Wit, 
Or  force,  we  aoemmcate  it.  BuUer^t  Hudibraa. 
AVERRUNCI    Dei;    from  averrunco,    to 
avert ;  gods,  whose  business  it  was,  according  to 
the  Pagan  theology,  to  avert  misfortunes.  Apollo 
and  HercTiles  were  of  the  number,  among  the 
Greeks  >  Castor  and  Pollux  among  the  Romans, 
and  Isis  among  the  Eg3rptians. 

AVERSA,  a  town  of  Naples,  in  the  Terra  di 
Lavoro,  anciently  called  AtelU.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fine  plain,  covered  with  vineyards  and 
orange  trees,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  (who 
holds  immediately  of  the  pope),  of  a  royal  go- 
vernor and  a  judge.  There-  are  here  sixteen 
cloisters  of  different  orders,  exclusive  of  nine 
parish  churches.  Population  13,800.  Eight  miles 
north  of  Naples.    Long.  14°  1'  E.,  lat.  41°  N. 

Aversion,  according  to  lord  Kames,  is  op- 
posed to  affection,  and  not  to  desire,  as  it  com- 
monly is.  We  have  an  affection  to  one  person ; 
we  have  an  aversion  to  another ;  the  former  di»- 
poses  us  to  do  good  to  its  object,  the  latter  to  do 
ill. 

AVERSIONE     LOCARE,    AVERSIONE     VeNIRE, 

in  the  civil  law,  the  selling,  or  letting  things  in 
the  lump,  without  fixing  particular  prices  for 
each  piece. 

AVERT, 

Aver'ter, 

Aver'se, 

Averse'ly, 

Averse'ness, 

Aversa'tion, 

Aver'sion, 

Aver'sive.    ^ 

It  is  most  true,  that  a  natural  and  secret  hatred, 
and  aeenaHon  towards  society  in  any  man,  hath  some- 
what of  the  savage  beast ;  but  it  is  tnost  untrue,  thai 
it  should  have  any  character  at  all  of  the  Divine  Na- 
ture, except  H  proceed  not  out  of  a  pleasure  in  soli- 
tude, but  out  of  a  love  and  desire  to  sequester  a 
man's  self  for  a  higher  conversation. 

Lord  Bacon's  Enaya, 

When  people  began  to  espy  the  ftdsehood  of  oracles, 
whereupon  all  gentility  was  built  \  their  hearts  were 
utterly  anaied  from  \i.  Hooker. 

Even  cut  themselves  off  from  the  opportunities  of 
proselyting  others,  by  ontHing  them  from  their  com« 
pany.  QoeemmeiU  of  the  Tompte, 


A,  and  verto^  venum,  to 
turn  away  or  from.  Averse 
expresses  the  state  of  having 
''the  mind  turned  from  a  thing. 
It  signifies  alito  unwilling, 
loath,  reluctant. 


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There  is  such  a  general  avenatiim  (in  human  na- 
ture) to  contempt,  that  there  is  scarce  any  thing  more 
exasperating :  I  will  not  deny,  but  the  excess  of  the 
aversoHon  may  be  levelled  i^ainst  pride.  Id. 

I  beseech  you, 
T'  aoert  your  liking  a  more  worthy  way, 
-  Than  on  a  wretch.  Sfutkapeare.  King  Lear, 

At  this,  for  the  last  time,  she  lifts  her  hand  ; 
Avert*  her  eyes,  and  half  unwilling  drops  the  brand. 

Dryden. 
Awrtera  and  purgers  must  go  together,  as  tending 
all  to  the  same  purpose,  to  divert  this  rebellious  hu- 
mour and  turn  it  another  way. 

Bmton't  Anatomy  of  MeUmduly. 
Has  thy  uncertain  bosom  ever  strove. 
With  the  first  tumults  of  a  real  love  ? 
Hast  thou  now  dreaded,  and  now  bless'd  his  sway. 
By  turns  anerte  and  joyful  to  obey?  Prior. 

Averse  alike,  to  flatter  or  offendj 
Not  free  from  faults,  nor  yet  too  vain  to  mend. 

Pope. 
The  corruption  of  man  is  in  nothing  more  mani- 
fest, than  in  his  a/eersenen  to  entertain  any  friendship 
or  familiarity  with  God.  Atterbury. 

Hatred  is  the  passion  of  defiance ;  and  there  is  a 
kind  of  aversoHon  and  hostility  included  in  its  essence. 

South. 
The  jealous  man's  disease  is  of  so  mali^ant  a  na- 
ture that  it  converts  all  it  takes  into  its  own  nourish- 
ment.    A  cool  behaviour  is  interpreted  as  an  instance 
of  anermon :  a  fond  one  raises  his  suspicions. 

Addieon. 

AVERTI,  in  horsemanship,  is  applied  to  a 
regular  step  or  motion  enjoined  in  the  lessons. 
In  this  sense  they  say  pas  averts. 

AVERY,  a  place  where  oats,  or  provender, 
are  kept  for  the  king's  horses. 

AVeS,  birds,  the  name  of  Linnsus*s  second 
class  of  animals.  See  Ornithology  and  Zoo- 
logy. 

AvES,  or  the  Isle  of  Birds,  1.  One  of  the 
Carribee  islands,  451  miles  south  of  Porto  Rico, 
with  a  good  harbour  for  careeninj^  ships.  It  is 
so  called  from  the  great  number  of  birds  that  fre- 
quent it ;  2.  another  lying  northward  of  this. 
Lat.  15°  O'  N. ;  and  a  third  near  the  eastern  coast 
of  Newfoundland.    Lat.  50''  5'  N. 

A^'ESBURY  (Robert),  an  English  historian, 
of  whom  little  more  is  known,  than  that  he  was 
keeper  of  the  registry  of  the  court  of  Canterbury, 
in  tne  reign  of  Edward  III.  and  cons^uently 
that  he  lived  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He  wrote 
Memorabilia  gesta  magnifici  regis  Anglix  domini, 
Edwardi  tratii  post  conquestum,  procerumque ; 
tactis  priroitus  quibusdam  gestis  de  tempore  pa- 
ths sui  domini  Edwardi  secundi,  qus  in  regnis 
Anglix,  Scotis,  et  Francis,  ac  in  Aquitannia 
et  Britannia,  non  humana  sed  Dei  potentia,  con- 
tigerunt,  per  Robertum  Avesbury.  This  history 
ends  witn  tlie  battle  of  Poictiers,  about  A.  D. 
1356.  It  continued  in  MS.  till  1720,  when  it 
was  printed  by  the  industrious  Thomas  Heame 
at  Oxford,  from  a  MS.  belonging  to  Sir  Thomas 
Seabright.    It  is  now  very  scarce. 

AVESE,  or  Avase,  a  river  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  in  the  north-western  territory, 
which  runs  mto  the  Mississippi,  in  a  south-west 
direction,  about  sixty  miles  above  the  Ohio.  It 
IS  navigable  in  boats  for  upwards  of  sixty  miles. 

AVESNES,  or  Avennes,  an  irregular,  but 
well  fortified  town  on  the  Hepres,  in  Ilainault, 


on  tlie  frontier  of  France,  towards  the  Nether- 
lands, and  three  leagues  distant  from  Mauheuse. 
It  is  the  head  of  an  arrondissement,  in  th»  de- 
partment of  the  north;  population  about  3000. 
In  the  neighbourhood  there  are  excellent  quar- 
ries, and  several  iron  foundries  and  smelting- 
houses.  This  was  one  of  the  frontier  towns  re- 
tained for  a  definite  priod  by  the  allies,  in  fulfil- 
ment of  the  treaty  ot  Parisin  1815.  Long.  4°  E. 
lat.  50°  r  N. 

AVEYRON,  or  Aveiron,  a  department  of 
France,  having  its  name  from  the  river,  wliich 
running  from  eait  to  west,  separates  it  into  two 
parts.    Its  boundaries  are  to  the  north,  the  de- 
partment of  the  Cantal ;  north-^ast,  the  Lozere; 
east,  the  Card ;  soutli-east,  Herault ;  south-west, 
Tarn,  and  west.  Lot.    It  corresponds  to  the  an- 
cient province  of  Rouergue,  and  is  divided  into 
five  arrondissements ;  viz.  those  of  Rodez  (which 
is  the  capital  of  the  department),  Ville  Franche, 
Milhau,  St.  Afrique,  and  Espalion.     It  contains 
474  square  leagues,  equal/to  about  3740  square 
miles,  and  had  at  the  last  enumeration  318,047 
inhabitants.    They  paid  in  direct  taxes  in  1803, 
£140,000  sterling.    It  constitutes,  with  the  de- 
partment of  Lot,  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of 
the  bishop  of  Cahors.    This  department  is  wa- 
tered by  the  Aveyion,  the  Lot,  the  Tarn,  and  the 
Viaur,   and  is  covered  with  high  and  craggy 
mountains.   Hence  it  abounds  in  game,  fish,  and , 
wood,  and  is  more  adapted  for  grazing  than  for 
the  cultivation  of  grain.    Com  and  wine,  how- 
ever, are  raised  in  tolerable  quantity.    The  mi- 
neral productions  are  •  copper,  iron,  lead,  sul- 
phur, alum,  coal,  and  vitriol.    There  is  also  a 
considerable  trade  in  cattle,  wool,  woollen  stufis, 
and  in  excellent  cheese.  The  climate  is  reckoned 
fine,  though  occasionally  severe  in  winter. 

AVEZZANO,  a  town  of  Naples  in  Abruizo. 
It  is  built  on  an  almost  imperceptible  declivity, 
one  mile  from  the  lake  of  Celano,  to  which  an 
avenue  of  poplars  leads  from  the  baronnial 
castle.  This  edifice  stands  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  town,  is  square,  and  flanked  with  towers; 
it  was  erected  by  Virginio  Orsini,  to  which 
family  this  and  many  oOier  great  lordships  be- 
longed, before  they  were  wrested  from  them  in 
times  of  civil  war,  and  transferred  to  the  Colon- 
nas.  Avezzano  was  founded  in  860,  and  contains 
2800  inhabitants,  and  two  religious  communities 
within  its  walls,  which  are  indeed  in  a  ruinous 
condition.  The  houses  are  in  general  mean ;  but 
there  are  some  large  buildings  and  opulent  fa- 
milies of  the  class  of  gentlemen,  not  possessed  of 
fees  held  in  capite. 

AUF'.    Sometimes  written  oaf  and  elf.    For 
definition,  see  Elf. 

These  when  a  child  haps  to  b«  got. 
Which  after  proves  an  idiot. 
When  folk  perceive  it  thnveth  not ; 

The  fault  therein  to  smother. 
Some  silly  doating  brainless  calf. 
That  andentands  things  by  the  half. 
Says,  that  the  fairy  left  this  auif. 

And  took  away  the  other.  Drayton. 

AUG  A,  Alce,  or  Age  a,  in  fabulous  history, 
the  daughter  of  Aleus,  king  of  Tegea,  by  Ne«ra, 
she  was  ravished  by  Hercules,  and  brought  forth 
a  son,  whom  she  left  in  the  woods  to  conceal  he* 


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wnorsfirom  herfitther;  but  the  diild  was  pre- 
served, and  was  named  Telephui.  When  Aleus 
was  informed  of  his  daughter's  shame,  he  de- 
Ixrered  her  to  Nauplius  to  be  put  to  death ;  but 
instead  of  executing  the  Others  cruel  purpose, 
Nauplius  gaveAuga  toTeuthras,king  ot  Mysia, 
who,  having  no  children  of  his  own,  adopted  her 
as  his  daughter.  The  dominions  of  TeuUiras  be- 
ing soon  after  invaded  by  an  enemy,  he  promised 
his  crown  and  daughter  to  the  man  who  could  de- 
liver him  from  the  threatening  danger ;  aad  Tele- 
phus  having  been  directed  by  the  oracle  to  po  to 
the  court  of  Teuthras,  if  he  desired  to  find  his 
parents,  made  an  offer  of  his  services,  which  was 
accepted.  Having  obtained  a  victory,  be  was 
about  to  unite  himself  to  Auga,  when  she  rushed 
from  him  with  secret  horror,  and  the  gods  sent  a 
serpent  to  separate  them.  Auga  implored  the 
assistance  of  Hercules,  by  whom  her  son  was 
made  known  to  her,  and  she  returned  with  him 
toTegea.  According  to  Pausanias,  Auga  was 
shut  up  in  a  coffer  with  her  infant  son,  and 
thrown  into  the  sea,  where  they  were  preserved 
and  protected  by  Minerva,  till  found  by  king 
Teuthras. 

AUGEAN  Codex,  Codex  Augiensis,  a  Greek 
and  Latin  MS.  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles ;  supposed 
by  Michaelis  to  have  been  wntten  in  the  ninth 
century,  and  so  called  from  Augia  major,  the 
name  of  a  monastery  at  Rheinau,  to  whicn  it  be^ 
longed.  It  came,  in  1718,  into  the  hands  of  the 
celebrated  Dr.  Bentley,  who  purchased  it  for  250 
Dutch  florins;  it  is  now  in  tne  libraiy  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  This  Mit.  (noted  F.  in  the 
second  part  of  Wetstein*s  New  TesUment),  is 
"Written  m  uncial  letters,  and  without  accents, 
not  Gontinua  serie,  as  is  conmion  with  the  more 
aacient  copies,  but  with  intervals  between  the 
-words,  and  a  dot  at  the  end  of  each.  The  Greek 
text  is  in  capitals,  and  the  Latin  in  Anglo-Saxon 
letters ;  whence  it  is  tolerably  clear  that  it  must 
bave  been  written  in  the  west  of  Europe,  where 
that  formation  of  the  Latin  letter  was  m  general 
use  between  the  seventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 
Hie  MS.  is  defective  from  the  beginning  to  Ro- 
mans, iii.  8 ;  and  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is 
only  found  in  the  Latin  version. 

AUGEAS,  in  fabulous  history,  king  of  Ells, 
filmed  for  his  stable,  which  contained  3000  oxen, 
and  had  not  been  cleaned  for  thir^  years.  Her- 
cules was  desired  to  clear  away  the  filth  in  one 
day ;  and  Augeas  promised,  if  he  performed  it, 
to  give  him  a  tenth  part  of  the  cattle.  This  task 
Hercules  is  said  to  have  executed,  by  turning 
the  course  of  the  river  Alpheus,  or,  as  some  say, 
the  Peneus,  through  the  stable,  which  immedi- 
ately carried  away  the  dung  and  filth.  Augeas 
not  only  refused  to  stand  by  his  engagement,  pre- 
tending that  Hercules  had  used  artifice,  and  ex- 
perienced no  labor  or  trouble,  but  banished  his 
own  son  Phyleus  firom  his  kingdom,  for  support- 
ing the  claims  of  the  hero.  Upon  this  a  war 
commenced,  and  Hercules  conquered  Elb,  put 
Augeas  to  death,  and  gave  his  kingdom  to  Pny- 
leus.  Augeas  has  been  called  the  son  of  Sol,  be- 
cause Elis  signifies  the  sun.  After  his  death,  the 
honors  usually  paid  to  heroes,  were  paid  to 


lUGER.     Tentonick  Auegher ;    Ang.-Sax. 
VcuIII. 


Aeg.    From  the  same  root  we  have  edge^  a  tool 
used  in  the  mechanic  arts. 

The  «9ir  hath  a  handle  and  bit ;  itt  office  is  to 
make  great  round  holes.  When  you  use  it,  the^tofF 
you  woriL  apon  is  commonly  laid  low  under  you,  that 
yoa  may  the  easier  use  your  strength :  for,  in  twisting 
the  bit  about  by  the  force  of  both  your  hands,  on  each 
end  of  the  handle  one,  it  cuts  great  chips  cut  of  tLe 
stuff.  Moxon's  Mech,  Exercitei, 

Auger  (Athanasius),  a  learned  classic,  and 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  Rouen,  and  vicar-general 
of  Lescar,  published  a  splendid  edition  of  the 
works  of  Isocrates,  from  the  press  of  Didot,  Paris, 
3  vols.  4to.  1782;  and  the  works  of  Lysias  in 
1783,  in  2  vols.  4to.  afterwards  reprinted  together 
in  5  vols.  8vo.  He  also  published  translations 
of  the  discourses  of  the  Greek  Orators  of  the  ora- 
tions of  Cicero,  and  of  harangues  taken  from  the 
history  of  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  and  Xeno- 
phon.  His  translations  are  considered  as  very 
correct,  but  his  style  is  deficient  in  ease  and  ele- 
gance.   He  died  at  Paris  in  1792. 

AUGES,  in  astronomy,  two  points  in  a  pla- 
net's orbit,  otherwise  called  apsides,  the  one 
denominated  the  apogee,  the  other  perigee.  See 
Apsis. 

AUGETTE,  in  fortification,  the  wooden  pipe 
which  contains  the  powder  by  which  a  mine  is 
fired. 

AUGHT.  Ang.-Sax.  hwit,  a  whit  or  owhit. 
See  Wait. 

If  I  can  do  it. 
By  amght  that  I  can  speak  in  his  dispraise^ 
She  shall  not  long  continue  love  to  him. 

ShaktpeoM, 

They  may,  for  aaighi  I  know,  obtain  such  substances, 
as  may  induce  the  chymists  to  entertain  other 
thoughts.  Bcgfle, 

But  go,  my  son ;  and  see^  if  aaight  be  wanting 

Among  thy  lather's  firiends.  Additon*t  Caio, 

AUGILA,  a  district  and  town  of  Africa,  be- 
tween Siwah  and  Fezzan.  It  is  included  under 
the  dominion  of  Tripoli,  though  the  subjection  is 
but  nominal.  This  city  is  of  great  antiquity,  being 
known  in  the  tiipe  of  Herodotus.  It  is  about  a 
mile  in  circumference,  but  dirty  and  ill-built ;  the 
apartments  are  dark,  there  being  no  aperture  for 
light,  except  the  door.  The  buildings  a|e  also 
very  mean.  Dates  of  excellent  quality  are  pro- 
duced abundantly.  T^e  inhabitants  are  em- 
ployed partly  in  agriculture,  but  still  more  in 
following  the  caravans  which  pass  through  this 
territory.    Long.  22''  25'  E.,  lat.  20°  35'  N. 

AUGITES,  among  ancient  naturalists,  a  kind 
of  gem,  of  a  pale  green  color,  inferior  in  valu^  to 
the  topaz.  This  mineral  is  ciystallised  in  small 
six  or  eight-sided  prisms,  with  dihedral  summits. 
Its  colors  are  green,  brown,  and  black.  Inter- 
nal lustre  shining.  Uneven  fracture.  Translu- 
cent. Easily  broken.  It  scratches  glass.  Specific 
gravity  3'3.  Melts  into  a  black  enamel.  Its  com- 
position, according  to  Klaproth,  is  forty-eight 
silica,  twenty-four  lime,  twelve  oxide  of  iro6, 
8*75  magnesia,  five  alumina,  and  one  manga- 
nese. 

AUGMENT,  V.  &  n,'\    Lat.  augmenhm^  from 

Augment a'tion,         faif^ere,  to  increase.  To 

Augmen'tative,        J  put  a  smaller  quantity 

AuGxi  en'ter.  y  to  a  greater,  to  eulan,e, 

to  niake  greater,  and  so  to  strengthen. 

T 


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AUGSBURG. 


The  wretched  antmid  heavM  forth  sach  groans. 
That  their  discharge  did  stretch  his  leathern  coat 
Almost  to  bursting ;  and  the  big  round  tears 
CoQTs'd  one  another  down  his  innocent  nose 
In  piteous  chase ;  and  thus  the  hairy  fool. 
Much  marked  of  the  melancholy  Jaques, 
Stood  on  the  exuemest  verge  of  the  swift  brook 
AvgmmUmg  it  with  tears. 

ShaJupean,    At  You  Like  It, 

Heat  in  a  certain  degree  is  very  pleasant,  which 
may  be  wymenteA  to  the  greatest  torment, 

Locke  om  the  Hunuuk  Undentamdmg. 

I  have  determined  to  consult  the  best  writers  for 
explanations  real  as  well  as  verbal ;  and  perhaps  I 
may  at  last  have  reason  to  say»  after  one  of  the  ang- 
menten  of  Furetior,  that  my  book  is  more  learned 
than  iu  author.  Dr.  S.  Johnmm. 

Augmented,  a  musical  term,  used  in  contra- 
distinction to  perfect,  major,  minor,  and  dimi- 
nished :  thus,  an  augmented  note  forms  an 
interval  of  three  chromatic  degrees ;  as  C,  d-sharp ; 
£,  flat,  f-sharp ;  F,  g-sharp.  See  Intervals. 
Augmented  intervals  become,  by  inversion,  di- 
minished. 

Augmentation  of  Livings.  The  shamefully 
poor  livings  of  many  of  the  inferior  cleigy  of  the 
church  of  England,  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
legislature  so  long  ago  as  the  reign  of  queen 
Anne.  The  governors  of  the  bounty  of  queen 
Anne,  for  the  augmentation  of  the  maintenance 
of  the  poor  clergy,  by  virtue  of  several  acts  of 
parliament,  made  for  that  purpose,  are  empower- 
ed to  augment  all  livings  not  exceeding  £50  per 
annum;  and  the  number  of  livings  following 
were  certified  to  be  capable  of  augmentation. 


No.  of  Rate  per 

livings.  annum. 

1071  UnderflO 
1467  From  £lO  to  20 

1126 20  to  30 

1049  30  to  40 


May  be    No.  of  nug- 
augmented.  mentations. 
6  times  6426 

4 5868 

3 3378 

twice  2098 


884 


40  to  50        once 


884 


5597  Total  of  augmentations  to  be^     . 

made  by  the  bounty  before  f  ,«  ^e^ 
these  5597  livings  will  ex-  (  *">^^^ 
ceed  £50  a-year.  J 


Mr.  Chalmers  observes,  that  computing  the  clear 
amount  of  the  bounty  to  make  fifty-five  aug- 
mentations yearly,  it  will  be  339  years,  from 
1714  (which  v?as  the  first  year  in  whidi  any  liv- 
ings were  augmented),  before  all  the  small  liv- 
ings above  certified  can  exceed  £50  per  annum ; 
and  if  even  on&-half  of  such  augmentations 
should  be  made,  in  conjunction  with  other  bene- 
&ctors  (which  is  not  probable)  it  will  still  re- 
quire 226  years  before  all  the  above  livings  will 
exceed  £50  per  annum !  This  is  the  more  dis- 
graceful, considering  the  immense  inc<«ies  en- 
joyed by  the  superior  clergy. 

Augmentation,  in  heraldry,  a 
particular  mark  of  honor,  bome 
either  on  an  esicutcheon,  or  a 
canton,  as  argent,  a  hand,  gules, 
borne  by  every  baronet  not  being 
of  higher  dignity,  as  in  the  an- 
nexed  example. 


AUGSBURG,  the  second  place  in  the  king- 
dom of  Bavaria,  both  in  population  and  cele- 
brity, was  formerly  one  of  the  free  and  imperial 
cities  of  Germany.    It  is  situated  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Wertach  and  the  Lech.    Thou^ 
less  flourishing  than  in  former  times,  it  contains 
a  population  of  about  30,000  individuals,  aqd  is 
well  fortified,  in  the  ancient  style,  having  four 
principal  gates  and  six  smaller  ones.    Augsburg 
partakes  largely  in  the  manu&ctures  and  com- 
merce of  the  country,  and  has  long  been  dis- 
tinguished for  its  engravings,  and  its  considei^ 
able  bookselling  trade,  especially  in  Catholic 
literature.    By  means  of  its  agents  and  bankers, 
Augsburg  is  Uie  general  medium  of  exchange 
with  other  countries,  as  well  as  a  central  defSi 
for  the  Neckar,  Tyrolese,  Greek  and  Italian 
wines.    This  ci^  is  venerable  from  its  antiquity, 
and  interesting  from  its  connexion,  both  wim  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  history  of  Germany.     In 
the  diet  of  the  empire^  Augsburg  vras  originally 
called  Vindelicia,  as  being  the  capital  of  the 
Viudelici.    When  it  subsequently  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  the  RomanSp  and  a  colony  was  set- 
tled there  by  Drusus,  it  vras  called  Angusta- 
Vindelicoram  and  Rhetorum.    Il  is  mentioned 
bv  Tacitus  (Germ,  xli.)  as  a  very  splendid  city 
of  the  province  of  Rhsetia.    From  the  Romans 
it  passed  to  the  Alemanni,  and  subsequently  to 
the  Goths  and  the  Franks.    Under  these  its  im- 
portance declined.    It  was  subsequently  in  a 
precarious  condition,  but  revived  after  Rodolph 
was  elected  emperor ;  several  of  its  former  pri- 
vileges being  oAifirmed  by  him,  and  new  ones 
granted. 

In  952  tbe  order  for  the  celibacy  of  the  priests 
in  the  Catholic  church  v?as  confirmed  oy  the 
council  of  Augsburg ;  and  the  extent  of  its  com- 
merce conferred  great  celebrity  upon  it  in  the    * 
fourteenth  and  fifteen  centuries.     In  1518  the 
diet  was  held  here  for  concerting  and  promoting 
the  crusade  against  the  Turks.    Here  the  cele- 
brated confession  of  the  Protestant  faith,  drawn 
up  by  Luther  and  Melancthon,  was  presented 
in  1530.    Here  the  well-known  Interim  was 
published  in  1548— and  here  the  conventioa  of 
Passau  was  confirmed,  and  the   peace  which 
terminated  the  religious  war  was  concluded  in 
1555.     It  was  also  fixed  upon  as  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  bidiops  of  Bavaria  by  the  concordat 
of  1817.    It  has  frequently  sufiiered  by  military 
force,  a  calamity  which  it  endured  no  less  than 
five  times  in  the  course  of  the  late  revolntion- 
anr  wars  of  Europe.     Bayer^  the  astronomer, 
who  first  denoted  die  stars  by  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet,  was  a  native  of  this   place. 
Augsburg  is  forty  miles  north-west  of  Munich. 
Long.  10°  53'  £.»  lat  48*"  ir  N.  horn  Green- 
wich. 

AuGfiBuao,  a  secularised  bishopric  of  Ger- 
many, now  foming  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Ba- 
varia. It  took  its  name  from  the  imperial  city 
of  Augsburg,  and  was  founded  so  early  as  the 
sixth  century.  The  territory  of  which  it  was 
composed  contained  1012  square  miles,  and  lay 
partly  along  the  banks  of  the  Lech,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  T^rol,  in  the  margraviate  of  Beocgau, 
and  partly  beyond  the  Danube,  in  the  principa- 
lity of  Neuburg.    The  population  was  computed 


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AUG 


at  86^000,  and  the  total  revenue  at  500,000  dol- 
lars. The  only  towns  of  note  are  Dillingen  and 
Fussen,  with  eleven  market  towns^  and  a  number 
»f  vHlagesy  mostly  situated  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  bishopric^  which  is  by  far  the  most  fruit- 
ful and  populous.  The  chapter  was  composed 
of  forty  prebendaries,  each  of  whom  had  a  salary 
of  from  1000  to  1700  florins.  The  bishopric 
came  into  the  possession  of  Bavaria  in  1802. 

AuGSBtJRG,    or     AUGUSTAV,    CONPESSION,   a 

celebrated  confesaioo  of  faith  drawn  up  by  Lu- 


three  members  with  respect  to  the  three  Luceres, 
Rhamnenses,  and  Tatienses;  afterwards  the 
number  was  increased  to  nine,  of  whom  four  were 
patricians  and  five  plebeians.  They  bore  an  au- 
gural stafiT,  as  the  ensign  of  their  authority;  and 
their  dignity  was  so  much  respected,  that  they 
were  never  deposed,  nor  any  substituted  in  their 
place,  though  they  should  have  been  convicted 
of  the  most  enormous  crimes. 

AUGURAL£,  a  place  in  a  camp  where  the 
general  took  auspicia.    This  answered   to  the 


ther  and  Melancthon,  on  behalf  of  themselves    Auguratorium  in  me  city.  Augurale  is  also  used 


and  other  ancient  reformers,  and  presented,  in 
1550,  to  the  empesof  Charks  V.  at  the  diet  Au- 
gusta or  Augsburg,  in.  the  name  of  the  evai>- 
gelic  body.  This  confession  contains  twenty- 
eight  chapters;  of  which  the  gseatest  part 
is  employea  in  representing,  with  perspicuity  and 
trut}i,  tb«  religions  opinions  of  toe  Protestants, 
and  the  rest  in  pointing  out  the  errors  and  abuses 
that  occasioned  their  separation  from  the  church 
of  Home.  A  civil  war  followed,  that  histed  up- 
wards of  twenty  years,  but  which  only  spread 


in  Seneca  for  the  ensign  or  badge  of  an  augur, 
as  the  lituus. 

AUGURATORIUM,  or  Augueaculum,  a 
building  on  the  Palatine  mount,  where  public 
auguries  were  taken. 

AUGURELLO  (John  Aurelio),  an  Italian 
poet,  bom  at  Rimini,  in  1441.  He  was  profes- 
sor of  the  belles  letters  atTreviso,  at  which  place 
he  died  in  1524.  He  wrote  several  pieces,  but 
his  chief  work  was  a  Latin  poem,  entitled  Chry- 
sopaia,  or  the  art  of  making  gold.  He  dedicated 


new  opinions,  as  they  were  then  called,  instead    his  poem  to  Leo  X.  upon  which  the  pontiff  pre- 


of  extirpating  them. 

AU'GUR,v.&n. 

Au'gurate, 

AUGURA'xrON, 

Ai/gurbr, 
Augu'rial, 
Au'gurotts, 

Au'OUBY. 


quan  avtge- 
to  see;  quo  modo 
aves  se  gereretU  in  volan- 
•-do,  what  direction  birds 
take  in  flying,  Vossius. 
Auguries  were  also  taken 
from  their  singing  and 
feeding.  Hence  it  signifies  to  notice  the  move- 
ments of  birds,  and  thereby  to  predict,  to  foretel 
future  events. 


sented  him  with  a  large  empty  purse,  and  said, 
'  that  as  he  could  make  gold  he  best  knew  how 
to  fill  it.' 

AUGURY,  is  more  fully  defined  the  art  of  fore- 
telling future  events,  by  observations  taken  from 
the  chattering,  singing,  feeding,  and  flight,  of 
birds.  It  is  also  used  in  a  more  general  signifi- 
cation, as  comprising  all  the  different  kinds  of 
divination.  To  make  his  observations,  the  augur 
commonly  seated  himself  on  a  high  tower,  with 


any  signs 

Oh  rir,  yoa  are  too  sore  an  at^mer 
That  yoa  did  feare  is  done. 

ShaMtpeart.  Antonp  md  Ckopaira, 

What  say  the  augttnf 

—They  would  not  have  yoa  stir  forth  to-day  : 
Flacking  the  entrails  of  an  offering  forth. 
They  could  not  find  a  heart  within  the  beast. 


Id. 


We  now  apply  the  words  gene-    ^**  ^^^  towards  the  east,  the  north  on  his  left 

rally  to  predictions  of  the  fiiture  by  means  of    ^^  ^^\  ^  ^^^  ^^  ^^  "?^t-    He  divided- 
any  signs  or  tokens.  ™  ™^*  ^  ^  heavens  into  four  parts,  with  a 

crooked  staff,  af^r  which  he  sacrificed  to  the 
gods,  while  he  covered  his  head  with  his  vest- 
ment. The  augurs  drew  omflfns  from  five  different 
things :  1 .  The  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  as 
thunder,  lightning,  comets,  &c.  2.  The  chirpmg 
of  birds,  as  already  mentioned :  3.  The  eager- 
ness or  indifference  of  the  sacred  chickens  in 
eating  the  bread  which  was  thrown  to  them,  they 
interpreted  lucky  or  unlucky:  4.  Quadrupeds 
crossing  or  appearing  in  some  unfrequented 
place:  5.  From  different  casualties,  which  were 
called  dia,  such  as  spilling  salt  on  a  table,  or 
wine  upon  clothes,  hearing  strange  noises,  stum- 
bling or  sneezing,  meeting  a  wolf,  hare,  fox,  or 
pregnant  bitch.  The  sight  of  birds  on  the  left 
hand  was  always  considered  as  a  lucky  object, 
and  the  words  sinister  laevus,  though  commonly 
imagined  to  4)e  terms  of  ill  luck,  were  uniformly 
used  l^  the  augurs  in  an  auspiciotxs  sense. 

Augury  was  a  very  ancient  superstition.  We 
know  firom  Hesiod,  that  husbandry  was  in  part 
regulated  by  the  coming  or  going  of  birds;  and 
most  probably  it  had  been  in  use  long  before  his 
time,  as  astronomy  was  then  in  its  idancy.  In 
process  of  time,  these  animals  seemed  to  have 
gained  a  greater  and  very  wonderful  authority, 
till  at  Uist  no  affair  of  consequence,  either  of  pri- 
vate or  public  concern,  was  undertaken  without 


Thy  face  and  thy  behayioor. 
Which,  if  my  amffwry  deceive  me  not. 
Witness  good  breeding. 
Calchaa,  the  sacred  seei,  who  had  in  view 
Things  present  and    the  past,  and  things  to  come 

foreknew : 
Supreme  of  augun.  Drydtn's  Fablet, 

The  pow'rs  we  both  invoke 
To  yoo,  and  yours,  and  mine,  propitious  be. 
And  firm  our  purpose  with  an  oi^ury.      Drjfden. 
She  knew,  by  miffury  divine, 
Venus  would  ful  in  the  design.  Swift, 

So  fear'd 
The  fair-manM  horses,  that  they  flew  back,  and  their 

chariots  tum'd. 
Presaging  in  their  auprnfm  hearts  the  labours  that 
they  moum'd.  Ckapmam^t  lUad, 

He  deluded  many  nations  in  his  migyrial  and  exti- 
apicious  inventions,  from  casual  and  uncontrived  con- 
tingencies divining  events  succeeding. 

Broum'i  Vulgar  Bmmn. 


AuouR,  m  Rx)man  antiquity,  an  officer  ap-    consulting  them.  They  were  looked  upon  as  the 
pointed  to  foretel  future  events,  by  the  interpreters  of  the  gods ;   and  those  who  were 

flight,  and  feeding,  of  birds.    There  was  a  college    qualified  to  underatand  their  oracles  were  held 
or  community  of  them,  consisting  originally  of  among  the  chief  men  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 

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AUGUSTA. 


States,  and  became  the  assessors  of  kings,  and 
even  of  Jupiter  himself.  However  absurd  such 
an  institution  as  a  college  of  augurs  may  appear 
in  our  eyes,  yet,  like  all  other  extravagant  insti- 
tutions, it  had  in  part  its  origin  from  nature. 
When  men  considered  the  wonderful  migration 
of  birds,  how  they  disappeared  at  once,  and  ap- 
peared again  at  stated  times,  and  could  give  no 
guess  where  they  went,  it  was  not  unnatural  to 
suppose,  that  they  retired  somewhere  out  of  the 
sphere  of  this  earth,  and  perhaps  approached  the 
ethereal  regions,  where  they  might  converse  with 
the  gods,  and  thence  be  enabled  to  predict  events ; 
at  least  it  was  not  unnatural  for  a  superstitious 
people  to  believe  this  as  soon  as  some  impostor 
was  impudent  enough  to  assert  it.  Add  to  this, 
that  the  disposition  in  some  birds  to  imitate  the 
human  voice,  must  contribute  much  to  the  con- 
firmation of  such  a  doctrine.  This  institution  of 
augury  seems  to  have  been  much  more  ancient 
than  that  of  aruspicy ;  for  we  ftnd  many  instances 
of  the  former  in  Homer,  but  not  a  single  one  of 
the  latter,  though  frequent  mention  is  made  of 
sacrifices  in  that  author.  Thus  it  is  probable  that 
natural  augury  gave  rise  to  religious  augury,  and 
this  to  aruspicy,  as  the  mind  of  man  makes  a 
a  very  easy  transition  from  a  little  truth  to  a  great 
deal  of  error.  A  passage  in  Aristophanes  gave 
the  hint  for  these  observations.  In  the  comedy 
of  the  birds,  he  makes  one  of  them  s^y,  '  The 
greatest  blessings  which  can  happen  to  you, 
mortals,  are  derived  from  us;  first,  we  show  you 
the  seasons,  viz.  spring,  winter,  autumn.  The 
crane  points  out  the  time  for  sowing,  when  she 
flies  with  her  warning  notes  into  Csypt ;  she  bids 
the  sailor  hang  up  his  rudder  and  take  his  rest, 
and  every  prudent  man  provide  himself  with 
winter  garments.  Next  the  kite  appearing,  pro- 
claims another  season,  viz.  when  it  is  time  to 
shear  his  sheep.  After  that  the  swallow  informs 
you  when  it  is  time  to  put  on  your  summer 
clothes.  We  kre  to  you  (adds  the  chorus)  Am- 
mon,  Dodona,  Apollo :  for,  after  consulting  us, 
you  undertake  every  thing;  merchandise,  pur- 
chases, marriages,  &c.'  Now,  it  seems  not  im- 
probable, that  the  same  transition  was  made  iu 
the  speculations  of  men,  which  .appears  in  the 
poet*s  words ;  and  that  they  were  easily  induced 
to  think,  that  the  surprising  foresight  of  birds,  as 
to  the  time  of  migration,  indicated  something  of 
a  divine  nature  in  them. 

AUOUST.  Lat  Auguttus,  Said  to  be  so 
called  from  the  thing  signified  being  consecratdd 
by  augury,  and  on  that  account  was  sacred  and 
venerable. 

August,  Augustus,  Lat.  The  name  of  the 
eighth  month  from  January,  inclusive^  August 
was  dedicated  to  the  honor  of  Augustus  Caesar, 
because  in  the  same  month  he  vras  created  con- 
sul ;  thrice  triumphed  in  Rome;  subdued  £gypt 
to  the  Roman  empire ;  and  made  an  end  of  civil 
wars  ;  being  before  called  Sextilis,  or  the  sixth 
from  March.  August  was,  by  our  Saxon  ances- 
tors (who,  like  the  modem  French,  gave  Aeir 
months  significant  names),  called  wec^-nion^th, 
i.  e.  weed-month,  on  account  of  the  great  plenty 
of  weeds  at  that  season.  It  answers  to  part  of 
the  two  last  months  in  the  year  in  the  new  French 
calendar ;  comprehending  the  seventeen  last  days 


of  Thermidor,  and  the  fourteen  first  days  of 
Fructidor. 

AUGUSTA,  a  considerable  and  flourishing 
town  of  Georgia,  and  the  present  seat  of  govern- 
ment   It  is  pleasantly  situated  in  Richmond 
county,   on  the  south-west  side  of  Savannah 
river,  upon  a  beautiful  plain,  five  miles  in  length., 
and  one  and  a  half  in  breadth.    It  is  regularly 
laid  out,  the  streets  intersecting  one  another  at 
right  angles,  and  contains  about  250  dwellings. 
The  public  buildings  are,  a  church ;  an  academy ; 
a  government-house,  where  the  governor,  secre- 
tary of  state,  and  other  public  officers  transact 
their  business;  a  market^ioose ;  a  new  stone 
jail ;  a  spacious  building,  where  the  courts  of 
justice  are  administered,  and  the  legislature  hold 
flieir  sessions;    and  three  ware-houaes,  large 
enough  to  contain  10,000  hogsheads  of  tobacco. 
The  academy  generally  contains  between  eighty 
and  ninety  students,  who  are  under  the  direction 
of  two  tutors  and  a  professor  of  oratory.    It  is 
governed  by  a  board  of  trustees,  who  are  a  body 
corporate  in  law.    The  funds  belonging  to  this 
institution  are  considerable,  consisting  of  lands, 
houses,  and  money,  to  the  amount  of  several 
thousand  pounds  sterling.    From  the  advantages 
which  it  enjoys,  it  probably  will,  on  a  future  day, 
become  a  place  or  considerable  note  in  the  lite- 
rary world.    Opposite  the  centre  of  the  town,  a 
large  wooden  bridge  has  been,  erected  across  flie 
Savannah,  which  opens  a  commodious  and  easy 
communication  with  South  Carolina ;  it  b  nine- 
teen feet  wide,  and  between  700  and  800  in 
length.    It  has  already  been  of  considerable  ad- 
vantage to  the  town,  by  inducing  the  planters  in 
the  upper  part  of  South  Carolina  to  bring  their 
produce  to  this  market.  It  is  about  236  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  Savannah  river,  including  its  mean- 
ders, 120N.N.W.  of  Savannah,  and  746  S.  W.S. 
of  Philadelphia.    Population  upwards  of  4000. 
Lat.  33**  ly  N.,  long.  80*  46r.  W. 

Augusta,  a  county  of  Virginia,  lying  partly 
east  and  partly  west  of  the  North  Mount,  a  ridge 
of  the  Alleghany.  It  is  fertile,  and  contains  up- 
wards of  12,000  inhabitants,  including  slaves.  It 
has  a  remarkable  cascade,  called  Falling  Spring. 

Augusta,  in  antiquitv,  a  title  given  to  ukt 
Roman  empresses,  and  frequently  to  the  mothers 
and  daughters  of  the  emperors,  who  had  been 
empresses. 

Augusta,  in  ancient  geography,  the  name  of 
various  ancient  cities,  mosdy  named  after  Au- 
gustus or  his  successors :  suoi  as, 

1.  .Augusta,  a  city  and  island  in  the  Adriatic 
sea,  called  also  Austa,  on  the  coast  of  Dalmatia, 
near  Ragusa,  subject  to  Venice.  Long.  17°  SO'  £., 
lat.  42°  35'  N. 

2.  Augusta  Acilia,  a  town  in  Bavaria,  now 
called  Azelburg. 

3.  Augusta  Ausciorum,  a  town  of  Aqaita- 
nia,  originally  called  Climberum,  which  name 
it  afterwards  resumed.  In  the  middle  age,  how- 
ever, it  took  the  name  of  the  people,  Ausci ;  and 
is  now  called  Auch. 

4.  Augusta  Braccarum,  a  city  of  Portugal, 
now  called  Braga. 

5.  Augusta  Drc'si,  a  town  in  Suabia,  now 
called  Memmingen. 

6.  Augusta  Emerita^  a  town  of  Lusatacnia, 


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OB  ihe  Anas,  capital  of  the  province ;  a  colony 
of  the  Emeriti,  now  called  Meridoy  in  Spanish 
Estremadura. 

7  and  8.  Augusta  Pbatoria  ;  1.  a  town  and 
colony  of  Gallia  Cisalpina,  the  capital  of  the  Sa- 
lassi ;  seated  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  Grais,  on  &e 
Duria ;  now  called  Austa.  2.  another  in  Tran- 
sylvania ;  now  called  Cronstadt. 

9.  Augusta  Rauracorum,  a  town  of  Gallia 
Belgica,  six  miles  east  from  Basil ;  now  called 
Augst.  From  the  ruins,  which  are  still  to  be 
seen,  it  appears  to  have  been  a  considerable 
colony. 

10.  Augusta  Romakduorum^  the  ancient 
name  of  Luxemburg. 

11.  Augusta  Suessonum,  a  town  of  Gallia 
Belgica,  on  the  Axona ;  with  great  probability 
supposed  to  be  the  Noviodunum  Suessonum  of 
Csesar ;  now  called  Soissons. 

12.  Augusta  Taurinorum,  a  town  of  the 
Taurini,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps,  where  the  Duria 
Minor  &Us  into  the  Po  ;  now  called  Turin. 

13.  Augusta  Tiberii,  a  city  of  Bavaria;  now 
called  Ratisbon. 

14.  Augusta  Treba,  a  town  of  the  ^qui, 
near  the  springs  of  the  river  Anio  in  Italy  ;  now 
called  Trevi,  in  Umbria. 

15.  Augusta  Trevi rorum,  a  town  of  the 
Treviri ;  now  called  Trieres  or  Treves. 

16.  Augusta  Tricassium,  the  ancient  name 
of  Troceres. 

17.  Augusta  Trinobantum,  the  name  given 
by  the  Romans  to  London. 

18.  AoGusTA  Veromanduorum,  a  town  of 
ancient  Gaul ;  now  St  Quintin. 

Augusta  Vindelicorum,  a  town  of  the  Li- 
cates  on  the  Licus  ;  styled  by  Tacitus  a  noble 
colony  of  Rhsetia;  now  called  Augsburg,  in 
Suabia.    See  Augsburg. 

Augusta  Historia,  in  literature,  the  history 
of  the  Roman 'emperors,  from  Adrian  to  Carinus ; 
that  is,  from  A.  D.  157  to  285,  composed  by  six 
■  Latin  writers,  viz.  iElius  Spartianus,  Julius  Ca- 
pitoliims,  /Elius  Lampridius,  Vulcatius  Gallica- 
nus,  Trebellius  Pollio,  and  Flavius  Vopiscus. 

AUGUSTALIS  Prjefectus,  a  title  peculiar 
to  a  Roman  magistrate  who  governed  Egypt, 
with  a  power  mucli  like  that  of  a  proconsul  in 
other  provinces. 

AUGUSTAN,  relating  to  Augustus,  or  Au- 
gusta. 

AuGusTAK  Confession.    See  Augsburg. 

AUGUSTICUM,  in  writers  of  the  middle 
age,  a  largess  of  an  emperor  to  the  people  or 
aoldiery. 

AUGUSTEUM  Marmor,  in  the  natural  his- 
tory of  the  ancients,  a  name  given  to  the  common 
green  and  white  marble,  so  frequent  in  use  with 
lis  for  tables,  &c.  and  called  by  our  artificers 
Egyptian  marble. 

AUGUSTIA,  an  ancient  town  in  Wallachia, 
now  called  Kusty. 

AUGUSTIN  (St.),  the  capital  town  of  the 
province  of  East  Florida,  Nortn  America,  is  si- 
tuated on  the  Atlantic,  on  a  peninsula,  consisting 


has  a  good  port,  although  the  breakers,  at  its 
entrance,  have  formed  two  channels,  whose  bars 
have  only  eight  feet  of  water  each.  It  has  a  strong 
castle  for  its  defence;  a  good  parish  church, 
and  two  hospitals,  one  for  the  garrison  of  troops, 
and  another  for  the  community.  It  was  burned 
by  Sir  Francis  Drake,  in  1586,  and  by  captain 
Davis,  with  the  Buccaniers,  in  1685 ;  but  was 
immediately  after  rebuilt.  In  1702  it  was  be^ 
sieged  by  tlie  English,  who,  not  being  able  to  take 
the  castle,  burned  and  destroyed  the  town.  In 
1714  it  was  again  unsuccessfully  attacked  by 
the  English  under  general  Oglethorpe.  Long. 
81°  40'  W.,  lat.  29*"  58'  N. 

AUGUSTINE,  a  cape  of  South  America,  in 
Brasil,  on  the  Atlantic,  300  miles  north-east  of 
All-Saints'  Bay.    Long.  35°  4'  W.,  lat.  8°  30*  S. 
Augustine,  or  Austin  (St.),  the  first  archbi- 
shop of  Canterbury,  was  originally  a  monk  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Andrew  at  Rome,  and  educated 
under  St.  Gregory,  afterwards  Pope  Gregory  I. 
by  whom  he  was  despatched  into  Britain,  with 
forty  other  monks,  about  A.  D.  596,  to  convert 
the  English  to  Christianity.    He  landed  in  the 
isle  of  Thanet,  and  having  sent  some  French  in- 
terpreters to  king  Ethelbert,  with  an  account  of 
the  errand  on  which  he  came,  the  king  gave  him 
leave  to  convert  as  many  of  his  subjects  as  he 
could,  and  assigned  his  place  of  residence  at  Do- 
roverum,  since  called  Canterbury ;  here  the  king 
himself  was  converted ;  whose  example  had  a 
powerful  influence  in  promoting  that  of  his  sub- 
jects.   Austin  now  despatched  a  priest  and  a 
monk  to  Rome,  to  acquaint  the  pope  with  tlie 
success  of  his  mission,  and  to  desire  his  resolu- 
tion of  certain  questions.    These  men  brought 
back  with  them  a  pall  and  several  books,  vest- 
ments, utensils,  and  ornaments  for  the  churches ; 
with  directions  to  Augustine  concerning  the  set- 
tling of  episcopal  sees  in  Britain ;  ordering  him 
not  to  pull  down  the  idol  temples,  but  to  convert 
diem  into  Christian  churches ;  only  destroying 
the  idols,   and  sprinkling  the  place  with  holy 
water,  that  the  natives,  by  frequenting  the  tem- 
ples they  had  been  always  accustomed  to,  might 
be  tlie  less  shocked  at  their  entrance  into  Chris- 
tianity.   Augustine  resided  principally  at  Can- 
terbury, which  thus  became  the  metropolitan 
church  of  England;    and    having  established 
bishop  in  several  of  the  cities,  he  died  A.  D. 
607.  The  popish  writers  ascribe  several  miracles 
to  him.    The  observation  of  his  festival  was  first 
enjoined  in  a  synod  held  under  Cuthbert,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,   and  afterwards  by  the 
pope*s  bull  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IH. 

Augustine  (St.),  a  fahious  father  of  the  church, 
was  bom  at  TTiagaste,  in  Numidia,  A.  D.  3^4. 
His  father,  a  burgess  of  that  city,  was  called  Pa- 
tricius ;  and  his  mother,  Monica,  who  being  a 
woman  of  great  virtue,  instructed  him  in  the 
principles  of  Christianity.  In  his  early  youth  he 
was  in  the  rank  of  the  catechumens ;  and  falling 
dangerously  ill,  earnestly  desired  to  be  baptized, 
but  the  violence  of  the  distemper  ceasing,  bis 
baptism  was  delayed.    His  father^who  was  not 


of  a  narrow  strip  of  land.    It  is  of  an  oblonff  yet  baptised,  made  him  study  at  Thagaste,  Ma- 

figare,  intersected  by  four  streets,  which  cut  each  daura,  and  afterwards  at  Carthage.'    Augustine 

ouier  at  riffht  angles.    It  is  reckoned  a  healthy  having  read  Cicero's  books  of  philosophy,  applied 

place,  and  isweU  supplied  with  fresh  water.   It  himself  to  the  study  of  the  scriptures;  but  suf^ 


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AUGUSTINE. 


ftred  himself  to  be  seduced  by  the  Manicbeans. 
At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  returned  to  Tbagaste, 
taught  grammar,  and  frequented  the  bar:  be 
afterwaids  taught  rhetoric  at  Carthage  with  ap- 
plause. The  insolence  of  the  scholars  at  Car- 
thage made  him  take  a  resolution  to  go  to  Rome, 
though  against  his  mother's  will.  Here  also  be 
had  many  scholars ;  yet  he  quitted  Rome,  settled 
at  Milan,  and  was  chosen  professor  of  rhetoric 
in  that  city.  Here  he  had  opportunities  of 
hearing  the  sermons  of  St.  Ambrose,  which,  to- 
gether with  the  study  of  St.  Paul's  epistles,  and 
die  conversion  of  two  of  his  friends,  determined 
him  to  retract  his  errors,  and  quit  the  sect  of  the 
Manicbeans :  this  was  in  the  thirty-second  year 
of  his  age.  In  the  year  386  he  retired  to  the 
house  of  a  friend  of  his,  named  Verecundus, 
where  he  seriously  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  Christian  religion,  to  prepare  himself  for 
baptism,  which  he  receiTcd  at  Easter,  in  387. 
He  went  to  Africa  about  the  end  of  388 ;  and 
having  obtained  a  garden-plot  without  the  walls 
of  the  city  of  Hippo,  he  associated  himself  with 
eleven  other  persons  of  eminent  sanctity,  who 
distinguished  themselves  by  wearing  leathern 
girdles,  and  lived  there  in  a  monastic  way  for 
three  years,  exercising  themselves  in  fasting, 

Erayer,  study,  and  meditation,  day  ancl  night ; 
om  hence  sprung  up  the  Augustine  friars,  or 
eremites,  of  St.  Augustine,  the  first  order  of  men- 
dicants. About  this  time,  or  before  it,  Valerius, 
bishop  of  Hippo,  against  his  will,  ordained  him 

{>riest :  nevertheless,  he  continued  to  reside  in  his 
ittle  monastery,  with  his  brethren,  who,  renoun* 
cing  all  oroperty,  possessed  their  goods  in  com- 
mon. Valerius,  who  had  appointed  St.  Augus- 
tine to  preach  in  his  palace,  allowed  him  to  do  it 
in  his  presence,  contrary  to  the  custom  of  the 
churches  in  Africa.  He  explained  the  creed,  in 
a  general  council  of  Africa,  held  in  393.  Two 
years  afUr,  Valerius,  fearing  he  might  be  prefer- 
red to  be  bishop  of  another  church,  appointed 
him  his  colleague,  and  caused  him  to  be  ordained 
bishop  of  Hippo,  by  Megalus,  bishop  of  Calame, 
then  primate  of  Numidia.  St.  Augustine  died 
the  twenty-eighth  day  of  August,  430,  aged 
seventy-six,  having  had  the  misrortune  to  see  his 
countiy  inraded  by  the  Vandals,  and  the  city 
where  he  was  bishop  besieged  for  seven  months. 
His  works  make  ten  volumes ;  the  best  edition 
of  them  is  that  of  Maurin^  printed  at  Antwerp, 
in  1700. 

AuousTiHE  (Anthony),  an  eminent  prelate, 
bom  at  Saragossa,  in  Spain.  He  was  employed 
by  the  pope  on  an  embassy  to  England,  in  1554; 
and  afterwards  assisted  at  the  council  of  Trent. 
In  1574  he  was  preferred  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Tarragona.  So  great  was  his  charity,  that  at  his 
death,  in  1586,  he  did  not  leave  what  was  suffi- 
cient to  defray  his  funeral  expences.  He  wrote 
several  treatises  on  law,  and  on  medals,  in  the 
Spanish  language,  which  were  printed  in  1587. 

Augustine  (Leonard),  or  Agostini,  an  Itsilian 
antiouary,  was  a  native  of  Sienna,  and  flourished 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  compiled  an 
elaborate  work  on  ancient  gems,  which  was  first 
published  in  1657,  in  two  volumes,  4to.  and 
again  in  1707,  four  volumes,  4to.  A  Latin 
translation  of  this  work,  by  Gronovius,  was  pub- 


lished at  Amsterdam  in  1685,  and  at  Franeker  in 
1694. 

Augustine,  Mount,  St.  a  remarkable  island 
within  the  entrance  <k  Cook's  islet,  about  six 
miles  from  its  westeA  shore.  It  was  seen  by 
Capt.  Cook,  who  was  doubtful  whether  it  did 
not  belong  to  the  continent.  It  was  since  visited, 
in  1794,  by  Mr.  Puget,  who,  in  the  C*hathani, 
sailed  round  the  world,  in  company  with  Van- 
couver. He  states  it  to  be  about  nine  leagues  in 
circuit. 

Augustine,  St.  a  port  on  the  coast  of  La- 
brador, opposite  St.  John's  Bay,  Newfoundland. 
About  two  miles  south-west  runs  a  chain  of  small 
islands,  called  St.  Augustine's  Chain,  about 
long.  58®  50*  west,  and  lat.  51°  11'  north. 

Augustine's  Square,  St.  a  number  of  small 
islands  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Labrador, 
reaching  from  Shecatica  bay  on  the  north-east, 
to  Outer  Island  on  the  south-west. 

AUGUSTINIANS,  divines  who  maintain,  on 
the  authority  of  St.  Augustine,  that  grace  is  effec- 
tual from  its  nature,  absolutely  and  morally,  and 
not  relatively  and  gradually.  They  are  divided 
into  rigid  and  related. 

AuGUSTiNiANS,  or  AuGusTiNS,  an  order  of 
religious ;  so  called  from  St.  Augustine,  whose 
rule  they  observe.  The  Augustins,  or  Austin 
friars,  were  originally  hermits,  whom  pope  Alex- 
ander IV.  first  congregated  into  one  bodv,  under 
their  general  Lanfranc,  in  1256.  Soon  after,  this 
order  was  brought  into  England,  where  they  had 
about  thirty-two  houses  at  the  time  of  their  sup- 
pression. The  Augustins  are  clothed  in  black, 
and  make  one  of  the  four  orders  of  mendicants. 
From  these  arose  others,  under  the  denomination 
of  bare-foot  Augustins,  Minorites,  or  Friars  mi- 
nor. There  are  also  canons  regular  of  St.  Au- 
gustine, who  are  clothed,  in  white,  excepting 
their  cope,  which  is  black.  At  Paris  they  are 
known  under  the  denomination  of  religious  of 
Genevieve ;  that  abbey  being  the  chief  of  the 
order.  There  are  also  nuns  and  canonesses,  who 
observe  the  rules  of  St.  Augustine. 

AUGUSTINUS,  a  work  of  Jansenius,  bishop 
of  Ypres,  in  three  volumes,  folio>  printed  at  Lou- 
vain  in  1540;  the  first  whereof  contains  a  disr 
course  against  Pelagianism;  and  the  second, 
treatises  on  reason ;  the  use  of  authority  in  theo- 
logical matters ;  the  state  of  innocence ;  fall  of 
nature  by  sin ;  grace,  &c.  From  these  treatises 
the  five  famous  propositions  of  the  Jansenists 
were  collected. 

AUGUSTOBONA,  a  city  of  the  Tricasses,  in 
ancient  Gaul,  from  whom  it  was  afterwards  called 
Tricasses,  and  Trecasste;  and  still  farther  cor- 
rupted to  Thracae,  or  T^;  whence  its  modem 
name  Troves. 

AUGUSTOBRIGA^  an  ancient  town  of 
Spain,  now  called  Medina  Celi. 

AUGUSTODUNUM,  the  capital  of  the  SAul, 
where  there  was  a  fiimous  academy  for  the  edu- 
cation of  youth ;  now  called  Autun. 

AUOUSTOMAGUS,  an  ancient  town  of  Gal- 
lia Belgica,  now  called  Senlis,  in  the  Isle  of 
France.    Long.  2**  40'  E,  lat.  49®  12'  N. 

AUGUSTONIMETUM,  a  town  of  ancient 
Gaul,  now  Nevers. 

AUGUSTORrrUM,  according  to  some  au- 


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Ihon  the  capilal  of  the  Pictones,  afterwards  called 
PictaTi;  now  Poictiers.  But  by  Antonine's 
lunerary  from  Burdigala  to  Argantomagus  (or 
AxY^ton,  as  it  is  interpreted  by  many),  it  can  be 
no  odier  but  the  capital  of  the  Lemovices,  now 
Limo^est,  situated  between  Vesunna  or  Petro- 
corii,  or  Perigueux,  and  Argantomagus.  Long. 
1^  22^  E.  lat.  45**  52'  N. 

AUGUSTALIA,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  festi- 
val on  which  games  (Augustales  ludi)  were  oele^ 
bratedy  in  Rome,  annuidly,  on  the  day  of  the 
return  of  Augustus  Cssar,  at  the  conclusion 
of  his  wars.  It  was  instituted  ann.  U.  C.  735, 
and  kept  on  the  IVth.  ides  (12th)  of  October. 
After  his  decease,  the  tribunes  of  the  people 
asked  permission  to  celebrate  the  festival  at  their 
own  private  expense. 

AUGUSTALES  Sodales,  priests  institu- 
ted by  Tiberius  after  the  apotheosis  of  Augustus 
Caesar,  to  perform  the  service  of  the  new  god. 
One  and  twenty  of  the  noblest  Romans  were 
chosen  by  lot  to  this  office ;  and  among  the  first 
members  were  Tiberius  himself,  Drusus,  Clau- 
dius, and  <jrermanicu3. 

AUGUSTOWO,  or  Augustow,  a  town  in  the 
department  of  Lomza,  Poland.  It  contains  2000 
mhabitants,  and  has  a  staple  for  salt,  fiffy-4ix 
miles  north-west  of  Rielsk. 

AUGUSTULUS,  otherwise  called  Flavins  Ro- 
mulus Augustus,  was  the  son  of  Orestes,  and  the 
last  Roman  emperor.  Being  subdued  by  Odo- 
acer,  the  king  of  the  Heruli,  be  abdicated  the 
throne,  in  475,  and  tlras  put 
an  end  to  the  western  empire, 
after  it  had  subsisted  522 
years  from  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia.  This  prince  is  repre- 
sented on  some  medals,  as  in 
the  annexed  figure;  inscrif>- 
tion,  D.  N.  ROMULUS  AU- 
GUSTULUS. P.  F.  AUG. 

AUGUSTUS,  an  appellation  conferred  upon 
Caesar  Octavianus.  See  Octaviakvs,  and  Rome. 
The  obscure  name  of  Octavianus,  Mr.  Gibbon 
observes,  he  derived  from  a  mean  family  in  Ari- 
cia.  It  was  stained  with  the  blood  of  the  pro- 
scription; and  he  was  desirous,  had  it  been 
possible,  to  erase  all  memory  of  bis  former  life. 
The  illustrious  surname  of  Caesar  he  had  assumed 
as  the  adopted  son  of  the  dictator ;  but  he  had 
too  much  sense  either  to  hope  to  be  confounded, 
or  to  be  compared  with  that  extraordinary  man. 
It  was  proposed  in  the  senate,  to  dignify  their 
minister  with  a  new  appellation;  and  after  a 
very  serious  discussion,  that  of  Augustas  was 
chosen  among  several  others,  as  being  the  most 
expressive  of  the  character  of  peace  and  sanctity 
which  he  uniformly  affected.  Augustus  was 
therefore  a  personal,  Caesar  a  fimiily,  distinction. 
The  former  should  naturally  have  expired  with 
the  prince  on  whom  it  was  bestowed ;  and  how- 
ever the  latter  was  diffused  by  adoption  and 
female  alliance,  Nero  was  the  last  who  could 
allege  any  hereditary  claim  to  the  honors  of 
the  Julian  line.  But  at  his  death,  the  practice 
of  a  century  had  inseparably  connected'  those 
appellatioBS  with  the  imperial  dignity,  and  they 
iiave  been  preserved  by  a  long  succession  of 
emperors,  Romans,  Greeks,  Franks,  and  Ger- 


mans, from  the  fell  of  the  republic  to  the  present 
time.  A  distinction  was,  however,  soon  intro- 
duced. The  sacred  title  of  Augustus  was  always 
reserved  for  the  monarch;  the  name  of  Caesar 
was  more  freely  communicated  to  his  relations ; 
and  from  the  reign  of  Adrian,  at  least,  was  appro- 
priated to  the  second  person  in  the  state,  who 
was  considered  as  the  presumptive  heir  of  the 
empire. 

Augustus  Fort,  a  small  fortress  of  Scotland, 
in  Invemesshire,  at  the  head  of  Lochness,  be- 
tween the  rivers  Taarf  and  Oich.  The  name  of 
this  fort  in  Erse  is  KHlchuimin,  or  the  burial 
place  of  the  Cummins.  It  lies  on  the  road  to 
the  Isle  of  Sky. 

AU-CUY-L'AN-NEUF,  or  Auguillanneuf. 
See  MisLETo. 

AVIA.    See  Aquila. 

AVIARY.  Lat.  avii,  a  bird.  A  place  where 
birds  are  kept. 

In  etoioriet  of  ffire,  to  keep  birds  of  all  sorts,  the 
Italians  bestow  vast  expence ;  including  great  scope 
of  ground,  variety  of  bunhes,  trees  of  good  height, 
running  waters,  and  sometimes  a  stove  annexed,  to 
oontemper  the  air  in  the  winter.  Wotton's  An^techtn. 

Look  now  to  your  awnnf ;  lor  now  the  birds  grow 
sick  of  their  feathexs.  .&«^'«  Kalatdar. 

AviAKY  is  now  used  for  any  place  in  which 
birds  are  kept,  but  more  particularly  where  the 
beauty  of  their  plumage  or  the  sweetness  of  theit 
song  has  been  the  cause  of  their  coniinemenL 
Lsnius  Strabo,  an  opulent  and  luxurious  Roman, 
was  the  first  who  introduced  aviaries  upon  an 
extensive  scale,  and  erected  a  splendid  one  athisi 
villa  near  Brundusium.  Varro,  however,  out- 
shone all  in  his  ornithological  buildings,  and 
elegant  and  spacious  aviary,  at  his  country  house 
near  Casinum.  With  evident  satisfaction,  bo 
relates,  that  in  his  days  there  were  two  sorts  of 
aviaries,  one  for  containing  birds  intended  for 
the  table,  and  the  other  the  birds  which  wen» 
kept  for  their  song  or  plumage.  The  former 
sort  were  built  entirely  for  use,  but  the  latter 
were  often  beautiful  pavilions,  with  an  apartment 
or  saloon  in  the  centre,  for  the  company  to  sit  in 
and  enjoy  the  melody  of  the  feathered  songsters. 
Aviaries  nave  never,  in  modem  times,  equalled 
the  splendor  and  extent  of  those  of  the  Romans; 
yet  the  aviary  at  Wobum  Abbey,  the  seat  of  the 
Duke  of  Bedford,  is  of  great  extent  and  value ;  and 
Malmaison,  one  of  the  palaces  of  the  late  Em- 
peror Napoleon,  contains  an  aviary  at  once  large, 
elegant,  and  well  stocked  with  birds  from  all 
quaners  of  the  globe. 

AVICENA,  AvicENES,  or  Avicekna,  the 
prince  of  Arabian  philosophers  and  physicians, 
was  bom  at  Assena,  a  village  near  Bokhara. 
^Uis  father  was  a  Persian,  and  had  married  at 
Bokhara.  The  first  years  of  Avicenna  were  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  the  Koran  and  the  Belles 
Lettres.  His  progress  was  so  rapid,  that  <when 
he  was  but  ten  years  old,  he  was  perfectly  ac- 
quainted with  the  most  hidden  senses  of  the 
Koran.  Abu-Abdoullah  at  that  time  professed 
philosophy  at  Bokhara  with  great  reputation. 
Avicenna  studied  logic  under  him ;  but,  disgusted 
with  the  slow  manner  of  the  schools,  he  set  about 
studying  alone,  and  read  all  the  authors  thAt 
had  written  on  philosophy,  without  any  othei 


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help  than  that  of  the  commentators.  After  read- 
ing the  first  six  propositions  of  Euclid,  he  pro- 
ceeded alone  to  the  last,  having  made  himself 
perfect  master  of  them,  and  treasured  up  all  of 
them  equally  in  his  memory.  *  Endued  with  an 
extreme  avidity  for  all  the  sciences,  he  did  not 
neglect  the  study  of  medicine.  Persuaded  that 
this  divine  art  consists  as  much  in  practice  as 
in  theory,  he  sought  all  opportunities  of  seeing 
the  sick ;  and  afterwards  confessed  that  he  had 
learned  more  from  experience  than  from  all  the 
books  he  had  read.  He  was  now  in  his  six- 
teenth year,  and  was  already  celebrated  as  the 
light  of  his  age.  He  resolved  at  thu  age  to  re- 
sume his  philosophical  studies,  which  medicine 
had  made  him  neglect ;  and  he  spent  a  year  and 
a  half  without  ever  sleeping  a  whole  night 
together.  If  he  felt  himself  oppressed  by  sleep, 
or  exhausted  by  study,  a  glass  of  wine  refreshed 
his  wasted  spirits,  and  gave  him  new  vigor.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-one  he  conceived  the  bold  de- 
sign of  incorporating,  in  one  work,  all  the  ob- 
jects of  human  knowledge ;  and  carried  it  into 
execution  in  an  Encyclopaedia  of  twenty  volumes, 
to  wliich  he  gave  the  title  of  the  Utility  of  Utili- 
ties ;  an  immense  labor  for  one  man  at  such  a 
period.  Several  great  princes  had  been  taken 
dangerously  ill,  and  Avicena  was  the  only  one 
that  knew  their  ailments  and  cured  them.  His 
reputation  increased  daily,  and  all  the  kings  of 
Asia  desired  to  retain  him  as  tlieir  physician. 
Mahmud,  the  ftrst  sultan  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Samanides,  was  then  the  most  powerful  pnnce  of 
the  east.  Imagining  that  an  mmlicit  obedience 
should  be  paid  by  all  manner  ot  persons  to  the 
injunctions  of  his  will,  he  wrote  a  naughty  letter 
to  Mamun  sultan  of  Kharazm,  ordering  him  to 
send  Avicena  to  him,  who  was  at  his  court, 
with  several  other  learned  men.  Philosophy,  the 
friend  of  liberty  and  independence,  looks  down 
with  scorn  on  the  shackles  of  tyranny.'  Avicena, 
accustomed  to  the  most  flattering  distinctions 
among  the  great,  could  not  endure  the  imperious 
manner  of  Mahmud's  inviting  him  to  his  court, 
and  refused  to  go.  But  the  sultan  of  Kharazm, 
who  dreaded  his  resentment,  obliged  the  philoso- 
pher to  depart,  with  others,  whom  that  pnnce  had 
demanded  to  be  ^nt  to  him.  Avicena  pretended 
to  obey;  but,  instead  of  repairing  to  oazna,  he 
took  the  rout  of  Georgian.  Mahmud,  who  had 
gloried  in  the  thoughts  of  keeping  him  at  his' 
palace,  was  greatly  irritated  at  his  flight*  He 
despatched  portraiu,  done  in  crayons,  of  this 
philosopher  to  all  the  princes  of  Asia,  with 
orders  to  have  him  conducted  to  Gazna,  if  he 
appeared  in  their  courts.  But  Avicena  had 
fortunately  escaped  the  most  diligent  search  ad^er 
him.  He  arrived  in  the  capital  of  Georgian, 
where,  under  a  disguised  name^  he  performed 
many  admirable  cures.  Cabous  then  reigned  in 
that  country.  A  nephew  whom  he  was  extremely 
fond  of,  having  fallen  sick,  the  most  able  phy- 
sicians were  called,  and  none  of  them  were  able 
to  know  his  ailment,  or  -give  him  any  ease.  Avi- 
cena was  at  last  consulted.  So  soon  as  he  had 
felt  the  young  prince's  pulse,  he  was  confident 
that  his  illness  proceeded  from  a  passion  which 
he  durst  not  avow.  Avicena  commanded  the 
pereoQ  who  had  the  care  of  the  difierent  apart- 


ments of  the  palace  to  name  them  all  in  their 
.respective  order.    A  more  lively. motion  in  the 
prince's  pulse,  at  hearing  one  of  these  apart- 
ments mentioned,  betrayed  a  part  of  his  secret 
Avicena  then  ordered  the  keeper  to  name  all  the 
female  slaves  that  inhabited  that  apartment    At 
the  name  of  one  of  these  beauties  the  young 
Cabous  coruld  not  contain  himself;  an  extraoN 
dinary  vehemence  of  his  pulse  is  said  to  have 
completed  the  discovery  of  what  he  in  vain  d^ 
sirea  to  conceal.    Avicena,  now  fully  assured 
that  this  slave  was  the  cause  of  the  prince's  ill- 
ness, declared  that  she  alone  had  the  power  to 
cure  him.    The  sultan's  consent  was  necessary, 
and  he  of  course  was  curious  to  converse  with 
his  nephew's  phjrsician ;  but  had  scarce  seen  him, 
when  he  knew  in  his  features  those  of  the  por- 
trait sent  him  by  Mahmud:  still  Cabous,  far 
from  forcing  Avicena  to  repair  to  Gazna,  re- 
tained him  for  some  time,  and  heaped  honors 
and  presents  on  him.    The  philosopher  passed 
afterwards  into  the  court  of  Nedjmedaevle,  sultan 
of  the  race  of  the  Bouides.    Being  appointed  first 
physician  to  that  prince,  he  found  means  to  gain 
nis  confidence  to  so  great  a  degree  that  he  raised 
him  to  the  post  of  grand  vizier.    This  dignity, 
however,  he  did  not  long  enjoy.    Too  great  an 
attachment  to  pleasure  made  him  lose  at  once 
his  post  and  his  master's  favor.    From  that  time 
Avicena  felt  all  the  rigors  of  adversity,  which 
he  had  thus  brought  upon  himself.    He  wandered 
about  as  a  fugitive,  and  was  of^n  obliged  to 
shift  the  place  of  his  habitation  to  secure  his  life 
from  danger.    He  died  at  Hamadan,  aged  fif^- 
eight,  A.D.  1036,  and  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira 
428.    No  one  composed  with  greater  facility 
than  Avicena.    He  is  said  to  have  written  fif^ 
pages  a-day  without  fiitigue.    Until  the  twelfu 
centuiy  he  was  preferred  for  philosophy  and 
medicine  to  all  his  predecessors.'    His  works 
were  the  only  writings  m  vogue,  even  in  Europe. 
The  following  are  their  titles :  1.  Of  the  Utility 
and  Advantage  of  Science,  20  .books.     3.  Of 
Innocence  and    Criminality,    S  booka.     3.  Of 
Health    and    Remedies,    18    books.      4.    On 
the  means  of  preserving  Health,  3  books.     5. 
Canons  of  Physic,  14  tbooks.    6.  On  Astro- 
nomical Observations,  1  book.    7.  On   Mathe- 
matical Sciences.    8.  Of  Theorems,  or  Mathe- 
matical and  Theological  Demonstrations,  1  book. 
9.  On  the  Arabic  Language,  and  its  Proprieties, 
10  books.    10.  On  the  Last  Judgment.     11.  On 
the  Origin  of  the  Soul,  and  the  Resurrection  of 
Bodies.    12.  Of  the  end  we  should  propose  to^ 
ourselves  in  Harangues  and  Philosophical  Argu^ 
mentations.     13.   Demonstration  of    collateral 
Lines  in  the  Sphere.    14.  Abridgment  of  Euclid. 
15.  On  Finity  and  Infinity.     16.  On   Physics 
and  Metaphysics.    17.  On  Animals  and  Vege- 
tables, &c.    18.  Encyclopedia,  20  Tolnmes. 

AVICENNL^  or  Avicenia,  eastern  ana- 
cardium,  a  genus  of  the  angiospermia  order,  and 
didynamia  class  of  plants  ,*  ranking  in  the  natural 
method  under  the  fortieth  order,  personatae.  The 
calyx  is  quinquepartite ;  the  corolla  is  bilabiatcd, 
the  upper  lip  squared ;  the  capsule  is  leathery, 
romb-like,  and  monotpermous.  There  aie  two 
species,  viz.  1.  A.  nitida,  the  shining,  ea*tem 
aaacardium;  and,  2.  A.  tomentosa,  the  downy 


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anaoardium.  The  seeds  are  said  to  be  the  Mar 
lacca  beans  formerly  kept  in  ihe  shops,  the  ker- 
nels of  which  were  eaten  as  aUnonds.  Others 
say  that  the  plant  producing  the  Malacca  bean 
is  rather  the  bontia  germinans. 

AVICH,  Loch,  anciently  called*  Loch-laina, 
a  lake  of  {Scotland,  in  the  parish  of  Dalayich,  in 
Argyllshire.  Mr.  Campbell,  in  his  Statistical 
Report,  says  it  is  '  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  of 
a  regular  triangular  form,  about  eight  miles  in 
circumference,  rull  of  trouts ;  haying  a  castle  and 
several  islands,  the  resort  of  gulls,  cranes,  water 
eagles,  and  wild  ducks.  Near  thid  lake  lay  the 
scene  of  an  ancient  Celtic  poem,  called  Cathluina, 
or  the  conflict  of  Luina;  and  in  the  lake  is  an 
island,  the  scene  of  another  poem,  called  Laoi 
Fraoich,  or  the  death  of  Fraoch.  Many  places/ 
he  adds, '  in  this  neighbourhood  are  still  oenomi- 
nated  from  Ossian's  heroes.' 

AvicH,  a  river  rising  from  the  above-men- 
tioned lake,  and  running  through  a  wood,  and 
part  of  the  parish  of  Dalavlch,  to  wliich  it  gives 
names,  and  at  last  &lls  into  Lochow. 

AVimXY,    >     Lat  amdus:  from  aveoy  I 

Avid'iously.  )  desire  earnestly.  Covetous- 
ness,  greediness,  insatiable  appetite. 

For  nothing  it  more  aiijfdjfimtlsf  to  be  desired,  than 
is  the  tweet  peace  of  God. 

Baie'i  Image  of  both  Chmehet,  pext  i. 
Vo  writings  wojild  have  been  received  with  tueh 
mridiiy  and  letpect  at  theee. 

PdUift  Emdenoet, 

AVIENUS,  Rufus  Festus,  a  Latin  poet  of  the 
fourth  century.  He  translated  the  Pnsnomena 
of  Aratus,  the  description  of  the  earth  by  Diony- 
sius,  .£sop's  Fables,  &c.  An  edition  of  his 
works  was  printed  at  Paris  in  1590,  and  again 
in  1731, 

AVIGATO  Peab.    See  Laurus. 

AVIGLL^NO,  a  small  town  of  Piedmont  in 
Italy,  seven  miles  west  of  Turin. 

AVIGNON,  a  city  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Vaucluse,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone, 
168  leagues  from  Paris.  Before  the  revolution 
't  was  subject  to  the  Pope ;  and  the  residence  of 
several  of  them  in  it  had  rendered  it  considerable. 
This  occasioned  many  of  the.  natives  to  be  ene- 
mies to  the  new  government;  especially  after  the 
Convention  had  abolished  the  establishment  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in  France ;  and  was 
the  cause  6f  much  bloodshed.  It  is  now,  however, 
completely  annexed  to  France.  Near  the  Rhone 
there  is  a  large  rock,  within  the  circumference  of 
the  walls,  upon  which  is  a  platform,  whence  may 
he  had  a  prospect  of  the  whole  city  and  its  en- 
virons. Its  circumference  is  somewhat  more 
than  three  miles.  Its  manufactories  are  silks, 
saltpetre,  oil  of  vitriol,  and  aqua-fortis.  Its  pro- 
ducts, wine,  brandy,  almonds,  olives,  oil,  sa£lron, 
truffles,  corn,  and  wool ;  and  it  contains  a  well- 
regulated  lunatic  asylum,  and  an  hospital  of  in- 
valid soldiers  which  lodges  1 500' in-pensioners. 
Before  the  French  revolution  its  population 
exceeded  30,000 ;  but  in  the  latest  census  they 
are  23^311.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  whose 
diocese  contains  the  departments  of  Vaucluse 
and  the  Card ;  and,  in  1603,  an  university,  or 
Lyceum,  was  established  here. 


Avignon  was  ceded  by  Philip  III.  of  France 
to  the  see  of  Rome  in  1273.  On  the  decease  of 
Benedict  XI.  the  papal  court  was  transferred 
herb;  and  the  six  successive  pontics,  Clement 
V.  John  XXII.  Benedict  XII.  Clement  VI. 
Innocent  VI.  and  Urban  V.  made  it  their  only 
abode.  The  entreaties  of  Petrarch  were  often 
addressed  to  the  four  last.  lie  was  well  ac- 
quainted with  Avignon,  which  had  been  the 
residence  of  his  father ;  and  the  celebrated  foun- 
tain of  Vaucluse,  but  a  short  distance  from  its 
walls,  has  been  immortalised  by  the  complaints 
of  his  unretumed  love.  The  tomb  of  Laura  is 
still  shown  in  the  church  of  the  Cordeliers ;  and 
her  husband,  Hugh  de  Sade,  sleeps  there  by  her 
side.  He  speaks  of  it  as  the  sink  of  vice  and 
COrraptiOQy  as  an  object  of  universal  hatred  and 
contempt,  as  barbarous^  and  as  the  mystic  Baby- 
lon. Yet  for  seventy  years,  from  1309,  it  con- 
tinued to  be  the  seat  of  the  holy  see ;  and  after 
the  death  of  Gregory  XI.  who  returned  once 
more  to  the  Vatican,  6n  the  commencement  of 
the  great  schism  of  the  west,  during  forty  vears 
more,  the  two  rival  pontiffs  of  the  day  thundered 
their  respective  excommunications  against  each 
other  from  the  banks  of  the  Rhone  and  of  the 
Tiber.  The  election  of  Martin  V.  terminated  the 
distraction,  and  Rome  once  again  became  the 
single  metropolis  of  the  papacy.  During  its 
subjection  to  the  papal  see,  Avignon  was  several 
times  seized  by  France :  once  in  1662,  when  the 
French  amba^ador  at  Rome  had  been  insulted 
by  the  Corsican  guards;  again  in  1688;  and 
again  in  1733,  on  account  of  the  loss  occasioned 
to  the  French  revenue  by  smuggling.  Another 
instance  of  seizure  happened  iA  1768,  when  pope 
Clement  XIII.  threatened  to  excommunicate  tne 
duke  of  Parma,  and  took  the  Jesuits  under  his 
protection  ;  it  was  not  given  back  till  1774,  by 
which  time  the  papal  chair  had  changed  its  oc- 
cupant. The  Count  de  Grignan,  the  husband  of 
Madame  de  Sevign^*s  daughter,  held  it  as  vice- 
roy for  two  years,  and  many  of  Madame  de 
Sevign^*s  letters  are  addressed  to  Avignon. 

Avignon  Berrt,  the  fruit  of  a  species  of  ly- 
ceum,  which  grows  plentifully  near  Avignop 
and  in  other  parts  of  Fiance.  The  berry  is  some- 
what less  than  a  pea;  its  color  is  green,  ap- 
proaching towards  a  yellow;  and  it  is  of  an 
astringent  and  bitter  taste.  It  is  much  used  by 
the  dyers,  who  stain  a  yellow  color  with  it; 
and  by  the  painters,  who  also  make  a  fine  golden 
yel^w  of  it. 

^ILA,  a  city  of  Spain  in  Old  Castile,  seated 
on  an  eminence  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Adaja, 
and  in'  sight  of  the  mountains  of  Pico.  It  is 
fortified  both  by  nature  and  art,  having  had  a 
wall  9075  feet  in  circumference,  adorned  with 
lofty  towers  and  handsome  gates.  The  houses 
are  generally  good  and  stately.  It  Jias  an  uni- 
veraity,  and  a  considerable  bi^opric;  besides  a 
cathedral,  which  has  eight  dignitaries  and  forty 
canons  and  minor  canons.  It  stands  in  the  mid- 
dle of  a  large«plain,  surrounded  with  mountains, 
and  covert  with  fruit-trees  and  vineyards. 
There  is  likewise  a  manufacture  of  cloth. 

.  AviLA,  or  AviLES,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  A«- 
turias,on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  eight  miles  south  of 
Cape  de  Pinas,  and  twenty-five  north  of  Oviedo. 


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ArtLA  (Gil^  Conzales,).a  Spanish  historian. 
fie  went  to  Rome  for  his  education,  and  when 
he  returned  to  his  own  country  obtained  a  rich 
benefice,  and  was  appointed  historiographer  to  the 
king.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on  the  Antiquities  of 
Salamanca,  also  the  Theatre  of  the  Churches  of 
India,  and  other  works.    He  died  in  1658. 

AVILA  (Louis  d'),  a  Spanish  gentleman  sent 
by  Charles  theFiiUi,  as  ambassador  to  the  popes 
Paul  IV.  and  Pius  V.  and  was  afterwards  a  con^ 
mander  at  the  siege  of  Metz.  He  wrote  histori- 
cal memoirs  of  the  wars  of  Charies  V.  against  the 
Protesunts  of  Germany,  entitled  <  Los  Commen- 
taries de  la  Guerra  del  Emparador  Carlos  V. 
contra  los  Protestantes  de  Alemania;'  first  print- 
ed in  1546,  and  afterwards  translated  into 
French  and  Latin.  He  also  wrote  Memoirs  of 
the  War  in  AfirioB. 

AUJILAH,  an  oasis,  in  the  great  Sahr&,  or 
Lybian  desert,  in  lat.  29*"  30'  N.  and  long.  22'' 
do'  £.  through  which  Mr.  Homemaim  passed  in 
1798.  He  says,  there  are  three  towns  in  the 
territory  of  Aujilah,  the  capital  of  that  name, 
Mojabrah,  and  Meledilak;  the  latter  are  near 
each  other,  and  both  about  four  hours  distant 
from  Aujilah.  That  city  is  about  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference; ill  built,  though  of  stone,  dirty,  and 
wretched.  Mojabrah,  is  smaller  but  more  popu- 
lous; its  inhabitants  are  principally  engaged  in 
commerce,  as  those  of  Meledilah  are  in  agricul- 
ture. The  women  are  skilful  weavers,  and  ex- 
port their  cloths  to  Fezzin.  The  soil  round  the 
town  is  sandy,  but  fertile  when  well  watered. 
It  is  subject  to  Tripoli,  and  the  Bey  of  Ben- 
ghazi was  resident  there  during  his  visit. 

AVILER  (Augustine  Charles  d'),  a  French 
architect,  bom  in  1653.  He  was  taken  by  the 
Algeiines  in  his  passage  to  Rome,  and  carried  to 
Tunis,  where  he  designed  a  grand  mosque, 
which  is  much  admired.  He  was  liberated 
after  two  years,  and  settled  at  Montpelier,  where 
be  died,  in  1700.  He  wrote  a  Course  of  Archi- 
tecture, in  4  vols.  4to. 

A VIO,  a  town  of  Germanv  in  the  bishopric  of 
Trent,  a  litUe  west  of  the  Adige. 

AVIS,  a  river  of  Portugal,  in  Alentejo. 

Avis,  or  Aviz,  a  small  town  of  Portugal,  in 
Alentejo,  seated  on  an  eminence  with  a  castle 
near  the  ri?er. 

Avis,  Knights  of,  an  order  of  knighthood  in 
Portugal,  established  about  A.  D.  1 162.  When 
Evora  was  taken  from  the  Moors,  in  the  reign  of 
Alphonso  I.  king  of  Portugal,  it  was  garrisoned 
by  several  persons  who  assumed  the  titl^  of 
knights  of  St.  Mary  of  Evora,  which  was  soon 
after  changed  for  that  of  knights  of  Avis,  which 
town  the  king  gave  them,  and  whither  they 
removed  from  Avora.  The  badge  of  the  order  is 
a  green  cross  flory,  and  they  observe  the  rule  of 
St.  Benedict. 

Avis  LoifOA,  a  name  given  by  Nieremberg  to 
the  hoitlattotl  of  the  Americans,  a  bird  remark- 
able for  the  swiftness  of  its  running. 

Avis  Nivsa,  a  name  under  whicii  Nidremberg 
has  described  an  American  bird,  of  the  size  of  a 
thrush,  brown  and  black  on  tiie  back,  and  yel- 
low under  the  belly ;  it  imitates  the  human  voice, 
and  is  called  by  the  natives,  oeoan. 

Avis  pEvniruLCRA,  the  name  of  an  Ameri- 


can bird,  described  bv  Nieiemberg,  and  caUed 
by  the  Indians  quetzaltototl.  It  is  of  the  six 
of  a  pigeon,  and  is  of  more  beautiiiil  colore 
than  the  peacock.  There  are,  besides  this  spe- 
cies, three  or  four  others.  Mr.  Ray  has,  how- 
ever, ranged  all  these  under  the  number  of  birds^ 
the  account  of  which  he  is  either  dubious  about, 
or  suspicious  of  the  truth  of. 

Avis  Tropicorum,  the  Tropic  bird,  a  bird  of 
the  size  of  the  common  duck,  found  only  about 
the  tropics. 

Avis  VsKTi,  the  bird  of  the  wind.  See 
Heatototi.. 

AVISANDUM,  in  SeoU  law,  literally  advis- 
ing, or  under  consideration.    A  process  is  said 
to  be  under  avisandum,  when  the  whole  proofi^ 
with  the  arguments  on  both  sides,  are  uncler  the 
consideration  of  the  judge,  before  he  has  given  an 
interlocutor  or  decision  upon  the  cause4 
AVIS'JLON.    Used  for  Vision. 
The  kinge  of  this  wutUm, 
Hath  great  imaginadoo* 
Wliat  thinge  it  signifie  maie. 

Giwer,  Cm.  A.  bookviii.  p.  264. 
AVISO,  adviso,  Italian;  a  term  chiefly  used 
in  matters  of  commerce  to  denote  an  advertise- 
ment, an  advice,  or  piece  of  intelligence. 
'  AVISON  (Charles),  an  English  nrastdan  of 
Newcastle,  where  he  practised  the  whole  of  his 
life.  In  1752  he  published  an  Essay  on  Musi- 
cal Expression,  which  was  &vorably  received, 
and  reached  a  second  edition  in  1763,  when  it 
produced  published  remarks  from  Dr.  Hayes, 
professor  of  music  at  Oxford.  Afison  quickly 
retorted,  and  his  reply  is  appended  to  the  third 
edition  of  the  original  essav.  He  died  at  New- 
castle in  1770,  and  left  nve  concertos  ibr  the 
violin,  and  other  compositions,  which  are  esteemed 
light  and  elegant 

AVITES,  a  tribe  of  Samaritans,  who  came 
from  Avab,  in  Chaldea,  and  were  settled  by 
Sennacherib  in  Samaria.  They  worshipped  the 
idols  Nibbaz  and  Tartak.  2  Kings  xvii.  24 — 31. 

AVITUS,  one  of  the  emperors  of  Rome,  in 
the  last  stage  of  its  declension.  He  succeeded 
Maximus,  A.  D.  455,  and  reiened  only  one 
year,  being  cut  off  and  succeeded  by  Majorians, 
A.  D.  456. 
AVrZE.    See  Advise. 

Vo  power  he  had  to  ftir,  nor  -will  to  me ; 
That  when  the  earefnl  knight  'gan  well  tnine. 
He  lightly  left  the  foe.  Faerie  Qmeeme. 

As  they  'gaa  hia  library  to  view. 
And  antique  regiateis  for  to  aeiw. 
With  that,  the  huabaadman  'gan  him 
That  it  for  Idni  was  fittest  exercise. 

But  him  mnMuig,  he  that  dreadfdl  deed 
Forbore,  and  rather  chose,  with  scornful 
Him  to  avenge. 

AUK,  in  ornithology,  See  Alca. 

AUKLAND,  Bishops.    See  Auckland. 

AUI^  is  used  for  a  court  baron,  by  Spel- 
man ;  by  some  old  ecclesiastical  writers,  for  the 
nave  of  a  church,  and  sometimes  for  a  court- 
yard. 

Aula  Regia,  or  Aula  aficis*  a  court  establish- 
ed by  William  the  Conqueror  in  his  own  hall,  com- 
posed of  the  king's  great  officers  of  state,  who 
resided  in  his  palace^  and  were  usually  attendant 


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OD  bis  person.  This  ooart  was  regnUted  by  the 
article  which  forms  the  elevenfii  chapter  of 
Magna  Charta,  and  established  in  Westminster- 
hall,  where  it  hath  e^er  since  contmued.  See 
King's  Bench. 

AULD  WIFE'S  LIFT,  an  ancient  structure, 
in  the  parish  of  Baldemock,  Dumbartonshire, 
about  a  mile  from  the  church;  supposed  to  be  a 
relict  of  ancient  druidism^  and  from  its  name 
to  have  been  the  woiic  of  Druidesses.  The 
uppermost  stone  is  eighteen  feet  long,  eleven 
broad,  and  six  deep. 

AULEN,  an  ancient  imperial  city  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  circl«  of  Snabia,  thirty  miles  north 
of  Ulm. 

AULETES,  avhiTtc,  in  antiquity,  a  flute- 
player.  One  of  the  Ptolemies  of  llgypt,  bore 
the  surname  of  Auletes. 

AULIC,  an  act,  in  the  Sorbonne  and  foreign 
univereities,  which  a  young  divine  maintains 
upon  being  admitted  a  doctor  in  divinity.  It 
begins  by  an  harangue  of  the  chancellor,  addres- 
sed to  the  young  doctor;  after  which  he  receives 
the  cap,  and  presides  at  the  aulic  or  disputations. 

AuLic,  an  epithet  given  to  ce;ain  officers  of 
the  empire,  who  compose  a  court  which  decides, 
without  appeal,  in  aU  processes  entered  in  it. 
The  Aulic  council  is  a  jurisdiction  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  established  by  Maximilian  I.  in 
1502,  to  counterbalance  the  authority  of  the  Im- 

Smal  Chamber.  It  is  called  Aulic,  because  it 
Hows  the  emperor's  court  aula.  The  emperor 
names  all  the  members,  consisting  of  a  president, 
vice-president,  and  an  unlimited  number  of 
counsellors;  six  of  whom  at  least  must  be  Pro- 
testants. All  points  relating  to  feudal  rights  and 
the  reserved  territories  of  the  emperor  in  Italy 
are  arranged  by  diis  council.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent any  collision  with  the  emperor's  will,  it 
sometimes  contents  itself  with  making  a  report  to 
hhn  in  the  form  '  fiat  votum  ad  Cscsarem.' 
Following  the  emperor's  court,  it  is  sometimes 
called  justitiaon  imperatoris,  the  emperor's  jus- 
tice. The  aulic  court  ceases  at  the  death  of  the 
emperor. 

AULIS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  sea-port  town 
of  Bceotia,  over  against  Chalcis  of  £ub<Bay  on 
the  Euripus,  where  that  strait  is  narrowest;  and 
which  were  some  time  joined  by  a  mole  or  cause- 
way; on  a  craggy  situation,  and  a  village  of  the 
Tanagraci,  distant  from  Chalcis  three  miles.  The 
harbour  is  famous  for  the  rendezvous  of  1000 
ships  under  Agameumon,  previous  to  the  Trojan 
expedition.    It  is  now  entirely  destroyed. 

AULIUS  Atticus,  a  captain  of  a  Roman 
cohort  under  Julms  A^gricola,  who  was  killed  in 
a  battle  with  Galgacus,  at  the  foot  of  the  Gram- 
pians. Two  urns  were  dug  up  in  the  parish  of 
hedgorton,  containing  human  ashes;  one  of 
which  Mr.  Moncrieff  supposes  to  have  contained 
those  of  this  officer,  and  ue  other  those  of  Agri- 
cola's  son. 

AULON,  anciently  a  town  and  station  for 
ships,  in  lilyricum,  on  the  Adriatic;  now  called 
Volano,  a  port  town  on  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Po,  on  the  gulf  of  Venice. 

AuLON,  or  AuLONA,  anciently  a  town  of  Elis, 
in  Peloponnesus,  on  the  confines  -of  Messenia. 
Here  stood  a  temple  of  ^culapius^ 


AULONIAS,  an  epithet  of  iBsculapius.    See 
last  article. 

AULOS,  a  Grecian  long  measure,  the  same 
with  stadium. 

AULTGRANDE^  a  river  of  Scotland,  in  the 
parish  of  Kilteam,  m  Rosshire,  which  takes  its 
rise  from  Loch  Glass,  and  after  running  six  miles 
fiills  into  the  sea.     Its  course  for  two  of  these 
miles  is  through  a  deep  chasm  of  an  extensive 
and  mgged  precipice,  called  Craig-grande,  or 
the  ugly  rock;  of  which  the  Rev.  Mr.  Robertson, 
in  his  statistical  account  of  the  parish,  gives  the 
following  description. '  *  This  is  a  deep  chasm 
or  abyss,  formed  by  two  opposite  precipices  that 
rise  perpendicularly  to  a  great  height,  through 
whicti  the  Aultgrande  runs  for  the  space  of  two 
miles.    It  begins  at  the  distance  of  four  miles 
from  the  sea,  by  a  bold  projection  into  the  chan- 
nel of  the  river,  which  it  diminishes  in  breadth 
by  at  least  one  half.    The  river  continues  to  run 
with  rapidity  for  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  - 
when  it  is  confined  by  a  sudden  jutting  out  of 
tlie  rock.    Here,  the  side  view  from  the  summit 
is  veiy  striking.  ^  The  course  of  the  stream  being 
ihvLs  impeded,  it  whirls  and  foams,  and  beats 
with  violence  against  the  opposing  rock,  till, 
collecting  strengft,  it  shoots  up  perpendicularly 
widi  great  fury,  and  forcing  its  way,  darts  with 
the  swiftness  of  an  arrow  through  the  winding 
passage  on  the  other  side.    After  passing  this 
obstruction,  it  becomes  in  many  places  invisible^ 
owing  partly  to  the  increasing  depth  and  narrow- 
ness ot  the  chasm,  and  partly  to  the  view  being 
intercepted  by  the  numerous  branches  of  trees 
which    grow  on   each  side  of  the  precipice. 
About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  ftirther  oown,  the 
country  people  have  thrown  a  slight  bridge, 
composed  of  trunks  of  trees  covered  with  turf, 
over  the  rock,  where  the  chasm  is  about  sixteen 
feet  wide.    Here  the  observer,  if  he  has  intrepi- 
dity enough  lo  venture  himself  on  such  a  totter- 
ing support,  and  can  look  down  ^e  gulph  below 
without  any  uneasy  sensations,  will  be  gratified 
with  a  view  eoually  awfiil  and  astonishing.   The 
wildness  of  the  steep  and  rugged  rocks;  the 
gloomy  horror  of  the  cliffs  and  caverns,  inac- 
cessible by  mortal  tread,  and  where  the  genial 
rays  of  the  sun  never  yet  penetrated;  the  water- 
feMs  which  are  heard  pounng  down  in  different 
parts  of  the  precipice,  with  sounds  various  in 
proportion  to  their  distance;  the  hoarse  and  hol- 
low murmuring  of  the  river,  which  runs  at  the 
depth  of  neariy  130  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
earth ;  fine  groves  of  pines,  which  majestically 
climb  the  sides  of  a  beautiful  eminence,  that 
rises  immediately  from  the  brink  of  the  chasm; 
all  these  objects  cannot  be  contempteted  without 
exciting  emotions  of  wonder  and  admiration  in 
the  mind  of  every  beholder.    The  appearance  of 
this  singular  and  picturesque  scene,  will  naturally 
bring  to  the  recollection  of  the  classical  spec- 
tator those  beautifiil  lines  of  Virgil,  in  which  he 
describes  the  gulph,  through  which  his  Aleclo 
shoots  herself  into  the  infernal  regions  : 
demia  hone  frondibot  atnim 
Urget  atrinqne  latoa  nemorii ,  medioque  tngoma 
Bat  somtom  saxis  et  torto  vortice  torrens 
Hie  tpecns  borrendam,  et  saevi  spiracula  Ditia 
Monstrantar ;  niptoqiw  ingens  Achexonte  vora^ 
PestifcnM  apcrit  faucea.— -« 


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Critics  may  labor  to  convey  the  force  and  mean- 
ing of  the  author's  words ;  and  travellers  may,  by 
their  ingenious  descriptions,  g^ve  us  a  still  more 
lively  idea  of  ^eir  beauty  and  propriety;  but  he 
who  would  see  a  living  commentary  on  thb  noble 
passage,  must  visit  the  rock  of  Aultgrande.* 
AULUS  Gellius.    See  Gellius. 
AUMALE.    See  Albemarle. 
AUME,  a  Dutch  measure  for  Rhenish  wine, 
containing  forty  English  gallons. 
AUMERY.    See  Ambry. 
AUMONE,  in  old  law  style,  alms.— Bfli%. 
AuMONE,  tenure  in,  lands  given  to  a  church  or 
manaste^. 
AUMONIER.    See  Almoner. 
AUNAy  the  ancient  name  of  Emly,  in  Ireland. 
AUNCEL  weight,  an  ancient  kind  of  balance, 
prohibited  by  several  statutes,  on  account  of  the 
many  deceits  practised  by  it.    It  consisted  of 
scales  hanging  on  hooks,  fastened  at  each  end  of 
a  beam,  whicn  a  man  lifted  up  on  his  hand.    In 
many  parts  of  England,  auncel  weight  signifies 
meat  sold  by  the  hand,  without  scales. 
AUNCESTER,  ancestor.— CAoucer. 
AUNE,  a  river  of  Devonshire,  which  runs 
into  the  sea,  east  of  Plymouth. 

AuNE,  a  long  measure  used  in  France  to  mea- 
sure cloths,  stuffs,  ribbons,  &c.  At  Rouen,  it  is 
equal  to  one  English  ell ;  at  Calais,  to  1*52 ;  at 
Lyons,  to  1-061 ;  and  at  Paris,  to  0-95. 

AUNEAU,  or  AuNtiAUx,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Eure  and  Loire,  arrondis- 
aement  of  Chartres,  with  250  houses.  It  has  a 
castle,  and  some  hosierv  manufactures.  Here 
the  duke  of  Guise  defeated,  in  1587,  the  Germans 
who  had  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  Protes- 
tants.   Five  leagues  east  of  Chartres. 

AUNEDONACUM,  the  ancient  name  of 
Fontenay,  in  France. 

AUNGERVILLE  rRichard,)commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  Richard  de  Bury,  was  bom  in 
1281  at  St.  Edmund's  Bury  in  Suffolk,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  university  of  Oxford:  after  which  he 
entered  into  the  order  of  Benedictine  monks, 
and  became  tutor  to  Edward  Prince  of  Wales, 
afterwards  king  Edward  III.  Upon  the  acces- 
sion of  his  royal  pupil  to  the  throne,  he  was  first 
appointed  cofferer,  then  treasurer  of  the  virard- 
robe;  archdeacon  of  Northampton,  prebendary 
of  Lincoln,  Sarum,  and  Litchfield,  keeper  of  the 
privy  seal,  dean  of  Wells,  and  last  of  all  bishop 
of  Durham.  He  likewise  enjoyed  the  ofiices  of 
lord  high  chancellor  and  treasurer  of  England : 
and  discharged  two  important  embassies  at  the 
court  of  France.  Learned  himself,  and  a  jtatron 
of  letters,  he  maintained  a  correspondence  with 
some  of  the  greatest  geniuses  of  the  age,  particu- 
larly with  the  celebrated  Italian  poet  Petrarch. 
He  was  also  of  a  most  humane  and  benevolent 
temper,  and  performed  many  signal  acts  of  cha- 
rity. Every  week  he  maae  eight  quarters  of 
wheat  into  bread,  and  gave  it  to  the  poor.  When- 
ever he  travelled  between  Durham  and  Newcas- 
tle, he  distributed  £8  sterling  in  alms ;  between 
Durham  and  Stockton  £5,  between  Durham  and 
Aukland  five  marks,  and  between  Durham  and 
Middleham  £5.  He  founded  a  public  libraiy  at 
Oxfbrdy  for  the  use  of  the  students,^  which  be  fur- 
nished with  the  best  collection  of  books  then  in 


England;  and  appointed  five  keepers,  to  whom 
he  granted  yearly  salaries.  At  the  dissolution 
of  religious  nouses  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
Durham  college,  where  he  fixed  the  library, 
being  also  dissolved,  some  of  the  books  were 
removed  to  the  public  library,  some  po  Baliol 
college,  and  some  into  the  hands  of  Dr.  George 
Owen,  who  bought  the  college  of  king  Edward 
VI.  Bishop  Aungerville  died  at  his  manor  of 
Aukland,  April  24, 1345,  and  was  buried  in  the 
south  part  of  the  cross  isle  of  the  cadiedral 
church  of  Durham,  to  which  he  had  been  a 
benefactor.  He  wrote,  1.  Philobiblos,  contain- 
ing directions  for  the  management  of  his  library 
at  Oxford,  and  a  great  deafin  praise  of  learning 
in  Latm.  2.  Epistole  Famitiarum;  some  of 
which  are  vmtten  to  the  famous  Petrarch.  3. 
Orationes  ad  Principes;  mentioned  by  Bale 
and  Pitts. 

AUNIS,  or  Aunix,  the  smallest  of  the  ci- 
devant  provinces  in  France.  It  viras  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Poictou,  on  the  west  by  the 
ocean,  and  on  the  east  and  south  by  Saintogne. 
It  is  now  comprehended  in  the  department  of 
Lower  Charente.  It  b  watered  by  the  Seure 
and  the  Charente.  The  coast  has  the  advantage 
of  several  ports,  the  most  remarkable  of  whidi 
are  Rochefort,  Rochelle,  Brouge,  St.  Martin  de 
Re,  Tremblade,  Tonoai,  and  Charente.  The 
soil  is  dry,  yet  produces  good  com  and  plenty 
of  wine.  The  marshes  feed  a  great  number  of 
cattle,  and  the  salt  marshes  yield  the  best  salt  in 
Europe. 

AUNT.  Some  ingenuity  is  necessary  to  de- 
rive tliis  word  'from  the  Fr.  tatUe — *  Lat.  ofnita 
from  avita,  and  this  from  avia  !  In  Todd's  John- 
son it  is  deduced  from  the  Old  Fr.  anUy  from  a 
Celtic  root,  a  father  or  mother's  sister. 

Who  meets  us  here  Y  my  niece  Plantagenet, 
Led  in  the  hand  of  her  lund  amU  of  Glo'ster. 

Shaktpwrt. 

She  went  to  plain  work,  and  to  purling  brooks. 
Old  fashion'd  halU,  doll  ounte,  and  croaking  rooka. 

PiPpe. 

AVOCATORIA,  a  mandate  of  the  emperor 
of  Germany,  addressed  to  some  prince  in  order 
to  stop  proceedings  in  any  cause  appealed  to 
him. 

AVOCH,  or  AuACH,  Gael,  a  ford,  a  parish  in 
Scotland,  Rosshire,  on  the  coast  of  the  Moray 
Frith,  and  extending  about  four  miles  from  south 
to  north,  and  two  and  a  half  from  east  to  west 

AVOID',      -N      Fr.   uttufer,  or  eviter.   IaI. 

Avoid'able,  #  ewto.  The  word  viduusy  in  whole 

Avoid'ance,  V  or  in  part,  is  supposed  to  be  the 

Avoiu'er,     i  etymon.    To  make  void  or  fre^ 

AvoiDLESs.  J  from,  to  leave  empty,  to  go  out 

of,  to  move  away  from^  to  leave,  to  escape.  The 

word  shun  is  usually  applied  to  persons,  and 

avoid  to  things.    *  Avoid  the  room,'   no  loi^r 

means,  as  in  Lord  Bacon's  time,  go  out  of  the 

room,  but  *  go  not  into  the  room.' 

What  have  yon  to  do  here,  fellow  tjmiy  voa. 
MPtei  the  hoose. 


If  any  rebel  ihonld  be  required  of  the  prince  oon- 
federttte,  the  prince  confederate  ihoold  coiuiand 
him  to  iwoid  the  country. 


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That  moiSen  ruin  in  wUch  the  whole  empbe  would 

bemvoWcd.  Dmmi^i  Letttn, 

Want  of  exactnoM  in  aoch  nice  experiments  ii  scarce 

To  take  several  things  for  granted,  is  hardly  ooomI- 
oUe  to  any  one,  whose  task  it  is  to  shew  the  falsehood 
or  improbability  of  any  truth.  I^iie* 

Now  what  things  can  there  be  of  greater  moment 
or  importance  for  men  to  know  or  God  to  reveal,  than 
the  nature  of  God  and  ourselves,  the  state  and  con- 
dition of  our  souls,  the  only  way  to  anoid  eternal 
misery,  and  enjoy  everlasting  bliss.  StiUiiigfleet, 

It  is  appointed  to  give  us  vigour  in  the  pursuit  of 
what  is  good,  or  in  thk  avoidaiiee  of  what  is  hurtful. 

AVOIRDUPOIS,  avoir  du  pois,  French.  A 
kind  of  weighty  of  which  a  pound  contains  six- 
teen ounces,  and  is  in  proportion  to  a  pound 
Troy,  as  seventeen  to  fourteen.  All  the  larger 
and  coarser  commodities  are  weighed  by  avoir- 
dupois weight.  Avoirdupois  ounce  is  less  than 
the  Troy  ounce  in  the  proportion  of  700  to  768 : 
but  the  avoirdupois  pound  is  greater  than  the 
Troy  pound  in  the  proportion  of  700  to  576. 

Avoirdupois  Weight.  For  the  table  of  its 
divisions,  see  Arithmetic 


AVCKE,  -^  Lat.,  oooctf,  avocatum,  I  < 
Avo'cATE,  >from  a,  and  voeo.  Evoke  is 
Avoca'tion.  j  used  instead  of  the  verb.   . 


AVCKE,     -)     Lat., oooctf,  avoc^um,  I  call; 

^18  now 
Avo- 
cations are  those  engagements  which  call  off  out 
time  and  attention  nrom  other  things. . 

We  have  written  to  yo\u  grace  in  our  common 
letter,  for  a  oonfirma.tion  of  many  inconveniences  and 
dangers  which  we  persuaded  to  bis  Holiness,  to  follow 
both  to  himself  and  to  the  see  apostolick,  in  case  his 
Holiness  should  aoobe  the  cause. 

Bmntft  Re^rm  Reeordt,  vol.  i. 

For  what  is  a  scholar,  but  one  who  retireth  hia 
person,  and  mtoeoMh  his  mind,  from  other  occupations 
and  worldly  entertainments.  Borrpco's  8ennon», 

Sorrow  ought  not  to  be  suiEered  to  increase  by  in- 
dulgence, but  must  give  way  after  a  stated  time  to 
social  duties  and  the  common  ooocoltoni  of  life. 

Johnson. 

'Whoni  could  I  select  with  such  perfect  propriety  as 
yourself,  who,  like  the  younger  Scipio,  can  so  usefully 
mingle  the  aooeaHotu  of  business  with  elegant  litera- 
ture? Dr.  Stuaret  DeHeation  of  SnOutl. 

AVOLATION.  Lat.  ovo/a^  (a  vo^),  a  fly- 
ing away  from. 

These  airy  vegetables  are  made  by  the  relicks  of 
plantal  emissives,  whose  anoUsHon  i)as  prevented  by 
the  condensed  enclosure.  OUmoUie*s  Soepm, 

Strangers,  or  the  fungous  parcels  about  candles, 
only  signify  a  pluvious  air,  hindering  the  aeoSatiom  of 
the  favfllons  partides.  Broum't  Vvlgar  Emun. 

AVON,  the  name  of  four  rivers  in  England ; 
viz.  1.  rising  in  Leicestershire,  runs  south-west 
by  Warwick  and  Evesham,  and  falls  into  the 
Severn  at  Tewksbury ;  2.  in  Monmouthshire ;  3. 
rising  in  Wiltshire,  coasts  the  edge  of  the  New 
Forest,  and  entere  the  English  channel  at  Christ 
Church  Bay  in  Hampshire ;  and  4.  the  Lower 
Avon,  which  rises  near  Tetbury  in  Glocestersh. 
and  running  west  to  Bath,  becomes  navigable ; 
continues  its  course  to  Bristol,  and  falls  into  the 
Severn  north-west  of  that  city. 

AVONA  PoRTicosA,  the  ancient  name  of  the 
isle  of  Sanda. 


AVOSETTA,  in  ornithology.    See  Rbcubvi. 

AOSTRA. 

AVOU'CH, «.  &  n.'j     Fr.  awwer,  to  affirm- 

Avou'cHER,  >  To  maintain,  declare  ab- 

Avouch'ment.         j  sohitely,  to  vindicate,  to 

justify,  to  corroborate,  to  answer  for  the  truth  of, 

to  support  a  statment  with  documents. 

They  boldly  anottehed  that  themselves  only  had 
the  truth,  which  they  would  at  all  times  defend. 

Hooker. 
Wretched  though  I  seem, 
I  can  prodtice  a  champion  that  will  prove 
What  is  aaauehed  here.     Shakupean,  Kintg  Lear. 
Such  authours  and  aooHcftertf  of  thinges. 

XJdaXL  Luke,  cap.  i. 
But  I  mamail  much  that  maister  Moore  beyng  a 
great  learned  man,  would  not  for  the  anowAement  of 
his  credite,  and  the  truth  of  so  great  a  matter,  allege 
so  much  as  the  testimonie  and  auctoritie  of  some  one 
aucthor,  for  the  prouyng  of  his  assertion. 

Uraftm,  vol.  i. 
AVOW,  V.  &  n.-| 

WaL''*'  ^''  """^^  ^^  ^^^'  ^ 

Avow'ed  V^^  ^^  promise.    To  make 

A  ««™'  J,  ^         fa  solemn  declaration,  to  ao- 

Avow'rt. 
His  cruel  stepdamc,  seeing  what  was  done. 

Her  wicked  days  with  wretched  knife  did  end  ; 

In  death  anovokig  th'  innocence  of  her  son. 

Faerie  Qmene. 

WHmot  ccMild  not  wooweHy  have  excepted  against 
the  other.  Clarendon. 

He  that  delivers  them  mentions  his  doing  it  upon 
his  own  particular  knowledge,  or  the  relation  of  some 
credible  person,  aootpn^  it  upon  his  own  experience. 

Left  to  myself,  I  must  oooio,  I  strove 
From  publick  shame  to  screen  my  secret  love. 

Drifden. 
Virgil  makes  JSneas  a  bold  awwer  of  his  own  virtues. 

Id. 
Such  assertions  proceed  from  principles  which  can* 
not  be  aeowed  by  those  who  are  for  preserving  church 
and  state.  Senft. 

This  management,  when  no  aoowdUe  reason  could 
be  given  for  it,  gave  suspicious  and  refining  persons 
occasion  to  throw  out  a  great  deal  of  slander. 

BoUngbroke* 
Then  blas'd  his  smother'd  fiame,  mow*d  and  bold. 


AU-PIS-ALLER,  a  French  phrase,  sometimes 
used  among  English  writers,  signifying  at  the 
worst. 

AURA,  among  physiologists,  an  airy  exhalar 
tion  or  vapor.  The  woid  is  Latin^  derived 
from  the  Greek,  avpa,  gentle  wind. 

Aura,  in  chemistry,  a  name  g^iven  to  that 
certain  fine  and  pure  spirit,  found  in  every  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  body ;  but  so  subtle,  as  only  to 
be  perceptible  by  its  smell  and  taste,  or  other 
effects,  not  found  in  any  other  body.  This  aura, 
says  Boerhaave,  exhibits  the  proper  character  of 
the  body,  and  is  lodged  in  the  oil  of  the  body,  to 
prevent  its  being  dissipated  and  thrown  off. 

Aura,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  vulture. 

AUBACH,  a  town  of  Germany,  with  a  good 
castle,  in  die  south  part  of  Suabia,  in  the  duchy 
of  Wirtem1)erg.  It  is  the  usual  residence  of  the 
youngest  sons  of  the  house  of  Wirtembeig;  is 


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seated  at  the  foot  of  a  mmmtain  on  the  rivulet 
Errosty  fifteen  miles  east  of  Tubingen. 

AURi£,  in  mythology,  a  name  giren  by  the 
Romans  to  the  nymphs  of  the  air.  They  are 
mostly  to  be  found  m  the  ancient  paintings  of 
ceilings;  where  they  are  represented  as  light 
and  airy,  generally  with  long  robes  and  flying 
veils  of  some  lively  color  or  other,  and  fluttering 
about  in  the  rare  and  pleasing  element  assigned 
to  them.  They  were  characterised  as  sportive 
and  happy  in  themselves,  and  wellwishen  to 
mankind. 

AVRANCHES,  a  town  of  Lower  Normandy, 
formerly  the  capital  of  tfie  district  called  Avran- 
diin,  and  now  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  de- 
partment of  La  Manche.  It  stands  on  a  hill 
near  the  Seez,  and  commands  an  extensive  pros- 
pect of  the  surrounding  country.  It  was  formerly 
the  see  of  a  bishop,  whose  palace  still  remains,  and 
who  was  sufiragan  to  the  archbishop  of  Rouen. 
The  cathedral  was  founded  in  1120*  It  is  only 
half  a  league  distant  from  the  sea,  and  the  tide 
brings  up  small  vessels  close  to  the  town.  The 
inhabitants  carry  on  a  traffic  in  grain,  flax,  hemp, 
cattle,  butter,  wheat,  salt,  and  cyder,  which  is 
here  made  of  an  excellent  quality.  Provisions 
and  fuel  are  both  dieap.  Population  about 
6000.  Avranches  was  much  resorted  to  by  the 
English  after  the  peace  of  1814.  It  lies  222 
miles  due  west  of  Paris.  Long.  1**  17'  W.,  lat. 
48«  41'  N. 

AURANTIA,  in  botany,  a  natural  order, 
comprehending  the  entire  orange  tribe.  Jussieu 
is  the  author  <h  this  order,  the  seventieth  in  his 
arrangement;  nor  are  there  any  traces  of  it 
among  the  fragmenta  of  linoaras.  cal.  one  lea^ 
often  deeply  divided,  pet.  definite,  broad  at  the 
base,  inserted  round  a  disk  on  whidi  the  germen 
is  placed,  stam.  placed*  on  the  same  disk. 
GERM,  one;  stjle  one;  stigma  simple,  or  rarely 
divided.  Fruit  mostly  pulpy,  sometimes  capsu- 
lar, of  one  or  manv  cells,  with  one  or  two  seeds 
in  each.  This  order  is  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions, according  to  the  seed  contained  in  the 
fruit.  1.  Fruit  with  only  one  seed.  The  leaves 
are  not  marked  with  resinous  dots,  and  hence  the 
plants  of  this  section  are  termed  spurious  au- 
rantia.  2.  Fruit  many-seeded,  pulpy.  These 
are  genuine  aurantia,  bavins  the  leaves  fiill  of 
pellucid  resinous  dots.  3.  Fruit  many-seeded, 
capsular.  Leaves  not  dotted.  Genera  akin  to 
aurantia  and  to  melis. 

AURANTIAM,  in  botany.    See  Citrus. 

AURANTIUS  Piscis,  in  ichthyology,  a  name 
given  by  Nieremberg  to  the  dorado,  or  dolphin, 
a  species  of  the  coryphsena,  distinguished  finom 
the  others  by  its  forked  tail. 

AURARIa  Functio,  pensio,  or  pnestatio,  a 
tax  to  be  paid  in  gol4. 

AURATA,  in  ichthyology,  the  fish  called 
gilt  head. 

AURAY,  a  town  in  the  moTince  of  Bretagne, 
m  France,  a  department  of  Morbihana,  arroi^is- 
sement  of  L'Orient,  and  the  head  of  a  canton.  It 
stands  un  the  gulf  of  Morbihan,  and  has  a  har- 
bour, with  considerable  trade  in  corn,  honey, 
skins,  and  salted  fish.  The  only  manuiactures 
are  a  few  woollen  stufis.  It  trades  principally 
with  Spain,  and  receives  in  exchange  for  the 


above-mentioned  articles,  Biscay-iron  and  wine. 
Population  3200.  Four  leagues  W.  of  Vannes. 
Long.  ^  53'  W.,  lat.  47«  40'  N. 

AUREA  Alexandbika,  in  pharmacy,  a  kind 
of  opiate,  or  antidote  against  the  cholic  and  apo- 
plexy, composed  of  a  great  number  of  ingre- 
dients, which  was  in  great  &me  among  the  an- 
cient writers.  It  is  called  aurea,  fiom  the  gold 
(aurum)  which  is  an  ingredient  in  its  composi- 
tion ;  and  Alexandria,  as  having  been  invented 
by  a  physician  named  Alexander. 

Aurea  Chxrsonesus,  a  name  given  by  an- 
cient au^rs  to  Japan. 

AUREAPOLIS,  an  ancient  town  of  Bavaria, 
now  called  Ingolstadt. 

AU'REAT,    \     Lat  aunim,  gold ;  partekinj? 

Aurife'rous.  S  of  the  nature  and  qiialities  of 
gold.    Poetical  epithets. 

And  Mun  departs  in  frekUft  lede  qohyte. 
Sua  bricht  as  gold  with  aureate  leuis  lyte. 

Dougla*,  Eneadot,  Prol.  to  book  xii.  p.  401. 

Bocks  rich  in  gems,  and  mountains  big  with  mines. 
Whence  many  a  bursting  stream  aamfercnt  plays. 

AtJRELIA,  in  natural  history,  the  same  with 
what  is  usually  called  chrysalis,  and  sometimes 
nymph.    See  Cbrtsalis. 

AuRBLiA,  the  ancient  name  of  Orleans. 

AURELIANUS,  Coelius,  or»  as  some  hafe 
called  him,  Lucius  Ccelius  Arianus^  an  ancient 
physician,  and  the  only  one  of  the  sect  of  the  Me- 
thodists of  whom  we  have  any  remains,  was  of 
Sicca,  a  town  of  Numidia  in  Africa.  This  we 
learn  from  the  elder  Pliny,  and  his  style  much 
resembles  that  of  the  African  writers.  It  is  half 
Greek,  half  Latin,  harsh,  and  difficult;  yetstrong, 
masculine,  full  of  good  sense,  and  valuable  for 
the  matter  it  contains.  It  is  frequendy  very 
ftcute  and  smart,  especially  when  he  exposes  the 
errors  of  other  physicians,  and  always  nervous. 
What  age  C<elhis  Aurelianus  flourished  in,  cannot 
be  determined ;  but  it  is  probable  that  he  lived 
before  Galen,  as  he  does  not  make  the  least  men- 
tion of  him.  He  was  not  only  a  careful  imitator 
of  Soranus,  but  also  a  strenuous  advocate  for 
him.  He  had  read  over  very  diligently  the  an- 
cient phvsicians  of  all  the  sects ;  and  to  him  we 
are  indebted  for  the  knowledge  of  many  dogmas 
which  are  not  to  be  found  but  in  his  books,  *  De 
Celeribus  et  Tardis  Passionibus.'  The  best  edi- 
tion of  th»e  books  is  that  published  at  Amster- 
dam, 1722,  in  (|uarto.  He  wrote,  as  he  himself 
tells  us,  several  other  works;  but  they  are  all 
perished. 

AuRBLjAVtTS  (Luchis  Douutins),  empeior  of 
Rome,  was  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  anti- 
quity,  and  commanded  3ie  armies  of  the  emperor 
Claudius  II.  with  such  glory,  that,  after  the  death 
of  that  emperor,  the  legions  agreed  to  place  him 
on  the  throne,  A.  D.  270.  He  was  a  native  of 
Dacia,  bom  of  obscure  parentage,  and  was 
elected  emperor  in  the  fifty-nfth  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  a  man  of  amazing  strength  and  courage, 
and  had  risen  through  all  the  gradations  of  mili- 
tary dutv.  In  one  engagement  he  is  said  to 
nave  killed  forty  of  the  enemy  with  his  own 
hand;  and,  in  tlie  various  battles  in  which  he 
was  engaged,  above  900  in  all.  lie  carried  the 
war  from  the  east  to  the  west  with  as  much  &ci- 


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lity,  says  a  modem  writer,  as  a  body  of  troops 
marches  from  Alsace  into  Flanders.  He  de- 
feated the  Ootfas,  Sarmatiaos,  Marcomanni,  the 
Persians,  Egyptians,  and  Vandals;  conquered 
Zenobia,  queen  of  the  Palmyrenians,  and  Tetri- 
cus,  general  of  the  Gauls,  bodi  of  whom  graced 
his  triumph  in  274.  In  a  woid,  for  valor  and 
expedition,  he  might  be  compared  to  Julius 
Caesar,  had  he  posse»ed  equal  clemency  and  mo- 
deration. He  showed  great  clemency  indeed  to 
queen  Zenobia,  althouf^  he  destroyed  her  city, 
for  he  gaTe  her  lands  and  an  income  sufficient  to 
maintain  her  in  all  the  splendor  of  her  former 
royalty  without  the  trouble  of  it.  IBut  his  gene- 
rosity to  that  princess  was  sullied  by  his  order* 
ii^  her  secretary,  Longinus,  the  celebrated  critic, 
to  be  put  to  death,  whose  work  on  the  sublime 
ought  to  have  procured  him  respect  from  aay 
person  one  degree  removed  from  barbarism.  His 
severities  were  at  last  the  cause  of  his  destmo 
tiuL  Mnestheus,  his  secretary,  conspired  against 
him,  and  he  was  slain  by  one  of  his  generals  in 

¥iS6ing  with  a  small  guard  from  Heraclea  in 
hrace  towards  Byzantium,  A.D.  275,  after  a 
▼eiy  active  reign  of  five  years.    See  Rome. 

AURELLI,  or  Arelli,  a  Latin  poet  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  who  obtained  the  government 
of  a  district  from  Leo  X.  but  whose  tyrannical 
behaviour  made  the  inhabitants  throw  him  into  a 
well,  in  1520.  His  poems  are  much  in  the 
manner  of  Catullus. 
AURENGABAD,  or  Aubuhgabad.  See  Ao- 

RUNGABAD. 

AURENG-ZEBE,  the  Great  Mogul,  was  the 
third  son  of  Schah  lehan.  He  was  bom  in  1618, 
and  in  his  youth  feigned  an  air  of  religious  sanc- 
tity, but  in  1658  he  and  his  brother  Morad 
seized  Agra,  and  took  their  fiuher  prisoner.  Not 
long  after,  he  put  Morad  and  Dara,  another  bro- 
ther, to  death.  He,  however,  showed  some  ten- 
derness towards  his  ftither,  who  died  in  1666. 
Aureng-«ebe  increased  his  dominions  so  much, 
and  becune  so  powerful,  that  ambassadors  were 
sent  to  him  fh)m  all  the  eastern  princes ;  and  for 
the  sake  of  commercial  advantages,  many  Euro- 
pean princes  did  the  same.  He  died  at  Ahmed- 
naghur  in  1707,  aged  eiehty-nine.  His  posses- 
sions were,  by  his  will,  divided  among  Ym  sons. 
He  was  of  a  low  stature,  with  a  large  nose,  a 
white  beard,  and  olive  complexion.  He  v^as 
slender,  and  supported  himself  on  a  staff;  yet 
he  endorsed  petitions  without  spectacles,  and 
seemed  pleased  with  doing  business  at  a  public 
audience.  He  subdued  Visapour,  Golconda, 
and  die  Camatic ;  overran  the  kingdom  of  Asen ; 
feduced  Bengal;  and  cleared  the  mouth  of  the 
Ganges  from  the  Portuguese  pirates.  He  had 
formed  a  design  to  destroy  all  the  native  princes, 
and  to  force  a  conversion  of  the  Hmdoos;  but 
harrassed  in  his  turn  by  the  rebellion  of  his  sons, 
he  was  obliged  to  put  off  the  execution  of  this 
momentous  endeavour.  By  his  indulgence  to- 
wards his  omrahs  and  governors  his  meaner  sub- 
jects were  oppressed  with  impunity.  <  bod,'  he 
observed,  in  his  usual  sanctimonious  manner, 
•  would  punish  them  if  they  did  evil.'  The  real 
state  of  the  case  was,  that  he  shared  in  the  fruits 
of  their  oppression. 
AUREOLA,  in  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  ori- 


ginally signified  a  jewel,  proposed  as  a  reward  of 
victory  in  some  public  dispute.  Hence  the  Ro- 
man schoohnen  applied  it  to  denote  the  reward 
bestowed  on  martyrs,  virgins,  and  doctors,  on 
account  of  their  works  of  supererogation ;  and 
painters  use  it  to  signify  the  crown  of  glory 
with  which  they  adorn  the  heads  of  saints,  con- 
fessors, 8cc. 

AUREOLUS,  a  Dacian  shepherd,  who  as- 
pired to  the  empire,  but  was  defeated  and  slain 
oy  Claudius,  a  general  of  the  emperor  Gallienus. 
This  usurper  is  known  by  some  medals  bearing 
on  one  side  his  head,  crowned  vrith  rays,  as  in 
the  annexed  figure,  inscription  I M  P.  M.  AC  I L. 
AUREOLUS  P.  F.  AUG.  on  the  reverse  a 
goddess,  resting  on  a  pillar,  with  a  sceptre 
in  her  right  hand,  a  cornucopia  in  her  left,  and 
a  globe  at  her  feet,  inscription  PROVIDENTIA 
AUG. 


AUREUS,  a  Roman  gold  coin,  equal  in  value 
to  twenty-five  denarii,  or  100  sesterces.  Accord* 
ing  to  Ainsworth,  the  aureus  of  the  higher  em- 
pire weighed  nearly  five  pennyweights ;  and  in 
the  lower  emphre  little  more  thsm  half  that  weight. 
Suetonius  says,  that  it  was  customary  to  give 
aurei  to  the  victors  in  the  chariot  races. 

AvRBus  MoNS,  in  ancient  geography,  1.  A 
mountain  in  the  north-west  of  Corsica,  whose 
ridge  runs  out  to  the  north-east  and  south-east, 
forming  an  elbow.  2.  Another  of  MoBsia  Supe- 
rior, or  Servia,  south  of  the  Danube,  which  the 
emperor  Probus  planted  with  vines ;  and  3.  A 
town  at  the  foot  of  it,  on  the  same  river. 

AURIA  (Vincent),  a  Sicilian  writer,  bom  at 
Palermo^  1625.  He  was  author  of  several  works 
in  Latin  and  Italian;  but  the  principal  are  a 
History  of  the  most  eminent  Men  of  Sicily, 
1704;  and  a  History  of  the  Viceroys  of  Sicily» 
1697,  folio.    He  died  in  1710. 

AURICHALCUM,  opctxaXxoy,  mountain- 
brass;  firom  opoc,  a  mountain,  and  xaXjtoc, 
brass ;  the  mettu  now  called  brass  being  a  mix- 
tnre  of  copper  and  lapis  calaminaris.  It  is  called 
aurichalcum  by  Plautus,  and  orichalcum  by 
Virgil  and  Horace.  Plaut  Mil.  act  iii.  scene  1. 
V.64. 

Cedo  miki  ties  homines  aazichalco  contra  com  istit 
moribas. 

AURICULA,  in  botany.    See  Primula. 

AvBicuLA,  in  ichdiyology,  the  earwig. 

Auricula  Judje,  or  Jew's  Ear,  a  kind  ot 
fungus,  or  nmshroom,  somewhat  resembling  in 
figure  a  human  ear.  It  grovrs  on  eldcNtrees,  the 
tree  on  which,  as  some  pretend,  Judas  hanged 
himself; ,  and  hence,  tliey  think,  the  name  is  de- 
rived. This  fungus  steeped  in  water  and  applied 
to  the  eyes,  u  sajd  to  free  them  of  inflammation ; 
but  its  chief  use  is  in  the  form  of  a  gargle  in 
decoctions  against  inflammatioos  of  tl^  diroat, 
or  swellings  of  the  tonsils. 


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AURORA   BOREALIS. 


AURICULAR, )     Lat  auricula,  flap  of  the 
AuRic'uLARLY.  )  ear ;  sometimes  the  ear  it- 
self.   Addressed  to  the  ear^-as  much  as  to  say, 
to  go  no  further.    Private,  secret,  confidential. 

Yoo  ahall  hear  at  confer,  and  by  an  auricular  as- 
Boraaoe  have  jroor  satisfaction. 

Shakipeare.  KSng  Lear, 

The  alchymists  call  in  many  varieties  out  of  astro- 
logy, OMrieiilfir  traditions,  and  feij^ned  testimonies. 

Baotm. 

These  will  soon  confess,  and  that  not  mmcularlff, 
bat  in  a  loud  and  audible  voice.  Deeagf  of  Piety, 

AURICULATED  Leaf,  in  botany,  is  a  leaf 
which  has  a  lobe  on  each  side  towards  the  base. 

AURIFLAMMA,  in  the  French  history,  a 
standard  belonging  to  the  abbey  of  St.  Dennis, 
suspended  over  the  tomb  of  that  saint,  which  the 
religious,  on  occasion  of  any  war  in  defence  of 
their  land  or  rights,  took  .down,  with  great  cere- 
mony, and  gave  to  their  protector  or  advocate, 
to  be  borne  at  the  head  of  their  forces.  Hence 
the  word  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  chief 
flag  or  standard  of  an  army. 

AURIGA,  the  waggoner,  in  astronomy,  a 
constellation  of  the  nortnem  hemisphere,  consist- 
ing of  twenty-three  stars,  according  to  IVcho ; 
forty,  according  to  Hevelius;  and  sixty-eight,  in 
the  Britannic  catalogue.  It  is  figured  as  an  old 
man  with  a  goat,  her  kids  in  his  left  hand,  and  a 
bridle  in  his  right  Capella,  the  goat,  is  a  star 
of  the  first  magnitude.  Its  rising  was  deemed  by 
the  ancients  a  prognostic  of  rain. 

AURIGNAC,  a  town  of  Gascony,  the  head  of  a 
canton,  in  the  department  of  the  I^p^r  Garonne, 
arrondissement  of  St.  Gaudens.  Ine  inhabitants, 
who  amount  to  about  1230,  trade  in  cattle,  and 
manufacture  woollen  goods.  It  is  seated  on  the 
river  Louge,  fourteen  leagues  S.  £.  of  Toulouse. 

AURIGNY,  a  small  island  in  the  English 
channel,  belonging  now  to  England,  twenty  miles 
north  from  Jersey,  and  seven  west  of  Cape  La 
Hogue.    Long.  2"  9'  E.,  lat.  49**  43'  N. 

AURIGRAPHUS;  from  aurum,  gold,  and 
ypo^w,  I  write ;  in  the  middle  age,  writers,  a 
copyist,  or  calligrapher,  who  wrote  in  gold  letters. 

AURILLAC,  a  town  of  France,  on  the  Jor^ 
dane,  in  Upper  Auvergne.  At  present  it  is  the 
chief  town  m  the  department  of  the  Cantal. 
Here  are  manufactures  of  woollen  stuffs,  carpets, 
stamine,  shalloon,  and  lace;  in  which,  as  well  as 
in  cattle  and  cheese,  an  active  trade  is  carried  on. 
Population  10,332 in  1815.  Fifteen  leagues  south- 
east of  Tulle,  and  111  south  of  Paris.  Long. 
2°  31'  E.,'  lat.  44**  55'  N. 

AURIOl.,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Bouches  du  Rhone,  arrondissement 
of  Marseilles.  Here  are  some  woollen  manu- 
factures. Population  3700,  five  leagues  north- 
east of  Maxseilles. 

AURIPIGMENTUM.    See  Orpiment. 

AURIS,  the  ear.    See  Anatomy,  Index. 

Auais  AsiNi,  ass-ears,  a  name  given  by  na- 
turalists to  a  species  of  sea-shell,  supposed  to 
resemble  the  ear  of  an  ass. 

AuEis  Externa,  the  auricle. 

AuRis  Marina,  ear-shell. 

AuRis  PoRci,  hog's  ear,  in  natural  history,  a 
searshell,  a  species  of  the  murex. 

AURISCALPUM,  an  instrument  to  dean  the 


ears,  and  serving  also  for  other  opecitioBS  ia  dis- 
orders of  that  part. 

AURISPA  (John),  a  Sicilian  writer.  He 
was  appointed  secretary  to  Nicholas  V.  from 
whom  he  obtained  two  abbeys.  He  died  at 
Ferrara,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  oentuiy.  He 
translated  the  works  of  Archimedes,  and  Hieio- 
ole's  Commentary  on  the  gdden  verses  of  Py- 
thagoras. 

AUROGALLUS  (Matthew),  professor  of  Isa- 
guages  at  Wittembexg,  was  a  native  of  Bohemia; 
he  assisted  Luther  in  his  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  German,  and  wrote  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
Grammar,  printed  aft  Basle  in  1539.  He  died 
in  1543. 

AURIUM  Abscissio,  cutting  off  the  ears, 
was  a  punishment  inflicted,  by  the  Saxon  laws, 
on  those  who  robbed  churches ;  afterwards  od 
every  thief;  and,  at  length,  on  divevs  other  cri- 
minals. 

AURON,  a  river  of  France,  ia  the  depaitment 
of  Cher,  anciently  called  Avara. 

AURORA,  in  the  mythology,  the  goddess  of 
the  morning,  was  the  daughter  of  Hyperion  and 
Thcfia,  accoiding  to  Hesiod;  but  of  Titan  and 
Terra,  according  to  others.  It  was  under  this 
name  that  the  ancients  deified  the  light  which 
foreruns  the  rising  of  the  sun  above  our  hemi- 
sphere. The  poets  represent  her  as  rising  oat  of 
the  ocean  in  a  chariot,  widi  rosy  fingers  dropping 
gentle  dew.  Virgil  describes  her  ascending  in  a 
flame  colored  chariot  with  four  horses.  Si»  had 
various  lovers,  Cephalus,  Pandion,  Titbonns, 
&C.  Aurora  is  also  used  for  the  morning  twi- 
light, or  that  faint  light  which  appears  in  the 
morning  when  the  sun  is  within  18^  of  the  horizon. 

Aurora,  one  of  the  New  Hebrides  islands  in 
the  South  Sea,  in  which  Mr.  Forster  siqiposes 
the  Peak  d'Etoil,  mentioned  by  Mr.  Bouganville 
to  be  situated.  The  island  is  inhabited;  hut 
none  of  its  inhabitants  came  off  to  visit  Cqitain 
Cook.  The  country  is  woody,  and  die  vege- 
tation seemed  to  be  excessively  luxuriant  It  is 
about  twelve  leagues  long,  but  not  above  five 
miles  broad  in  any  part ;  lying  nearly  nordi  and 
south.  The  middle  lies  in  long.  168^  24'  £.,  lat 
15°  6'  S. 

Aurora  Australis,  Southerk  Light,  oa 
Streamers,  similar  to  the  aurora  borealis,  or 
northern  light,  only  more  dear  and  white.  See 
Aurora  Borealis. 

Aurora  Borealis,  Northern  Twilight^  or 
Streamers ;  a  kind  of  meteor  appearing  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  heavens,  mosdy  in  the 
winter-tiine,  and  in  firosty  weather.  It  is  now  so 
generally  known,  that  no  description  is  reqnisiK 
of  the  appearance  which  it  usually  makes  in  this 
country.  But  it  is  in  the  arctic  regions  that  it 
appears  most  remarkable,  particidazly  during 
the  solstice.  In  the  Shetland  islaindsy  the  meny 
dancers,  as  they  are  there  called,  are  the  constaat 
attendants  of  clear  evenings.  They  commonly 
appear  at  twilight  near  the  horizon,  of  a  hue 
approaching  to  yellow;  sometimes  oontinuing 
for  several  hours  without  any  sensible  motion; 
after  which  they  break  out  into  streams  of  stronger 
light,  spreading  into  columns,  and  altering  slow^ 
into  ten  thousand  different  shapes,  farying  their 
colors  from  all  the  tints  of  yellow  to  the  obscurest 
russet.    They  often  cover  the  whole  hemisphere, 


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and  then  make  the  most  brilliant  appearance. 
Their  motions  at  these  times  are  most  amazingly 
quick ;  and  the?  astonish  the  spectator  with  the 
rapid  change  of  their  form.  Tney  break  out  in 
places  where  none  were  seen  before;  darting 
along  the  heavens,  are  suddenly  .extinguished, 
and  leave  behind  an  uniform  dusky  tract.  This 
again  is  brilliantly  illuminated  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  as  suddenly  left  a  dull  blank.  Some- 
times they  assume  the  appearance  of  vast  co- 
lumns, on  one  side  of  the  deepest  yellow,  on  the 
other  declining  away  till  it  becomes  undistin- 
guishable  from  the  sky.  Tliey  have  generally  a 
tremulous  motion  from  end  to  end,  which  con- 
tinues till  the  whole  vanishes.  In  a  word,  we, 
who  only  see  the  extremities  of  these  northern 
phenomena,  have  but  a  &int  idea  of  their  splendor 
and  their  motions.  According  to  the  state  of  the 
Htmosphere,  they  differ  in  colors.  They  of^en 
put  on  the  color  of  blood,  and  make  a  dreadful 
appearance.  The  rustic  sages  become  prophetic, 
and  terrify  the  gazing  spectators  with  the  dread 
of  war,  pestilence,  and  feunine.  This  super- 
stition was  not  peculiar  to  the  northern  islands ; 
nor  are  these  appearances  of  a  recent  date.  The 
ancients  called  them  Chasmata,  and  Trabes^  and 
Bolides,  according  to  their  forms  or  colors.  The 
Aurora  Borealis  in  this  country,  appears  usually 
of  a  reddish  color,  inclining  to  yellow,  and  sends 
out  frequent  coruscations  of  pale  light,  which 
seem  to  rise  from  the  horizon  in  a  pyramidal  un- 
dulating form,  and  shooting  with  great  velocity 
uu  to  the  zenith.  They  appear  oft^  in  the  form 
of  an  arch,  which  is  partly  bright,  and  partly 
dark,  but  generally  transparent :  and  the  matter 
of  them  is  not  found  to  nave  any  effect  on  the 
rays  of  light,  which  pass  freely  through  them. 
Dr.  Hamilton  observes,  that  he  could  plainly 
discern  the  smallest  speck  in  the  Pleiades 
through  the  density  of  those  clouds  which 
formed  part  of  the  aurora  borealis  in  1763, 
without  the  least  diminution  of  its  splendor,  or 
increase  of  twinkling.  Sometimes  it  produces 
an  iris ;  and  hence,  M.  Godin  judges,  tnat  most 
of  the  extraordinary  meteors  and  phenomena  in 
the  skies,  related  as  prodigies  by  historians,  as 
battles,  and  the  like,  may  probably  enough  be 
reduced  to  the  class  of  aurora  borealis.  This 
kind  of  meteor  never  appears  near  the  equator ; 
but  it  seems,  is  frequent  enough  towards  the 
south  pole,  like  as  towards  the  north,  having 
been  observed  there  by  voyagers.  See  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,  No.  461,  and  vol.  liv.; 
sAso  Forster's  account  of  his  voys^e  round  the 
world  wiith  Captain  Cook,  where  he  describes 
their  appearance,  as  observed  for  several  nights 
together,  in  sharp  frosty  weather,  which  was 
much  the  same  as  those  observed  in  the  north, 
excepting  that  they  were  of  a  lighter  color. 
Meteors  of  this  kind  have  appeared  more  fre- 
quently at  some  periods  than  others ;  whence  it 
would  seem^  that  the  air,  or  earth,  or  both,  is 
not  at  all  times  disposed  to  produce  this  pheno- 
menon. The  extent  of  these  appearances  is 
also  amazingly  greaL  That  which  occurred  in 
March,  1716,  was  visible  from  the  west  of  Ireland 
to  the  confines  of  Russia,  and  the  east  of  Poland ; 
extending  at  least  near  thirty  degrees  of  longitude, 
and  from  about  the  fiftieth  degree  in  latitude,  over 
Vol.  in. 


almost  all  the  north  of  Europe ;  and  in  all  places, 
at  the  same  time,  it  exhibited  the  like  wondrous 
appearances.  Father  Boscovich  has  determined 
the  height  of  an  aurora  borealis,  which  was  ob- 
served by  the  marquis  of  Polini  the  16th  of 
December,  1737,  and  found  it  was  825  miles 
high ;  and  Mr.  Bergman,  from  a  mean  of  thirty 
computations,  makes  the  average  height  of  the 
aurora  borealis  amount  to  seventy  Swedish,  or 
469  English  miles.  But  Euler  supposes  the 
height  to  be  several  thousands  of  miles;  and 
Mairan  also  assigns  to  them  a  very  elevated 
region.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  de- 
termine the  cause  of  this  phenomenon.  Dr. 
Ualley  imagines  that  the  vapors,  or  effluvia, 
exceedingly  rarefied  by  subterraneous  fire,  and 
tinged  with .  sulphureous  steams,  which  many 
naturalists  have  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of 
earthquakes,  may  also  be  the  cause  of  this  ap- 
pearance; or  that  it  is  produced  by  a  kind  of 
subtile  matter,  freely  pervading  the  pores  of  the 
earth,  and  which,  entering  into  it  nearer  the 
southern  pole,  passes  out  again  with  some  force 
into  the  «ther,  at  the  same  distance  from  the  nor- 
thern. This  subtile  matter,  by  becoming  more 
dense,  or  having  its  velocity  increased,  may 
perhaps  be  capable  of  producing  a  small  degree 
of  lignt,  after  the  manner  of  effluvia  from  elec- 
tric bodies,  which,  by  a  strong  and  quick  friction, 
emit  light  in  the  dark ;  to  which  sort  of  light 
this  seems  to  have  an  affinity.  On  this  subject 
see  Philosophical  Transactions  No.  347;  and 
also  Mr.  Cotes's  description  of  this  phenomenon, 
and  his  method  of  explaining  it,  by  streams 
emitted  from  the  heterogeneous  and  fermenting 
vapors  of  the  atmosphere,  in  Smithes  Optics, 
p.  69.  The  celebrated  M.  de  Mairan,  in  an  ex- 
press treatise  on  the  aurora  borealis,  published 
m  1731,  supposes  its  cause  to  be  the  zodiacal 
light,  which  according  to  him,  is  no  other  than 
the  sun's  atmosphere ;  this  light  happening,  on 
some  occasions,  to  meet  the  upper  part  of  our 
atmosphere  about  the  limits  where  universal 
gravity  begins  to  act  more  forcibly  towards  the 
sun,  falls  into  our  air  to  a  greater  or  less  depth, 
as  its  specific  gravity  is  greater  or  less  compared 
with  the  air  through  which  it  passes.  However, 
M.  Euler  thinks  the  cause  of  the  aurora  borealis 
not  owing  to  the  zodiacal  light,  as  M.  de  Mairan 
supposes:  but  to  particles  of  our  atmosphere, 
driven  beyond  its  limits  by  the  impulse  of  the 
solar  light.  And  on  this  supposition  he  endea- 
vours to  account  for  the  phenomena  observed 
concerning  this  light  He  supposes  the  zodiacal 
light,  and  the  tails  of  comets,  to  be  owing  to  a 
similar  cause.  But  ever  since  the  identity  of 
Ughtning  and  tlie  electric  matter  has  been  de- 
termined, philosophers  have  been  naturally  led 
to  seek  for  the  explication  of  aerial  meteors  in 
the  principles  of  electricity;  and  there  is  now 
no  ooubt  but  most  of  them,  and  especially  the 
aurora  borealis,  are  electrical  phenomena.  Be- 
sides the  more  obvious  and  known  appearances 
which  constitute  a  resemblance  between  this 
meteor  and  the  electric  matter  by  which  lightning 
is  produced,  it  has  been  observed  that  the  aurora 
occasions  a  very  sensible  fluctuation  in  the  mag- 
netic needle;  and  that  when  it  has  extended 
lower  than  usual  in  the  atmosphere,  the  flashes 

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have  been  attended  witJi  various  sounds  of 
rumbling  and  hissing,  especially  in  Russia  and 
the  other  more  norUiem  parts  of  Europe ;  as 
noticed  by  Sig.  Beccaria  and  M.  Messier.  Mr. 
Canton,  soon  after  he  had  obtained  electricity 
from  the  clouds,  offered  a  conjecture,  that  the 
aurora  is  occasioned  by  the  dashing  of  electric 
fire  positive  towards  negative  clouds  at  a  great 
distance,  through  the  upper  part  of  the  atmos- 
phere, where  the  resistance  is  least ;  and  he  sup- 
}iOses  that  the  aurora  which  happens  at  the  time 
when  the  mati^netic  needle  is  disturbed  by  the 
heat  of  the  earth,  is  the  electricity  of  the  heated 
air  above  it:  and  this  appears  chiefly  in  the 
northern  regions,  as  the  alteration  in  the  heat  of 
tlie  air  of  those  parts  is  the  greatest.  Nor  is  this 
hypothesis  improbable,  when  it  is  considered, 
that  electricity  is  the  cause  of  thunder  and  light- 
ning ;  that  it  has  been  extracted  from  the  air  at 
the  time  of  the  aurora  borealis ;  that  the  inha- 
bitant<<  of  the  nortliem  countries  observe  it  re- 
markably strong,  when  a  sudden  thaw  succeeds 
very  cold  severe  weather ;  and  that  the  tourmalin 
is  known  to  emit  and  absorb  tlie  electric  fluid 
only  by  the  increase  or  diminution  of  its  heat. 
Positive  and  negative  electricity  in  the  air,  with 
a  proper  quantity  of  moisti^re  to  serve  as  a  con- 
ductor, will  account  for  this  and  other  meteors, 
sometimes  seen  in  a  serene  sky.  Mr.  Canton 
has  since  contrived  to  exhibit  this  meteor  by 
m6ans  of  the  Torricellian  vacuum,  in  a  glass 
tube  about  three  feet  long,  and  sealed  her- 
metically. Wheh  one  end  of  the  tube  is  held 
in  the  hand,  and  the  other  applied  to  the  con- 
ductor, the  whole  tube  will  be  illuminated  from 
end  to  end,  and  will  continue  luminous  without 
interruption  for  a  cohsiderable  time  after  it  has 
been  removed  from  the  conductor.  If,  after  this, 
it  be  drawn  through  the  hand  either  way,  the 
light  will  be  remarkably  intense  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  tube.  And  though  a  great 
part  of  the  electricity  be  discharged  by  this  opera- 
tion, it  will  still  flash  at  intervals,  when  held 
only  at  one  extremity,  and  kept  quite  still ;  but 
if,  at  the  same  time,  it  be  grasped  by  the  other 
hand  in  a  different  place,  strong  flashes  of  light 
will  dart  from  one  end  to  the  other ;  and  these 
will  continue  twenty-four  hours  or  more,  without 
a  fresh  excitation.  Sig.  Baccaria  conjectures  that 
there  is  a  constant  and  regular  circulation  of  the 
electric  fluid  from  north  to  south ;  and  he  thinks 
that  the  aurora  borealis  may  be  this  electric  mat- 
ter performing  its  cumulation  in  such  a  state  of 
the  atmosphere  as  renders  it  visible,  or  approach- 
ing nearer  than  usual  to  the  eartli ;  though  pro- 
bably this  is  not  the  mode  of  its  operation,  as  the 
meteor  is  observed  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
with  the  same  appearances  as  in  the  northern. 
Dr.  Franklin  supposes,  that  the  electric  fire  dis- 
charged into  tlie  polar  regions,  from  many  leagues 
of  vaporised  air  raised  ifrom  the  ocean  between 
the  tropics,  accounts  for  the  aurora  borealis ;  and 
that  it  appears  first  where  it  is  first  in  motion ; 
namely,  in  the  most  northern  parts ;  and  the  ap- 
pearances proceed  southward,  though  the  fire 
really  moves  northward.  Mr.  Kir>%an,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  anno 
1788,  has  also  some  ingenious  remsirks  on  the 
auron  borealis  and  austraUs.      lie  gives  his 


reasons  for  supposing  the  rarefaction  of  the  at- 
mosphere in  the  polar  regions  to  proceed  from 
them,  and  these  from  a  combustion  of  inflamma- 
ble air  caused  by  electricity.  He  observes,  that 
after  an  aurora  borealis  the  barometer  commonly 
falls,  and  high  winds  from  the  south  generally 
follow.  The  only  distinct  history  of  this  pheno- 
menon is  what  we  have  from  Dr.  Halley,  Pniloso- 
phical  Transactions,  No.  347.  Mr.  Forster,  who, 
m  bis  voyage  round  the  world  with  Captain  Cook, 
assures  us,  that  he  observed  them  m  the  high 
southern  latitudes,  though  with  phenomena  some- 
what  different  from  those  wliich  are  seen  here. 
On  February  17th,  1773,  as  they  were  in  the 
fifty-eighth  dfegree  of  south  Iktitude,  *  A  beautiful 
phenomenon,'  says  he,  *  was  observed  during  the 
preceding  night,  which  appeared  again  this  and 
several  following  nights.  It  consisted  of  long 
columns  of  a  clear  white  light,  shooting  up  firom 
the  horizon  to  the  eastward,  almost  to  the  zenith, 
and  gradually  spreading  on  the  whole  southern 
part  of  the  sky.  These  columns  were  sometimes 
Dent  iideways  at  their  upper  extremities;  and 
though  in  most  respects  similar  to  the  northern 
lights  (aurorae  boreales)  of  our  hemisphere,  yet 
differed  from  them  in  being  always  of  a  whitish 
color,  whereas  ours  assume  various  tints,  espe- 
cially those  of  a  fiery  and  purple  hue.  The  sky 
was  generally  clear  when  tney  appeared,  and  the 
air  sharp  and  cold,  tfie  thermometer  standing  at 
the  freezing  pojnt.'  These  are  what  Mr.  Kirwau 
denominates  aurora  australis. 

M.  Libes,  in  his  Nouv.  Diet,  de  Physique,  has 
suggested  a  new  theory,  which  is  aidopted  by 
most  of  the  northern  philosophers.     In  nis  opi- 
nion electrical  light  is  not  the  cause  of  the  aurors 
boreales;  nor  has  electricity  itself   any  ferther 
influence  upon  their  existence  thsui  as  it  fixes  the 
aeriform  substances  whose  combinations  occasion 
the  meteor.  This  philosopher's  theory  is  founded 
upon  the  followint?  principles: — 1.  If  we  excite 
tlie  electric  spark  in  a  mixture  of  azotic  and  oxy- 
gen gas,  there  will  result  nitric  acid,  nitrous  acid, 
or  nitrous  gas,  according  to  the  relation  that  sub- 
sists between  the  gases  which  compose  the  mix- 
ture.   2.  Nitric  acid,  when  exposed  to  the  sun, 
assumes  more  color  and  volatility.    Scheele  first 
observed  this  phenomenon.     Libes  placed  a  re- 
ceiver over  a  sal?er  containing  nitric  acid,  and 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  solar  rays.     Sonie 
minutes  after,  the  acid  appeared  colored,  and  the 
receiver  filled  with  red  and  volatile  vapors,  which 
were  sustained  in  it  a  long  while,  ana  diffused  a 
light  similar  to  that  of  tlie  aurora  borealis.     3. 
In  flasks,  which  contain  nitrous  acid,  a  ruddy 
and  volatile  vapor  is  always  perceived  above  the 
vapor.    4.  Nitrous  gas,  in  contact  with  atmos- 
pheric air,  exhales  ruddy  vapors,  which  fly  off 
into  the  atmosphere.    5.  The  hydrogen,  which 
is  disengaged  from  the  surface  of  the  globe,  rises 
till  it  occupies,  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  at- 
mosphere, *  pl^ce  determined  by   its   specific 
gravity.     6.  Tlie  solar  heat  has  very  little  activity 
in  the  polar  regions. 

These  principles  rest  uiwn  observations  and 
experiments  made  with  the  greatest  exactness, 
and  most  of  them  too  well  known  to  need  beinjj 
described  here.  Now  it  is  manifest  from  a  sim- 
ple combination  of  these  &cts: — 1.  That  the 


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production  of  hydrogen  must  be  almost  nothing 
in  the  polar  regions.  2.  That  the  higher  regions 
of  the  polar  atmosphere  contain  very  little  if  anj^ 
hydiogen.  3.  That  whenever  there  is  a  re-estab- 
lishment of  equilibrium  of  the  electric  fluid  in 
the  polar  atmosphere,  this  fluid  can  only  6nd  in 
its  passage  a  mixture  of  azot  and  oxygen.  4. 
That  the  electric  spark  ought  to  fix  and  com- 
bine these  gaseous  substances.  5.  That  from 
this  combination  must  result  a  production  of 
nitrous  acid,  of  nitric  acid,  or  of  nitrous  gas, 
according  to  the  relation  subsisting  between  the 
oxygen  and  azot  that  constitute  the  mixture.  6. 
That  the  productions  of  either  of  these  acids,  or 
of  the  gaus,  will  give  birth  to  red  and  volatile 
vapors,  whose  elevation  in  the  atmosphere  will 
form  the  meteor  known  under  the  name  of  th^ 
aurora  borealis. 

After  removing  some  general  objections  to 
these  preliminary  notions,  M.  Libes  applies  them 
to  the  phenomena  below : 

1st  Phenomenon. — The  aurors  boreaks  are 
sometimes  accompanied  by  slight  detonations. 

In  the  polar  regions,  the  production  of  hy- 
drogen b  next  to  nothing,  by  reason  of  the  little 
activity  of  the  solar  hea(.  It  is  nevertheless  true, 
that  in  summer  the  long  duration  of 'the  sun 
above  the  horizon  causes  even  there  a  heUt  suf- 
fidentlv  considerable  to  produce  the  disengage- 
ment ot  some  small  portion  of  hydrogen,  which 
will  rise  up  to  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmos- 
phere :  whence  it  results,  that  if  the  re-establish- 
ment of  equilibrium  of  the  electric  fluid  takes 
place  in  the  polar  atmosphere,  when  its  superior 
strata  contain  this  gaseous  substance,  the  electric 
spark  must  exert  upon  it  a  part  of  its  activity, 
«nd  produce  slight  detonations. 

2a  Phenomenon, — ^The  major  part  of  aurore 
boreales  appear  to  move  from  the  north  towards 
the  south ;  though  some  are  seen  whose  motion 
is  directed  towanls  the  east  and  west. 

The  nitric  acid,  nitrous  acid,  and  nitrous  gas, 
which  give  birth  to  aurorae  boreales,  have  their 
origin  towards  the  poles.  These  substances 
exhale  ruddy  vapors,  which,  as  they  rise  in  the 
atmosphere,  must  direct  their  motion  towards 
the  place  where  they  meet  with  least  resistance; 
which  is,  of  course,  towards  the  south,  where 
the  air,  always  less  dense  than  about  the  north, 
offers  them  a  more  free  and  easy  passage.  It 
may  also  happen  that  at  the  same  time  these 
raddy  vapors  are  formed,  a  northerly  wind  may 
blow  in  the  upper  region  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  thus  give  them  a  strong  impulsion,  which, 
combined  with  the  preceding  general  tendency 
southward,  may  cause  a  resulting  motion  to  be 
sometimes  southward,  at  others  eajtward,  or 
westward. 

3d  Phenomenon, — ^The  aurone  boreales  some- 
ttmes  exhibit   themselves    imder  the  form  of 

ibrent  directions.  Some  are  cylindrical,  otherj 
pyramidal,  others  are  curved  in  the  shape  of  an 
«rc.  When  they  are  impelled  with  much  activity, 
they  proceed  to  the  zenith  of  the  spectator. 
Those  whose  motion  is  still  more  rapicl,  go  on 
beyond  the  zenith,  sometimes  even  till  Uiey  reach 
the  southern  horizon.  They  do  not  always  rise 
directly  from  the  centre  of  the  cloudy  part  to- 


wards the  zenitii ;  but  sometimes  take  a  lateral 
direction,  especially  when  the  cloud  from  whence 
they  spring  is  found  suspended  between  the  north 
and  the  east  or  west. 

When  the  re-establishment  of  equilibrium  of 
the  electric  fluid  fixes  and  combmes  a  great 
quantity  of  azote  and  oxygen,  the  ruddy  vapors 
resulting  from  diis  combination  must  occupy  a 
larjge  space  in  the  atmosphere.  These  vapors 
being  of  such  considerable  extent,  and  impelled 
from  north  to  south,  must  sometimes  separate 
from  one  another,  the  different  portions  receiv- 
ing various  directions ;  thus  they  will  be  carried 
sometimes  perpendicularly,  at  others  parallel  to 
^  horizon;  at  others  parallel  to  the  earth's 
axis ;  whence  it  follows  that  the  aurora  borealis 
must  sometimes  appear  to  the  observer  in  the 
fbrm  of  columns,  whose  number,  figure,  and 
direction,  are  determined  by  circumstances.  It 
may  also  sometimes  happen  that  these  luminous 
columns  remain  for  a  time  immovable  with  respect 
to  the  horizon.  This  ought  to  be  the  case  when- 
ever a  wind  impels  the  luminous  cloud  towards 
any  part  whatever  from  the  south,  with  the  same 
force  as  the  exhalations  are  impelled  towards  it 
by  a  contrary  wind. 

4th  Phenomenon-^The  auroras  boreales  do  not 
all  shine  with  an  equally  vivid  lustre;  some 
have  a  mild  and  tranquil  light,  others  shine  with 
a  f ery  resplendent  brilUancy. 

The  vapors  which  are  disengaged  from  nitric 
acid  exposed  to  the  solar  rays,  diffuse  a  mild 
light  of  a  clear  red,  vergmg  towards  yellow ; 
those  which  are  perceived  above  them  from 
nitrous  acid,  are  of  a  deep  red ;  those  exhaled 
firom  the  nitrous  gas,  in  contact  with  the  atmos- 
pheric air,  are  at  first  of  a  pretty  deep  red,  which 
afterwards  become  more  and  more  clear  and 
light,  as  these  vapors  extend  themselves  more 
in  the  atmosphere.  The  luminous  columns, 
therefore,  presented  by  the  aurora  borealis,  have 
different  colors,  according  as  the  ruddy  vapors 
take  their  rise  from  the  formation  of  ti^e  nitric 
acid,  of  the  nitrons  acid,  or  of  the  nitrous  gas. 
Retrospect  of  Philosophic,  &c.  Discoveries,  No. 
8.  Our  countryman,  Mr.  Dalton,  is  of  opinion 
that  the  aurora  borealis  is  a  magnetic  phenome- 
non, the  beams  being  goremed  by  the  earth's 
magnetism.  See  his  Meteorological  Essays, 
and  Gregory's  Astronomical  and  Philosophical 
Lessons. 

Aurora  Surgevs,  in  alchemy,  a  phrase  used 
to  express  the  muldplicative  virtue  of  the  philo- 
sophers' ston^ 

AURUM,  Latin,  gold.  See  Gold,  Chemis- 
tRY,  and  Metallurgy.  This  metal  was  in- 
troduced into  medicine  by  the  Arabians,  who 
esteemed  it  one  of  the  greate&t  cordials  and  com- 
forters of  the  nerves.  From  them  Europe  received 
it  without  any  diminution  of  its  character ;  in 
foreign  pharmacopoeias  *  it  is  still  retained,  and 
even  mixed  with  the  ingredients  from  which 
simple  waters  are  to  be  distilled.  But  no  one, 
it  is  presumed,  at  this  time  expects  any  singular 
virtues  from  it,  since  it  certainly  is  not  alterable 
in  the  human  body.  Former  chemists  endeavour- 
ed, by  many  elaborate  processes,  to  extract  what 
they  call  a  sulphur  anima,  or  spirit  of  gold ;  but 
no  method  rs  as  yet  known  of  separating  the  con^ 

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ponent  parts  of  this  metal :.  all  the  tinctures  of  it, 
and  auTum  potabile,  which  have  hitherto  ap- 
peared, are  real  solutions  of  it  in  aqua  regui, 
diluted  with  spirit  of  wine  or  other  liquors,  and 
prove  injurious  to  the  body  rather  than  benefi- 
cial. A  place,  however,  is  now  given  in  some  of 
the  foreign  pharmacopoeias  to  the  aurum  fulmi- 
nans ;  and  it  has  been  recommended  as  a  remedy 
in  convulsive  diseases,  particularly  in  the  chorea 
sancti  viti. 

Au  RUM  FuLHiN ANS  is  a  dangerous  preparation, 
and  should  be  used  with  great  caution.  A  scru- 
ple of  this  powder  acts  more  forcibly  than  half  a 
pound  of  gunpowder :  a  single  grain  laid  on  the 
point  of  a  knife,  and  lighted  at  a  candle,  goes  off 
with  a  greater  noise  than  a  musket  Dr.  Black 
attributes  the  increase  of  weight,  and  the  explo- 
sive property  of  this  powder,  to  adhering  fixable 
air.    See  Chemistry,  Index. 

Aurum  Mosaicum,  Auruh  Musivum,  a 
preparation  so  called  from  its  golden  color,  made 
of  mercury,  tin,  sal  ammoniac,  and  flowers  of 
fulphur.  It  is  recommended  in  most  chronical 
and  nervous  cases ;  and  particularly  convulsions 
of  children.  Its  dose  is  from  four  grains  to  a 
scruple. '  It  is  also  used  as  a  pigment,  and  for 
mixing  with  glass,  to  imitate  the  spangles  of  the 
lapis  lazuli.  Mosaic  gold  is  composed  of  100  tin 
-f  56'25  sulphur,  by  Dr.  John  Davy;  and  of  100 
tin  -|-  52*3  sulphur,  by  Professor  Bgrzelius ;  the 
mean  of  which,  or  100  +  54-2  is  probably  cor- 
rect. It  will  then  consist  of  1  pnme  of  tin  := 
7-375  -h  2  sulphur  =  40. 

Aurum  Potabile,  or  tincture  of  gold ;  a  me- 
dicine formerly  in  great  request,  but  at  present 
rarely  used.  It  is  prepared  by  mixing  essential 
oil  of  rosemary  with  a  solution  of  gold  in  aqua 
regia ;  and  after  shaking  the  vessel,  the  gold  is 
retained  in  the  oil,  swimming  on  the  top.  The 
very  name  imposes  on  many  people,  and  gives 
an  opportunity  to  empirics  to  cheat  them ;  for 
they  draw  tinctures  from  ingredients  whose  colors 
come  near  to  that  of  gold,  and  sell  them,  at  an 
exorbitant  rate  under  this  title.  This  sort  of 
deceit  generally  succeeds  best ;  for  patients  are 
prepossessed  in  fiivor  of  such  medicmes  as  cost 
much,  carry  great  names,  and  have  a  specious 
appearance.  It  ofien  happens  that  these  tinctures 
produce  some  good  efiects,  because  they  can 
make  them  with  such  spirituous  menstrua,  as 
comfort  the  heart,  and  expel  ill  liumors  by  per- 
spiration ;  then  the  effect  is  extolled  for  a  miracle, 
and  attributed  to  the  imaginary  gold. 

Aurum  Regina.    See  Que£n-(>old. 

Aurum  Sopuisticum,  mimic  gold,  a  cheniical 
prenaradon  made  as  follows :  take  fine  distilled 
verdigris,  eight  ounces ;  crude  Alexandrian  tutty, 
four  ounces ;  bora^,  tvrelve  ounces ;  salt-petre, 
one  ounce  and  a  half;  pulverise  and  mix  them 
all  together,  tempering  them  vrith  oil  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  plaster ;  3ien  put  a  German  cfucible 
into  a  wind  furnace,  heat  it  red  hot,  and  putting 
your  mass  into  it,  let  it  be  covered,  and  the  fur- 
nace filled  with  coais  over  the  crucible.  When 
the  mass  is  melted,  let  it  cool  of  itself,  then 
break  the  crucible,  uid  you  will  find  at  the  bot- 
tom a  fine  regulus,  like  gold,  weighing  about  four 
ounces,  which  being  malleable  may  be  wrought 
into  any  form. 


Auruh  Vegetabile,  Saffron. 

AURUNCI,  in  ancient  geography,  a  people  of 
Latium,  towards  Campania ;  the  same  wim  the 
Ausones,  at  least  so  intermixed  as  not  to  be 
distinguishable,  though  Pliny  makes  a  distinction 

AURUNGABAD,  (so  called  from  the  Mogul 
Emperor  Aureng-zebe),  a  province  of  the  Deccan, 
Hindostan,  principally  divided  between  the 
Mahrattas  and  the  I^izan;  the  former  possessing 
about  three-fourths  of  its  area,  and  strictly  in- 
cluding the  islands  of  Salsette  and  Bombay,  be- 
longing to  the  British.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Gujerat,  Candesh,  and  Berar ;  on  the 
east  by  Berar  and  Hyderabad ;  south  by  Beja- 
poor  and  Boeder ;  and  west  by  the  ocean ;  its 
length  being  about  300  miles,  and  its  avera^ 
breadth  160  miles.  Although  thb  province  is 
hilly  throughout,  it  gives  rise  to  no  fivers  of 
consequence.  The  Beemah  and  Godavery, 
which  have  their  sources  in  the  same  neighbour- 
hood (about  thirty  miles  east  of  Poonah),  are  the 
principal  streams.  On  the  banks  of  ^the  former 
are  reared  the  strongest  Mahratta  hones,  called 
the  Beemarheddy  breed,  and  the  whole  province 
is  fertile,  particularly  in  rice.  Its  natural  fast- 
nesses have  been  in  numerous  places  fortified  by 
art;  and  under  the  warlike  dominion  of  the 
Mahrattas  have  been  rendered  at  once  the  se- 
curity and  curse  of  the  country.  These  fortresses 
are  principally  occupied  bv  independent  chief- 
tains, who  pay  a  sort  of  feudal  nomage  to  the 
Paishwa,  but  are  in  reality  the  lords  of  the  soil. 
The  population  is  about  six  millions,  consisting 
mainly  of  Brabminical  Hindoos.  Ahmednuggar, 
Aurungabad,  Basseen,  Damaura,  Dowletabad, 
and  Jalnapoor,are  the  chief  towns. '  In  the  article 
Ahmednuggar  it  will  be  seen  that  an  independent 
sovereignty  of  that  name,  which  included  the 
greater  part  of  this  province,  was  established  here 
at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  few  years 
afterwards  (1601  to  1630),  we  find  the  proyince 
called  by  the  name  of  another  principal  town, 
Dowletabad,  the  seat  of  the  Nizam  Shahee  dy- 
nasty, which  being  taken  in  1634  by  the  Moguls, 
the  government  was  transferred  to  Gurka,  the 
former  name  of  the  city  of  Aurungabad.  The 
East  India  Company's  forces  at  Bombay  com- 
mand the  whole  of  the  coast,  which  swarms  with 
native  pirates.    See  Ahmednuggar. 

Aurungabad,  the  capital  of  the  above  dis- 
trict, was,  under  its  original  name  of  Gurka,  the 
chief  town  of  the  viceroyalty  of  the  Deccan,  and 
the  residence  of  the  emperor  Aureng-zebe,  while 
viceroy :  a  circumstance  to  which  it  owes,  with 
the  province,  its  present  name.  It  Continued  to 
be  the  capital  of  «  Mogul  soubah  until  the 
Nizams  withdrew  their  allegiance  from  the  court, 
of  Delhi ;  it  was  then  for  some  years  the  capital 
of  the  Nizam's  dominions.  At  present,  the  capi- 
tal having  been  transferred  to  Hyderhabad,  Au- 
rungabad is  on  the  decline ;  but  there  is  a  noble 
bazsuir  here  for  shawls  and  silks,  and  a  fine  ruin,  ' 
once  the  palace  of  Aureng-zebe.  The  Fakeer's  , 
tomb  is  also  admired.  It  is  distant  from  Poonah 
186  miles,  and  284  firom  Bombay.  JLat.  19^  46'  ' 
N.,  long.  76°  3' E.  , 

AUSA,  a  town  of  Tarraconensis,  in  the  middle 
age  called  Ausona,  now  V'ich  de  (J^na«  a  town      I 
of  Catalonia  in  Spain. 


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AUSCH.    SeeAucH. 

AUSCIy  a  people  of  Gaul,  the  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  AucH.    See  Augusta. 

AUSCULTATOR,  in  ancient  customs,  a  per- 
son appointed  in  monasteries  to  hear  the  monks 
read  and  sing,  and  to  instruct  them  how  to  per- 
form, before  they  were  admitted  to  read  or  chant 
publicly  in  the  church. 

AUSHOFKN,  a  town  in  the  circle  of  Suabia, 
belonging  to  the  house  of  Austria.  Long.  27^  16' 
E.,  lat.  48°  15'  N. 

AUSI,  or  AusENSESy  an  ancient  and  very 
savage  people  of  Libya.  Herodotus  tells  us  that 
they  were  unacquainted  with  marriage,  and  had 
all  their  women  in  common.  The  children  were 
broa^t  up  by  their  mothers  till  they  were -able 
to  walk ;  after  which  they  were  introduced  to  an 
assembly  of  the  men,  who  met  every  three 
months ;  and  the  man  to  whom  any  child  first 
spoke,  acknowledged  himself  its  fiither.  They 
celebrated  annually  a  feast  in  honor  of  Minerva, 
in  which  the  girls  divided  into  two  pompanies^ 
and  fought  with  sticks  and  stones ;  those  who 
died  of  their  wounds  were  concluded  not  to  have 
been  virgins. 

AUSIMUM,  or  Auxihum,  an  ancient  Roman 
colony  in  the  Picenum ;  now  Osimo  or  Osmo,  in 
Ancona. 

AUSIT.5i,  A1SIT.E,  or  ^siTJE,  a  tribe  of  an- 
cient Arabs,  supposed  by  Bochart  to  have  in- 
habited the  land  of  Uz  mentioned  in  Job.  See 
Arabia. 

AU^KERRY,  1.  a  district  in  the  island  of 
Stronsay,  consisting  of  four  holms ;  2.  a  small 
pasture  isle  belonging  to  the  parish,  and  three 
miles  froin  the  island  of  Stronsay ;  and  on  which 
there  are  the  ruins  of  an  old  chapel,  and  of  a 
house  called  the  Monker,  or  Monk^s  house. 

AUSONA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
the  Ausones. 

AUSON,  a  son  of  Uivsses  and  Calypso,  from 
whom  the  Ausones  are  descended. 

AUSONES,  or  Ausomi,  a  people  who  an- 
ciently occupied  all  the  Lower  Italy,  from  the 
Promontorium-  Circeeum,  down  to  the  straits  of 
Sicily,  but  were  afterwards  reduced  to  a  much 
narrower  compass  ;  viz.  between  the  Mootes 
Circsi  and  Massici :  nor  did  they  occupy  the 
whole  of  this,  but  other  people  were  intermixed. 

AUSONIA,  the  ancient  name  of  Italy,  from 
its  earliest  inhabitants  the  Ausones. 

AUSONIUM  Mare,  in  ancient  geography,  k 
part  of  the  Ionian  sea,  extending  southwards 
from  the  promontory  Japygium,  to  Sicily,  which 
it  washes  on  the  east,  as  it  does  the  Brutii  and 
Magna  Grsecia  on  the  south  and  east.  It  is 
separated  from  the  Tuscan  sea  by  the  straits  of 
Messioa. 

AUSONIUS  (Decius,  or  Dedmus  Magnus), 
one  of  the  best  poets  of  the  fourth  century,  was 
the  son  of  an  eminent  phjrsician,  and  bom  at 
Bourdeaux.  Great  care  was  taken  of  his  edu- 
cation, either  because  his  genius  was  very  pro- 
nusing,  or  that  the  scheme  of  his  nativity,  wnich 
had  been  cast  by  his  grandfather,  made  them 
imagine  that  he  would  rise  to  great  honor.  He 
nade  an  uncommon  progress  in  classical  learn- 
ing; at  the  age  of  thirty  he  was  chosen  to  teach 
giammar  at  Bourdeaux ;  and  afterwards  pro- 


moted to  be  professor  of  rhetoric ;  'i\  which  office 
he  acquired  so  great  a  reputation  that  he  viras 
sent  for  to  be  preceptor  to  Gratian,  the  emperor 
Valentinian's  sou.  He  was  afterwards  appomted 
consul,  bv  his  pupil  Gratian,thenen;peror,  A.D. 
379;  ana  besides  the  dignity  of  questor,  to 
which  he  had  been  nominated  by  Valentinian, 
he  was  made  prefect  of  the  Prstorium  in  Italy 
and  Gaul,  after  that  prince's  death.  His  speech, 
returning  thanks  to  Gratian  on  his  promotion  to 
the  consulship,  is  highly  commended.  He  lived 
to  a  great  age.  The  emperor  Theodosius  had  a 
great  esteem  for  him,  and  pressed  him  to  publish 
his  poems.  There  is  a  great  inequality  in  his 
works,  and  in  his  style  there  is  a  harshness  which 
was  perhaps  rather  the  defect  of  the  times  he 
lived  in,  than  of  his  genius.  According  to  Lem- 
priere,  he  did  not  take  proper  time  to  correct  his 
poems,  but  hurried  them  to  publication^  which 
may  be  the  cause  of  many  fiiults.  One  valuable 
performance,  the  Consular  Fasti,  is  now  lost 
He  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  a  Chris- 
tian. The  best  edition  of  his  poems  is  that  of 
Amsterdam,  in  1671.  They  were  printed  at 
Paris,  with  a  French  translation,  in  1769. 

AusFEx,  a  name  originally  given  to  those  who 
were  afterwards  denominated  augurs.  It  is 
formed  from  avis,  a  bird,  and  inspicere,  to  in- 
spect ;  auspices,  q.  d.  avispices.  Some  will  have 
auspices  only  to  denote  those  who  foretold  future 
events  from  the  flight  of  birds. 
AUS'PICATE,  V.  &  a§.-v  Lat  aroMcx, from 
Aus'piCE,  f  avisy  a  bird,  the  oh- 

Aus'piCY,  vsolete    spicere,  to 

Aus'picious,  ilook;  to  take  fa- 

Aus'piciousLY.  J  vorable  omens  from 

birds ;  but  in  a  less  formal  and  official  manner 
than  by  augury.  To  foretel  good  fortune,  pros- 
perity, &c.  Auspicious  is  synonymous  witii  fa^ 
vorable^  prosperous. 

Know  thns  in  forth ; 
By  accident  most  strange,  bountifal  fortune 
(Now  my  dear  lady)  badi  mine  enemies 
Brought  to  this  shore  ,  and  by  my  presdeitcc 
I  find  my  lenith  doth  depend  upon 
A  most  iMpiciony  star ;  whose  infla«nce 
If  now  I  court  not,  but  omit,  my  fortunes 
Will  ever  after  droop.  Shakapeare,  Tempett. 

None  of  their  kindred  met ;  the  knot  they  ty 
Silent  y  content  with  Brutus  mupicjf, 

Maj^9  Luam,  book  ii. 
Thus  were  their  loves  mupieioudjf  begun. 
And  thns  with  secret  care  were  carried  on. 

Dryden^a  Fables. 
Skilled  m  the  wing'd  inhabitants  of  air. 
What  OMupUgt  their  notes  and  flight  declare 
O !  say^or  all  religious  rites  portend 
A  happy  voyage  an4  a  prosp*rous  end.        Jhydtn. 

But  so  may  he  live  long,  that  town  to  sway. 
Which  by  his  wapice  they  will  nobler  make. 
As  he  will  hatch  their  ashes  by  his  stay.  Id. 

AuspiciuM,  AuspicT,  the  same  with  Auguuy 
Serviui,  indeed,  distinguishes  between  auspic\ 
and  augury;  making  auspicy  comprehend  tlie 
consideration  of  all  things  ;  augury  only  of  cer- 
tain things. 

AUSFITZ,  a  town  of  Moravia,  in  the  circle 
of  Brunn,  belonging  to  the  prince  of  Lichten 
stein.    Here  are  held  large  cattle  markets  whici 


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are  attended  by  a  number  of  graziers  from  Hun- 
gary. Population  2215.  Forty-two  miles  S  .S.W. 
of  Olmutz. 

AUSTER,  one  of  the  four  cardinal  winds,  as 
Servius  calls  them,  blowing  from  the  south. 
AUSTE'RE,  -N  Lat.  amtena;  from  ovw, 
Auste'rely,  f  I  dry;  because  harsh  tastes 
Austere'ness,  1  dry  tlie  palate.  Harsh,  dis- 
Auster'ity.  J  agreeable  to  the  moral  taste, 
rigorous,  severe. 

My  unsoird  name^  th'  mutereneu  of  my  life, 
May  vouch  against  you ;  and  my  place  i'  th'  atate 
Will  so  your  acrusation  overweigh.  Shakapean, 

Now,  Marcus  Cato,  our  new  consul's  spy. 
What  is  your  sour  atittefity  sent  t'  explore  t 

BtnJonton, 
What  was  that  snaky-headed  Gorgon  shield 
That  wise  Minerva  wore,  nncon^uer'd  virgin. 
Wherewith  she  freez'd  her  foes  to  congeal'd  stone. 
But  rigid  looks  of  chaste  auaterity. 
And  noble  grace,  that  dash'd  brute  violence 
With  sudden  adoration  and  blank  awe  ?        MiUon, 

Th'  auttere  and  pond'ious  juices  they  sublime 
Make  them  ascend  the  porous  soil,  and  climb 
The  orange  tree,  the  citron,  and  the  lime. 

Biaekmare. 
Composed  in  gait, 
Aurtenlsf  grave  and  thoughtful,  on  hb  shield 
The  democratic  majesty  he  bore 
Of  Athens.  Glover'*  Leomdat,  book  vii. 

Austere  implies  also  rough  or  astringent. 
Thus  an  austere  taste  is  such  a  one  as  constringes 
the  mouth  or  tongue ;  as  that  of  unripe  fruits, 
harsh  wines,  vitriol,  alum,  &c.  Austere  sub- 
stances, says  Mr.  Chalmers,  differ  from  acerb 
ones,  fin  that  they  constringe  the  mouth  and 
tongue  less,  and  are  void  of  acidity. 

AUSTERLITZ,  or  Slawkow,  a  small  town 
of  Moravia,  in  the  circle  of  Brunn,  twelve  miles 
east  of  Brunn,  belonging  to  the  prince  of  Kaunitz 
Rielberg.  Population  about  1620.  This  town 
will  be  long*  memorable  in  history  for  the  great 
battle  fought  near  it  on  the  2d  of  December, 
1806,  the  anniversaiy  of  Buonaparte's  coronation, 
between  the  French  under  him,  and  the  united 
forces  of  Austria  and  Russia,  uqder  their  respec- 
tive emperors.  The  armies  it  appears  were 
nearly  equal,  being  about  70,000  men  each. 
Buonaparte,  by  feigning  a  retreat,  drew  the  allies 
to  a  spot  which  he  had  selected  for  giving  battle ; 
and  he  bivouacked  on  the  field,  after  having 
spent  most  of  the  night  in  giving  orders.  The 
battle  commenced  with  the  £rarning  light.  After 
a  cannonade' of  several  hours  the  allied  right  and 
eentre  were  routed ;  and  their  left,  which  had 
been  more  successful  in  the  outset,  was  compel- 
led to  give  way.  The  defeat  was  signal ;  but 
the  approach  of  night  prevented  pursuit ;  the  state 
of  the  roads  compelled  the  ^lies  to  abandon 
most  of  their  artillery,  and  forty  standards ;  all 
the  baggage  and  ammunition  of  the  allies,  and 
120  pieces  of  cannon,  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  French.  The  French  are  supposed  to  have 
lost  13,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded;  and 
the  Austro-Russians  three  times  the  number. 
It  is  certain  that  so  many  wounded  were  left  on 
the  field  by  the  allies,  that  they  could  not  all  be 
dressed  until  two  days  after  the  battle.  Near 
this  place  an  interviev^immediately  took  place  be- 
tween the  emperor  of  Austria  and  Buonaparte^  in 


a  mill,  and  the  preliminaries  of  an  humiliating 
peace  were  agreed  to.  But  the  emptror  Alex- 
ander refused  to  become  a  party  to  it,  and  suc- 
ceeded, though  under  every  difficulty,  in  effecting 
his  retreat  homeward. 

AUSTIN  (William),  an  English  author,  was  a 
barrister  of  Lincoln*s  Inn.  He  wrote  a  book  en- 
titled Hdbc  Homo,  or  the  Excellency  of  Women, 
12mo. ;  in  which  he  seems  to  have  borrowed 
veiy  freely  from  Agrippa's  Pe  Nobilitate  at  Prs- 
cellentia  Foeminei  Sexus.  He  wrote  also  Medi- 
tations on  the  principal  Fasts  and  Feasts  of  the 
Church,  which  were  published  in  folio,  1637, 
afier  bis  death. 

Austin  (St.)    See  Augustine,  St. 

AUSTRALASIA,  or  Australia,  is  a  new 
and  fifth  great  division  of  the  globe,  originally 
suggested  by  a  learned  foreigner,  M.  le  President 
de  Brosses  of  Paris ;  but  whose  principal  parts 
have  been  explored  by  Englishmen,  and  which 
has  been  colonised  solely  from  this  country.  It 
comprehends  a  tract  of  ocean,  bounded  on  the 
nortn  by  the  equator,  east  by  a  line  drawn  on 
the  186th  degree  of  cast  longitude,  to  the  55th 
degree  of  south  latitude,  south  by  the  55th 
parallel,  and  west  by  a  line  drawn  from  the 
north-west  Cape  of  Uapau,  on  the  east  of  the 
islands  of  Mysol,  Timorlaut  and  Ceram,  to  the 
65th  degree  of  east  longitude  on  the  55th 
parallel ;  making  an  irregular  four-sided  figure, 
extending  upwards  of  5000  miles  in  average 
breadth  from  east  to  west,  and  about  3200  miles 
from  north  to  south. 

Australasia  is,  therefore,  a  maritime  division  of 
the  globe,  in  distinction  from  the  older  terrene 
divisions  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America; 
^it  is,  altogether,  a  clas^cation  of  islands,  having 
no  one  continent  of  this  name,  including,  as  the 
other  divisions  of  the  world,  various  kingdoms 
circumscribed  by  one  shore;  so  fju*  it  is  an 
anomaly  in  geographical  classification.  *  But  in 
this  immense  extent  of  regions,  which  are  to 
form  the  object  of  researches  about  to  be  de- 
tailed,' says  M.  de  Brosses  (Histoire  des  Navi- 
gations aux  Terres  Australes),  '  how  numerous 
are  the  different  countries,  climates,  manners,  and 
races  of  mankind  1  The  sight  would  be  dazzled 
and  confounded  if  care  were  not  taken  to  re- 
lieve it,  and  fix  its  attention,  by  divisions  irarked 
from  distance  to  distance.'  On  these  grounds 
he  proposed,  together  with  a  classification  of  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  under  the  name  of  Poly- 
nesia, to  include  New  Holland,  New  Guinea, 
New  Zealand,  and  the  islands  in  their  neigh- 
bourhood, under  the  collective  name  of  Aus^ 
tralasia^an  arrangement  that  has  been  latterly 
adopted  by  most  respectable  writers.  Some 
have  preferred  the«term  Australia,  as  more  con- 
sonant to  the  primitive  appellation,  Terra  Aus- 
tralis,  or  Southern  Land. 

The  progress  of  the  discovery  <^  this  immense 
region  may  be  correctly  united,  with  the  common 
features  of  its  various  parts,  under  this  collective 
article.  The  history  of  particular  seUlements 
will  be  found  under  Botany  Bay,  New  Hol- 
land, Norfolk  Island,  Van  Diehen's  Land, 
&c.  in  their  alphabetical  positions  in  our  wo'k, 
We  present  the  reader  vfith  a  Chronological 
Table  of  the  discovery  of  the  islands  of  Australasia. 


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A  CJironological  Table  of  the  ditcovety  of  the  Itlandt  of  Aiulralatia. 


296 


NAME. 


Papua    or 
Guinea. 


New 


2.  New  Holland,      -< 


1526. 

Supposed  to 
be  uncertain — 
Marked 
Map  in  the  Bri- 
tish Museum  in 
1542;  first  au- 
thentic account 
of  its  being 
▼isited,  dated 
1606. 


3.  Solomon's  Islands, 
Of  which  the  prin- 
cipal are — 

Buonavista, 
Florida, 
Galera, 
Guadalcanar, 
Santa  Ysabel, 
San  Christoval, 
San  Catarina, 
Santa  Ana, 

4.  New  Hebrides, 
According  to  Cook, 
Tierra  dea  Espiritu 

Santo, 
St.  Bartholemew, 
MalUcola, 
Isle  of  Lepen, 
Aurora, 
Whitsuntide, 
Amtrym, 
Apee, 
Paoom, 
Three  Hills, 
Sandwich, 
Montagu, 
Hichinbrook, 
Shepherd's  Isles, 
Erromango, 
Tanna, 
Inmer, 
Annatom, 
Erronan, 


5.  New  Britain,  New 
Ireland,  ficc. ; 
group  not  fully 
ascertained.  To  the 
N.W.  are  the  Ad 
miralty  Isles. 


6.  Van  Diemen's  Land. 


New  Zealand,  hav- 
ing to  the  east  Chat- 
baym  Island. 


WHEN 
DISCOVERED. 


The   Portuguese,  under 
D.  Jorge  de  Meneses. 


The  Dutch,  in  the  Duy- 
xen  yacht.  About  the 
same  time  the  Spani- 
ards visited  it  under 
Torres,  and  F.  de  Qui- 
ros. 


1567. 


The  Spaniards,  under 
Alonso  de  MaBdana. 
Not  agUD  visited  until 
by  Carteret,  in  1767. 


1606. 


Black  Negroes;  much  resem- 
bling those  of  Guinea. 

D3.tto;  a  remarkably  barba- 
rous race; — *all  of  them  of 
the  most  unpleasant  look, 
and  the  worst  features  of 
any  people  I  ever  saw, 
though  I  have  seen  a  great 
variety  of  savages,'  says 
Dampier. 


The  Spaniards,  under  F. 
de  Quiros,  and  L.  V, 
de  Torres.— Explored 
by  Captain  Cook  in 
1774,  who  gave  them 
their  present  name. 


INHABITANTS. 


Inhabitants,        cannibals. 
Many  of   the    islands  very 
fertile.       Extend     from    S. 
lat.  5**  to  11°,  E.  long.  155* 
to  162°  3<y. 


Inhabitants,  more  civilised,  at 
Tanna  the  negro  ^character 
disappears.  The  country 
very  fruitful  and  agreeable; 
and,  in  some  of  them  laid 
out  in  well  fenced  planta- 
tions. Tlie  Terra  del  Es- 
piritu Santo,  the  principal  of 
the  group,  lies  in  S.  lat,  14° 
3(y,  E.  long.  167°  30'. 


1 


1616. 


1642— 
as  an  island 
in  1798. 


The  Spaniards,  under  L« 
Maire  and  Schouten. 


The  Dutch,  under  Abel 
Jansen  Tasman. — The 
British,  Capt.  Flinders 
and  Mr. 


1  1642. 
<  Chatliam 
i  island  in 
V1791. 


The  Dutch,  under  Abel 

Tasman. — By    Mr. 

Broughton  when  with 

Vancouver. 


Inhabitants  of  New  Britain 
and  Ireland  black  negroes. 
Inhabitants  of  the  Admiralty 
Isles  of  a  lighter  color,  and 
approaching  the  Malay  cha- 
racter. All  the  islands  fer- 
tile and  well  watered  :  lying 
hi  a  crescent,  whose  centre 
lies  in  S.  lat.  50^,  E.  long. 
150°. 

A  similar  race.  Called  after 
the  Dutch  governor  of  the 
East  Indies,  Anthony  Van 
Diemen. 

Inhabitants  remarkably  strong, 
active,  and  barbarous.  Have 
at  the  same  time  singular 
traces  of  civilisation  amongst 
them.  ■ 


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296  AUSTRALASIA. 

A  Chronological  Table  of  the  DUcovery  of  the  Idandt  of  Amtnhna—coiaiimtd. 


NAME. 

WHEN 
DISCOVERED. 

BT   WHOH. 

INHABITANTS. 

8.  St.  Paul  and  Am- 
sterdam   

9,  Kerguel€n*s    Land, 
or  Island  of  Desola- 
tion   

^        1696. 

Z       1772. 
<       1774. 

. 

The  Dutch,  under  Via- 
ming. 

The  French  nnder  M.  de 
Kerguelen. 

The  British,  under  Capt. 
Cook. 

Uninhabited.      Amsterdam    a 
volcanic  production,  if  not 
the    crater  of   an    immense 
volcano,  scarcely  cool,  and 
abounding    with    hot  water 
springs.    Seals  are  caught  on 
the  shore  in  large  quantities. 

Uninhabited  and  barren. 

Inhabitants,  afiable,  honest,  and 
of   light  compleition.     The 
country  comparatively  barren, 
occasionally  laid  out  in  plan- 
tations. 

10.  New  Caledonia. 

We  have  thus  exhibited  the  leading  features 
of  this  extensive  division  of  the  globe,  in  the 
order  in  which  they  became  known  to  Europe ; 
but  must  not  omit  to  notice  the  doral  reefs  and 
islets  with  which  the  Australasian  seas  abound. 
These  are  seen  in  every  league  of  sea,-  and  ac- 
cording to  Dalrymple,  in  '  all  stages'  of  their 
formation.  Capt.  Flinders,  who  was  wrecked  on 
one  of  them,  conjectures,  '  that  when  the  ani- 
malculae,  which  form  the  coral  at  tlie  bottom  of 
the  ocean,  cease  to  live,  their  structures  adhere 
to  each  other,  by  virtue  either  of  the  glutinous 
remains  within,  or  of  some  property  in  salt 
water ;  and  the  interstices  being  graduaily  filled 
up  with  sand  and  broken  pieces  of  coral  washed 
by  the  sea,  which  also  adhere,  a  mass  of  rock  is 
at  length  formed.  Future  races  of  these  ani- 
malcule erect  their  habitations  upon  the  rising 
bank,  and  die  in  their  turn,  to  increase,  but 
principally  to  elevatcf  this  monument  of  their 
wonderful  labors.'  It  is  pretty  well  authenti- 
cated that  these  submarine  laborers  uniformly 
build  the  outer  part  of  their  erection  perpen- 
dicularly from  the  very  bottom  of  the  deepest 
seas.  As  it  rises  to  the  surface,  and  out  of  the 
water,  salt  plante,  vegetable  matter  of  various 
descriptions,  floating  wreck  and  other  accumula- 
tions attach  themselves  to  it ;  '  we  had  wheat- 
sheafs,  mushrooms,  stag's  horns,  cabbage-leaves, 
and  a  variety  of  other  forms,  glowing  under 
water,'  says  Capt.  Flinders,  *  with  vivid  tints  of 
every  shade  betwixt  green,  purple,  brown,  and 
white.'  The  dung  of  birds  and  the  various  seeds 
and  other  food  they  occasionally  scatter,  are 
fruitful  sources  of  the  growth  of  these  extraordi- 
nary productions  of  the  deep;  some  are  seen 
considerably  below  the  water,  others  just  ap 
pearing  above  its  surface ;  some  as  barren  rocKS 
with  no  indications  of  soil ;  others  vrith  a  thin 
layer  of  earth,  or  a  few  weeds  on  the  highest 
part ;  and  others,  again,  well  clothed  vrith  soil 
and  even  with  timber.  ■  The  recent  navigator  of 
these  seas,  whom  we  have  quoted,  describes 
himself  as  having  to  seek  fourteen  days,  and 
sail  upwards  of  500  miles  amongst  that  range  of 
these  ree&  and  islets  which  environs  the  eastern 
coast  of  New  Holland,  before  he  could  find  a 
passage  through  them  to  the  open  sea. 


In  no  part  of  the  globe  can  greater  extremes 
of  barrenness  and  fertility  occur  than  in  the 
various  islands  comprehended  in  Australasia. 
On  the  shores  of  New  Holland,  its  most  pro- 
minent feature,  we  find  fhiitfiil  plains  covered 
with  verdure  eastward,  and  on  tne  soilth  and 
south-western  coast  nothing  but  naked  hillocks 
of  sand ;  '  so  uniform,'  says  M.  D'£ntiecasseaux, 
'that  the  most  fruitful  imagination  could  find 
nothing  to  say  of  it.'  This  island,  indeed,  if 
such  it  is  to  be  called,  almost  equal  in  size  to 
the  whole  of  continental  Europe,  presents  of 
itself  an  unequalled  and  almost  unexplored  field 
for  geological  enquiry;  the  outline  of  the  western 
coast  is  not  filled  up ;  and  some  recent  journeys 
into  the  interior,  from  our  colony  on  the  eastern 
shore,  have  disclosed  an  extensive  series  of  as 
promising  lands,  watered  by  some  noble  rivers, 
within  140  miles  of  Sidney,  as  are  found  in  any 
part  of  the  world.    See  New  Holland. 

The  natives  of  Australasia  are  for  the  major 
part,  of  a  decisively  African  or  negro  character ; 
and  nowhere  is  human  nature  found  in  a  more 
degraded  state.  An  enormous  head,  flat  coun- 
tenance, and  long,  slender  extremities,  mark 
their  physical  conformation,  together  with  an 
acuteness  of  sight  and  hearing ;  but,  often  half- 
starvied,  their  strength  is  generally  less  than  that 
of  the  inhabitants  of  other  climes.  In  no  part 
of  these  seas  is  the  population  great.  Not  more 
than  20,000  inhabitants  have  been  seen  on 
all  the  coasts  of  these  islands  taken  together. 
Of  natural  affections,  little,  of  course,  appears, 
and  of  religion,  absolutely  nothing.  Mothers 
have  scarcely  the  regard  of  the  brute  creation 
for  their  offspring.  They  will  commonly  procure 
abortion  by  violent  means ;  and  sometimes  adopt 
the  horrible  expedient  of  burying  their  children 
alive,  to  be  freed  of  the  trouble  of  them.  An 
inhabitant  of  New  Holland  knocks  down  the 
woman  of  his  choice  with  a  club,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  her  friends,  and  takes  her  into  the 
woods,  while  in  a  state  of  insensibility.  Here 
the  alliance  is  preserved  as  lo'ng  as  he  finds  it 
convenient ;  he  then  deserts  her  for  a  new  wife, 
who  is  similarly  obtained. 

No  quadrupeds  larger  than  the  kangaroo  are 
found  here,  and  none  whatever  in  many  of  the 


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297 


This  animal  was  first  described   by 
3ook,  who  found  it  while  with  a  shooting 
the  coast  of  New  South  Wales  in  1770. 
diar  to  this  part  of  the  worlds  but  has 
id  to  breed  well  in  England.    There  is 
mall  animal  peculiar  to  Australasia, 
16  wombat,  of  the  bear  tribe,  but  re- 
r  tame.    The  most  extraordinary  animal, 
;  of  this,  or  perhaps  of  any  6ther  region, 
oithoryneus  paradoxus,  or  duck-bill ;  a 
jed  with  the  beak  of  a  duck.    Dr.  Shaw 
jftonished  at  this  apparent  mixture  of  bird 
idruped  in  its  formation,  that  when  the 
Inmen  was  exhibited  to  him  at  the  Bri- 
be suspected  it  to  be  an  attempt 
<  Nor  is  it  without  a  minute  ex- 
says  this  distinguished  naturalist, 
can  persuade  ourselves  of  its  being  the 
noul  of  a  quadruped.    The  body  is  de- 
l  has  some  resemblance  to  that  of  an 
I  miniature ;  it  is  covered  with  a  very 
of  beaver,  like  far,  and  is  of  a  mo- 
brown  color  above,  and  of  a  sub- 
I  white  beneath,  with  some  variety  as 
Iffity  of  color  in  different  animals.    The 
J  fiattish,  and  rather  small  than  large ;  the 
I ,  furry,  like  the  body,  rather  short  and  ob- 
j  ,&  an  almost  bifid  termination ;  it  is  broad 
libse,  and  gradually  lessens  to  the  tip.    The 
I  length  of  the  animal,  from  the  tip  of  the 
I »  the  end  of  the  tail,  seems  to  be  from 
I  or  fourteen,  to  eighteen  inches.    The  legs 
f  short,  terminating  in  a  broad  web,  and 
vhich  on  the  fore  feet  are  five  in  number, 
^  strong,  and  pointed ;  but  on  the  hind 
tfie  male,  axe  six  claws,  the  sixth  or  in- 
IM  being  seated  mach  higher  up  than  the 
d  resembling  a  long  sharp  spur.'  Dr.  Shaw 
CNcribed  this  animal  in  his  Naturalist's 
lany,  under  the  title  of  Platypus  animus, 
perous  tribes  of  beautiful  birds  are  seen 
1^  The  bird  of  Paradise,  so  long  spoken  of 
liope  as  wanting  feet ;  paiaquets,  cocka- 
-A  singular  species    of  cassowary,    and 
k  swan.    Immense  whales,  seals,  and  dol- 
»  crowd  upon  the  shores,  where  a  large 
fish  is  sometimes  seen,  having  the  ap- 
ace of  a  cask  upon  the  water,  and  stretching 
9  tentecula  to  tne  length  of  seven  or  eight 
.The  tribe  of  molluscas  is  also  singularly 
One  species  of  marine  fiicus  has  been 
<  to  reach  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  the 
ie,  on  a  stem  from  250  to  300  feet  in  length, 
botany  of  this  region  is  as  curious  and 
as  any  other  of  its  features.    Mr.  Brown, 


who  accompanied  Captain  Flinders,  and  who 
had  the  magnificent  botanical  collections  of  Sir 
Joseph  Banks  under  his  charge,  has  arranged  a 
Flora  Terr«  Australis,  containing  4,200  ipocies 
referable  to  120  natural  orders,  eleven  of  those 
orders  containing  about  half  the  species.  In 
Vsm  Dieman's  Land,  the  gum-tree  Cot  which  100 
different  species  are  found)  not  untrequentiy  at- 
tains the  height  of  150  feet,  vrith  a  girth  near  the 
base  of  from  twenty-five  to  forty  feet.  The  gum 
of  this  tree  is  medicinal,  and  that  of  one  spe- 
cies makes  very  good  pitch.  It  also  furnishes, 
together  with  uie  sasuarina,  excellent  timber  for 
ship-building,  agricultural  implements,  or  d<H 
mestic  furniture. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  supposed 
existence  of  an  immense  continent  in  the  Sou- 
thern Ocean  first  invited  the  navigators  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  to  explore 
these  important  islands ;  nor  was  the  idea  of  its 
existence  wholly  abandoned  until  the  discoveries 
of  Captain  Cook.  The  name  of  Tena  Aus- 
tralis Incognita  was  given  to  this  feature  of 
science ;  and  upon  no  point  were  geographers 
more  agreed  than  respecting  its  existence,  although 
its  limits  were  variously  defined.  Even  in  the 
year  1770,  *  the  great  southern  continent'  was 
declared  by  Mr.  Dalrymple,  in  his  Historical 
Collections,  to  be  no  longer  a  matter  '  for  dis- 
covery;' that  *it  extended  from  30°  south,  to 
the  pole ;  and  that  the  number  of  its  inhabitants 
.  was  probably  more  than  50,000,000 ;'  while  « the 
countries  intermediate'  between  the  east  and 
west  points,  *  equal  in  extent  all  the  civilised 
part  of  Asia,  from  Turke]r  to  China  inclusive.' 
Thus  the  supposed  extension  of  the  East  Indies 
round  to  the  west,  allured  Columbus  to  the  ar- 
duous enterprise  Uiat  resulted  in  the  discovery 
of  the  western  world ;  and  thus  some  harmless 
erron,  pursued  with  humility,  are  kindly  allowed 
by  providence  to  lead  us  to  truth. 

Australis  CoEONA.  See  Coroka  Attstbalis. 

Australis  IPisces,  the  Southern  Fish,  is  a 
constellation  of  the  southern  hemis^ere,  not 
visible  in  our  latitude:  whose  stars,  in  Ptolemy's 
catalogue,  are  eighteen,  and  in  the  Britannic 
catalogue,  twen^-four. 

AUSTRALIZE.  From  atater,  the  south.  To 
pCMnt  towards  the  south. 

Steel  and  good  iron  discover  a  vexticity,  or  polar 
faculty ;  whereby  they  do  teptentriate  at  one  extreme, 
and  tmttrahne  at  another.        Broum't  Vmlga/r  Enoun, 

AUSTRASIA,  the  ancient  name  of,  1.  Lor- 
raine, in  France;  and,  2.  of  Westrick,  in  Ger- 
many. 


AUSTRIA. 


^STRIA,  in  geography,  a  country  of  Ger- 

the  Upper  Pannonia  of  the  ancients,  de^ 

its  mooem  name  from  the  French  and 

liptX)nunciation  of  CElsterich ;  in  High  Ger- 

[CEsterreich ;  a  name  which   signifies  the 

kingdom,  alluding  to  the  geographical 

i  of  the  province  with  respect  to  the  more 

parts  of    Germany,    and  which  was 

Uy  applied  to  the  circle  of  Austria,  the 

possession  of  the  first  grand  dukes. 


The  Circle  of  Austria  is  the  largest  of  the 
ten  circles  or  divisions  of  the  Qerman  empire, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Hungary,  south  by 
Italy  and  Croatia,  west  by  Switzerland^  and 
north  by  Suabia,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  It 
compr^ends  Austria  Proper,  Styria,  Carintliia, 
and  Camiola  dutchies,  the  countiy  of  Tyrol,  the 
principalities  of  Brixen  and  Trent,  part  of  Friuli 
and  the  littorale,  Voralberg,  certain  districts  in 
Suabia,  and  several  domains  belonging  to  the 


ittofah 


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Teutonic  order ;  together  with  Saltzburg  aud  part 
of  Paasau,  which  have  been  added  since  1802. 
Of  this  eiitensive  circle,  the  four  general  divi- 
sions of  Upper  Lower,  Anterior,  and  Interior 
Austria  have  been  formed,  corresponding  with 
their  administration  by  the  chancei^  at  Vienna; 
the  whole  including  an  area  of  29,940  squara 
miles,  and  a  population  of  nearly  5,000,000. 
The  Archduchy  of  Austria^ othSerwisd  c^led 
Austria  Proper,  or  the  Hereditary  States  of  the 
house  of  Austria,  forms  the  upper  and  lower  di- 
visions of  this  circle,  into  which  it  is  divided  by 
the  flowing  of  the  river  Ens.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Bohemia  and  Mofavia,  on  the  east 
by  Hungary,  on  the  south  by  Styria,  and  on 
the  west  by  Saltzburg  and  mvaria,  compre- 
hending an  area  of  12,092  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  nearly  two  millions  of  inhabitaats. 
Of  the  two  divisions  of  this  archduchjr.  Lower 
Austria  is  the  most  important,  containing,  on  a 
surfeoe  of  7788  square  miles,  thirty-eight  cities, 
241  towns,  4327  villages;  and  by  the  last  census, 
1,100,000  inhabitants.  It  is  made  to  consist  of 
four  subordinate,  divisions,  lying  upon  the  two 
opposite  banks  of  the  Danube.  On  the  south 
bank  the  quarter  <  above  the  forest  of  Vienna,' 
and  <  the  quarter  below  the  forest  of  Vienna.' 
On  the  noflb  bank  the  quarter  'above  the 
Mannhartsberg,'  and  '  the  quarter  below  Mann^ 
hartsberg.'.  Upper  Austria,  containing  an  area  of 
5104  square  miles,  and  including  fourteen  cities, 
ninety-two  towns,  6411  villages;  and,  according 
to  the  late  census,  629,945  population;  is  also  di- 
vided into  four  subordinate  territories,  those  of 


the  Traun,  Hansruck,  and  Inn,  on  Jie  south  bank 
of  the  Danube,  and  that  of  Muhl  on  the  north. 
The  archdukes  of  Austria  were  originally  ex- 
empt from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  high  courts  of 
the  empire,  took  precedency  of  princes  of  the 
blood,  and  had  the  power  of  creating  counts, 
barons,  and  other  nobility.  '  According  to  the 
Pragmatic  sanction  of  1713,  the  successkMi 
to  this  archduchy  is  hereditary,  females  not  ex- 
cluded. The  revenue  is  about  24,000,000 
florins,  20,000,000  of  which  are  contributed  by 
the  country  below  the  Ens.  The  states,  how- 
ever, assemble  but  seldom,  and  have  but  a  very 
contracted  influence  in  the  managemeiit  of  na- 
tional concerns. 

The  Empirb  of  Austria,  besides  the  pro- 
vinces of  the  same  name,  imduding  the  arch- 
duchy and  other  territories  described  above, 
comprehends  many  kncient  kingdoms  and  stales 
which  were  originally  indepeiident.  It  is  situated 
in  the  middle  of  eastern  Europe,  and  is  bounded 
by  Piedmont,  Switzerland,-  and  Bavaria,  on  the 
west;  Bavaria,  Silesia,  and  Poland  on  the  xSorth; 
Russia,  Moldavia,  and  Wallachia,  on  the  east; 
Turkey,  the  Adriatic,  and  Middle  Italy  on  the 
south.  The  northern  part  of  the  empire  stretches 
into  Bohemia,  and  tne  southern  mto  the  ter- 
ritory of  Cattaro,  in  the  regiop  of  Dalmatia.  It 
has  tecei?ed  several  augmentations  of  territory  at 
differept  periods,  and  includes  a  number  of  na- 
tions, alt  differing  in  their  lineage,  customs, 
languages,  and  habits,  but  forming  one  solid 
and  compact  political  body,  and  ftubsistiDg  ai 
present  under  one  general  name. 


The  following  table  presents  a  view  of  its  great  component  parts,  as  settled  by  the 
last  peace,  or  in  1816 : — 


COtTNTRIBS. 

Square  Miles. 

Compated  Re- 
venue in  Ster- 
ling Money. 

Circle  of  Austria       ....•,... 
Saluburg,  Berchtolsgade,  and  Pawau  .    .    . 
Bohemia 

45,760 

4,378 

•20,900 

10,296 
1,826 

53,400 

130,920 

15,136 
8,052 

4,400 

1,320 

4,222,700 
255,000 

3,112,000 

1,364,000 
286,000 

4,934,000 

9,400,000 

1      2,894,000 

1,350,000 
108,700 

£4,000,000 

140,000 

2,000,000 

700,000 

150,000^ 

1,600,000 

1,800,000 

1,500,000 

400,000 
20,000 

Moravia 

Austrian  Silesia 

Galicia,  with  the  Bukowine 

Hungary,  including  Transylvania,  Sclavonia,  1 

and  Austrian  Croatia      .  , 5 

Venetian  territories,  including  Istria     .    .    . 
Dalmatia,  with  Cattaro,  Ragusa,  and  the  islands 
Lombardy,  viz.  the  territories  of  Milan  and  7 

Mantua y 

Lordships  of  Valteline,  Bormio,and  Chiavenne. 

Total  in  round  numbers 

300,000 

28,000,000 

12,000,000 

In  1818,  Mr.  Lichtenstem  states  the  extent  of  the 
empire,  exclusively  of  the  dependent  states,  at 
250,000  square  English  miles;  and  the  population 
at  28,207,882. 

The  natural  features  of  Austria  am  very 
magnificent ;  the  soulbem  parts  highly  romantic : 
the  scenes  and  landscapes  of  Carinthia,  CamioU, 
and  Dalmatia,  have  long  been  celebrated  as 
some  of  the  roost  perfect  m  the  Alpine  regions ; 


whilst  detached  hills  and  chains  of  mountains 
bulge  in  irregular  figures  all  over  the  northern  dis- 
tricts, uniting  themselves  with  the  great  Carpathian 
chwn,  the  oatural  boundary  of  Hungary  and 
Transvlvania.  But  the  Tyrol  stands  pre-emi- 
nent for  its  rich  variety  of  picturesque  scenery. 
Bold  mountains  and  defiles,  lakes  and  glaciers, 
cataracts  and  cascades,  rivers,  woods,  and  val- 
leys, shaded  with  great  beauty,  bestowed  in  the 


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dlffarent  grounds  of  the  picture,  irregularly 
grouped  and  brought,  unite  in  the  same  sweep  of 
prospect,  and  overwhelm  tlie  mind  of  the  spec- 
tator with  unutterable  emotions. 

The  highest  mountains  belong  to  the  central 
part  of  the  empire;  namely,  to  Styria,  Carin- 
thia,  and  Camiola,  where  they  frequently  reach 
the  height  of  4000  feet.  The  snowy  mountain, 
in  the  hereditary  states,  is  of  vast  altitude,  and 
may  be  seen  from  the  ramparts  of  Vienna  every 
dear  day.  The  elevated  ramifications  of  the 
Alps  and  Carpathian  mountains,  with  the  cir- 
cukr  barrier  of  Bohemia  and  other  ranges, 
spread  themselves  over  very  extensive  regions  of 
the  Austrian  empire,  and  under  various  names 
and  forms  stretch  from  the  borders  of  Switzer- 
land to  the  confines  of  Russia. 

The  interior  of  Austria  is  mtersected  by 
noble  rivers.  '  The  Danube  is  altogether,  per* 
haps,  the  most  rapid  and  majestic.  This 
river,  winding  its  course  from  tlie  north-west  to 
the  south-east,  divides  the  whole  empire  into 
two  distinct  parts.  It  receives  into  its  bosom  up- 
wards  of  forty  tributary  streams  before  it  enters 
the  Austrian  dominions,  and  afterwards  an  acces- 
sion of  one  hundred  more  before  it  enters  the  £ux 
ine  Sea.  The  rivers  that  empty  themselves  into 
this  grand  emporium  of  waters  are  many  of  them 
of  considerable  magnitude,  and  chiefly  take  their 
rise  in  the  mountains  already  enumerated.  The 
Thesis  originates  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Car- 
pathian range,  and  is  at  first  a  fine,  clear,  and 
ranid  stream.  It  flows  four  degrees  east  longi- 
tude, and  then  turning  south,  crosses  Hungary, 
receiving  the  Maros,  Koros,  and  othei  tributary 
accessions,  and  enters  the  Danube  near  the  city 
of  Belgrade.  The  river  Save  is  formed  by  nu- 
merous mountain  torrents  descending  from  the 
summits  of  Tyrol.  It  flows  along  the  southern 
border  of  the  Austrian  dominions,  and  enters 
the  Danube  a  little  below  the  Thesis.  The 
Drave  originates  in  the  streams  and  cataracts  of 
the  mountains  of  Carinthia,  and  receives  the 
Muhr  at  Legrad,  which  conveys  the  waters  from 
the  northern  summits  of  Styria.  Crossing  these 
two  beautiful  provinces,  and  fonning  the  sepa- 
rating boundary  between  Croatia  and  Hungary, 
it  fiUto  into  the  Danube  below  Esseck.  The 
Inn,  rising  in  the  devated  regions  of  the 
Swiss  Alps,  and  descending  to  Uie  north-east 
through  the  kingdom  of  Iktvaria,  forms  the 
western  boundary  of  the  empire,  and  enters  the 
Danube  at  Passau.  The  Raab  and  Leytha 
rise  in  the  western  parts  of  Hungary,  and  MX 
into  the  Save;  the  former  near  Komora,  and 
the  latter  at  Presbuig.  The  Morava,  or  March, 
from  which  Moravia  derives  its  name,  de- 
scends from  the  northern  extremity  of  that  pro- 
vince, and  proceeding  south,  fiaills  into  the  Da- 
nube west  of  Presburv.  The  Mulda  rises  in 
the  souUiem  regions  oi  Bohemia,  and  taking  a 
northerly  direction,  flows  into  die  Elbe.  The 
southern  parts  of  Austria  are  Watered  by  nu- 
merous important  streams  and  rivers,  which 
originate  in  the  chain  of  mountains  that  encir- 
cles the  north  of  Italy,  are  cherished  by  the 
overflowings  of  those  lakes  that  Yie  upon  its  bosom, 
and  are  poured  over  the  summits  of  that  lofty 
range  in  Ming  torrenti  and  beautiful  cascades. 


The  Adige  and  the  Fo  will  be  described  in  our 
view  of  Italy.  The»  Piave  rises  in  the  over- 
flowings of  the  sub-alpine  lakes,  and  descends 
througn  the  territory  of  Brixen  and  the  province 
of  Treviso,  into  the  Gulf  of  Venice.  The  Tesino 
rises  in  St.  Gothard  mountain,  and  forms  the 
south-western  boundary  of  the  Austrian  ter- 
ritory, flowing  through  the  country  of  Gris- 
sons,  the  lake  of  Maggiore,  and  the  Milanese 
territory ;  it  washes  the  walls  of  Pavia,  and  falls 
into  the  Po.  The  Adda  rises  in  Mount  Braulis 
in  the  country  of  the  Grissons,  and  after  flovring 
through  the  valley  of  Valteline,  falls  into  the 
lake  of  Como,  and  re-issuing  from  the  south- 
east arm  of  that  basin,  enters  the  Po  near  Cre- 
mona. The  Oglio  rises  in  the  Val  Camo- 
nica,  s^id  bending  to  the  south,  flows  through 
Venice  and  lake  Isero  to  the  duchy  of  Milan, 
and  then  winding  south-east,  crosses  the  duchy 
of  Mantua,  and  falls  into  the  Po  a  few  miles 
east  of  the  Adda.  The  greater  part  of  the  Aus- 
trian rivers  are  too  rapid,  and  too  much  impeded 
by  rocks  and  waterfiuls,  to  admit  of  any  exten- 
sive navigation ;  much,  however,  has  been  ei- 
fected  by  canals,  and  plans  of  the  most  gigantic 
kind  have  been  formea  for  connecting  the  great 
rivers  with  each  other,  and  thus  opening  a  com- 
munication between  the  interior  of  Austria  and 
all  the  maritime  kingdoms  of  Europe. 

The  lakes  of  Austria  are  numerous,  but  are 
inferios  to  those  of  Russia  and  Switzerland. 
They  chiefly  lie  upon  the  tops  of  mountains, 
or  pent  up  within  the  vallevs  and  intersections 
formed  by  the  bold  ridges  which  characterise  the 
scenery.  Those  on  the  south  side  of  the  great 
Alpine  range  are  considered  among  the  grandest 
specimens  of  picturesque  beauty  found  in  Europe. 
Ihey  form  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  land- 
scape, and  furnish  tl^t  delighlful  charm  which  so 
bewilders  and  astoni^es  the  traveller.  The  chief 
are  Maggiore,  or  I*ucamo,  Lugano,  Como, 
Lccca,  Iseo,  and  Gar  da.  Maggiore  is,  iiom  its. 
situation  and  figure,  regarded  as  Uie  most 
beautifol.  It  lies  embosomed  in  hills,  adorned 
with  orchards,  nurseries,  and  vineyards,  and  has 
its  summit  shaded  with  dark  thick  forests  of 
chestnutf-trees.  The  banks  are  spotted  with  co- 
vered avenues  in  trelUs-wock,  and  are  laid  with 
numerous  small  sheets  of  water,  while  the  lake 
itself  presents  a  dear  greenish  surface,  broken 
by  beautiful  islands  of  diflRerent  figures  and  di- 
mensions, embellished  with  numerous  temples 
and  gardens.  Lake  Como  is  almost  equally 
delightfiil.  It  lies  among  mountain  scenery 
perfectly  romantic,  and  is  celebrated  for  an  in- 
termitting spring  near  Tamo  and  the  ancient 
Caves  of  \^na.  The  lake  Lago  di  Garda  is 
diversified  with  small  islands,  capes,  pron^pn- 
tories,  and  peninsulas,  and  lies  sunk  in  hills 
richly  adorned  with  vines,  lemon,  orange, 
olive,  and  other  fruit-trees.  On  a  peninsula  of 
that  lake  lies  the  ancient  ruins  of  Sirmis,  so 
highly  celebrated  by  Catullus.  The  small,  but 
beautiful  Iseo,  is  less  than  the  othet  lakes,  but 
lies  amid  the  same  alpine  summits,  and  partici- 
pates of  the  same  delightful  scenery. 

The  climate  of  Austria  is  various,  and  in  ge- 
neral salubrious,  except  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  plains  and  marshes  where  the  miasma  often 


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proves  &tal.  In  the  southern  regions  it  is  warm^ 
and  produces  tiie  wines  and  ^uits  commonly 
found  in  the  upper  regions  of  Italy ;  but  in  the 
northern  parts,  comprising  Gallicia,  part  of 
Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia,  with  the  whole 
of  Austrian  Silesia,  the  cold  is  often  severe. 

The  soil  of  Austria  is  also  various,  including 
almost  every  species  from  the  most  barren  to 
the  most  fertile.  Sandy  plains  are  frequently 
found,  in  which  nothing  can  grow ;  whilst  the 
banks  of  the  Po  and  Danube  are,  in  point  of 
luxuriance,  scarcely  to  be  equalled.  Of  the  land 
of  Austria  not  less  than  24,000,000  joch,  each 
about  an  English  acre  and  a  half,  is  occupied  by 
forests.  These  are  in  general  of  the  finest  timber 
and  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  empire. 
That  of  Belevar  in  Hungary,  situated  on  the 
Drave,  consists  for  the  most  part  of  different 
species  of  oak  trees,  thousands  of  which,  at  a 
considerable  distance  above  the  root,  are  seven 
feet  in  diameter,  and  continue  nearly  the  same 
size  to  the  height  of  thirty,  forty,  and  even  fifty 
feet,  without  throwing  out  a  single  branch.  But 
though  Austria  is  wholly,  from  its  situation,  an 
agricultural  empire,  that  science  is  imperfectly 
understood;  and  the  late  improvements  are 
scarcely  known.  Even  endeavours  for  the  more 
extensive  promotion  of  agriculture  have  been  un- 
successful, owing  to  the  want  of  a  better  mode 
of  tenure  and  a  better  understanding  between 
the  cultivators  and  the  proprietors.  The  pro- 
ductions of  some  parts  of  the  empire  are  never- 
theless numerous  and  excellent,  embracmg  all 
that  can  administer  to  the  necessaries  and  even 
luxuries  of  life.  Austria  Proper  yields  com, 
wine,  and  fruits.  Bohemia  pulse,  grain,  hops, 
&c.  Hungary  produces  millet,  maize,  and  rice. 
Tlie  valleys  of  Camiola  produce  oil  and  excellent 
wine,  with  fruits,  millet,  and  fiax;  while  the 
sub-alpine  regions  yield  all  the  productions  of 
southern  climes,  abounding  in  oranges,  lemons, 
vines,  peaches,  figs,  and  tobacco.  From  a  re- 
cent calculation  by  M.  Blumenbach,  it  appears 
diiat  the  present  quantity  of  arable  land  in 
Austria  is  about  43,582,000  acres ;  of  which, 
allowing  one-third  for  fiiUow,  there  remains 
29,054,700  productive  acres ;  and  of  grain  alone 
the  annual  produce  has  been  calculated  at 
300,000,000  Winchester  bushels,  or  about  12-4 
for  every  acre.  The  land  in  Austria  devoted 
to  the  cultivation  of  wine  is  about  2,324,660 
acres,  and  the  produce  about  493,109,565  gal- 
lons, being  about  212  gallons  per  acre;  besides 
which,  the  vineyards  of  Smyrmiam  alone  yield 
70,000  eimers  of  spirit,  distilled  from  the  grapes, 
after  the  wine  has  been  drawn  from  them,  each 
eimer  equal  to  fifteen  English  gallons;  and  the 
same  spirit  is  produced  in  the  other  provinces  in 
equal  proportion.  The  whole  value  of  the  vege- 
table production  of  his  imperial  majesty's  domi- 
nions nas  been  estimated  at  the  annual  sum  of 
£68,500,000  sterling,  and  the  waste  lands  have 
been  calculated  at  25,271  English  square 
miles. 

The  domestic  animals  are  chiefly  horses, 
cattle,  bufiadoes,  sheep,  swine,  &c.  Efforts  have 
been  made  to  improve  the  breed  of  horses,  by  the 
introduction  of  the  Arabian  and  otlier  species 
amongst  thetn,  which  have  been  commonly  suc- 


cessfol.  The  emperor  established  a  breeding* 
stud  at  Mezbhegyes  in  Hungary,  about  the  year 
1783.  It  occupies  four  commons,  containing 
63,000  English  acres,  employs  500  men,  and 
furnishes  the  army  alone  with  1000  horses  an- 
nually. Attention  has  likewise  been  paid  to  the 
improvement  of  sheep,  and  of  the  wool  imported 
to  England,  as  Saxon,  a  great  part  is  the  produce 
of  the  Hungarian  flocks.  The  cattle  are  mostly 
of  a  bluish  slate-color;  they  feed  chiefly  in  the 
forests,  where  they  are  protected  firom  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  and  are  a  considerable  source  of 
wealth  to  the  inhabitants.  The  chief  wild  ani- 
mals of  Austria  are  those  common  on  the  Euro- 
pean continent,  consisting  chiefly  of  wolves, 
boars,  lynxes,  &c.  The  chunois  and  the  marmot 
are  common. 

Of  the  feathered  tribes  may  be  enumerated 
bustards  and  pelicans,  and  some  species  of  the 
falcon.  A  few  birds  are  also  found  upon  the 
mountains  of  Camiola,  which  are  peculiar. 

.The  mineral  riches  of  Austria  are  considerable, 
and  are  more  varied  and  important  than  those 
of  most  other  states  in  Europe.  Near  Kreronitz, 
in  Hungary,  are  mines  of  gold  and  silver.  Sflwet 
mines  are  also  found  in  Chemnitz,  about  twenty 
miles  south  of  the  latter.  Schmelnitz  and  Her- 
rengund  contain  valuable  mines  of  copper.  An- 
timony, coal,  salt,  and  alum  are  also  found  in 
different  parts  of  ^e  empire.  The  opal  is  a  mi- 
neral peculiar  to  Hungary,  and  as  a  gem  is  held  in 
high  estimation  throughout  the  east.  It  is  found 
in  the  mines  of  Kzerweriza,  east  of  Kremnitz,  in 
all  states  and  qualities,  from  the  semi-opal  to  the 
finest  and  most  valuable.  Gold  ore  is  obtained 
of  several  kinds.  The  sray  gold  ore  is  found  in 
the  Najiag,  north-east  of  Deva,  and  is  peculiarly 
rich.  The  white  gold  ore  is  found  a  kw  leagues 
north  of  Karlsbuig.  To  the  west  of  the  same 
town  are  mines  of  the  same  metal,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Zalantha.  To  the  north  of  the  province  are 
those  of  Kapnicfa,  and  in  the  southern  parts 
fresh  gold  mines  are  also  said  to  have  been  re- 
cently discovered.  Bohemia  contains  ancient 
mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  in  wfaicK 
are  found  perhaps  the  finest  garnets  in  the  world. 
S^ria  produces  the  finest  steel ;  and  mercury  is 
said  to  be  found  in  many  parts  of  the  empire. 
The  Austrian  mines  altogether  employ  more  than 
35,000  persons,  and  the  annual  produce  has  been 
calculated  at  2100  marks  of  gold,  93,000  of 
silver,  62,000  centvers  of  copper,  44,000  of  iron, 
and  23,000  of  lead.  Excellent  marble,  and  also 
mineral  springs,  are  common  in  many  parts  of 
Austria. 

Vienna,  the  capital,  and  centre  of  its  commerce^ 
lies  near  ihe  site  of  the  ancient  Vindobonay  to* 
wards  the  eastern  confines  of  Germany,  on  a 
plain  where  the  Vien  falls  into  the  Danube.  The 
whole  city  approaches  to  the  figure  of  a  cone,  of 
which  the  apex  is  formed  by  St.  Stephen's  church, 
and  the  circumference  by  the  basis  of  the  exter> 
nal  lines  of  the'fortification.  The  church  of  Sl 
Stephen  is  the  chief  ornament  of  the  city :  it  has 
a  beautiful  spire  covered  with  fretwork,  and  a 
roof  distinguished  by  the  finest  Mosaic  tiling. 
Thb  edifice  is  closely  connected  with  the  history 
of  Austria ;  and  their  chief  princes,  heroes,  and 
sages,  sleep  within  its  walls*    The  church  of  the 


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Augustine9|  and  the  imperial  palaces,  attract  con- 
siderable attention. 

Prague  is  the  second  city  in  Austria,  and  the 
capital  of  Bohemia,  containing  80,000  inhabitants. 
It  derives  its  name  from  a  bridge  which  crooes 
the  Mulda,  1800  feet  long  and  mirty-fiye  broad; 
on  the  battlements  of  which  are  thir^-two  sta- 
tues of  saints,  and  at  each  end  a  high  gothic 
tower  of  exquisite  architecture.  Its  buildings 
and  gardens  are  fine  and  numerous,  although  the 
former  are  many  of  them  in  ruins.  Its  univer- 
sity, which  was  founded  by  Charles  IV.  in  1347, 
was  long  considered  as  the  great  depository  of  Ger^ 
man  literature,  and  attended  by  40,000  students, 
but  now  can  scarcely  boast  the  attendance  of 
400  ragged  boys.  The  other  chief  towns  of 
Austria  are  Presbuigh,  the  capital  of  Hungary; 
Lemberg,  the  capiud  of  Galicia  or  Austrian 
Poland;  Gratz,  the  capital  pf  Styria;  Venice,  the 
capital  of  the  Venetian  territories;  Olmutz,  the 
ancient  oapital  of  Moravia;  Milan,  the  capi- 
tal of  tlie  late  kingdom  of  Italy;  Mantua, 
the  capital  of  the  Mantuan  territories;  Trent, 
Brescia,  Pavia,  Padua,  Verona,  Trieste,  lintz, 
Salubui^h,  Troppau,  Clausenburgh,  Carlstad^ 
Uermannstadt,  Toeplit^  and  (Edenburg,  Schem- 
nitz,  and  Kremnitz,  in  the  mining  districts; 
Brunn,  the  modem  capital  of  Moravia  and  De- 
bretzin ;  Pesh,  the  Tiansacincum  of  the  Romans; 
and  Buda,  sometimes  called  Offen-Buda,  the  last 
two  contiguous  to  each  other,  and  only  separated 
by  the  Danube.  They  are  often  regaided  as  one 
city,  and  considered  by  many  geographers  as  the 
capital  of  Hungaiy.  There  are  several  other 
considerable  towns,  though  of  inferior  impor- 
tance. 

The  chief  manufactures  of  Austria  are  cotton, 
thread,  linen,  lace,  silks,  stu£&,  stockings,  spiritu- 
ous liquors,  brass,  iron,  and  steel;  agricultural 
and  kitchen  utensils,  glass,  porcelain,  and  earthen- 
ware. The  manu^ture  of  some  of  these  is 
confined  to  particular  districts;  cotton  is  manu- 
factured chiefly  in  Austria  Proper,  where  the 
British  machinery  and  improvements  have  been 
introduced,  and  no  fewer  than  360,000  persons 
are  constantly  employed.  Linen  is  manufactured 
chiefly  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  although  some  of 
the  finest  qualities  are  obtained  from  Austrian 
Silesia,  where  upwards  of  80,000  pieces  are  pro- 
duced annually.  The  iron  forges  of  Austria  are 
about  1000,  and  are  chiefly  in  Bohemia,  in  the 
country  near  the  £nns,  and  in  Styria.  The  last 
of  these  contains  200  of  them,  and  produces 
14,000  tons  of  wrought  iron  and  steel  annually. 
The  steel  ware  of  Carlsbadt  is  in  high  repute  in 
many  parts  of  Europe.  Glass  and  porcelain 
manufactures  are  carried  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent in  several  parts  of  the  empire ;  of  the  former 
there  are  no  fewer  than  170  works;  nearly  one 
half  of  which  are  in  Bohemia,  where  magnificent 
services  and  beautiful  highly  finished  lustres  are 
made.  Plate  glass  is  carried  to  great  perfection 
at  Neuhaus.  Leather,  gunpowder,  tobacco, 
sugar,  and  cinnamon,  receive  considerable  atten- 
tion in  several  districts;  and  the  jewellers  of 
Vienna  are  much  renowned  for  polishing  pre- 
cious stones. 

From  a  jealousy  of  foreign  manufactures  there  is 
no  great  fair  held  in  the  Austrian  states,  except  at 


Botzen,  on  the  Italian  frontier ;  but  sereral  mar- 
kets have  been  instituted  for  the  interchange 
of  domestic  commodities.  The  rivers  of  Austria 
in  some  parts,  greatly  fisxilitate  and  improve  the 
inland  trade,  whilst  the  great  commercial  roads 
afford  the  means  of  supplying  even  the  secluded 
inhabitants  of  the  Alps  with  adl  the  comforts  and 
conveniences  of  life.  The  chief  imports  of 
Austria  consist  of  the  raw  materials,  as  wool, 
cotton,  raw  silk,  drugs,  oil,  rice,  and  spices^ 
received  chiefly  from  the  Levant.  They  export 
their  own  manufactures.  Austrian  consuls  have 
been  placed  about  the  Levant  and  other  parts  of 
the  Mediterranean,  under  the  protection  of  Tri- 
este and  Constantinople,  for  the  advantage  of 
commerce ;  and  the  Greek  merchants,  who  trade 
with  them,  are  obliged,  as  a  security  to  the  state, 
to  have  a  certain  proportion  of  visible  property 
in  the  empire. 

Tlie  established  religion  of  Austria  is  the 
catholic,  but  since  the  time  of  Joseph  11.  full 
toleration  has  been  granted  to  all  religious  pro- 
fessions; and  in  Hungary,  Transylvania,  and 
Sclavonia,  members  of  Sie  Protestant  and  Greek 
churches  are  numerous,  and  are  settled  in  the 
enjoyment  of  considerable  privileges.  The  ec- 
clesiastical establishment  has  nine  archbishops, 
Tiz.  those  of  Vienna,  Gran,  Kolocza,  Prague, 
Lemberg,  or  Leopold,  Olmutz,  Layback,  Udina, 
and  Milan.  Under  diese  there  are  above  thirtv 
Catholic  bishops,  and  six  of  the  united  Greek 
church.  The  archbishop  of  the  pure  Greek 
church  has  his  seat  at  Carlowitz,  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Sclavonia,  and  has  nine  suffragans  under 
nim.  The  archbi^^op  of  Gran  is  3ie  metro- 
politan of  Hungaiy,  and  by  virtue  of  his  office  is 
lord  lieutenant,  primate,  and  chancellor  of  the 
kingdom.  He  has  power  to  create  nobility  within 
his  own  archi-episcopal  dominions,  and  pos- 
sesses an  annual  revenue  of  £36,000  sterling. 
The  emperor  is  considered  as  the  head  of  the 
church,  and  in  Hungary  is  considered  as  pope.  He 
appoints  bishops,  regulates  their  income^  esta- 
blishes or  suppresses  monasteries  at  his  pleasure, 
and  frequently  applies  their  revenues  to  other 
purposes. 

In  point  of  literature  Austria  is,  at  present, 
greatly  behind  the  other  provinces  of  Germany, 
owii^  to  the  unpolished  state  of  the  languages; 
their  want  of  connexion  with  the  more  refined 
and  classical  tongues  of  Europe,  together  with  the 
restrictions  of  government.  The  influence  of 
bigotry,  too,  has  often  blasted  the  bud  of  genius, 
and  neutralized  ever^  effort  to  promote  its  deve- 
lopment and  perfection.  There  are,  however,  a 
few  names  of  eminence  in  various  departments  of 
knowledge ;  and  the  arts  and  sciences  are  now 
said  to  be  upon  the  advance  in  Austria,  but  in  the 
fine  arts,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  an  eminent 
sculptor  or  a  good  painter.  Architecture  b  so 
little  cultivated,  that  their  best  public  buildings 
are  generally  planned  by  foreigners.  In  the 
mechanical  arts  they  have  evinced  considerable 
native  genius;  but  like  that  of  the  Germans,  gene- 
rally, its  efforts  have  seldom  been  directed  to  any 
usefiil  purpose.  One  mechanic  has  constructed 
a  machine  that  performs  all  the  functions  of 
an  expert  chess  player;  another  has  made  a  head 
capable  of  imitating  all  .the  varied  sounds  of  the 


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huilian  voice;  and  a  third  has  invented  an  instm- 
cneilt  thai  emits,  simultaneously,  all  the  sounds 
of  music.  In  the  latter  science  they  have  been 
thought  to  excel,  and  the  names  of  Hadyn  and 
Mozart,  whose  powers  and  taste  were  formed  at 
Vienna,  have  sufiiciently  established  their  na- 
tional &me.  In  mathematics,  -astronomy,  and 
botany,  ^they  have  also  succeeded  to  a  certain 
extent;  and  amongst  the  numerous  professors  of 
these  sciences,  Burice,  and  the  Abbe  Treisnecker, 
have  eminently  distinguished  themselves.  But 
education,  and  consequently  general  knowledge, 
in  Austria  has  been  mi^ch  neglected.  The  em- 
press Maria  Theresa,  who  patronised  learning, 
established  schools  in  every  part  of  the  empire ; 
which,  with  others  that  have  since  been  added, 
have  in  a  measure  relieved  the  intellectual  gloom 
which  for  so  long  a  period  shrouded  the  south  of 
Germany.  Universities,  lyceums,  district  acade- 
mies, gymnasiums,  Latin  schools,  schools  'for 
teaching  their  native  tongue,  schools  for  diiftis- 
ing  the  elements  of  religion,  are  now  universal; 
and  are  supported  at  the  expense  of  government. 
The  young  men  are  compelled  to  attend  the  line 
of  study  marked  out  for  them,  under  pain  of 
forfeiting  all  civil  offices  and  employments. 

In  Vienna,  alone,  are  sixty  schools  for  instruct- 
ing the  poor  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic ; 
one  normal  school,  preparatory  to  the  gymnasium ; 
three  gymnasia,  in  which  the  studies  prescribed 
by  government  are,  mathematics,  geography,  his- 
tory, natural  history,  arithmetic,  composition, 
classics,  and  religion;  the Ttieresian academy,  for 
the  sons  of  'the  Catholic  nobility  and  foreigners 
of  distinction,  under  the  care  of  a  director, 
twenty-one  professors,  ten  masters  of  modem 
languages,  and  severed  additional  tutors ;  and  an 
university,  provided  with  forty-five  professors, 
extra  teachers,  &c.  The  school  of  surgery  at 
Vienna,  is  considerable ;  there  are  also  imperial 
medical  academies,  imperial  military  academies, 
imperial  polytechnic  schools,  for  teaehing  the 
scientific  principles  of  all  trades  and  manufac- 
tures, and  an  imperial  academy  of  oriental  lan- 
guages. Tlieir  universities,  besides  Vienna,  are 
Prague,  Pesh,  Erlau,  Lemberg,  Milan,  Mantua, 
Padua,  and  Pavia.  To  many  of  these  public 
institutions  are  attached  extensive  libraries. 
That  connected  with  the  university  of  Vienna 
contains  90,000  volumes,  and  the  Imperial 
library  upwards  of  200,000.  The  doors  of  the 
latter  are  regularly  open  several  hours  in  the  day 
for  the  use  of  the  citizens,  who  are  permitted  to 
read  any  of  the  vohimes  in  apartments  provided 
for  that  purpose. 

The  languages  of  Austria  are  several,  of  which 
the  Gothic  or  German  is  most  prevalent.  The 
Sclavonic  is  common  in  part  of  Hungary,  Ga- 
licia,  Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  The  proper  Hun- 
garian is  a  dialect  of  the  Scythian.  Latin  is  also 
spoken  in  Hungary ;  and  on  the  borders  of  Tur- 
key the  Walachian  language,  which  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Latin,  is  prevalent.  The  It^ian  is 
the  common  language  of  the  southern  provinces, 
and  French  is  spoken  by  the  higher  classes. 

The  Austrians  are,  generally  speaking,  hand- 
some &nd  athletic,  of  German  on^,  mixed  in- 
sensibly with  the  native  inhabitants  of  Italy, 
Hongary,  and  Bohemia.    The  grand  German 


outline  is  itill  visible,  accompanied  witih  the 
darker  complexion,  bolder  features,  blacker  «yes, 
and  more  animated  expression,  which  distinguish 
the  countenance  of  the  Austrian  from  those  of  his 
northern  neighbours.  They  are  a  sensual  people, 
but  sensuality  never  enervates  them.  They  pos- 
sess an  instinctive  indifference  to  what  would 
excite  all  the  passions  of  an  Englishman,  and 
would  rush  from  the  ball  to  the  battle,  from  the 
comic  theatre  to  the  field  of  blood,  with  apparent 
indifi*erence ;  owing  not  to  phlegmatic  coldness, 
but  to  a  peculiar  felicity  of  temperament,  which 
nature  has  conferred  upon  the  constitution  of  tlie 
Austrian,  by  which  he  possesses  an  astonishing 
power  of  forbearance  and  self-command.  The 
persons,  manners,  and  accomplbhments  of  the 
Austrian  females  have  considerably  attracted  the 
attention  of  modem  travellers,  and  have  called 
forth  some  very  lively  and  pertinent  remarks 
from  the  pen  ot  Mr.  Lemaistre.  'The  Austrian 
ladies,'  says  he, '  are  the  handsomest  women  I 
have  seen  on  the  continent ;  their  countenances 
are  expressive,  and  their  complexions  uncom- 
monly fiiir.  In  beauty  they  are  exceeded  by  no 
females  in  Europe;  excepting  only  our  own 
country-women,  whose  unrivalled  superiority  I 
believe  is  universally  acknowledged.  In  man- 
ner they  are  elegant,  and  in  conversation  livdy 
and  well  informed.  Much  greater  attention 
seems  to  have  been  paid  to  their  education,  than 
is  usual  in  other  parts  of  the  continent :  all  of 
them  speak  French  with  as  much  fluency  as 
German,  and  some  are  proficients  in  English. 
The  best  works  in  these  languages  are  fiimiliar  to 
them.  They  are  completely  free  from  pedantry ; 
and  I  have  had  frequent  reason  to  admire  die 
taste  and  knowledge  displayed  in  their  remarks.' 
But  as  Austria  is  composed  of  separate  kingdoms 
and  states,  whose  manners  and  habits  are  many 
of  them  peculiar,  we  defer  further  particular  ob- 
servations on  this  till  we  come  to  treat  of  those 
states  separately. 

If  we  except  Bohemia,  Moravia,  the  northern 
parts  of  Austria,  and  a  part  of  Hungary,  this 
kingdom  formed  an  integral  part  of  the  lioman 
empire,  and  abounds  in  antiquities  and  curiositien 
both  natural  and  artificial.  Castles,  churehes, 
and  monasteries  are  common  everywhere,  whilst 
the  southern  parts,  being  near  the  centre  of 
Roman  power,  are  proportionably  rich  in  ancient 
remains.  The  amphitheatre  of  rola,  about  forty 
miles  south  of  Trieste,  stands  near  the  extremity 
of  a  small  peninsula,  on  the  easterti  shore  of  the 
Adriatic.  This  ancient  edifice  is  elliptical  in  its 
figure,  having  three  floors  and  rustic  arcades,  like 
the  outer  wall  of  the  amphitheatre  at  N'erooa. 
Its  length  is  416  feet,  and  height  nhiety-seven 
feet.  'Diis  is  the  only  one  of  the  ancient  Roman 
elliptical  precincts  that  now  remains  entire,  t^ose 
of  Rome  and  Verona  beii^  much  broken  and 
dilapidated.  Some  imagine  it  to  have  been  a 
theatre,  and  not  an  amphitheatre,  because  the 
seats  only  occupy  one  side,  and  are  formed  on 
the  declivity  of  a  hill.  The  amphitheatre  at  \  e- 
rona  is  another  building  of  the  same  description, 
though  not  so  large,  as  the  Coliseum  at  Rome ;  • 
only  a  small  part  of  the  wall  is  standing,  and  the 
test  of  the  building  scarcely  rises  above  the  sum- 
mits of  the  surrounding  houses.     The  seats 


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witfaib,  constructed  of  stone,  were  renewed  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  now  form  the  sur&ce  of  a 
large  hollow  inverted  cone,  capable  of  accommo* 
dating  upwards  of  22,000  persons.  A  part  of 
these  seats  are  enclosed  in  a  small  wooden  theatre, 
in  which  plays  are  performed  during  the  summer. 
The  structure  exhibits  a  fine  specimen  of  Roman 
architecture,  composed  of  squared  masses  of 
marble  from  Sant.  Ambrosio,  about  nine  milei 
distant.  The  soffit  stones  of  the  arcades  are 
nine  feet  long.  Some  parts  of  the  building  are 
composed  of  large  flat  bricks,  which  have  with- 
stood the  action  of  the  sun  and  weather  for  1700 
years,  and  yet  remain  uninjured  by  time.  The 
precinct  of  this  ancient  amphitheatre  is  522  feet 
long,  embellished  by  three  tiers  of  rusticated  ar- 
cades, ninety-six  feet  high,  and  before  the  filing 
of  Ae  fourth  story  of  rectangular  windows,  pre- 
sented a  grand  and  pleasing  appearance.  The 
disposition  of  the  seats,  and  of  the  stairs  leading 
to  them,  is  better  seen  in  this  amphitheatre  than 
in  any  other  Roman  antiquities  of  the  same  kind ; 
and  the  remains  generally  are  in  a  better  state  of 
preservation.    See  Amphitheatre. 

The  natural  curiosities  of  Austria  are  nume- 
rous and  interesting.  The  various  Alpine 
scenery,  glaciers,  chasms.  Caves,  curious  depo- 
sitions of  stones,  &c.  have  in  all  ages  commanaed 
the  admiration  of  the  traveller,  and  the  attention 
of  the  antiquarian.  Austria  Proper  contains  a 
singular  assemblage  of  rocks,  near  Trautenau  in 
Bohemia,  in  the  &ape  of  flowers,  reaching  from 
^j  to  100  feet  in  perpendicular  altitude,  and  of 
great  extent ;  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of  a 
mountain,  the  intermediate  parts  of  whieh  have 
been  removed.  Near  Szadello,  about  thirty 
miles  north-west  of  Kaschau  in  Hungary,  is  a 
celebrated  cavern,  which  runs  under  the  moun- 
tsuns  to  the  distance  of  several  miles,  and  has 
never  been  completely  explored.  It  includes  a 
nmltiplicity  of  distinct  caves  and  winding  pas- 
Mges,  separated  by  numerous  impending  stalac- 
tites ;  the  whole  forming  so  intricate  a  labyrinth, 
that  Dr.  Townson,  who  visited  this  country  a  few 
years  ago,  says, '  a  man  once  lost  in  it,  though  he 
had  lights  and  food  to  last  him  a  month,  would 
not  be  able  to  find  his  way  out'  A  party  of 
curious  thivellers,  it  is  said,  once  remained  in  it 
for  three  days  without  being  able  to  explore  its 
dimensions,  or  reach  the  opening.  Near  Szalitze, 
in  the  Carpathian  range,  is  another  remarkable 
cavern',  wittun  which  is  a  small  glacier;  and  at 
Demanovo  is  a  carious  cave,  which  contains  the 
bones  of  numerous  wild  animals.  Various  other 
subterranean  domes  and  caverns  have  also  been 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  calcareous  mountains, 
beneath  the  towering  summits  of  the  Alpine 
regions.  The  lake  of  Czirknitz,  in  the  Illyrian 
provinces  eastward  of  Trieste,  is  one  of  the  most 
singular  natural  curiosities  of  the  Austrian  ter- 
ritories. It  is  about  four  £nglish  miles  in  length, 
and  nearly  that  measure  in  breadth,  surrounded 
with  mountains  on  all  sides,  and  of  the  depth  of 
five  or  six  feet.  Although  there  is  no  visible 
place  for  the  discharge  of  .them,  in  June  or  July 
the  waters  subside,  and  at  length  are  seen  to 
retire  into  a  number  of  caverns  at  the  bottom  of 
the  lake ;  the  herbage  of  the  bed  then  begins  to 
grow  n^idly,  and  produces  considerable  crops. 


which  are  cut  and  preserved ;  after  which  the 
ground  is  grazed  by  cattle.  In  November,  when 
die  rains  ^l  upon  the  adjacent  hills,  the  waters 
issue  agahi  from  their  caverns,  swell  by  reason 
of  still  gathering  accessions,  and  spread  into  a 
perfect  lake  as  before.  The  lake  of  Jessero,  in 
the  isle  of  Cherso,  is  classed  among  the  natural 
curiosities  of  Austria,  and^said  to  discharge  its 
waters  but  onice  in  four  or  five  years.  In  the 
same  island  are  several  curious  caverns,  in  which 
have  been  found  numerous  fossil  bones  of  oxen, 
horses,  sheep,  and  other  animals ;  amongst  which 
none  have  been  recognised  as  human.  The  salt- 
mines of  Wielicxka,  on  the  confines  of  Poland, 
exceed  description ;  and  those  near  Salzburg,  on 
the  western  border  of  Austria,  present  an  ap- 
pearance so  magnificent  and  sublime,  as  to  be 
rated  among  the  most  stupendous  and  astonish- 
ingphenomena  of  Europe. 

Tne  islands  belonging  to  Austria  are  few  and 
unimportant,  lying  along  the  north-east  shore  of 
the  Adriatic,  from  the  Gulf  of  Juamero  to  the 
southern  point  of  Dalmatia.  The  princibal  are, 
Veglia,  Osero,  Orossa,  Cherso,  Lesina,  Melida, 
and  Brazza. 

Of  the  provinces  which  make  up  the  grand 
imperial'  dominions  of  Austria,  many  of  them 
have  constitutions  difibrent  from  each  other 
Hungary,  as  an  hereditary  and  limited  monarchy, 
has  been  in  the  house  of  Austria  ever  since  the 
year  1437,  when  the  arohduke,  having  married  the 
only  daughter  of  king  Sigismund,  succeeded  to  the 
crown.  The  nation,  however,  shares  the  legisla- 
tive and  executive  power  with  the  emperor,  who 
exercises  his  authority  only  through  the  medium 
of  the  States,  a  kind  of  parliament  assembling  at 
fixed  periods  for  the  transaction  of  public  busi- 
ness. The  Hungarian  nobility  ako  possess  great* 
power ;  and  they  alone,  in  state  language,  are  in- 
cluded under  the  appellation  of  the  Hungarian 
people,  the  rest  being  regarded  as  an  inferior 
nee  of  beings.  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  tiie 
Tyrolese,  atso  have  an  influence  in  the  genera] 
government,  and  possess,  to  a  certain  degree,  Ae 
privileges  of  Hungary.  But  in  most  of  the  pro- 
vincial diets,  the  authority  of  the  crown  is  so 
great,  that  the  representatives  can  determine  little 
else  than  the  mode  of  raising  taxes,  so  that  the 
emperor  is  in  a  considerable  degree  unlimited  in 
his  sovereignty.  In  the  ancient  diet  of  the  em- 
pire, Austria,  independent  of  her  electoral  vote 
tor  Bohemia,  had  seven  votes  in  the  college  of 
princes  for  the  seven  states  of  Austria  Pioper, 
Carindiia,  Styria,  Brixen,  Trent,  Tyrol,  and 
Carniola.  In  the  new  diet,  or  '  confederation  of 
the  sovereigns  and  firee  towns  of  Germany,^ 
formed  in  1815,  Austria,  without  having  any  su- 
periority over  tiie  other  states  in  point  of  rank, 
was  declared  by  tbe  Congress  or  Vienna  (act 
fiftjf-seventh),  to  have  the  presidency  with  a  vote. 
In  the  general  assembly  Austria  has  now  four 
yotes.  The  executive  government  consists  of 
four  great  departments,  establishod  at  Vienna, 
organized  originally  by  the  counsels  of  Maria. 
Theresa.  One  of  these  regulates  the  internal 
concerns  of  the  empire,  another  its  foreign  aii^rs, 
a  third  its  militaiy  conduct,  and  the  fourth  the 
government  of  Hungary.  These  different  parts 
of  ^e  administration  are  identified  in  numerous 


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board.%  cbanceries,  couocilsy  ministries,  &c.  The 
laws  and  jurisprudence  of  his  imperial  and  royal 
apostolic  Majesty's  dominions,  are  in  the  general 
very  vague  and  complicated.  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia are  divided  into  circles,  each  under  a  sepa- 
rate court  of  judicature  from  which  lies  a  right  of 
appeal  to  the  supreme  tribunal  in  the  provincial 
capital.  Every  county  in  Hungary  has  its  ruling 
assembly  and  court  of  justice,  subject  to  an  ai>- 
peal  to  the  district  judicature,  thence  to  the  royal 
tribunal  at  Buda,  and  thence  to  the  king  in  per- 
son. A  new  code  of  mild  and  salutary  laws  has 
however  been  recently  drawn  up  at  the  instance 
of  the  government,  and  promulgated;  the  criminal 
part,  in  1804,  and  the  civil  in  1812 ;  which  are 
made  the  universal  code  of  jurisprudence  for  the 
the  Austrian  empire. 

The  entire  revenue  of  Austria  has  been  calcu- 
lated at  twenty-two  millions,  arising  cliiefly  from 
taxed  on  the  land,  and  articles  of  internal  con- 
sumption. Joseph  II.  proposed  a  new  land  and 
poll  tax,  which  has  since  been  lucrative.  The 
imperial  domains,  monopoly  of  tobacco,  duties 
on  stamps,  hair-powder,  glass,  china,  starch, 
wine,  beer,  brandy,  carriages,  legacy  duties,  fees 
on  titles  of  nobility,  toleration  tax  on  the  Jews ; 
together  with  the  duties  arising  from  the  crown 
lands,  mines,  coining,  salt,  tolls,  fines,  penalties, 
passing  the  frontiers,  incomes  upon  vacant  bi- 
shoprics, salaries,  pensions,  &c.  of  Hungary, 
constitute  a  considerable  part  of  the  above  sum. 
Paper  money  has  been  firequently  employed  by 
Austria  in  her  distress;  and  bank  notes  to 
the  amount  of  £100,000,000  were  in  circulation 
as  recently  as  1810.  The  national  debt,  before 
the  French  revolution,  amounted  to  £20,000,000, 
in  1805,  it  had  incres^  to  £30,000,000,  and  is 
^t  present  £150,000,000.  Of  tliis  two-thirds  was 
created  by  the  issue  of  paper  money,  which, 
however,  is  not  deemed  re-payable  at  its  nominal 
amount. 

The  military  establishment  of  Austria  under 
Joseph  II.  rose  into  considerable  importance ; 
and  m  1784,  though  a  season  of  peace,  the  Aus- 
trianswere  able  to  muster  more  than  200,000 
men ;  and  after  the  French  revolution,  at  the 
peace  of  1797,  they  kept  in  pay  an  army  of 
nearly  300,000.  There  were  lately  in  the  Aus- 
trian army  no  fewer  than  nine  field-marshals, 
twenty-one  generals  of  artillery,  thirteen  generals 
of  cavalry  1 36  lieut.-generals,  258  major-generals. 
Since  1805,  however,  the  troops  of  Austria  were 
greatly  reduced,  till  she  reached  her  ebb  m  1809, 
having  lost  about  one-eighth  part  of  her  popula- 
tion, and  one-tenth  of  her  resources.  Ailerwaids 
her  army  amounted  to  470,000  men;  and  in  the 
campaign  of  1813  and  1814,  when  she  took  the 
field  afresh  against  the  common  enemy,  her 
troops  were  more  numerous  than  at  any  former 
period.  Austria  at  present,  as  one  of  the  united 
kingdoms,  supplies  94,822  men  to  the  military 
establishments  of  the  German  Confederacy, 
which  is  one  in  every  hundred  of  her  population  in 
Germany,  and,  allowing  the  same  proportion  for 
all  the  other  parts  of  the  empire,  the  standing 
army  of  Austria  will  amount  to  280,000  men. 
The  Bohemiim  army  is,  however,  stated  at  50,000 
men,  which  is  about  one  in  every  sixty-four  of 
the  popiUation.     The  Hungarian  army  is  calcu- 


lated at  twelve  regiments  of  infiwtry,  and  ten  of 
hussars,  the  former  consisting  each  of  3837  men, 
and  the  latter  of  1698,  forming  an  aggregate  of 
63,000 ;  which,  compared  witii  seven  imllioos 
and  a  half,  the  present  population  of  Hungary, 
yields  about  the  proportion  of  one  to  every  buii- 
dred  and  twenty.  The  Hungarian  army  con- 
sists of  three  separate  classes- of  individuals— the 
nobles,  who  are  called  togeUier  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  sovereign ;  the  standing  army,  kept  up  by 
recruiting  and  conscription ;  and  those  of  the  mi- 
litary frontiers,  where  every  man  holds  his  pos- 
sessions on  condition  of  being  ready  to  take  up 
arms  when  called  upon.  Austria  has  nothing 
that  deserves  the  name  of  a  maritime  force,  but 
provides  a  few  frigates  and  armed  vessels  for  the 
protection  of  trade.  The  vessels  called  tschaiken, 
manned  with  about  1000  seamen  and  soldiers, 
are  placed  on  the  Danube  towards  the  Turkish 
frontiers  at  the  expense  of  government  There  are 
in  the  Austrian  states  the  following  orders,  hav- 
ing  the  emperor  or  empress  at  their  head:  the 
Golden  Fleece,  Maria  Theresa,  St.  Stephen, 
Elizabeth,  and  the  Star  and  Cross. 

Of  the  political  and  historical  memoirs  of  Aus- 
tria, the  reader  will  be  able  to  form  but  a  veiy 
imperfect  idea.  To  write  the  history  of  a  king' 
4om  coipposed  of  kingdoms,  with  separate  histo- 
ries of  their  own ;  kin^oms  too,  which  have  been 
connected  with  other  kingdoms,  and  those  king- 
doms, which  have  made  a  figure  upon  the  eai^ 
have  balanced  for  ages  the  crisis  of  European 
power  and  politics,  have  given  rise  to  governments, 
laws,  manners,  and  language,  and  to  surrounding 
nations,  whose  histories  have  also  been  embarked 
upon  the  stream  of  tii.:2e,  and  intermingled  with 
the  politics  of  other  sutes,  is  a  work  of  no  small 
difficulty.  The  Austrian  history,  if  not  obscure, 
b  at  least  ))erplexed.  The  revolutions,  alike  in- 
cident to  all  human  governments,  the  fluctuations 
of  empire,  the  ebb  and  flow  of  territory,  have 
been  so  frequent  and  considerable,  tliat  the  high 
and  low  water  mark  of  boundary  at  different 
periods  of  history,  during  the  spring  and  neap 
tides  of  national  influence  and  power,  are  only  to 
be  sought  successfully  in  larger  geographical 
treatises,  and  would  require  a  distinct  detail  of 
relation  beyond  what  the  limits  of  an  encyclo- 
pxdia  can  possibly  allow. 

The  original  population  of  Austria  was  prin- 
cipally Gotliic  and  Sclavonic,  and  the  descen- 
dants of  the  former  still  constitute  tlie  principal 
part  of  the  inhabitants.  Moravia  and  Bohemia 
were  stocked  by  the  latter,  whilst  the  southern 
territories  were  inhabited  by  the  descendants  of 
the  cisalpine  GauU,  and  the  Roman  colonies, 
which  had  been  planted  there.  Only  a  small 
part  of  the  present  imperial  dominions  belonged 
originally  to  the  house  of  Austria.  Tl^e  vicissi- 
tudes to  which  it  has  been  subject  from  the  period 
of  its  origination,  are  what  have  chiefly  contri- 
buted to  raise  tiie  empire  to  its  present  rank 
among  European  sovereignties,  and  to  trace 
those  vicissitudes  down  the  variable  narrattve 
of  their  political  story,  afibrds  an  interesting 
topic  in  geographical  speculation. 

The  princes  of  these  houses  are  descended 
from  the  ancient  dukes  of  Alsace,  and  bore  the 
title  of  counts  of  Hapsburg,  from  the  castle  of 


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that  name  in  the  Aar  on  Switzerland,  their  pa- 
trimonial residence,  before  their  accession  to  the 
imperial  throne  of  Germany.  In  1273  count 
Rodolph  was  elected  king  of  the  Romans,  and 
bestowed  the  duchv  on  his  son  Albert, '  with 
whom,  therefore,  the  house  of  Austria  com- 
mences. This  duchy  was  formed  of  the  ancient 
margraviate,  with  that  part'  of  Bavaria  situated 
above  the  river  Enns ;  and  passed  to  the  house  of 
Hapsburg  as  a  fief  of  the  empire,  on  the  extinc- 
tion of  &e  old  ducal  fiunily.  The  counts  of 
Hapsburg  at  that  time  possessed  a  great  parf  of 
Oberland   in   Switzerland,  and   a  considerable 

gortion  of  Suabia,  to  which,  in  1284,  were  added 
tyria,  Carinthia,  and  Camiola.  But  Albert, 
who  was  elected  king  of  the  Romans  in  1298, 
during  the  revolutionary  troubles  of  Switzerland, 
which  happened  about  nine  years  after  his  ac- 
cession, lost  all  his  hereditary  possessions  in 
that  country.  The  acquisition  of  Tyrol  in 
1364  made  some  addition,  and  Albert  II.  the 
next  duke  of  Austria,  was  invested,  in  1438,  with 
the  imperial  purple,  which  has,  ever  since  that 
period,  been  retamed  by  his  descendants  in  almost 
uninterrupted  succession.  The  emperor  Max- 
imilian, grandfather  to  Charles  V.  acquired  the 
territory  of  the  low  countries  by  marriage,  and 
in  like  manner  his  son  Philip,  espousing  the 
heiress  of  the  Spanish  crown,  olbtained  the  pos- 
session of  that  kingdom,  wiUi  the  dominion  of 
the  American  colonies.  At  his  decease  the 
united  kingdoms  of  Austria,  Spain,  and  Spanish 
America,  descended  to  his  successor  Charles  V. 
who,  about  the  year  1527,  added  those  of  Hun- 
gary, Bohemia,  Moravian  Silesia,  and  Lusatia, 
when  Austria  appeared  in  the  zenith  of  her 
glory.  In  1556  Charles  V.  made  over  the 
Spanish  dominions,  and  the  Netherlands,  to  his 
son  Philip  II.  under  whom  they  suffered  con- 
siderable diminution;  the  seven  united  pro- 
vinces of  the  Netherlands  entirely  throwing  off 
their  allegiance.  In  1648,  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  thirhf  years  war,  Austria  was  obliged  to 
relinquish  the  two  provinces  of  Lusatia  and  Al- 
sace, ceding  the  former  to  the  elector  of  Saxony, 
and  the  latter  to  the  king  of  France ;  but  shortly 
after  the  emperor  Leopold,  son  of  Ferdinand  III. 
added  the  whole  of  Transylvania,  and  con- 
siderably enlarged  the  boundaries  of  Hungary, 
after  which  few  fluctuations  occurred  in  the  empire 
till  the  reign  of  Charles  VI.  when  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  in  1713,  and  the  Barrier  Tresly,  two 
years  afterwards,  added  Belgium,  the  duchy  of 
Alijan,  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  which  last  was  six  years  afterwards 
exchanged  vrith  the  duke  of  Savoy,  for  the  isle 
of  Sicily.  By  the  peace  of  Passarowitz,  in  1 71 8, 
Charles  VI.  acquired  the  Bannat  of  Temeswar, 
Belgrade,  part  of  Servia,  Bosnia,  and  Walachia; 
all  of  which,  however,  except  the  Bannat,  were 
restored  to  the  Porte  in  1739.  In  1735,  after 
an  unsuccessftil  opposition  to  France,  the  king- 
dom of  Naples,  and  the  island  of  Sicily,  were 
made  over  by  the  Emperor  to  the  infant  Don 
Carlos  of  Spain,  in  exchange  for  the  duchies  of 
Parma  and  Placentia.  At  last,  after  various 
changes,  as  well  in  the  outline  as  in  the  inward 
policy  of  the  empire,  Charles  VI.  died,  in  1740, 
Vol.  III. 


and  with  him  ended  the  male  succession  of  the 
Hapsburg  house  of  Austria. 

Maria  Theresa,  eldest  daughter  and  heiress  of 
the  deceased  emperor,  was  married,  in  1736,  to 
Francis  duke  of  Lorraine,  afterwards  grand  duke 
of  Tuscany ;  and  immediately  on  her  advance  to 
the  sovereignty  had  to  carry  on  a  long  and  ex- 
tensive war  against  Prussia,  Saxony,  Bavaria, 
and  Spain ;  all  of  whom  made  pretensions  to 
some  part  or  parts  of  her  dominions.  After  a 
poweiful  but  unsuccessful  struggle  for  empire, 
Prussia,  in  the  year  1742,  obtained  the  greater 
part  of  Silesia,  and  the  country  of  Glatz ;  and 
dpain,  about  six  years  afterwards,  took  possession 
or  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Guas- 
taUa.  The  war  of  1756  producing  no  remarkable 
change  of  territories,  tne  Austrian  boundaries 
continued  the  same,  with  little  variation,  till  the 
partial  dismemberment  of  Poland,  in  1773,  when 
she  acquired  Galicia  and  Ladomaria;  and  was  still 
further  augmented,  in  1777,  by  the  addition  of 
the  Bukowine;  and  in  1778,  by  the  accession  of 
the  Innviertel  on  the  side  of  Bavaria. 

The  first  emperor  of  the  Lorraine  branch  was 
Joseph  II.  who,  after  sharing  tlie  government 
with  his  mother  Maria  Theresa  for  several  years 
anterior  to  her  decease,  was  fully  vested  with 
the  sovereignty  in  1780.  His  reforms  in  the 
executive  branches  of  government,  abolition  of 
sinecures,  suppression  of  convents,  modification 
of  the  depenaence  of  the  clergy  upon  Rome, 
and  the  perfect  toleration  of  all  dissenters,  though 
they  have  been  censured  as  the  extreme  of  im- 
prudence, were  decidedly  promoted  for  the  con- 
solidation of  his  immense  territories,  the  manu- 
mission of  his  subjects  from  the  civil  disabilities 
under  which  many  of  them  labored,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  more  worthy  system  of  re- 
gular administration.  To  whatever  extent  such 
measures  might  have  been  neutralized  by  an  ob- 
vious precipitancy,  and  rashness  in  the  mode 
of  execution,  they  show  a  great  monarch,  in- 
fluenced by  the  best  of  principles,  laboring  in 
the  common  cause  of  humanity,  justice,  and  pa- 
triotism; directing  all  his  efforts  towards  the 
happiness  of  his  people,  and  the  wel&re  of  his 
dominions.  It  is  said  that  a  visit  which  he  re- 
ceived from  pope  Pius  VI.  two  years  after  his 
accession,  enected  no  alteration  in  his  designs. 
After  an  active  but  variable  reign,  rendered  re- 
markable towards  the  close,  by  a  new  war  with 
die  Turks,  he  died  on  tlie  20th  of  February, 
in  the  year  1790,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Leopold  II.  who  died  at  tt^e  commence- 
ment of  the  revolutionary  war,  on  the  1st  of 
March,  1792.  The  crown  of  Austria  then  de- 
scended to  his  eldest  son,  Francis  II.  the  present 
emperor,  and  the  sovereignty  of  the  grand  duchy 
of  Tuscany  to  his  second  sou  Ferdinand.  From 
this  time  the  empire  of  Austria  began  to  de- 
dine. 

At  this  period  the  population  of  the  empire  was 
estimated  at  25,000,000,  and  was  increased,  in 
1796,  by  the  accession  of  a  great  part  of  Poland, 
which  was  then  finally  dismembered  and  divided 
between  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia:  but  it  was 
reduced  to  little  more  than  its  former  amount  the 
foUovring  year  by  ceding  to  France,  Lombardy,  the 

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Netheiiands,  and  all  die  Austrian  districts  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  The  war  of  1799  gave  early 
hopes  of  success,  but  the  withdrawment  of  Russia 
from  the  coalition,  and  the  fatal  days  of  Marengo 
and  Hchenlinden,  obliged  Austria  to  conclude  a 
treaty  with  France  in  1801;  in  which,  although 
she  obtained  Saltzburg  and  Berchtologaden,  she 
was  deprived  of  nearly  all  her  Venetian  states. 
The  third  war,  in  1805,  proved  still  shorter  and 
more  disastrous;  and  after  the  overthrow  at 
Ulm  and  Austerlitz,  the  remainder  of  the  Vene- 
tian states,  Tyrol  and  Suabian  principalities,  con- 
taining a  population  of  3,000,000,  were  given  as 
the  price  of  peace ;  a  period  was  likewise  put  to 
the  Germanic  constitution,  and  the  title  ot  Em- 
peror of  Austria  substituted  for  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many and  King  of  the  Romans.  In  1809  the 
resistance  of  Spain  to  Buonaparte  prompted  Aus- 
tria to  enter  upon  a  new  war  with  France.  Her 
army  was  numerous  and  well  disciplined,  and  a 
large  portion  of  the  French  was  employed  in  the 
peninsula;  but  the  decided  neutrality  of  Prussia, 
and  the  circumstance  of  Russia  and  Bavaria,  with 
the  states  composing  the  confederation  of  the 
Rhine,  taking  part  against  Austria,  enabledBona- 
parte  to  acquire  a  decided  victory,  and  once  more 
to  enter  Vienna.     This  led  to  further  losses,  but 


left  the  emperor  no  alternative  but  a  treaty;  the 
terms  were  the  union  of  the  emperor's  daughter 
with  Napoleon  in  marriage,  and  the  sacrifice  of 
considerable  territory  and  population;  namely, 
the  provinces  of  Camiola,  Trieste,  Villach,  the 
greater  part  of  Croatia,  and  Agram,  West 
Galicia,  Uie  circle  of  Zamosc,  a  circle  in  East 
Galicia,  the  greater  half  of^Hansruckviertel,  the 
Innviertel,  Berchtolsgaden/  and  Saltzburg,  the 
whole  including  45,000  square  miles  and  neariy 
three  millions  and  a  half  of  inhabitants.  Austria 
remained  overawed  by  France  until  the  de- 
struction of  the  French  armies  in  Russia,  when 
she  again  asserted  her  independence;  and 
the  subsequent  success  of  the  allies  reinstated 
her  in  more  than  her  former  splendor.  The 
ninety-third  act  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
restored  nearly  all  that  had  been  lost,  while  the 
succeeding  one  annexed  several  others  on  the 
side  of  Italy,  which  more  than  compensated  for 
the  remaining  deficiency.  The  dominions  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  as  fixed  by  this  congress,  have, 
according  to  Blumenbach,  been  divided  into 
twenty-one  provinces,  or  governments,  besides 
the  four  dependent  states.  To  these  he  assigns 
the  following  extent  and  population. 


I.— AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE. 

Ger.  sq.  mfles. 

Inhabitants. 

1.        The  kingdom  of  Bohemia 

956-80 
417-64  I 
86-85  5 
363-65 

344-32 

398-98 
190-90 

250-95 

176-18 
620-44 
867-50 
274-94 
152612 
4097-06 

1118-70 

186-00 
139-40 

67-40 
166-40 

54-20 

3,203,222 
1,680,935 
1,048,324 

756,897 

799,056 
278,500 

467,836 

422,861 

717,542 

4,111,535 

295,089 

3,755,454 

8,200,000 

1,510,000 

171,675 
230,079 
107,217 
188,906 
95,442 

2.        The  margraviate  of  Moravia 

3.        The  dukedom  of  Silesia 

4.        Austria  below  the  Enns 

Gcr.  sq.  miles.     Inhabitante. 
(•Austria  above  the  Enns     .    •     .     151-86          417,625^ 

5.  <  Circle  of  the  Inn  and  Hansruck        59-92           1 97,537  i 
CSaltzburffh    ' 132-54          141,6993 

6.  The  dnchy  of  Styria 

7.        The  duchy  of  Carinthia 

g      JIUyria    .'  .     .^ 190-61          358,831^ 

[Part  of  Croatia 60-34          108,205  5 

9.        The  coast  district 

10.  Tyrol  and  Voralbei^     . 

1 1 .  The  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom 

12.  The  government  of  Dalmatia 

13.        The  kingdom  of  Galicia 

14.  Civil  Hungary,  Croatia  and  Sclavonia 

15.  Civil  Transylvania ,    .    .     ^ 

16.  Transylvanian  military  frontiers J 

17.  Bannat  frontiers 

18.        Sclavonian  frontiers 

19.  Warasdiner  military  government 

20.  Carlstadter  military  government 

21.  Bannat  regiments 

II. — ^Dependent  States. 
1.        Grand  dukedom  of  Tuscany 

12,204-43 

28,040,570 

431-00 
92-31 
2300 

101-62 

1,170,000 
375,000 
60,000 
383,000    i 

^.        Dukedom  of  Modena 

3.  Dukedom  of  Massa  and  Canara,  with  Gariagnana      .    . 

4.  Dukedom  of  Parma 

647-98 

1,988,000    , 

Austria,  San  FEtrppE  de,  a  city  of  South 
.America,  in  the  province  and  government  of 
Cumana,"  forty-eight  miles  from  Cumana,  and 
containing  250  families.  •  Long.  63°  41'  W.,  lat. 


10"*  31'  N.    There  is  another  small  place  of  the 
same  name,  four  leagues  south-west  of  Cumana. 
AusTRiACvs,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  falco, 
named  by  Latham  the  Austrian  kite.  Gmelin, 


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AUT 


AUOTRO  Atbicus,  the  S.S.  W.  wind. 

AXTSTROMANCY,  Austrom  antia,  properly 
denotes  soothsaying,  or  a  vain  method  of  pre^ 
dieting  futurity,  from  observations  of  the  winds. 

AX^TURuUS,  or  Osturcus,  in  ornithology, 
a  goshawk ;  from  whence  we  usually  call  a  fal- 
coner, who  keeps  that  kind  of  hawks,  an  os- 
tringer.  In  ancient  deeds,  there  has  been  re- 
served^ as  a  rent  to  the  lord^  unum  austurcum. 

AUSURIANI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  military 
order,  similar  to  that  of  hussars  among  the  mo- 
dems. 

AUTENIGUA,  the  name  given  by  the  natives 
to  a  region  of  southern  Africa,  on  the  east  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  and  signifying,  in  their 
language,  the  land  of  honey.  It  now  fbrms  part^ 
of  &e  district  of  Zwelleadam,  and  is  represented 
by  Vaillant  as  a  delight^l  region,  having  a  great 
variety  of  surface  and  soepeiy,  great  fertility,  and 
abundance  of  honey.  It  was  partially  inha- 
bited by  Dutch  colonists,  whilst  in  possession  of 
that  nation;  but  it  has  been  mudi  improved 
since  it  came  under  the  authority  of  the  English. 
It  abounds  with  all  the  wild  animals  common  to 
southern  Africa.  See  Zwellendau. 

AUTENOW,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Kiov,  eighteen  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Bitilacerkier. 

AUTER  Droit, .in  law,  is  where  persons  sue, 
or  are  sued,  in  anotSier's  right;  as  executors,  ad- 
ministrators, &c. 

AuTER  Vie  ;  in  law,  a  person  who  holds  an 
estate  by  the  life  of  another  is  usually  called 
tenant  per  auter  vie. 


AUTHENTICATE,^ 

Authen'tical, 

Authen'tically, 

Authen'ticalness, 

Authenti'city, 

Authentic^, 

Acthen'tickly, 

Authentick'ness 


to  rely  on  information ;  to  vouch  for  the  truth  of 
a  statem^t.  Authentic  seems  to  have  been  the 
])Toper  epithet  for  a  physician  regularly  bred  or 
licensed.  The  diploma  of  a  licentiate  runs,  *  Au- 
tfaentice  licentiatus.' 

TUrdly,  it  appeaieth'by  regesten  and  recordec 
iadidally  and  auteniiquefy  made,  yet  presArued  for 
•coniinnation  of  the  same.  Hall.  Heniy  VIII. 

This 
decided. 

Of  statmtes  made  before  time  of  memory,  we  have 
no  authentical  records,  but  only  transcripts.         Hate. 

Thou  art  wont  his  great  aitthetUieh  will 
Interpreter  thro^h  highest  heaven  to  bring. 


point  is  dubious,  and  not  yet  authetUicoRy 
f  Brown**  Vulgar  Erroun, 


She  joy'd  th'  OMthentiek  news  to  hear. 
Of  what  she  guessM  before  with  jealous  fear. 

CowUjf, 

Conscience  never  commands  or  forbids  any  thing 
4MmthentieaUjf,  but  there  is  some  law  of  God  which 
commands  or  foibids  it  first.  Souih, 

Bqt  censure's  u>  be  nnderrtood 
The  authmtiok  mark  of  th^  elect. 
The  pobtic  stamp  heav'n  sets  on  all  that's  great  and 
good.  Swift, 


Nothing  can  be  more  pleasant  than  to  see  vtrtuoaoc 
about  a  cabinet  of  medals,  descanting  upon  the  value, 
rari^,  and  authenticalnem  of  the  several  pieces. 

Addiaon. 

The  nations  that,  according  to  the  best  aiuihenticaied 

history,  appear  to  have  been  first  civilised,  were  those 

that  dwelt  around  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea. 

Smith'i  Wealth  of  N^Hom. 

\  AUTHENTICS,  Authentic*,  in  the  civU 
law,  is  a  name  given  to  the  Novels  of  Justinian. 
The  reason  of  the  denomination  is  not  well  known. 
Alciat  will  have  it  to  have  been  first  given  them 
by  Accursius.  These  novels  were  originally  com- 
posed in  Greek,  and  afterwards  translated  into 
Latin  by  the  patrician  Julian,  who  reduced  them 
into  less  compass.  And  in  the  time  of  Bulgaris, 
there  was  a  second  version  made,  more  exact  and 
literal,  though  not  quite  so  elegant  as  the  former. 
This  translation  being  preferred  by  Accursius,  he 
called  it  authentica,  by  way  of  preference  to  that 
of  Julian,  as  being  more  conformable  to  the  ori- 
ginal. They  are  hereby  distinguislied  ficom  some 
oilier  publications  of  later  imperial  constitutions, 
which  are  not  regarded  as  of  much  authority. 

AUTHIE,  a  river  of  France,  which  rises  in  the 
department  of  the  Straits  of  Calais,  and  falls  into 
the  sea  between  the  Somme  and  the  Canche. 

AUTHON  (John  d'),  a  French  historian  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  abbot  of  Angle  in  Poitou.  He 
wrote  the  history  of  France  from  1490  to  15O69 
which  has  never  been  all  printed.  He  died  in 
1523. 


Gr.  av^evriKA^,  Lat. 
cum  auctoritate,  with 
authority.  Certo  auc- 
tore,  the  author  being 
"well  known;  to  make 
known  the  author,  to 
give  up  the  author,  or 
authority;  to  refer  to ; 


AUTHOR,  V.  &  n. 

Au'THOilESS, 

Axjtho&'itative, 

Authob'itatively, 

Author'ity, 

Authoeiza'tioV) 

Au'thoeizs, 

Ai/thobless, 

Au'thokship. 


Some  contend  for  the 
Latin  otictor,  from  on- 
g«o,  ouehofi,  to  increase, 
i.  e.  to  carry  on  an  un- 
>'dertaking.  It  seems  to 
relate  more  to  the  ground 
than  to  the  form  of  the 
work.  Others  refer  its 
origin  to  av^iyroeisc,  or 
tiie  root  which  it  represents.  Whether  this  ety- 
mology be  admitted  or  not,  the  verb  and  its  cor- 
relatives convey  the  ideas  of  beginning,  creation, 
foundation,  invention,  countenance,  support,  and 
power« 

They  consider  the  main  oooaent  of  all  the  churches 
in  the  whole  world,  witnessing  the  sacred  trndhonty  of 
Scripture,  ever  sithence  the  first  publication  thereoC» 
even  till  this  present  day  and  hour  Hooker, 

ISAB.    0  but  man,  proud  man, 
Drest  in  a  little  brief  authority. 
Most  ignorant  of  what  he's  n^ost  assured. 
His  glassy  essence  like  an  angry  ape. 
Plays  sudi  fantastick  tricks  before  high  heav'n. 
As  makes  the  angels  weep. 

Shaiapeare.  Meamrefor  Meamtre, 
Idle  old  man. 
That  still  would  manage  those  amtkorUiei 
That  be  hath  gi? 'n  away !  Id.  King  hear. 

That  which  is  the  strength  of  their  amity,  shall 
prove  the  immediate  andhar  of  their  variance. 

I  know,  my  lord. 
If  law,  aMithoriiy,  and  pow'r  deny  not. 
It  will  go  hard  with  poor  Antonio.  Id, 

But  I  snffer  not  a  woman  to  teach,  nor  to  ntniy 
aHtherity  over  tho  man,  but  to  be  in  silence* 

Pmd. 
War  mends  but  few,  but  spoils  multitudes;  it  legi< 
timates  rapine,  and  amtKorieet  murther. 

Jergmif  Taylor, 
\7 


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AUT 


Althongli  theii  intention  be  kincere,  y«t  doth  it  no- 
toriously strengthen  vulgar  enour^  and  auHumm  opi- 
nions injurious  unto  truth.      Bnwn't  Vulgar  Erroun. 

Now  while  the  tortur'd  savage  turns  around. 
And  flings  about  his  foam,  impatient  of  the  wound ; 
The  wound's  great  tmthor  close  at  hand  provokes 
His  rage.  Dfydan't  FaJIAeu 

Yourself  first  made  that  title  which  I  claim. 

First  bid  me  love,  and  andhorit^d  my  flame. 

Drydfik 

The  obligation  of  laws  arises  not  from  their  matter, 
but  from  their  admission  and  reception,  and  auihoru    case  they  were  styled  Avrocparopcc.     The 
muion  in  this  kingdom.  .  Halg,    people  also  applied  the  name  to  some  of  their 

Power  arising  from  strength,  is  always  in  those    ambassadors,  wno  were  vested  with  a  full  powo 

that  are  governed,  who  are  n^any :  but  auibority  aris-    of  determining  matters  according   to  their  own 

ing  firom  opinion,  is  in  those  that  govern,  who  are    discretion.    Tnese  were  denominated  UptirfiBc 

fc^'  .         \       ^    2V»yte.    XvTOKparogec*   and  resembled  our  plenipoten- 

The  woods  are  fitter  to   give  rules  than  ciUes,  ^^^j^^*^      "^    '  '^        '^ 

where  those  that  ^*»  ^««»^r^;^^  ""^  ^^''^'       AUTO  DA  FE,  or  act  of  faith.    See  Act. 
go  out  of  their  way,  by  the  authomy  of  e»»mple^         AUTODIDACTUS ;  from  avroc  and  ^c^«n«. 
The  faith  or  persuasion  of  a  Divine  revelation  U  n    ^  ^^rn ;  a  person  self-taught,  or  who  has  had 


AXTTOCRATOR;  from  avroe,  Umsel^  and 
icparoct  power ;  a  person  vested  with  an  absolute 
indepenaent  power,  by  which  he  is  rendezed  \xa- 
accountable  to  any  other  for  his  actions.  The 
power  of  the  Athenian  generals,  or  commandos, 
was  usually  limited :  so  that  at  the  expiration  of 
their  office,  they  were  liable  to  render  an  account 
of  their  administration.  But,  on  extraordinary  oc- 
casions, they  were  exempted  from  this  restraint, 
and  sent  with  uncontrollable  authority :  in  which 


no  master  or  assistant  of  his  studies. 

AUTOGENIAL;  from  avrog  andyiyMiiacito 
beget;  self-begotten. 

AUTOGLYPHUS  Lapis,  a  stone  mentioned 
by  Plutarch,  as  having  naturally  impressed  on  it 
the  figure  of  Cybele.  It  is  said  to  have  been  found 
in  Sagaris  a  river  of  Persia.  Doubtless  if  any 
such  stone  ever  existed,  the  priests  had  it  made 
to  deceive  the  people. 

AUTOGRAPH,  avroe,  myself,  and  ypa^ 
I  write.    An  original  manuscript. 

He  did   accurately  describe  and  turn  into  Latin 

AUTOCABDALI,  in  «.tiquity,  an  order  of  ^!^' '''^ ''''''^^ 

musicians,  who  wore  an  ivy  crown  or  garland.  AUTOLITHOTOMUS,  one  who  cuts  him- 

Scaliger  seems  to  rank  them  m  the  number  of  gglf  for  the  stone.    Of  this  we  have  a  very  cxtia- 

""?^T«,^^^T^x» .  X  rT«     1.                                3  ordinary  instance  given  by  Reiselius.   in  the 

AUTOCEPHALUS;  from  oin-oc,  ipse,  and  Ephemerides  of  the  Academy  NaturaCurioswum, 

Bc^i),  head;  a  person  who  has  no  one  over  ^^^  i   ^^  3  ^^^^  ^gj.      ''                             ^ 

him     This  denomination  was    given,  by  the  AUTOLOGIST;  from  atiroc,  self,  and  X*yoc, 

Greeks,  to  certain  archbishops  who  were  ex-  gpcech;  one  who  speaks  much  of  himself. 


Divine  faith,  not  only  with  respect  to  the  object  of 
it,  but  likewise  in  respect  to  the  author  of  it,  which  is 
the  Divine  spirit.  TiOotUH, 

From  his  loins 
New  author*  of  dissension  spring ;  from  him 
Two  branches,  that  in  hosting  long  contend 
For  sov'reign  sway.  PhXKpt, 

A  more  decisive  proof  cannot  be  given  of  the  fall 
conviction  of  the  British  nation,  that  the  principles 
of  the  Revolution  did  not  authoritie  them  to  elect 
kings  at  pleasure,  than  their  continuing  to  adopt  a 
plan  of  hereditary  protestant  succension  in  the  old  line. 


empted  from  the  jurisdiction  of  patriarchs.  There 
were  several  other  bishops  in  the  east,  who  were 
autocephali ;  and  in  the  west  those  of  Ravenna 
pretend  to  the  same  right. 
AUTOCHTHONES,  an  appellation  assumed 


AUTOLOGY,  speaking  of  or  to  one's  sell 
AUTOLOLiE,  an  ancient  people  of  Maorita- 

nia,  descended  from  the  Gstuli.    They  excelled 

all  their  neighbours  in  running. 
AUTOLYCUS,  in  febulous  history,  a  son  d 


by  some  nations,  impomng  that  they  sprung,  or  Mercury  by  Chione,  a  daughter  of  DsedaUon.  He 

"^fJ^.  ^"""^^  ^Z"!^  ^^  ^^^  ^'^  '^^'''^  ^^y  was  one  of  the  Argonauts,  famous  for  his  cun- 

sUll  mliabited.  In  this  sense  autocthones  amounte  ,ang  as  a  thief.    After  stealing  the  flocks  of  his 

to  the  same  with  aborigines.   The  Athenians  va-  neighbours,  he  altered  their  marks,  and  mingled 

hied  themselves  on  their  being  autochthones,  ^^^  ^^  hj,  ^wn.     But    Sisyphus,   soiT  of 

self-born,  or  yif7«v£ij:,  earth-bom ;  see  Attica,  jeoIus,  discovered  his  craft ;  and  when  Autolycus 

stole  his  flocks,  he  picked  out  bis  own  by  a  mark 


it  being  the  prevailing  opinion  among  the 
ancients  that,  m  the  beginning,  the  eaiQi,  by 
tome  prolific  power,  produced  men,  as  it  still 
does  plants. . 

AUTO'CRAT, 

Autoc'rasy, 


oya 
which  he  had  made' under  their  feet    Ihe  arti- 
fice of  Sisyphus  pleased  Autolycus  so  much,  that 
o  V       ir      J    ^®  directly  formed  an  intimacy  with  him,  and 

-\     Gr,  avroc,  himself,  and    eyen  allowed  him  freely  to  enjoy  the  company 
f  r^Kiroc,  power;  me  pos-    of  his  daughter  Anticlea,  who  became  pregnant 


AuTocRAT^iCAL,     A  sessor  of  uncontrollable 

AirrocRATOR'iCAL.3power.  The  emperor  of 
Russia  is  styled  the  '  autocrat  of  all  the  Russias.' 

The  Divine  will  is  absolute ;  it  is  its  own  reason : 
It  is  both  the  producer  and  the  ground  of  all  its  acts. 
k  moves  not  by  the  external  impulse  or  inclination 
of  obiocts,  but  determines  itself  by  an  absolute  ouio- 
cnuy.  South't  Sermona,  x. 

Ihe  Father,  Son,  and  Hohf  Ghost,  in  respect  of 
the  same  divinity,  have  the  same  OMtocratorieal 
power,  dominion,  and  authority. 

Peanon  om  ihe  Croei. 


of  Ulysses,   and  was  soon  after  espoused   10 
Laertes. 

AuTOtYcus,  a  Greek  mathematician  and  as- 
tronomer of  Pitane,  in  i&olia,  who  flourished 
about  320  years  before  Christ.  He  was  precep- 
tor in  mathematics  to  Arcesilaus,  who  was  also  a 
disciple  of  Tbeophrastus,  the  successor  of  Aris- 
totle. His  works  extant  are,  a  Treatise  on  the 
Movable  Sphere,  published  by  Dasypodins  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  8vo.  at  Strasburg,  in  1768; 
and  in  a  Latin  translation  in  the  Synopsb  Ma- 


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thematica  of  Meiseniius^  published  in  4to.  at 
PariS)  in  1644 ;  and  also  a  Treatise  on  the  Rising 
and  Setting  of  the  Stars,  edited,  with  the  former 
-work,  by  Dasypodius.  Diog.  liiert.  Vit  Arcesil. 
Fabr.  Bid.  Grsc.  torn.  ii.  p.  89.  Montuda,  Hist. 
Mathem.  t.i.p.  192. 

AUTOMATE,  called  also  HiERAy  one  of  the 
Cydades,  an  island  on  the  north  of  Crete,  said 
to-  have  emerged  out  of  the  sea,  between  the 
islands  Thera  andTherana,  in  the  fiith  ypar  of  the 
emperor  Claudius ;  in  extent  thirty  stadia. 

AUTOM'ATON,-^     Gr.  Awrofioroc.  Ex.  fut- 
Autom'atous,       >  rifv,  finistra,  vel  uaofuuf  ex- 
Automa'tic.        Jcitor.       Something    self- 
moved  ;  deriving  its  motion  from  internal  ma- 
chinery. 

Clocks^  or  atttomaiom  organ*,  whereby  we  disdn- 
gaish  of  time,  have  no  mention  in  ancient  writera. 

Bnwn't  Vulgar  Errourt, 

For  it  is  greater  to  nndentand^the  art  whereby  the 
Almighty  governs  the  modona  of  the  great  trntomatOH, 
than  to  have  learned  the  intrigues  of  policy. 

CRaineaW*  Se^ptu, 

The  paiticalar  drcomstanees  for  which  the  automata 
of  this  kind  are  most  eminent,  may  be  reduced  to  four. 

WUkim, 

Automaton  may  be  ferther  defined,  a  ma- 
chine, so  constructed  by  means  of  weights, 
levers,  springs,  wheels,  &c.  as  to  move  for  a 
considerable  time,  as  if  endued  with  animal  life. 
According  to  this  definition,  clocks,  watches, 
and  all  machines  of  that  kind  may  be  ranked  as 
a  species  of  automata.  But  the  word  is  most 
commonly  applied  to  such  machines  as  are  made 
in  the  form  of  men  and  other  animals,  at  the 
same  time  that  their  internal  machinery  is  so 
contrived,  that  they  seem  voluntarily  to  act  like 
the  animals  they  represent.  It  has  fallen  in  the 
way  of  the  writer  of  this  paper  to  have  been 
making  a  few  collections  on  tnis  subject  for  some 
years  past;  and,  observing  that  the  whole  direc- 
tion of  mechanical  genius  to  these  inventions 
has  at  present  terminated  in  amusing,  rather 
than  any  particularly  useful  machines,  he  has 
ofUn  entertained  himself  with  considering  the 
powers  of  man  as  a  mere  animal  machine,  in  con- 
trast with  their  inventions;  the  highest  and  best 
of  which  imitate  his  motions. 

Political  economists  liave  frequently  amused 
themselves  and  the  public  with  the  nicely-ba- 
lanced powers  6f  man  as  a  propagating  and 
eating  animal,  and  philosophers  and  divines 
often  assure  us  that  he  is,  in  other  and  higher 
respects,  but  a  machine  oC  a  superior  descrip- 
tion; in  especial  deference  to  the  latter  grave 
authorities,  we,  therefore,  take  it  for  granted  in 
this  paper,  that  man  is  a  machine,  and  shall  not 
presume  to  arrogate  for  him  any  higher  preten- 
sions. We  know  nothing  of  his  impulses  as  an 
animal,  nor  of  the  duties  or  influences  to  which 
he  is  subject  as  a  rational  being,  if  such  he  be ; 
we  only  propose  to  introduce  to  our  readers  a 
variety  of  claimants  for  the  honor  of  having 
made  a  part  of  him— of  imitating  portions  of  his 
organs,  in  their  actual  exercise — and  isolated  ac- 
tions of  his  very  mind.  What  wonder,  if,  in 
the  progress  of  these  efforts,  our  artists  should 


occasionally  have  struck  off  a  complete  and 
clever  duck,  a  learned  fly,  or  a  royal  eagle  1 

Automata  have  been  fevorite  objects  of  me- 
chanical contrivance  from  a  very  early  period. 
If  the  term,  indeed,  may  be  allowed  to  include 
what  some  writers  have  considered  under  it, 
their  history  would  quickly  swell  into  a  volume. 
The  celebrated  Glanville,  for  instance,  speaks  of 
*  the  art  whereby  the  Almighty  governs  the  mo- 
tions of  the  great  automaton'  of  the  universe ! 
Bishop  Wilkins  ranks  the  sphere  of  Archimedes 
amongst  the  avrofiara  ararcL,  *  or  such  as 
move  only  according  to  the  contrivance  of  their 
several  parts,  and  not  according  to  their  whole 
frame.'  It  was,  in  &ct,  an  early  orrery,  accord- 
ing to  Claudian : 

Jupiter  in  parvo  cum  cemeret  sBthera  vitro, 
Risit,  et  ad  superoa  talia  dicta  dedit ; 

Hucdne  mortalia  progressa  potentia  cune  ? 
Jam  mens  in  fragili  Uiditur  orbe  labor,  kc 

This  learned  prelate  has  even  extended  the 
application  of  the  term  to  machines  moved,  in 
consequence  of  their  peculiar  construction,  by 
external  forces  or  elements,  as  mills,  ships,  &c. 
Its  modem  acceptation,  however,  and  that  to 
which  we  shall  restrict  ourselves,  will  not  in- 
clude all  machines  that  are  self,  or  internally 
moved.  It  b  confined  to  the  mechanical  imita- 
tions of  the. functions  and  actions  of  living  ani- 
mals, and  particularly  those  of  man. 

The  celebrated  story  of  the  statue  of  Memnon, 
one  of  the  wonders  of  Ancient  Egypt,  has  some 
pretensions  to  lead  the  way  in  this  historical 
sketch.  We  have  positive  testimony  (Strabo, 
lib.  xvii.)  to  the  circumstance  of  the  most  beau- 
tifiil  sounds  being  emitted  from  this  statue,  at 
the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun ;  and  from  the 
pedestal,  after  the  statue  was  overthrown.  What 
was  the  contrivance  in- this  case,  it  may  be  vain 
to  conjecture;  but  autopiata  are,  by  profession, 
-a  puzzling  race.  If  a  certain  disposition  of 
strings,  exposed  to  the  rarefiiiction  of  the  air,  or 
to  the  morning  and  evening  breezes,  after  the 
manner  of  our  £olian  harps,  produced  these 
sounds;  or  if  any  method  of  arranging  the  in* 
teroal  apertures  so  as  to  receive  them  from  a 
short  distance,  yrere  the  artifice,  a  considerable 
acquaintance  with  the  science  of  music,  and 
with  accoustics  generally,  will  be  argued.  Wil- 
kins quotes  a  musical  invention  of  Cornelius 
Drebel,  of  similar  pretensions,  which  *  being  set 
in  the  sunshine,  would,-  of  itself,  render  a  soft 
and  pleasant  harmony,  but  being  removed  into 
the  soade  would  presently  become  silent.' 

The  statues  and  the  flight  of  Dsdalus  are 
equally  femous,  and,  perhaps,  fabulous.  Aris- 
totle, however,  speaiks  of  the  former  in  his 
treatise  De  Anima,  lib.  i.  c.  3.  as  successfiil 
imitations  of  the  human  figure  and  human  func- 
tions in  walking,  running,  &c.  and  attempts  to 
account  for  their  motions  by  the  concealment  of 
quicksilver.  , 

Archytas'  flying  -dove,  originally  mentioned  in 
Favorinus,  is  another  of  the  ancient  automata. 
The  inventor  is  said  to  have  flourished  about 
B.  C.  400,  and  was  a  Pythagorean  philosopher 
at  Tarentum.  It  was  made  of  wood,  and  the 
principal  circumstance  of  its  history,  whirb  Fp- 


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Vorinus  mentioiis,  that  is  like  some  other  biids 
of  too  much  wing,  when  it  alighted  on  the  ground, 
it  could  not  raise  itself  up  again.  Aulus  Gel- 
lius,  in  his  Noctes  Atticae,  attempts  to  account 
for  its  flight,  by  observing,  <  Ita  erat  scilicet  li- 
bramentis  suspensum,  et  aura  spiritus  inclusa 
atque  occulta  consitum,'  &c.  that  it  was  ^  sus- 
pended by  balancing,  and  moved  by  a  secredy 
enclosed  aura  or  spirit' 

Friar  Bacon,  we  all  know,  made  a  brazen  head 
that  could  spesdc,  and  that  seems  to  have  assisted, 
in  no  small  aegree,  in  proclaiming  him  a  magician. 
Albertus  Magnus  ia  also  said  to  have  devoted 
thirty  years  of  his  life  to  the  construction  of  an 
automaton,  which  the  celebrated  Thomas  Aquinas 
broke  purposely  to  pieces.  Men,  treated  as 
these  were  by  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  had 
no  encoun^ement  to  hope  that  any  details  of 
their  labors  would  reach  posterity. 

Amongst  the  curiosities  of  his  day,  Walchius 
mentions  an  iron  spider  of  great  ingenuity..  In 
size  it  did  not  exceed  the  ordinary  inhabitants  of 
our  houses,  and  could  creep  or  climb  with  any 
of  them,  vranting  none  of  their  powers,  except,  of 
which  nothing  is  said,  the  formation  o?  its  web. 
Various  writers  of  credit,  particularly  Kircher, 
Porta,  and  bishop  Wilkins,  relate  that  the  cele- 
brated Regiomontanus  l[John  Muller)  of  Nu- 
remberg, ventured  a  loftier  flight  of  art.  He  is 
said  to  have  constructed  a  self-moved  wooden 
eagle,  which  descended  toward  the  emperor 
Maximilian,  as  he  approached  the  gates  of  Nu- 
remberg, saluted  hun,  and  hovered  over  his 
person  as  he  entered  the  town.  This  philosopher, 
according  to  the  same  authorities,  also  produced 
an  iron  fly,  which  would  start  from  his  hand  at 
table,  and  after  flying  round  to  each  of  the 
guests,  returned,  as  if  wearied,  to  the  protection 
of  his  master. 

An  hydraulic  clock,  presented  to  the  emperoi* 
Charlemagne,  by  the  caliph  Haroun  al  Raschid, 
merits  record  in  the  history  of  these  inventions. 
It  excited  the  admiration  of  all  Europe  at  the 
period  of  its  arrival.  Twelve  small  doors  di-* 
vided  the  dial  into  the  twelve  hours,  and  opened 
successively  as  each  hour  arrived,  when  a  ball 
fell  from  the  aperture  on  a  brazen  bell  and 
struck  the  time,  the  door  remaining  open.  At 
the  conclusion  of  every  twelve  hours,  twelve 
mounted  knights,  handsomely  caparisoned,  came 
out  simultaneously  from  the  dial,  rode  round  the 
plate,  and  closed  the  doors.  Dr.  Clarke,  in  his 
last  volume  of  Travels  (part  iii.  Scandinavia, 
sec.  1.  4to.  1819),  mentions  a  similar  contri- 
vance in  a  clock  at  Lubeck,  of  the  high  antiquity 
of  1405.  Over  the  face  is  an  image  of  Jesus 
Christ,  on  either  side  of  which  are  folding- 
doors,  which  fly  open  eveiy  day  as  the  clock 
strikes  twelve.  A  set  of  ngures,  representing 
the  twelve  apostles,  then  march  forth  on  the  left 
hand,  and,  bowing  to  our  Saviour's  image  as 
they  pass  in  succession,  enter  the  door  on  the 
ritrht.  On  the  termination  of  the  procession  the 
doors  close.  This  clock  is  also  remarkably  com- 
plete, for  the  age,  in  its  astronomical  apparatus ; 
representing  the  place  of  the  sun  and  moon  in 
the  ecliptic,  the. moon's  age,  &c.  Similar  ap- 
),)endages  to  clocks  and  time-pieces  became  too 
common,  at  the  b**ginnin'^r  of  the  last  century,  to 


deserve  particular  notice.  We  should  not,  how- 
ever, omit  some  of  the  productions  o(  ihe  Le 
Droz  family,  of  Neufchatel.  About  the  middle 
of  last  century,  the  elder  Le  Droz  presented  a 
clock  to  Peking  of  Spain,  with  a  sheep  and 
dog  attached  to  it.  The  bleating  of  the  lormer 
was  admirably  correet,  as  an  imitation ;  and  the 
dog  was  placed  in  custody  of  a  basket  of  loose 
fruit.  If  any  one  removed  the  fruit,  he  would 
growl,  SQarl,  gnash  his  teeth,  and  endeavour  to 
bite,  until  it  was  restored. 

Ilie  son  of  this  artist  was  the  original  mventor 
of  the  musical  boxes,  which  have  of  late  beep 
imported  into  this  country.  Mr.  CoUinson,  a 
correspondent  of  Dr.  Hutton's,  thus  clearly  de- 
scribes this  ^cinating  toy  in  a  letter  to  the 
doctor,  inserted  in  his  Mathematical  and  Philo- 
sophical Dictionary :— *  When  at  Geneva,  I 
called  upon  Droz,  son  of  the  original  Droz,  of  La  • 
Chaux  de  Fond,  where  I  also  went.  He  showed 
me  an  oval  gold  snuff-box,  about,  if  I  recollect 
right,  four  inches  and  a-half  long,  by  three  inches 
broad,  and  about  an  inch  and  arJiali  thick.  It  was 
double,  having  an  horizontal  partition ;  so  that  it 
may  be  considered  as  one  box  placed  on  another, 
vritn  a  lid,  of  course,  to  each  box.  One  con- 
tained snufi*;  in  the  other,  as  soon  as  the  lid 
was  opened,  there  rose  up  a  very  small  bird,  of 
green  enamelled  gold,  sitting  upon  a  gold  stand. 
Immediately  this  minute  curiosity  wagged  its 
tail,  shook  its  wings,  opened  its  bill  of  white 
enamelled  gold,  and  poured  forth,  minute  as  it 
was  (being  only  three-quarters  of  an  inch  from 
the  beak  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail)  s;^ch  a  clear 
and  melodious  song  as  wonld  have  filled  a  room 
of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  square  with  its  harmony.' 

In  Ozanam's  Mathematical  Recreations,  we 
have  an  account,  by  the  inventor,  M.  Camas,  of 
an  elegant  amusement  of  Louis  XIV.  when  a  boy: 
It  represented  a  lady  proceeding  to  court,  in  a 
small  chariot  drawn  by  two  horses,  and  attended  by 
her  coachman,  footman,  and  page.  When  the  ma- 
chine was  placed  at  the  end  of  a  table  of  nroper 
size,  the  coachman  smacked  his  whip,  the  horses 
started  off  with  all  the  natural  motions,  and  the 
whole  equipage  drove  on  to  the  &rther  extremity 
of  the  table ;  it  would  now  turn  at  right  angles 
in  a  regular  vray,  and  proceed  to  that  part  of 
the  table  opposite  to  which  the  prince  sat,  whea 
the  carriage  stopped,  the  page  alighted  to  opes 
the  door,  and  the  lady  came  out  with  a  petition, 
which  she  presented  with  a  courtesy  to  the  bow- 
ing young  monarch,  lite  return  was  equally  in 
Older.  After  appearing  to  await  the  pleasure  of 
the  prince  for  a  short  time,  the  lady  courtesied 
again,  and  re-enteced  the  chariot,  the  page 
mounted  behind,  the  coachman  flourished  his 
whip,  and  the  footman,  after  running  a  few  8teps» 
resumed  his  place. 

About  the  same  period,  M.  Vaucanson,  a 
member  of  the  Academy  Royal  of  France,  led 
the  way,  to  the  unquestionable  superiority  of 
modem  times,  in  these  contrivances,  oy  the  conr 
struction  of  his  automaton  duck,  a  production, 
it  is  said,  so  exactly  rejembling  the  living  animal, 
that  not  a  bone  of  the  body,  and  hardly  a  feather 
of  the  wings,  seems  to  have  Reaped  his  imitation 
and  direction.  The  radius,  the  cubitus,  and  the 
humerus  had  each  tlieir  exact  offices.   The  auto- 


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maton  ate,  drank,  and  quacked  in  perfect  har- 
mony with  nature.  It  gobbled  food  brought 
before  it,  with  avidity,  drank,  aud  even  muddled 
the  water  after  the  manner  of  the  living  bird, 
and  appeared  to  evacuate  its  food  ultimately  in 
a  digested  state.  Ingenious  contemporaries  of 
the  inventor,  who  solved  all  the  rest  of  his  con- 
trivances, could  never  wholly  comprehend  the 
mechanism  of  this  duck.  A  chemical  solution 
of  the  food  was  contrived  to  imitate  the  effect  of 
digestion. 

This  gentleman  is  also  celebrated  for  having 
exhibited  at  Paris,  in  1738,  an  androides  (from 
ayfip,  a  man,  and  ci^oC)  a  form ;  a  term  under 
which  some  scientific  works  have  classed  all  the 
automata  that  have  been  made  to  imitate  the 
human  person),  a  flute-player,  whose  powers 
exceeded  all  his  ancestry ;  and  for  the  liberality 
and  good  sense  with  which  he  communicated  to 
the  academy,  in  the  same  year,  an  eXact  account 
of  its  constmction.  Tb«  figure  was  nearly  six 
feet  in  he^ht,  and  usually  placed  on  a  square 
pedestal  four  feet  and  arhalf  high,  and  about 
three  feet  and  a^-half  broad.  The  air  entered  the 
body  by  three  separate  pipes,  into  which  it  was 
conveyed  by  nine  pairs  of  bellows,  which  were 
expanded  and  contracted  at  pleasure,  by  means 
of  an  axis  formed  of  metallic  subittances,  and 
which  was  tamed  by  the  aid  of  clock-work. 
There  was  not  even  the  slightest  noise  heard 
during  the  operations  of  the  bellows :  which 
mJeht  o&erwise  have  discovered  the  process  l^ 
which  the  air  was  conveyed  ad  libitum  into  the 
body  of  the  machine.  The  three  tubes,  into 
which  the  air  was  sent  by  means  of  the  bellows, 
passed  again  into  three  small  reservoirs  concealed 
m  the  iMody  of  the  automaton.  After  having 
united  in  this  place,  and  ascended  towards  the 
throat,  they  formed  the  cavity  of  the  mouth, 
which  terminated  m  two  small  lips,  adapted  to 
the  performance  of  their  respective  functions. 
A  small  movable  tongue  was  enclosed  within 
this  cavity,  which  admitted  or  intercepted  the 
passage  of  the  air  into  the  flute,  according  to  the 
tune  that  was  executed,  or  the  quantity  of  wind 
that  was  requisite  for  the  performance.  A  par- 
ticular species  of  steel  cylinder,  which  was 
turned  by  means  of  clock-work,  afibrded  the 
proper  movements  to  the  fingers,  lips,  and  tongue. 
This  cylinder  was  divided  into  fifteen  equal 
parts,  which  caused  the  ascension  of  the  other 
extremities,  by  the  aid  of  pegs,  which  pressed 
upon  the  ends  of  fifteen  different  levers.  The 
fingers  of  the  automaton  were  directed  in  their 
movements  by  seven  of  these  levers,  which  had 
wires  and  chains  attached  to  their  ascending  ex- 
tremities ;  these  being  fixed  to  the  fingers,  caused 
their  ascension  in  due  proportion  to  the  declen- 
sion of  the  other  extremity,  by  the  motion  of  the 
cylinder;  and  thus,  on  tlie  contrary,  the  ascent, 
or  descent,  of  one  end  of  the  lever,  produced  a  si- 
milar ascent,  or  descent,  in  the  fingers  that  cor- 
responded to  the  others ;  by  which  one  of  the 
holes  was  opened  or  stopped  agreeably  to  the 
d irection  of  the  music.  The  entrance  of  tho  wind 
was  managed  by  three  of  the  other  levers,  which 
were  so  organized  as  to  be  capable  of  opening  or 
shutting,  by  means  of  the  three  reservoirs.  By 
'A  similar  mechanical  process,  the  lips  were  under 


the  direction  of  four  levers ;  one  of  which  opened 
them  in  order  to  give  the  air  a  freer  passage; 
the  other  contracted  them ;  the  third  drew  them 
back ;  and  the  fourth  pushed  them  in  a  forward 
direction.  The  lips  were  placed  on  that  part 
of  the  flute  which  receives  me  air ;  and,  by  the 
different  motions  which  have  been  already  enu- 
merated, regulated  the  tune  in  the  requisite 
manner  for  execution.  The  direction  of  the 
tongue  furnished  employment  for  the  remaining 
lever,  which  it  moved  in  order  that  it  might  be 
enabled  to  shut  or  open  the  mouth  of  the  flute. 
The  extremity  of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  was 
terminated  on  the  right  side  by  an  endless  screw, 
consisting  of  twelve  threads,  each  of  which  was 
placed  at  the  distance  of  a  line  and  a  half  from 
the  other.  A  piece  of  copper  was  fixed  above 
this  screw;  and  within  it  was  a  steel  pivot, 
which  was  inserted  betw^n  the  threads  of  the 
acrew,  and  obliged  the  cylinder  above-mentioned, 
to  pursue  the  threads.  Thus,  instead  of  moving 
in  a  direct  turn,  it  was  perpetually  pushed  to 
one  side;  the  successive  elevation  of  Uie  levers 
displaying  all  the  different  movements  of  a  pro- 
fessed musician. 

M»  Vaucanson  constructed  another  celebrated 
androides,  which  played  on  the  Provencal  shep- 
herd's pipe,  and  beat,  at  the  same  time,  on  an 
instrument  called  the  tambour  de  basque.  Tills 
was  also  a  machine  of  the  fifst  order  for  inge- 
nious and  difficult  contrivance.  The  shepherd 
bore  the  flageolet  in  his  left  hand,  and  in  the 
right  a  stick,  with  which  he  beat  the  tabor,  or 
tambourine,  in  accompaniment.  He  was  ca- 
pable of  playing  about  twenty  different  alrs^ 
consisting  of  minuets,  rigadoons,  and  country- 
dances.  The  pipe,  or  flageolet,  which  he  was 
made  to  play,  is  a  wind-instrument  of  great  var 
riety,  rapidi^,  and  power  of  execution,  when 
the  notes  are  well  filled  and  properly  articulated 
by  the  tongue;  but  it  consists  only  of  three 
holes;  and  Sie  execution,  therefore,  mainly  de^ 
pends  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  are  co- 
vered, and  the  due  variation  of  the  force  of  the 
vrind  that  reaches  them.  To  give  the  androides 
power  to  sound  the  highest  note,  M.  Vaucanson 
found  it  necessary  to  load  the  bellows,  which 
supplied  the  air  to  this  tone,  with  fiftynsix 
pounds  weight,  while  that  of  one  ounce  supplied 
the  lowest  tone.  Nor  was  the  same  note  always 
to  be  executed  by  exactly  the  same  force  of  air; 
it  was  necessaiy  to  pay  the  most  accurate  atten- 
tion to  its  place  on  the  scale,  and  to  so  many 
difficult  circumstances  of  combination  and  ex- 
pression, that  the  inventor  declares  himself  to 
have  been  frequently  on  the  point  of  relin- 
quishing his  ajttempt  in  its  progress.  In  the 
tambourine  accompaniment,  too,  there  were  nu- 
merous obstacles  to  overcome ;  the  variation  of 
the  strokes,  and  particularly  the  continued  roll 
of  this  instrument,  was  found  to  require  no  small 
ingenuity  of  construction. 

All  other  exhibitions  of  mechanical  skill,  in 
imitation  of  the  powers  of  human  nature,  were 
destined,  however,  to  give  way,  in  1769,  to  the 

Sretensions  of  the  chess-player  of  M.  Wolffgang 
e  Kempelin,  a  Hungarian  gentleman,  and  aulic 
counsellor  of  the  royal  chamber  of  the  domains 
of  .the  emperor  in  Hungary.    Called  in  that  year 


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AUTOMATOlf. 


1o  Viennay  by  the  duties  of  his  station,  this  gep- 
tleman  was  present  at  some  experiments  in 
magnetism,  made  before  the  empress  Maria 
Theresa,  when  .he  ventured  to  hint  Uiat  he  could 
construct  for  her  majesty  a  piece  of  mechanism 
far  superior  to  any  of  those  which  had  been 
exhibited.  His  manner  of  remarking  this,  ex- 
cited the  attention  of  the  empress,  who  encouraged 
him  to  make  the  effort,  tne  automaton  chess- 
player, which  has  since  been  exhibited  in  all  the 
capitals  of  Europe,  was,  within  six  months  after 
this  period,  presented  at  the  imperial  court.  It 
is  a  presumption  in  favor  of  the  pretensions  of 
this  contrivance  to  be  a  master-piece  of  mere 
mechanism,  that  the  original  artist,  after  having 
gratified  his  exalted  patroness  and  her  court  with 
the  exhibition  of  it,  appeared  for  many  years  in- 
different to  its  fame.-  He  engaged  himself  in 
other  mechanical  pursuits  with  equal  ardor, 
and  is  said  to  have  so  far  neglected  this,  as  to 
nave  taken  it  partly  to  pieces,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  other  experiments.  But  the  visit  of  the 
Russian  grand  duke  Paul  to  the  court  of  Joseph 
II.  again  called  our  automaton  to  life.  It  was 
repaired  and  put  in  order  in  a  few  weeks ;  and, 
from  this  period  (1785)/ has  been  exhibited  at 
intervals,  uirough  Germany,  at  Paris,  and  in 
London,  first  by  M.  de  Kempelin,  and  latterly  by 
a  purchaser  of  the  property  fh>m  his  son ;  De 
Kempelin  having  died  m  1803. 

Our  chess-playing  readers  will  be  able  to  ap- 
preciate the  bold  pretensions  of  this  automaton. 
The  entire  number  of  combinations  which  it  is 
possible  to  form  with  the  pieces  of  a  chess-board 
nas  never,  we  believe,  been  ascertained.  To 
push  forward  a  plan  of  our  own  steadily,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  anticipate  the  designs  of  an 
antagonist,  requires  a  constant  and  acute  discri- 
mination, which  long  experience,  and  some  con- 
siderable strength  of  memory,  have  been  required 
to  make  availing  in  aU  other  cases.  But  this 
'  cunning  infidel  (for  he  assumes  the  figure  of  a 
Turk)  drives  kings,  and  castles,  and  knights 
before  him  with  more  than  mortal  sagacity,  and 
with  his  inferior  hand  :  he  never,  we  believe,  has 
been  beaten ;  and  except  in  a  veiy  few  instances 
of  drawn  games,  has  beat  the  most  skilful  chess- 
pjlayers  in  Europe.  Dr.  Hutton,  on  the  suppo- 
sition of  its  being  altogether  a  mechanical  con- 
trivance, calls  it  *  the  greatest  master-piece  of 
mechanics  that  ever  appeared  in  the  world.' 
We  shall  recount  his  pretensions  in  the  words  of 
an  Oxford  graduate,  who  published  Observations 
on  them,  during  his  last  visit  in  London,  and 
subjoin  a  statement  of  the  best  attempts  that 
have  been  made  to  account  for  his  apparent 
skill. 

'  The  room  where  the  automaton  chess-player 
is  at  present  exhibited,  has  an  inner  apartment, 
within  which  appears  the  figure  of  a  Turk  as 
large  as  life,  dressed  afler  |the  Turicish  fuhion, 
sitting  behind  a  chest  of  tliree  feet  and  a  half  in 
length,  two  feet  in  breadth,  and  two  feet  and  a 
half  in  height,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  the 
wooden  seat  on  which  it  sits.  The  chest  is 
placed  upon  four  castors,  and,  together  with  the 
ngure,  may  be  easily  moved  to  any  part  of  the 
room.  On  the  plain  surface  formed  by  the  top 
of  the  chest,  in  the  centre,  is  a  raised  immovable 
^hests^board  of  handsome  dimeii.«'ons,upon  which 


the  figure  has  its  eyes  fixed ;  its  right  aim  and 
hand  being  extended  on  tlie  chest,  and  its  left 
arm  somewhat  raised,  as  if  in  the  attitude  of  hold- 
ing a  Turkish  pipe,  which  originally  was  placed 
in  its  hand.  The  exhibiter  l^ns  by  wheeling 
the  chest  to  the  entrance  of  the  apartment  within 
which  it  stands,  and  in  face  of  the  spectators. 
He  then  opens  certain  doors  contrived  in  the ' 
chest,  two  m  ftonX  and  two  at  the  back ;  at  the 
same  time  pulling  out  a  long  shallow  drawer 
at  the  bottom  of  the  chest,  made  to  contain  the 
chess-men,  a  cushion  for  the  arm  of  the  figure  to 
rest  upon,  and  some  counters.  Two  lesser  doors, 
and  a  green  cloth  screen,  contrived  in  the  body 
of  the  figure  and  its  lower  parts,  are  likewise 
opened,  and  the  Turkish  robewhidi  covers  them 
is  raised ;  so  that  the  construction,  both  of  the 
.  figure  and  chest,  internally,  is  displayed.  In  this 
state  the  automaton  is  moved  round  for  the  exa- 
mination of  the  spectators :  and,  to  banish  all 
^suspicion  from  the  most  sceptical  mind,  that  any 
living  sabject  is  concealed  within  any  part  of  it, 
the  exhibitor  introduces  a  lighted  candle  into  the 
body  of  the  chest  and  figure,  by  which  the  inte- 
rior of  the  chest  is,  in  a  great  measure,  rendered 
transparent,  and  the  most  secret  comer  is  shown. 
Here  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  same  precau- 
tion to  remove  suspicion  is  used,  if  requested,  at 
the  close,  as  at  the  commencement,  of  a  game  et 
chess  with  the  automaton.  The  chest  is  divided, 
by  a  partition,  into  two  unequal  chambers.  That 
to  the  right  of  the  figure  is  the  .narrowest,  and 
occupies  scarcely  one-third  of  the  body  of  the 
chest.  It  is  filled  with  little  wheels,  levers,  cy- 
linders, and  other  machinery  used  in  clock-woriu 
That  to  the  left  contains  a  few  wheels,  some 
small  barrels  with  springs,  and  two  quarters  of  a 
circle  placed  horizontally.  The  body  and  lower 
parts  of  the  figure  contain  certain  tubes,  wfaidi 
seem  to  be  conductors  to  the  machinery.  After 
a  sufficient  time,  during  which  each  spectator 
may  satisfy  his  scruples  and  his  curiosity,  the 
exhibiter  recloses  the  doors  of  the  chest  and 
figure,  and  the  drawer  at  the  bottom ;  makes 
some  arrangements  in  the  body  of  the  figure, 
winds  up  the  works  with  a  key  inserted  into  a 
small  opening  on  the  side  of  the  chest,  places  a 
cushion  under  the  left  arm  of  the  figure,  which 
now  rests  upon  it,  and  invites  any  individual 
piresent  to  play  a  game  of  chess.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  a  game,  the  automaton  moves  its 
head  as  if  taking  a  view  of  the  board ;  the  same 
motion  occurs  at  the  close  of  a  game.  In  mak- 
ing a  move,  it  slowly  raises  its  left  arm  from  the 
cushion  placed  under  it,  and  directs  it  towards 
the  square  of  the  piece  to  be  moved.  Its  hands 
and  fingers  open  on  touching  the  piece,  which  it 
takes  up,  and  conveys  to  any  proposed  square. 
The  arm  then  returns  with  a  natural  motion  to 
the  cushion  upon  which  it  usually  rests.  In  tak- 
ing a  piece,  the  automatob  makes  the  same  mo- 
tions of  the  arm  and  hand  to  lay  hold  of  the  piece, 
which  it  conveys  from  the  board,  and  then  return- 
ing to  its  own  piece,  it  takes  it  up,  and  places  it  on 
the  vacant  square.  ObtervationSf  ^-c.  ly  an  Oxfb*ri 
Graduate,  8  vo,  1 81 9.  His  motions  have  an  air  of 
great  dignity  and  eomposure.  On  giving  check  to 
the  king,  he  moves  his  head  as  a  signal.  When  a 
false  move  is  made,  as  if  to  puzzle  him,  he  taps 
with  hi^  right  hand  on  the  chest,  replaces  the 


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Siece  wrongly  mdyed,  and  prooeeds  to  take  the 
ae  advantage  of  moving  a  piece  of  his  own.  At 
other  times  he  will  tap  on  tne  chest  for  his  ad- 
▼ersaiy  to  move ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  game 
he  bows  gracefully  round  to  the  company.  It  is 
a  remarkable,  and  somewhat  suspicious  circum- 
stance, that  neither  the  present  proprietor  of  this 
automaton  (in  a  pamphlet  circulated  by  him  on 
this  subject),  nor  the  Oxfbrd  graduate,  from  whose 
observations  we  have  abridged  the  above  account 
of  his  performances,  takes  any  notice  of  the  at- 
tempted solution  of  them  by  Mr.  Collinson,  a 
correspondent  of  Dr.  Hutton,  to  whom  we  have 
before  alluded.  In  the  same  letter  in  which  thb 
gentleman  describes  the  automaton  inventions  of 
the  Droz  family,  he  speaks  of  a  pamphlet  pre- 
sented to  him  at  Dresden,  which  affirms  the 
whole  phenomena  to  be  produced  by  human 
agency ;  a  conjecture  which  is  confirmed  hf  a 
writer  in  the  Eainburgh  Encyclopaedia.  A  well- 
taught  boy  is  said  to  be  partly  concealed  in  the 
ample  drapery  of  our  automaton's  lower  limbs, 
ana  partly  in  the  commode  on  which  the  chess- 
board is  placed.  He  cannot  be  seen  when  the 
doors  are  opened,  we  are  told,  *  becaiise  his  legs 
and  thighs  are  then  concealed  in  two  hollow  cy- 
linders, which  appear  designed  to  support  the 
wheels  and  levers,  the  rest  of  ihe  body  being  at 
that  moment  out  of  the  commode,  and  hid  in  the 
drapery  of  the  automaton.  When  the  doors  of 
the  commode  are  shut,  the  clacks  which  are 
heard  by  the  turning  of  a  rounce,  permit  the 
dwarf  to  change  his  place,  and  re-enter  the  com- 
mode without  being  heaid;  and  while  the  ma- 
chine is  rolled  about  to  different  parts  of  the 
room,  to  prove  that  it  is  perfectly  detached,  the 
dvrarf  has  an  opportunity  of  shutting  the  trap 
through  which  he  has  passed.  The  drapery  of 
the  automaton  is  then  lifted  up,  and  the  interior 
part  of  the  body  is  shown,  to  convince  the  spec- 
tators that  all  is  fair,  and  the  whole  terminates  to 
their  great  astonishment,  and  in  the  illusion  that 
an  effect  is  produced  by  simple  machinery, 
which  can  only  arise  from  a  well-ordered  head.' 
This  writer  proceeds  to  conjecture,  that  the  chess- 
board is  semi-transparent,  so  as  at  once  to  con- 
ceal the  party  within,  and  afford  him  sufficient 
light  to  perceive  the  moves  of  his  antagonist, 
which  are  met  by  an  interior  lever,  governing  the 
arm  of  the  automaton,  on  the  principles  of  the 
pantograph. 

With  these  accounts  of  the  chess-player  very 
distinctly  in  his  mind,  and  an  extract  of  the  sup- 
posed method  of  concealing  the  dwarf  or  boy,  m 
his  pocket,  the  writer  of  this  paper  went  with 
some  friends  a  short  time  ago,  to  visit,  and,  if  possi- 
ble, to  play  at  chess  with  the  automaton.  His 
engagements,  however,  were  far  too  numerous 
for  the  writer  to  obtain  that  honor  on  this  occasion. 
Some  slight  changes  had  taken  place  in  the  man- 
ner of  exhibiting  the  automaton  (compared  with 
the  account  of  the  Oxford  graduate);  having, 
therefore,  avowed  to  the  proprietor,  that  his  object 
was  to  obtain  a  scientinc  knowledge  of  his  pro- 
ceedings, as  &r  as  it  could  be  done  with  pro- 
priety, the  writer  took  memoranda  of  what 
passed. 

From  a  door  in  a  canvass  screen  the  automa- 
ton aad  commode  were  wheeled  out  at  the 


time  appointed,  and  the  figure  was  made  to  hcer 
the  company.  Then  the  inferior  chamber  of  the 
commode  (occupying  about  one-third  of  its  di- 
mensbns),  was  opened  before  and  behind,  wheir 
a  taper  was  held  by  the  proprietor  in  such  a  si- 
tuation, as  to  throw  a  full  light  through  the  ma- 
chinery that  occupied  this  part  of  it.  He  now 
closed  and  locked  the  doors  of  this  chamber, 
opened  the  drawer,  and  took  out  the  men  and 
cushion,  as  described  by  the  Oxford  graduate ; 
after  which  he  opened  the  larger  cham^r  of  the 
commode  in  front,  and  put  the  taper  through  the 
front  door  within  it.  rerhaps  one-sixth,  or  one- 
eighth  of  this  chamber  was  occupied  by  machi- 
nery ;  the  rest  was  a  perfect  cavity,  lined  with 
green  baize.  He  now  shut  and  locked  these 
doors;  then  wheeled  the  commode  round, 
opened  and  took  up  the  drapery  of  the  figure^ 
and  exhibited  the  body,  partly  occupied  by  ma- 
chinery, and  partly  left  with  imperfect  imita- 
tions of  the  prominent  parts,  to  tne  shoulders. 
The  drapery  was  then  carefully  pulled  down,  and 
the  figure  wheeled  round,  so  as  again  to  front  the 
spectators,  before  whom  it  played  a  masterly  and 
successful  game.  The  conviction  of  the  writer 
and  his  friends  (with  the  figure  before  them)  was, 
that  the  concealment  of  a  small  thin  boy  or  dwarf 
was  barely  possible.  The  larger  chamber  would 
contain  him,  and  that  chamber  never  was  opened 
from  behind,  nor  at  the  same  time  that  the  back 
of  the  figure  was  exposed ;  while  it  is  observable 
that  the  inferior  chamber  had  the  light  of  a  taper 
thrown  through  it.  So  that  it  appeared  a  practi- 
cable contrivance  that  a  boy  should  be  concealed 
in  the  drapery  while  the  commode  was  opened, 
and  in  the  commode  while  the  figure  was  ex- 
posed. 

Under  these  impressions,  the  writer  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  proprietor,  in  which  he  stated,  that 
having  with  his  friends,  been  highly  gratified  by 
the  wondeHul  powers  of  the  automaton  chess- 
player, and  intending  to  communicate  the  result 
of  his  investigation  to  the  public,  which  must,  if 
satisfactory,  prove  extremely  creditable  to  the 
invention, — ^he  re<^uested  leave  to  visit  the  exhi- 
bition (accompanied  by  two  or  three  scientific 
friends,  and  probably  in  the  presence  of  a  meniF- 
ber  of  the  Royal  &mtly),  in  order  to  see  a  game 
played  by  the  figure,  wiUi  the  doors  of  the  com- 
mode open ;  his  object  being  merely  to  ascertain 
the  impossibility  of  any  human  intervention,  and 
not  in  any  degree  to  inspect  the  machinery ;  but 
to  this  application  a  polite  negative  was  returned, 
declining  any  othei  man  the  ordinary  public  ex- 
posure of  the  machine. 

Since  writing  the  above,  we  have  seen  'An  At- 
tempt to  analyse  theAutoinaton  Chess-player  of 
M.  De  Kempelin,'  Lon.  1 821 .  Tlie  anonymous 
author  is  sanguine  enough  to  add, '  With  an  easy 
method  of  imitating  the  movements  of  that  cele- 
brated Figure.'  The  solution  of  these  movements 
here  offered  to  the  public,  is  so  iar  similar  to  our 
own,  as  that  the  writer  confidently  ascribes  them  to 
the  concealed  presence  of  a  living  agent.  Five 
lithographic  plates  illustrates  his  supposed  modeot 
operation.  But  this  tract  suggests,  that  the  ope* 
rator  is  introduced  into  the  body  of  the  automa- 
ton ;  that  he  sees  the  chessboard,  while  playing; 
'  through  the  waistcoat,  as  easily  as  through  a 


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AUTOMATON. 


veil ; '  and  th^t  his  left  hand  actually  fills  the 
eleere  of  the  figure^  moving  the  fingers  '  with  a 
string.'  (Surely^  to  jnake  this  sort  of  agency  com- 
plete, the  chess-player  might  have  been  furnished 
with  gloves !) 

The  author  ingeniously  finds  a  space  at  the 
back  of  the  drawer,  not  heretofore  noticed,  which 
would  receive  the  legs  of  a  concealed  person.  He 
also  makes  some  pertinent  remarks  on  the  illu- 
sion which  if  probably  practised  on  the  spectator 
in  the  winding  up  of  the  machinery,  the  ticking 
of  clock-work  that  is  heard,  &c.  We  still  imar- 
gine,  however,  that  the  dimensions  of  the  chest 
would  afford  no  room  for  the  concealment  of  a  fi- 
giii-e  that  could  thus  direct  the  arm,  and  are  certain 
no  such  figure  could  rise  out  of  it  into  that  part  of 
the  body  supposed,  as  we  saw  it  displayed  in 
London.  A  youth  coiled  up  in  the  commode 
would  much  more  *  easiTy  *  play  the  game.  The 
whole  chest  is  but  two  feet  and  a  half  high,  three 
feet  long,  and  two  feet  in  breadth.  On  the  whole, 
we  must  leave  the  question  of  human  agency  still 
undecided,  and  pass  on  to  the  mention  of  another 
of  M.  de  Kempelin's  ii^nious  inventions. 

'  On  what  do  you  think  M.  de  Kempelin  is  at 
present  employed  ? '  says  M.  de  Wendisch,  in  a 
letter  to  a  friend  on  the  pursuits  of  that  gentle- 
man, in  1783 — *  on  a  machine  that  talks  ! '  Ac- 
knowledge that  he  must  be  gifted  with  a  creative 
genius  bold  and  invincible,  to  xmdertake  a  pro- 
ject of  this  kind ;  and  will  it  be  believed  that  he 
nas  every  reason  to  hope  for  complete  success  ? 
He  has  already  succeeded  so  far  as  to  prove  the 
possibility  of  such  a  machine,  and  to  deserve  on 
the  part  of  the  learned,  that  they  should  dedicate 
their  attention  to  this  new  and  hitherto  unknown 
invention.  His  machine  answers,  clearly  and 
dbtinctly  enough,  several  questions.  The  voice 
is  sweet  and  agreeable ;  there  is  but  the  letter  R 
which  it  pronounces  lispingly,  and  with  a  certain 
harshness.  When  its  answer  is  not  understood, 
it  repeats  it  slower ;  and  if  required  to  speak  a 
third  time,  it  repeats  it  again,  but  in  a  tone  of  im- 
patience and  vexation.  I  have  heard  it.  pronounce 
m  different  languages,  very  well  and  very  dis- 
tinctly, the  following  words  and  phrases: — 
*Papa,'  'Mama,'  *My  wife,'    *  My   husband,' 

*  A^propos,'    *  Marianne,'   '  Rome,'  *  Madam,' 

*  The  queen,'  '  The  king,'  '  At  Paris,'  *  Come,' 

*  Mama  loves  me,'  *  My  wife  is  my  friend.' ' 
This  writer  then  speaks  of  the  machine  being  at 
that  time  nothing  more  than  a  square  box,  to 
which  was  affixed  a  pair  of  organ-bellows ;  and 
that,  at  each  aiuswerofthis  non-descript  speaker, 
the  inventor  put  his  hand  under  a  curtain  that 
covered  it,  to  touch,  apparently,  the  springs  that 
produced  the  articulation.  It  appears  to  have 
been  M.  Kempelin*s  design  to  give  to  this  auto- 
maton the  form  of  a  child  of  five  or  six  years  of 
age,  as  the  voice  which  he  produced  was  that  of 
this  period  of  life.  He,  however,  exhibited  it  in 
an  unfinished  state  ;  and  we  have  not  been  able 
to  learn  to  what  figure  it  was  finally  adapted. 
The  narrative  of  his  proceedings  in  accomplish- 
ing what  he  did  effect,  and  which  we  abridge 
from  a  curious  treatise  of  his,  '  On  the  Mecha- 
nism of  Speech,'  appears  to  us  to  be  amongst 
the  most  interesting  and  usefiil  of  all  the  automa- 


tical details.  Our  modem  removers  of  impedi- 
ments in  speech  may  work  wonders,  peihaps,  by 
looking  into  his  artificial  jaws! 

The  first  object  of  M.  Kempelin,  though  upra 
what  ground  he  reasoned  we  cannot  imagine,  was 
the  production  of  the  vowel  sounds,  raiher  than 
those  of  any  of  the  consonant,  which  he  hardly 
expected  to  be  able  to  combine  with  them.  He 
investigated  the  affinity  between  the  sound  of 
various  instruments  ana  the  human  voice ;  and 
between  the  use  of  the  artificial  reed-stop,  or 
voce  humana  (which  has  sometimes  been  applied 
to  the  natutal  organs),  and  the  general  functions 
of  the  glottis.  To  Uie  honor  of  our  northern 
countrymen,  after  exhausting  his  patience  on 
qualif)nng  and  combining  bassoon,  with  clarionet 
reeds,  tliose  of  hautboys,  &c.  he  found  the  reed 
of  the  Highland  bagpipe  to  furnish  the  best  prac- 
tical basis  of  his  attempts,  and  sounds  approxi- 
mating the  nearest  to  the  harmony  divine  of 
human  speech  !  He  now  conceived  that  the  fun- 
damental powers  of  the  voice  were  in  A,  the 
sound  of  which  vowel  he  easily  produced  by 
combining  the  reed  with  a  tube  and  a  pair  of 
organ-bellovra ;  but  beyond  this  he  could  not 
proceed,  until  it  occurred  to  him  that  the  organ 
of  developing  tlie  sounds  desired,  demanded  his 
principal  attention.  He  divided,  therefore,  a 
deep  elliptical  box  into  two  parts,  which  ^at 
upon  eacn  other  with  a  hinge,  in  the  manner  of 
the  human  jaws,  connecting  his  tube  with  the 
back  of  it,  and  carefully  varying  their  opening 
and  manner  of  action,  until  he  could  coounand 
the  sounds  of  O  OU,  and  E.  Year  after  year 
was  devoted  to  this  instrument,  we  are  told ;  bat 
I,  or  the  German  U,  refused  to  obey  his  call. 
Ky  L,  M,  and  P,  however,  rewarded  his  efforts ; 
when  he  attempted  to  form  the  letters  he  had  ob- 
tained, into  syllabic  combinations  and  words. 
Here  an  almost  insuperable  difficulty  occurred; 
the  sounds  of  tlie  letters  would  not  flow  into  each 
other  without  a  clatter  or  pause.  If  too  slowly 
enunciated,  they  would  seem  like  a  child  repeat- 
ing his  alphabet,  and  have  no  resemblance  to  the 
word  intended*;  and  if  the  tube  was  too  rapidly 
supplied,  it  would  produce  a  catching  gust  of 
air  in  the  mouth,  which  interrupted  every  letter 
with  the  sound  of  K.  An  aspirating  sound  fol- 
lowing that  of  the  consonants,  was  also  veiy 
troublesome  to  overcome."  In  the  beginning  of 
the  third  year  of  his  labor,  he  could  execute, 

Eretty  accurately  the  words  Papa,  Mama,  Aan, 
ama,  Mulo.  The  sounds  of  most  of  the  other 
consonants  were  ultimately  obtained.  P,  K,  and 
T,  required  the  greatest  quantity  of  air,  we  are 
told ;  and  tlie  whole  machine  about  six  times  the 
quantity  of  the  human  lungs.  But  the  two  lat- 
ter consonants,  with  D  and  G,  were  always  im- 
perfectly articulated.  Some  of  his  best  sentences 
were,  Homanorum  Imperator  semper  Augustus. 
Leopoldus  Secundus.  Vous  ^tes  mon  ami.  Je 
vous  uime  de  tout  mon  cceur.  M.  de  Kempelin 
finally  perfected,  1 .  Nostrils,  which  he  found  of 
great  importance  in  articulation,  and  which  con- 
sisted of  two  tin  tubes,  communicating  at  bottom 
with  the  mouth.  2.  The  mouth,  made  of  elastic 
gum,  and  of  a  bell  form,  so  contrived  that  the 
sounds  of  the  reed  issued  immediately  from  it. 


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316 


and  Gonoected  with  the  air-chest  by  a  tin  tube, 
'^  which  kept  it  always  full  of  air.    3.  The  air* 

chest,  which  was  of  an  oblong  shape,    and 
;^'  received  at  one  end  the  voice^pipe  containing 

^  the  reed,  and  at  the  other  the  bellows-pipe,  both 

closed  round  with  leather.    In  this  chest  were 
contained  two  inferior  ones,  each  having  a  valve 
at  the  top  closed  by  a  spring,  and  a  round  aper* 
^  tote  adapted  to  receive  throu^  the  side  of  the 

larger  chest  a  tin  funnel,  and  a  round  wooden 
tul^,  which  produced  the  hissing  sounds  of  C  H, 
J,  S,  and  Z.  The  voice-pipe  entered  the  larger 
chest  between  the  two  smaller  ones.  4.  The  ^1- 
"-  lows,  answering  the  purpose  of  lungs,  and  which 

'  acted  in  the  ordinary  manner  of  those  belonging 

to  an  orgaji.  5.  The  reed,  which  was  in  imi- 
tation of  a  bagpipe  drone,  the  hollow  portion 
being  square,  and  the  tongue  of  it  formed  of  thin 
tvory,  vibrating  Horizontally,  to  produce  the 
various  sounds.  The  square  end  was  inserted, 
-  as  we  have  noticed,  in  the  air-chest.    Along  the 

upper  side  of  the  tongue  was  a  movable  spring, 
which  slightly  bent  it  inward ;  and  the  part  on 
I-  which  it  fell  was  covered  with  leather,  to  modu- 

Ute  the  vibrations.  The  sounds  were  more  acute 
aa  the  spring  acted  toward  the  outer  extremity  of 
the  tongue,  which  was  then  more  rapid  in  its 
^^'  motions ;  as  it  was  withdrawn  from  this  part,  the 

>  vibratioRS  were  slower,  and  the  sounds  more  grave. 

:;  The  name  of  M.  Maillardet,  a  Swiss  artist,  of 

r.  modem  celebrity,  is  the  only  one  that  merits  as- 

sociation with  that  of  De  Kempelin.    He  has 
^  executed  two  or  three  celcbratea  figures.    One 

e  of  these  is  a  lady  at  her  piano-forte.    She  exe- 

/  cutes  eighteen  tunes  by  the  actual  pressure  of 

L  her  fingers  on  the  keys ;  and  while  all  the  natu- 

i  ral  notes  are  thus  performed,  her  feet  play  the 

flats  and  sharps  by  means  of  pedals,    xhe  in- 
(  strument,  in  fact,  may  be  correctly  called  an 

•■:  organ,  as  it  is  mainly  moved  by  bellows ;  to  bring 

;^  which  into  proper  action  is  the  one  important 

object  of  the  machinery.   The  whole  is  impelled 
«  by  six  strong  springs,  acting  on  twenty-five  com- 

municating levers,  and  regulated  and  equalised 
by  a  brass  fly.  The  interior  of  the  instmment  is, 
of  coiirse,  very  complicated  and  minute  in  its 
mechanism,  which  requires  to  be  wound  up  once 
:  an  hour.    Before  commencing  a  tune,  the  lady 

',  bows  her  head  to  the  auditors ;  she  is  apparent- 

ly agitated  with  an  anxiety  and  diffidence,  not 
^  always  felt  in  real  life;  her  eyes  then  seem  intent 

on  the  notes,  her  bosotn  heaves,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance it  is  impossible  to  discover  any  semblance 
of  a  work  of  art. 

A  magician,  that  has  sometimes  accompanied 
this  musical  lady,  is  also  a  considerable  tnumph 
of  mechanical  skill.  He  sits  at  the  bottom  or  a 
wall,  with  a  long  wand  in  his  right  hand,  and  a 
book  in  his  left.  Questions  inscribed  on  thin 
oval  counters,  twenty  in  number,  are  put  into 
the  spectator's  hand,  who  is  desired  to  CDcIose 
one  or  more  of  them  in  a  drawer,  which  shuts 
with  a  spring.  A  medallion,  for  instance,  has 
the  question.  What  is  the  most  universal  pas- 
sion ?  which  being  put  into  the  drawer,  the  figure 
rises  with  a  solemn  gait,  bows  his  head,  draws  a 
circle  or  two  with  his  wand,  consults  his  book, 
und  lifts  it  towards  his  face,  -is  if  in  meditation, 
lie  then  strikes  with  his  wand  on  the  wall  above 


his  hand,  when  two  folding-dooiy  open^  and  dif< 
cover  the  inscription  Love,  as  the  reply.  T^e 
counters  are  remarkably  thin,  and  similar  in  all 
other  respects  but  their  inscriptions,  which  some 
of  them  bear  on  both  sides :  certainly  the  mechan- 
ism that  can  discriminate  the  one  from  the  other^ 
must  be  exqiiisite;  and  niechani3m  alone,  we 
have  the  highest  authority  for  believing  it  is; 

M..MaiUardet's  Writing-boy  is  hardly  less 
meritorious.  He  is  exhibited  kneeling  on  one 
knee,  and  an  attendant  having  dipped  his  pencil 
and  laid  the  paper  l^fbre  him,  he  executes  draw- 
ings, and  French  and  English  sentences,  in  wri- 
ting, of  a  very  superior  description.  Every 
natural  motion  of  the  fingers,  elbow,  eyes,  &c.  is 
correctly  imitated.  The  first  of  these  figures  the 
artist  stated  to  have  cost  him  the  sum  of  £1500 
in  its  construction. 

The  last  machine  of  this  kind  which  we  shall  no- 
tice is  the  engine  invented  by  Mr.  Babbage,  capa^ 
ble  of  computing  any  taUe  by  the  method  of 
differences,  whether  idey  are  positive  or  nega- 
tive, or  of  both  kinds.  The  greater  the  number 
of  differences,  the  more  will  this  engine  outstrip 
the  most  rapid  calculator ;  and  by  the  application 
of  certain  parts  of  no  great  complexity,  the  roots 
of  equations^  and  consequently  tne  roots  of  num- 
bers may  be  extracted. 

One  machine  of  this  kind  this  gentleman  has 
executed.  Drawings  and  plans  of  a  second  have 
been  made  by  him  to  multiply  any  number  of 
figures  by  any  other  number ;  of  a  third,  to  make 
tables  of  prime  numbers  from  0  to  ten  millions  ; 
and  of  a  fourth,  to  construct  tables  which  have 
no  order  of  differences  constant.  This  last  engine 
will  calculate  tables  governed  by  laws  which 
have  not  been  hitherto  shown  to  be  explicitly 
determinable;  and  will  solve  equations,  for 
which  analytical  methods  of  solution  have  not 
yet  been  contrived.  Thus  one  of  the  greatest 
difiiculties  with  which  calculators  are  beset,  ari- 
sing from  the  errors  of  copyists,  and  of  the  press,, 
is  obviated.  In  Mr.  BabiMige's  engine,  the  ma- 
chine itself  takes  from  several  boxes,  containing 
types,  the  numbers  which  it  calculates:  thus 
becoming  at  the  same  time  computer  and  Com- 
positor ;  and  preventing  all  error  both  in  copy-  • 
mg  and  in  printing.  It  is  worked  by  the  hand, 
and  it  would  be  very  easy,  if  any  advantage 
were  to  be  gained  by  such  a  method,  to  apply 
to  it  a  self-moving  power. 

We  have  now  placed  before  the  reader  as  com- 
plete an  account  of  the  most  celebrated  automata 
as  the  limits  of  our  publication  will  admit.  We 
believe  no  remarkable  contrivance  of  this  kind 
has  escaped  our  notice ;  and  is  it  too  much  to  ask 
him  for  one  serious  reflection,  at  the  close,  upon 
the^  wisdom  of  that  Almighty  Architect,  by  whom 
we  are  so  fearfully,  so  wonderfully,  so  inimitably 
made  ?  Without  any  speculation  on  the  possible 
powers  of  man,  or  the  tendency  of  his  habits  and 
impulses  on  a  large  and  hypothetical  scale,  let 
the  entire  muscular  action  of  a  single  youUiful 
arm,  in  striking  a  shuttlecock,  be  perfectly  imi- 
tated by  him,  and  we  could  consent  to  resign  to 
the  artist  the  government  of  our  share  of  the 
world ! 

AUTOMENES,  one  of  the  Heraclia8e,kingot 
Corinth     At  his  death,  A.  A.  C.  779  annual  ma- 


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gistrates  were  chosen  at  Corinth,  who  were  cal- 
led Piytanes ;  and  by  them  the  Corinthians  were 
governed  for  ninety  years,  till  Cypselus  and  his 
son  Periander  assuihed  absolute  power. 

AUTOMEDON,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
papilio. 

AUTOMOLI,  a  mation  of  Ethiopia,  mentioned 
by  Herodotus. 

AUTOMOLITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  substance 
which,  from  its  crystalline  form,  -  was  considered 
to  be  a  v^ety  of  spinelle,  containing  a  portion 
of  oxide  of  zinc.  But  a  later  and  more  accurate 
analysis  has  shown  it  to  be  an  aluminate  of  zinc. 
It  has  hitherto  been  found  only  in  Sweden,  in 
small  octahedral  crystab,  imbedded  in  talc. 

AUTONINE  (Bernard),  a  French  lawyer,  was 
advocate  to  the  parliament  of  Bourdeaux.  He 
was  author  of,  1 ,  A  Comparison  of  the  French 
and  Roman  Law;  2.  A  Commentary  on  the 
Provincial  Law  of  Bourdeaux;  3.  Censura  Gal- 
lica  in  Jus  Civile  Romanum. 

AUTONOE,  in  fabulous  history,  a  daughter 
of  Cadmus,  who  married  Aristeus,  by  whom  she 
had  Acteeon,  frequently  called  Autoneius  Heros. 
Actieon  became  a  famous  huntsman,  but  happen- 
ing to  look  at  Diana  and  her  attendants  bathing 
near  Gargaphia,  he  was  changed  into  a  sth^.  and 
devoured  by  dogs ;  which  was  so  afflicting  to 
Autonoe,  that  she  retired  from  Boeotia  to  Me- 
gara,  and  soon  after  died. 

AUTONOMIA;  from  avroc,  and  vofioQf  law; 
a  power  of  being  governed  by  our  own  laws  and 
magistrates.  The  liberty  of  the  citie»  which  lived 
under  the  faith  and  protectibn.  of  the  Romans, 
consisted  in  their  autonomia,  i.  e.  they  were  al- 
lowed to  make  their  own  laws,  and  elect  their 
own  magistrates ;  by  whom  justice  was  to  be 
administered,  and  not  by  Roman  presidents  or 
judges,  as  was  done  in  other  places,  which  were 
not  indulged  with  the  autonomia. 

AUTQPHOROS;  from  aoroQ  and  ftou,  to 
bear,  i.  e.  self-bearing ;  an  epithet  applied  to  a 
thief  taken  in  the  act  with  the  stolen  goods  upon 
him. 

AUTOPHOSPHORUS  is,  by  some,  used  to 
denote  phosphorus,  on  account  of  its  kindling  of 
itself. 

AUTOPRACTI;  from  ovroc,  and  irpaTrw,  I 
exact ;  in  the  civil  law,  persons  indulged  with 
this  privilege,  that  they  should  not  be  compelled 
to  pay  taxes,  but  should  be  left  to  their  own  free 
will.  Of  this  number  were  men  of  distinguished 
dignity,  and  those  eminent  for  their  probity  and 
honor. 

AUTOPSY.  From  avroc  and  o^tc,  a  man's 
own  right,  as  distinct  from  that  of  others.  Not 
in  use. 

In  thoM  that  have  forked  tails,  autopty  convinceth 
1U,  that  it  hath  this  ose.  Ray  on  the  Creation, 

AUTOPYRITES,  Autopyros  ;  from  ovroc, 
and  «^pbc,  wheat ;  in  the  kncient  diet  a  species 
of  breaid,  wherein  the  whole  substance  of  the 
wheat  was  retained,  without  retrenching  any  part 
of  the  bran.  Galen  describes  it  otherwise,  viz. 
as  .bread  where  only  the  coarser  bran  was  taken 
out.  And  thus  it  was  a  medium  between  the 
finest  bread,  called  similagineus,  and  the  coarsest 
called  furfuraceus.  This  was  also  called  the 
i/ncomistus. 


,  "J  Perhaps  from  augeo,  auc- 
,  >  tuniy  from  the  augmented  fruits 
r.3of  nal 


AUTOTHEISM,  the  doctrine  of  Go^'s  sd& 
existence. 

AUTOUR,  in  natural  history,  a  sort  of  bark 
which  resemblfs  cinnamon,  but  is  paler  and 
thicker ;  it  ia  the  color  of  a  broken  nutmeg,  and 
full  of  spangles.  It  comes  from  the  Levant  and 
is)  an  ingredient  in  the  carmine  dye.  Also,  in 
ornithology,  the  name  under  which  Buffon  de- 
scribes the  goshawk,  or  falco  palumbarius  of 
Linnaeus. 

AUTREAU  (James  d^,  a  French  poet  and 
painter,  who  died  in  great  poverty,  in  the  hospi- 
tal of  incurables  in  Paris,  in  1 745.  His  drama- 
tic works  were  published  in  4  vols.  12mo.  1749. 
He  had  little  merit  as  a  painter. 

AUTRICUM,  in  ancient  geograpjiy,  1.  the 
capital  of  the  Camutx,  in  Gallia  Celtica ;  after- 
wards called  Camotena,  Camotenas,  and  Civitas 
Camotenum ;  now  Chartres ;  and,  2.  the  an- 
cient name  of  Auxerre. 

AUTUMN, 

Autum'jtal, 

Autum'nity.  y  of  nature. 
For  I  will  board  her  though  she  chide  as  load 

As  thunder,  when  the  clouds  in  anOmm  crack. 

ShnupewM* 

Thy  grandsire's  words  savour'd  of  thriftie  leekes. 
Or  manly  garlicke :  but  thy  furnace  reekes 
Hote  steams  of  wine ;  and  can  aloofe  devne. 
The  drunken  draughU  of  sweete  oMtwrnrntie, 

Bp,  HaU's  Satirei,  book  iii. 
Thou  shalt  not  long 
Rule  in  the  clouds ;  like  an  mUtmmal  star. 
Or  lightning,  thou  shalt  fall.  Milton. 

No  spring  or  summer's  beauty  hath  suck  grace. 
As  I  have  seen  in  one  anftvmnal  face.  Dome. 

Bind  now  up  your  autummd  flowers,  t6  prevent 
sudden  gusts,  which  will  prostrate  all.  Ev^yn, 

Not  the  fair  fruit  that  on  yon  branches  glows 
With  that  ripe  red  th'  mthmnal  sun  bestows.      Pope. 

When  men  once  reach  their  mOumn,  fickle  joys 
Fall  off  apace,  as  yellow  leaves  from  trees  ^ 
Till  )eft  quite  naked  of  their  happiness. 
In  the  chill  blasts  oi  winter  they  expire.  Yomg, 

Autumn,  nodding  o'er  the  yellow  plain. 
Comes  jovial  on.  Thornton. 

I  would  not  be  over-confident,  till  he  hath  passed 
a  spring  or  autumn,  Wiaeman*M  Surgery. 

The  starving  brood. 
Void  of  sufficient  sustenance,  will  yield 
A  slender  autumn,  PhXpt* 

The  evening  is  an  emblefn  of  iiaitiimii,  and  autmm 
of  declining  life.  Idler. 

Autumn  begins  when*the  sun  enters  libra. 
When  it  ends,  winter  begins.  Several  nations 
have  computed  their  years  by  autumns ;  the  An- 
glo-Saxons by  winters.  Tacitus  tells  u5  the  Ger- 
mans were  acquainted  with  all  the  other  seasons 
of  the  year,  but  had  no  notion  of  autumn.  The 
ancient  Jews  began  their  civil  year  in  autumn ; 
reckoning  that  all  the  fruits  of  the  earth  were  in 
perfection  at  the  creation.  The  French,  without 
regarding  the  principle,  adopted  the  practice  in 
their  late  revolutionary  calendar;  of  which,  the 
first  month,  V'endemiare,  commenced  with  the 
equinox.  Thus  faith  and  modem  philosophy,  in 
one  instance,  produced  the  same  effect.  Autumn 
has  been  reputed  an  unhealthy  season.  Tertulli» 
calls  it  *  tentaior  valetudinum ;'  and  the  satirist 
speaks  of  it  in  the  same  light : 

'  Aatumuus  Libitina  quAstus  accrba  ' 


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Autamn  is  oommonly  represented  by  painters 
under  the  figure  of  a  female  crowned  with  vine 
branches,  and  bunches  of  grapes ;  naked  in  that 
{>art  which  respects  summer,  and  clothed  in  that 
which  corresponds  to  winter.  Its  garment  is 
covered  with  flowers,  like  that  of  Bacchus. 

Autumn,  in  alchemy,  the  season  when  the 
operation  of  the  philosopher's  stone  is  brought 
lo  perfection. 

AuTUMKAL  Equinox,  the  time  when  the  sun 
enters  Uie  autumnal  pnoint. 

Autumnal  Point  is  that  part  of  the  equinox 
from  which  the  sun  begins  to  descend  towards 
the  south  pole. 

Autumnal  Signs,  in  astronomy,  are  the  signs 
libra,  Scorpio,  and  Sagittarius,  through  which 
the  sun  passes  during  the  autumn. 

AUTUMNALIA,  the  fruits  of  the  earth  that 
ripen  in  autumn. 

AUTUMNALIS,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of 
psittacufl,  called  also  TOittacus  Americanus,  and 
crick  k  tk\6  bleue,  by  Buffon.  It  is  the  lesser 
green  parrot  of  Edwards,  and  autumnal  parrot  of 
Latham.  It  is  distinguished  by  being  ot  a  green 
color,  with  die  front  and  spot  on  the  quill-fea- 
thers scarlet ;  crown  and  primary  quill-featbers, 
blue.  Of  this  kind  there  are  two  vturieties.  Also 
a  species  of  anas,  or  duck,  that  inhabits  South 
America.  And  a  species  of  fringilla,  called  by 
Latham  the  antumnal  finch. 

AUTUMNUS,  in  entomology,  the  name  given 
by  Ammiral  to  die  moth,  or  phalcna,  called  by 
Gmelin  P.  faoana  :  which  see. 

AUTUN,  an  ancient  citv  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Saone  and  Loire,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  Autunois  district,  and  now  of  an 
arrondissement,  vrith  nine  cantons,  and  67,000 
inhabitatits.  Before  the  revolution  the  intend- 
ant  of  Burgundy  resided  tieie,  and  it  was  the  see 
of  a  bishop,  sufiiagan  of  Lyons.  The  Arroux 
washes  its  walls,  whose  ruins  are  so  firm,  and  the 
stones  so  closely  united,  that  thev  seem  ahnostto 
be  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.  Among  the  anti- 
quities of  this  city  are  the  ruins  of  three  ancient 
temples,  one  of  which  was  dedicated  to  Janus, 
and  another  to  Diana;  two  antique  gates  of  con- 
siderable beauty,  with  a  theatre  and  a  pyramid ; 
which  hist  is  probably  a  tomb.  In  the  church  of 
St.  Martins  is  the  tomb  of  the  sanguinary  Brune- 
Jiault,  whp  is  said  to  have  poisoned  her  son  Chil- 
debert,  and  to  have  procured  the  death  of  ten 
4ing8;  and  who  met  ner  death  by  being  tied  to 
'  the  tail  of  a  wild  mare,  by  order  (tfher  grandson, 
Clovis  II.  The  present  bishop  ranks  under  the 
metropolitan  of  Besanpon,  and  exercises  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  departments  of  the  Saone  and  Loire, 
and  the  Nievre.  Autun  consists  of  the  upper 
town,  the  castle,  and  the  lower  town.  It  is  to- 
lerably well  built,  contained  before  the  revolu- 
tion nine  parish  churches,  five  abbeys,  with  five 
other  reUgious  houses,  and  about  8000  inhabi- 
tants. The  natives  manufacture  delfk  wares, 
carpets,  coverlets,  blankets,  and  tapestry.  The 
city  lies  at  the  foot  of  three  great  mountains, 
sixteen  leagues  south-west  of  Dijon,  and  forty- 
five  south-east  of  Paris. 

AUTUNOIS,  a  ci-devant  district  of  France, 
in  Burffundy,  now  comprehended  in  the  depart- 
<nent  ox  Saone  and  Loire.    See  Autun. 


AUTUKA,  or  Auduka,  a  river  of  Gallia  Cel- 
tica,  now  called  Eure.  It  £Uls  into  the  Seine,  on 
the  south  side. 

AUVAIL,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  circle 
of  Westphalia. 

AU  VERGNE,  a  ci-devant  province'of  France, 
about  100  miles  in  length,  iod  sevens-five  ia 
breadth ;  the  capital  of  which  was  Clermont. 
It  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Bourbon- 
nois ;  on  the  east  by  Forez  and  Velay ;  on  the 
west  by  Limosin,  Quercy  and  La  Marche ;  and 
on  the  south  by  Rovergue  and  the  Cevennes : 
and  was  divid^  into  upper  and  lower;  the 
latter,  otherwise  called  Limagne,  being  one  of 
the  finest  countries  in  the  world.  The  moun- 
tains of  Upper  Auvergne  though  not  fruitfiil, 
afibrd  good  pasture,  which  feeds  great  numbers 
of  cattle,  the  chief  riches  of  that  country.  It 
now  forms  the  two  departments  of  Cantsd  and 
Puy-de-Dome,  except  some  smaU  districts  an- 
nexed to  those  of  Creuse  Allier,  and  the  Upper 
Loire.  Auvergne  is  conspicuous  in  the  various 
revolutions  experienced  by  France,  and  anciently 
maintained  a  pre-eminence  among  the  indepen- 
dent states  ot  Gaul.  Its  inhabitants  boasted  a 
singular  trophy  in  the  sword  of  Cesar,  which  he 
lost  before  the  walls  of  Gergovia.  But  they 
maintained  a  iaithfiil  alliance  with  the  Romans 
^after  th^  became  subject  to  them. 

AUVERGNIE,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in 
the  canton  of  Neufchatel,  three  miles  aovLth.  of 
that  place. 

AUVERS,  a  town  of  Frlmce,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Oise,  in  the  department  of  the  Seine 
and  Oise,  arrondissement  of  Pontoise.  Also  a 
town  in  the  west  of  France,  in  the  arrondissement 
of  Le  Mans,  and  department  of  the  Sarthe. 

AUVILLARS,  or  Auvillaro,  a  town  of 
France,  in  Lower  Armagnac,  Gascony,  in  the 
department  of  the  Tarn  and  Garonne.  It  is  the 
head  of  a  canton,  and  contains  manu&ctures  of 
woollen  stockings,  and  upwards  of  2000  inha- 
bitants. It  stands  on  the  Garonne,  which  here 
forms  a  small  harbour.  Five  leagues  south  of 
Agen. 

AUVERNAS,  a  very  deep-colored  heady 
wine,  made  of  black  raisins,  so  called  at  Orleans* 
but  it  is  not  fit  to  drink  before  it  is  above  a  yeai 
old;  but  if  kept  two  or  three  yean,  it  becomei 
excellent. 

AUVIGNY  rN.  Castressd'),  a  French  historian 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  both  a  writer 
and  a  soldier,  and  lost  his  life  at  the  battle  of 
Dettingen,  in  1743,  at  the  age  of  thirty-one. 
His  writings  are,  1.  Memoirs  of  Madam  Bap- 
neveldt,  2  vols.  12mo.  2.  Histories  of  Rome 
and  France  abridged  for  young  persons.  3.  Hi»- 
tory  of  Paris,  4  vols.  12mo.  4.  lives  of  illus- 
trious Frenchmen,  8  vols.  12mo. 

AVULS'ED,  ^     Aveiloy  ovu/nim,  I  tear  or 

Avuis'iON.  i  pull  away.  Torn  or  pulled 
away. 

Spore  not  the  little  ofibpringi,  if  they  grow 

Redundant ;  ba(  the  thronging  clnsten  thin 

By  kind  onilMOfK  .  PhUipt, 

The  pretsoxe  of  any  ambient  fluid  can  be  no  intel- 
ligible cause  of  the  cohesion  of  matter ;  though  such 
a  pressure  may  h|nder  the  amtUom  of  two  polished 
superficies  one  from  another,  in  a  line  perpendicular 
to  them. 


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AUX 

Te  towering  minds !  ye  lubllmated  aoals ! 
Who  scatter  wealthy  as  though  the  radiant  crop 
Glitter'd  on  every  boogh ;  and  every  bough. 
Like  that  the  Trojan  gathered,  once  woMd 
Were  by  a  splendid  successor  applied 
Imtant,  spontxneoils !  list«a  to  my  lays. 


818 


AW 


AUX,  in  astronomy,  see  Auoes.  Some  use 
aux  to  denote  the  arch  of  the  ecliptic,  intercep- 
ted between  the  first  point  of  Aries,  and  the 
point  wherein  the  sun,  or  a  planet,  is  at  its 
greatest  distance  from  the  earth. 

AUXENTIUS,  bishop  of  Milan,  in  the  fourth 
century.  He  was  a  native  of  Cappadocia,  and 
of  Arian  principles.  Constantius  gave  him  the 
bishopric  of  Muan;  and  though  excommunicated 
by  a  council  held  at  Rome,  in  368,  be  held  his 
see  to  his  death,  in  374. 

AuxENTius,  another  of  the  Arian  party,  who 
challenged  St.  Ambrose  to  a  public  aisputation, 
which  was  wisely  declined  by  that  great  prelate. 
AUXERRE,  an  ancient  town  of  France,  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  Yonne,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  Auxerrois,  in  BurgundV.  The 
palace  of  the  ci-devant  bishop  is  one  of  Uie  finest 
in  France,  and  the  churches  are  very  beautiful. 
It  is  advantageously  situated  for  trade  with 
Paris,  on  a  hill  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Yonne, 
eleven  leagues  S.  S.  E.  of  Sens,  and  thirty-seven 
south-east  of  Paris.  Its  principal  trade  is  in 
wood,  and  the  excellent  wares  ot  the  neighbour- 
hood. Here  is  also  a  manufacture  of  woollen 
stufi.    Population  about  12,000. 

AUXERROIS,  a  ci-devant  territory  of  France, 
in  Burgundy,  of  which  Auxerre  was  the  capital. 
It  now  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  Auxerre,  in  the  department  of  the 
Yonne. 

'  AUXESIS,  in  mythology,  a  goddess  worship- 
ped by  the  inhabitants  of  Egina,  and  mentioned 
oy  Herodotus  and  Pansanias. 
AUXILI'AR,  •   ^       Lat.        mm/tuwi, 

Auxili'ary,  w.  &  adj,  >  strength ;    one    who 
Auxili'ator Y.  3  gives  or  lends  iis  addi- 

tional strength.    An  aider,  assister,  or  supporter. 
The  giant  brood> 
That  fought  at  Thebes  and  Iliam  on  each  side> 
Mix'd  with  aUxiUar  gods.       MUtonU  Paradi$e  Lott» 
'  Their  tractates  are  little  auxUiairy  unto  ours,  nor 
a£rord  us  any  light  to  detenebrate  this  truth. 

Bnum*M  Vulgar  Erromra, 
There  is  not  the  smallest  capillary  vein  but  it  is 
present  with,  and  oiariliary  to  it,  according  to  its  use. 
Baie't  Origm  of  MaHkmd. 
Nor  from  his  patrimonial  heaven  alone. 
Is  Jove  content  to  pour  his  vengeance  down. 
Aid  from  his  brother  of  the  teas  he  craves 
To  help  him  with  mueOiarjf  waves.    Dryden,  (ML 
They  had  both  kept  good  company,  rattled  in  cha- 
rioU,  glittered  in  play-houses,  and  danced  at  court, 
and  were  both  expert  in  the  games  that  were  in  their 
times  called  in  as  auxUiariei  against  the  intrusion  of 
thoughL  RanMer, 

AuxiLiAULT  Verb.  A  vert)  that  helps  to  con- 
jugate other  verbs.  In  almost  all  languages, 
some  of  the  commonest  nouns  and  verbs  have 
many  irregularities ;  such  are  the  common  aux- 
iliary verbs,  to  6f ,  and  to  have;  to  do,  and  to  be 
dome,  &c. 


Auxiliary  Verbs,  in  grammar,  are  prefixed 
to  other  verbs,  to  form  tb&  moods  ana  tens^. 
In  the  English  language,  the  auxiliary  vert)  am 
supplies  me  want  of  passive  verbs.  AH  the 
moaem  languages  make  use  of  auxiliary  verbs, 
because  their  verbs  do  not  change  their  terminal 
tions  as  those  of  the  Latin  and  Greek,  to  denote 
the  different  tenses  or  times  of  being,  doing, 
or  sulferine;  nor  the  different  moods  or  maa- 
hers  of  their  signifying:  sotiiat,  to  supply  this 
defect,  recourse  is  had  to  different  auxiUaiy 
verbs. 

AUXILIUM,  in  law.    See  Am. 

AUXILIUM,  AD  FlLIUM  MiLITEM  FACrBlTDTTMf, 

vel  filiam  maritandam,  was  a  writ  directed  to  the 
sheriff  of  every  county,  where  the  king  or  other 
lord  had  any  tenants,  to  levy  them  reasonable 
aid,  towards  the  knighting  of  his  eldest  son,  or 
the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter. 

AtJXiLiUM  CuBiuSy  signifies  an  ordeir  of  court, 
for  the  summoning  of  one  party  at  the  soit  d 
another. 

AUXO,  in  mylbologY,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
two  graces  worshipped  by  the  Athenians.  See 
Hegemonb. 

AUXOIS,  a  small  ci-devant  territorf  of 
France,  in  Burgundy,  of  which  Sesnur  was  the 
capital.  It  is  now  in  the  department  of  Cote 
a'6r. 

AUXON,  a  town  of  France,  in  Champagne, 
department  of  the  Aube,  with  2340  inhabitants. 
5|  leagues  S.  S.  W.  of  Troyes.  Also  a  t<5wn  in 
Upper  Auvergne,  department  of  the  Upper 
Loire,  near  the  Allier,  with  1500  inhabitants ; 
and  the  title  of  barony.  It  carries  on  a  traffic 
in  com,  wine,  and  cloth.  12|  leagues  north- 
west of  Le  Puy. 

AUXONNE,  the  capital  of  a  county  of  the 
Same  name  in  France,  in  the  province  of  Bur- 
gundy, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Stone.  It  is  re- 
gulariy  fortified,  and  contains  manuihctores  of 
serge  and  other  cloths. 

AUXY,  the  Frendi  name  of  a  species  of 
wool,  spun  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Abbevine, 
by  workmen,  called  houpiers.  It  is  veiy  fine 
and  beautifiil,  and  used  to  make  the  finest  stock- 
ings. 

AW,  a  river  of  Scotland,  in  Argyllshire.  Also 
a  tbvm  of  Gemtiany  in  die  electorate  of  Bavaria 

Aw,  or  LocH-AW,  a  beautiful  and  extensive 
lake  in  Argyllshire^  in  the  parish  of  Glenorchy. 
The  whimsical  tradition  respecting  the  origin  of 
this  lake  is  recorded  by  Ossian.  The  substance 
of  it  is,  that-  <  to  Bera  the  aged,  was  committed 
die  charge  of  that  awful  spring,  which  was  ap- 
pointed by  (ate  to  destroy  the  inheritance  and 
race  of  her  ftthers.  This  event,  die  was  to  pie- 
vent,  or  at  least  to  protract,  by  covering  the 
spring  before  sun-set,  with  a  stone,  on  which 
the  sacred  and  mysterious  characters  were  en- 
graved. One  night  (his  was  forgot.  The  confined 
waters  of  the  mountain  burst  forth,  and  sweeping 
all  before  them,  covered  that  large  expanse,  now 
known  by  the  name  of  the  lake  of  Aw.'  Mr. 
Stewart,  minister  of  Stacihur,  explains  the  &ble 
by  the  etymology  of  Bera ;  Beir^  in  the  Gaelic 
signifying  a  thunderbolt.  This  lake  is  about 
thirty  miles  long,  but  not  above  three  quarters 
broad  upon  an  average,  though  in  some  places, 


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it  measnret  two  miles.  It  abounds  with  salmon, 
tfoot,  eehy  &c.  The  name  is  often  spelt  and 
generally  pronounced  Loch-ow. 

AWAy  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of 
Inky  eighty  miles  south  of  Casbin. 

AwA,  a  town  of  Japan,  and  capital  of  a  pro- 
vince on  the  south  coast  of  the  island  of  Xicoco. 
Also  a  town  of  Japan,  and  capital  of  a  province 
on  the  south  coast  of  the  island  of  Niphon, 
eighty-five  miles  south  of  Jeddo.  Long.  140^ 
4'  E.,  lat.  34''  24'  N.— A  town  of  Japan,  in  the 
island  of  Ximo,. sixty-two  miles  nortn  of  Nan- 
gasaki. 

AWAHAZARI^  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 

in  Caramania,  fif^en  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Ala- 

aieb. 

AWAIT ,  17.  &  n.  "^     Dutch,  waeken ;   Ang.- 

Await'bb,  n.       >Sax.  Weccean,  to  wake  or 

Await'ino.         3  watch.    To   be  watchful, 

vigilant;  to  keep  upon  the  look  out;  to  be  in 

attendance,  in  expectation. 

Bren  tm  the  wietch  condemn'd  to  Iom  hit  life, 
Amjiit  the  falling  of  the  murdering  knife*     Faiirfiue, 
And  least  mbhap  the  most  bliM  miter  may : 
For  thousand  perils  lie  in  close  await. 
About  OS  daily,  to  woik  our  decay. 
Advanc'd  in  view^  they  stand,  a  horrid  front 
Of  dieadfal  length,  and  dazzling  anns,  in  guise 
Of  warrioxs  old  with  order'd  spear  and  shield. 
Awaiting  what  command  their  mighty  chief 
Had  to  impose.  dIUton,  Paradke  Lett,  book  i. 

Nor  leas  resolv'd,  Antenor's  valiant  heir. 
Confronts  Achilles,  and  owaitM  tho  war.         Pope. 

Kan's  feeble  race  what  ills  await! 
Labor  ai|d  penary,  the  racks  of  pain. 
Disease,  and  sorrow's  weeping  train. 
And  death,  sad  refrige  from  the,  storm  of  fate. 

Coffmit, 
The  boast  of  htraldxy,  the  povp  of  power. 
And  all  that  beanty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave. 
Await  alike  the  ineritable  honr. 
The  paths  of  gloiy,  lead  bat  to  the  graye.       (7ra|f . 

AWAILE,  v.  tt  ocjf.^    •  See  Await.  To  rouse 
Awa'kem,  ^from    inaction   of  any 

Awa'kembb, 
AwA'KEymo. 

K.  Ricn.  I  bad  forgot  myself :  am  I  not  king? 
Awak$,  thon  coward  majesty,  thoa  sleepest; 
It  not  the  king's  name  forty  thoasand  names? 

ShaJuptan,  King  Richard  //. 
The  eheerfol  laric,  mounting  from  early  bed. 
With  sweet  salnles  oioaAsi  the  drowsy  light. 
The  earth  she  left,  and  up  to  heaven  is  fled. 
There  chaonts  her  Maker's  praises  oat  of  sight. 

FletiAer. 
Covetoos  men  need  neither  dock  nor  bell  to  awakm 
them :  their  desires  make  them  restless. 

Tis  night!  the  season  when  the  happy  take 
Repose,  and  only  wretches  are  awake; 
Kow  discontented  ghosts  begin  their  rounds, 
Haont  roin'd  buildings  and  nnwholesome  gronnds. 

Otwagf, 
And  see! 
tk  come!  the  glorioos  mom !  the  second  l^irth 
Of  heaven  and  earth  I  awabetmg  natare  hears 
The  new  creating  worid,  and  starto  to  life. 
In  ereiy  heightened  form,  from  pain  and  death 
For  ever  free.  Thonuon. 


i^kind;    from  sleep;  to 
J  make  alive. 


See  Tmth,  Love,  and  Mercy,  in  triumph  descending. 
And  natare  all  glowing  in  Eden's  first  bloom ! 
On  the  cold  cheek  of  Death  smiles  and  roses  are 

Uending, 
And  Beanty  immortal  oioaAsi  from  the  tomb. 

Beattie's  Hermit, 

AWARD,  17.  &  n.  I     According    to    Tooke 

Awar'der.  5  fromtheFrench^4ig<tn/e^ 

to  keep ;  with  a  verb  preceding,  understood  at 
to  determine  who  is  [to  keep;]  to  adjudge. 

A  pound  of  that  same  merchant's  flesh  is  thine; 
The  court  award§  it,  and  the  law  dolh  give  it 

Shahpeare. 

It  advances  that  grand  business,  and  according  to 
which  their  eternity  hereafter  will  be  awarded. 

Decay  of  Piety, 

A  churoh  which  allows  salvation  to  none  without 
it,  and  awardt  damnation  to  almost  any  within  it. 

Semtk, 

Satisfaction  for  every  afiront  cannot  be  awarded  by 
stated  laws.  CeUiar  am  DveOmy, 

Now  hear  th'  award,  and  happy  may  it  prove 

To  her,  and  him  who  best  deserves  her  love. 

Drydem. 

Affection  bribes  the  Judgment,  and  we  cannot  ex- 
pect an  equitable  award,  where  the  judge  is  made  a 
party,  OlanoiUe. 

To  urge  tl^e  foe. 

Prompted  by  blind  revenge  and  wild  despair. 

Were  to  refuse  th'  awards  of  Providence. 

Addiaim'e  Cata. 
Th'  unwise  aboard  to  lodge  it  in  the  tow'rs. 

An  off 'ring  sacred.  Pope.  Odyuey. 

AwAKD,  in  law,  is  the  arbitrator's  final  ad- 
judication,  of  matters  referred  to  him.  Re- 
ferences are  sometime  made  spontaneously 
by  the  parties  themselres,  to  avoid  the  ex- 
pense and  delay  of  legal  proceedings;  and 
sometimes  by  order  of  the  court  before  which  a 
cause  is  pending.  In  the  former  case,  the  par- 
ties enter  into  bonds  to  abide  by  the  decision ; 
in  the  latter  an  order  or  rule  of  the  court  is 
made,  that  the  matter  in  issue  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  the  award.  Law  as  well  as  facts 
are  within  the  prorince  of  the  arbitration.  But 
if  in  the  award  (which  is  in  writing  and  under  seal) 
the  arbitrator  states  the  legal  grounds  on  which 
he  has  decided,  and  those  grounds  appear  to  the 
court  to  be  wrong,  the  award  mar  be  set  aside. 
If  he  merely  makes  his  order  without  assigning 
his  reasons,  the  award  must  be  abided  by,  though 
he  may  have  been  mistaken  in  point  of  law.  And 
die  courts  will  set  aside  an  award,  if  the  arbi- 
trator can  be  shown  to  have  made  it  fit>m  corrupt 
motives. 

AWA'RE,  v.kn.l     Sax.    waerd.      Germ. 

Awar'n.  )  gewarkt,  from  tooAren,  to 

see.    To  be  on  the  look  out,  to  be  cautious,  to 
take  care,  to  be  provident 

So  wam'd  he  them  oinws  themselves;  and 

Instant,  without  disturb,  they  took  alarm. 

Paradise  Lost. 

Ere  I  was  awors,  I  had  left  myself  nothing  but  the 
name  of  a  king.  Siiaey. 

Ere  sorrow  was  aware,  they  made  his  thoughts 
bear  away  something  else  besides  his  own  sorrow. 

Id.  Arcadia. 

Temptations  of  prosperity  insinnate  themselves  \  so 
that  we  are  but  little  mnore  of  them,  and  less  able 
to  withstand  them.  Atteriwry. 

The  firyt  steps  in  the  breach  of  a  man's  integrity 
are  more  important  than  men  are  owwrs  of.       StetU* 


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AWASI,  or  AwADSi,  an  island  of  Japan,  near 
the  south  coast  of  Niphon,  about  sixty  miles  in 
circumference.  Long.  133^  44'  E.,  lat.  34*»  30^ 
N.  Also,  a  town  of  Japan,  and  capital  of  an 
island  of  the  same  name.  Long.  1339  43'  £., 
lat.  34**  30'  N. 

AWASIMA,  a  small  island  of  Japan,  seven 
miles  east  of  Sado. 

AWATCHA,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  mo- 
tacilla  that  inhabits  Kamtschatka.  It  is  of  a 
brown  color ;  the  chin  and  breast  white,  spotted 
with  black ;  middle  of  the  belly  and  lores  white ; 
primary  quill-feathers  bordered  with  white ;  tail- 
feathers  orange  at  the  base.  Art.  Zool. — 
Gmelin. 

AWATSKA  Bat,  a  harbour  of  Kam^chatka ; 
which  is  said  to  be  the  safest  and  most  extensive 
yet  discovered  in  that  part  of  the  world ;  and  the 
only  one  that  can  admit  vessels  of  large  burden. 
The  entrance  to  it  is  in  long.  158''  48'  £.,  and  lat 
52^  51'  N. 

AWAY',        >     Ang.-Sax.  wagean,  to  wag 

Away'ward.  S  or  move;  Ang.-Sax.  weg,  or 
waeg;  Eng.  way.  Away  is  the  imperative 
mooid,  or  past  participle. 

A  man's  life  is  not  to  be  trilled  mn^ :  it  is  to  be 
offered  up  and  sacrificed  to  honourable  services, 
poblic  merits,  good  causes,  and  noble  adventures. 

Baam*t  Bt9t^$. 
I  had  my  feather  shot  sheer  awojf, 

Beamn,  Sf  Fktch,  Knight  of  the  bumhig  PetUe. 
They  could  make 
'  Love  to  your  dress,  although  your  face  were  otoay. 
Ben  Johnnn'e  Catiline, 

It  is  impossible  to  know  properties  that  are  so  an- 
nexed to  it,  that  any  of  them  being  awagf,  that  essence 
<is  not  there.  Locke. 

So  if  by  chance  the  eaglets  noble  offiipring, 
Ta'en  in  the  nest,  become's  some  peasant's  prise, 
CompellM  awhile  to  bear  his  cage  and  chains 
And  like  a  pris'ner  with  the  clown  remains 
But  when  hU  plumes  shoot  forth  and  pinions  swell 
He  quits  the  rustic  ^d  his  homely  cell ; 
Breaks  from  his  bonds,  and  in  the  face  of  day 
Fall  in  the  sun's  bright  beams  ho  soars  awojf : 
Delights  thro'  heav'n's  wide  pathless  ways  to  go. 
Plays  with  Jove's  shafb  and  grasps  his  dreadful  bow. 
Rowe't  Rosfol  Concert,  act  iv. 

But  ah !  thon  knows't  not  in  what  youthful  play 
Our  nights  beguil'd  with  pleasure  swam  away  ; 
Gay  songs  and  cheerful  tales  deceived  the  time. 
And  circling  goblets  made  a  tuneful  chime ; 
Sweet  was  Uie  draught,  and  sweet  the  blooming  maid. 
Who  tonch'd  her  lyre  beneath  the  fragrant  shade. 

Sir  W.  Jonet. 
There  seems  a  floating  whisper  on  the  hill. 

But  that  is  fancy,  for  the  starlight  dews. 

All  silently  their  tears  of  love  instil. 

Weeping  themselves  atooy,  till  they  infuse  ' 

Deep  into  Nature's  breast  the  spirit  of  her  hues. 

Lord  Byron's  ChiUe  Haroide, 


Awe',  v.  &  n. 

Awe'ful, 

Awe'pullt,' 

Awe'fulness, 

Awe'less, 

AwE'pUIy-EYED, 
AwE-COMMANDING, 

Awe-stauck. 

His  coward  lips  did  from  their  colour  fly. 
And  that  same  eye,  whose  bend  does  mm  the  world. 
Did  lose  its  lostn.  Shahtpean. 


Goth,  agyan,  to  fear, 
.or    dread.      To    cause 
fear,    terror,    or    reve- 
rence. 


Know,  then,  that  some  of  us  are  gentlemen. 
Such  as  the  fury  of  ungovem'd  youth 
Thrust  from  the  company  of  awftd  men.  U, 

So  awful,  that  with  honour  thou  may'st  love 
Thy  mate ;  who  sees,  when  thou  art  seen  lean  wiv. 

Milton.  Par.Loit. 
I  approach  thee  thus,  and  gase 
Insatiate  ;  I  thus  single ;  nor  have  fear'd 
Thy  oir/W  brow,  more  awfvl  thus  rettr'd. 
Fairest  resemblance  of  thy  Maker  fair.  Id, 

A  parish  priest  was  of  the  pilgrim  train. 
An  ofv/W,  reverend,  and  religious  man. 
His  eyes  dififused  a  venerable  grace. 
And  charity  itself  was  in  his  face.  tkydtn. 

Hail !  rev'rend  priest !    To  Phoebus'  awfid  domi 
A  suppliant  I,  from  great  Atrides  come, 
Unransom'd  here  receive  the  spo^ess  frdr, 
Accept  the  hecatomb  the  Greeks  prepare.  Pope. 

In  those  deep  solitudes,  and  awftd  cells. 
Where  heav'nly-pensive  contemplation  dwells. 
And  ever^musing  melancholy  reigns.  > 

Id.  Sloin  to  Ahderd. 
In  winter,  €fwftd  thou !  with  clouds  and  storms 
Around  thee  thrown,  tempest  o'er  tempest  roU'd 
Mi^estic  darkness !  on  the  whirlwind  s  wing. 
Riding  sublime,  thou  bidst  the  world  adore 
And  humblest  nature  with  thy  northern  blast. 


Serene,  though  awful,  on  her  brow  the  light 

Of  heavenly  wisdom  shone  \  nor  roved  her  eyes, 
Save  to  the  shadowy  cliff's  majestic  height. 
Or  the  blue  concave  of  th'  involving  skies. 

Beattie, 

It  were  endless  to  enumerate  all  the  passages,  both 

in  the  sacred  and  profane  writers,  which  establish  the 

general  sentiment  of  mankind  concerning  the  insepa- 

rabl<i  union  of  a  sacred  and  reverential  awe  with  our 

ideas  of  the  divinity.  Burki. 

Now,  now  my  solitary  way  I  bend 

Where  solemn  groves  in  awftd  state  impend.  ^ 

Kirke  WMte*t  Peeau, 

AWERI,  or  OvEBO,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  de- 
pendent on  Benin,  with  a  town  of  the  same  name 
on  the  river  Formosa. 

AWE'ARY.    On  weary.    See  Weabt. 

Saf.  Go  thy  waies,  I  begin  to  be  awearie  of  thee; 
and  I  tell  thee  se  before ;  because  I  would  not  fall  out 
with  thee. 

Shahpeare.     AWt  WeUthat  Ends  Well. 

AWHA'PED.  From  Ang.-Sax.  wafian,  to 
be  amazed,  or  astonished,  terrified,  confounded. 

Ah '.  my  dear  gossip,  answer'd  then  the  ape. 
Deeply  do  your  sad  words  my  wia  awhi^. 
Both  for  because  your  grief  doth  great  appear. 
And  eke  because  myself  am  touched  near. 

HuhherdTs  Teie 
AWHEELS.    On  Wheels. 
And  will  they  not  cry  then  the  world  runs  aidbedf 
Ben  JonKtnU  Maaquea,  f.  18 
AWHILE'.    A  time ;  Ang.-SM.  hwile  (foi 
hwiol,  a  turn),  walk  a  while,  take  a  turn.    See 
While. 

Suy,  stay,  I  sa^  : 
And  if  yon  love  me,  as  you  say  you  do. 
Let  me  persuade  you  to  forbear  awhUe. 

Skaktfeare 
Into  this  wild  abyss  the  wary  fiend 
Stood  on  the  brink  of  heA,  and  look'd  amkiit, 
Pond'ring  his  voyage.        Milton't  Parmdm  Lo^ 
Herp,  lonely  wandering,  o'er  the  sylvan  bower, 
I  come  to  pass  the  meditative  hour ; 
To  bid  awhSs  the  strife  of  passion  cease. 
And  woo  the  calms  of  soUtade  and  pear«. 

Kirke  WkiU*t  I 


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But  thoa,  with  tparit  fr»U  and  light. 
Wilt  shine  ttwkUe  and  pass  away. 

As  glow-wonns  sparide  through  the  night. 
But  dare  not  stand  the  test  of  day. 

Lord  Byrom, 

AWHIT.  A  whit,  or  o  whit,  Ang.-Sax.  hwit. 
See  Whit. 

These  faire  exoeede  the  haggarde  haake 

That  stoppeth  to  ne  stale  : 
Nor  forceth  on  the  lure  oMal, 

But  monnta  with  eu'j^  gale  T 

TurbmvUh.  Spitaphet,kc 

AWK',  '\     Perhaps  awk  is  a  cor- 

Awk'ly,  ,  f  ruption  of  averricht.     TTie 

AwK'w4SDy         \  termination,  ward,  is  from 
AwkVardly,     ikeered,  past  participle  of 
Awk'wabdkess.  J  keeren,  Ang.-Saz.  cyrran, 
to  turn.    Deviating  from  the  r^^ht  path  or  line, 
indirect,  clumsy,  inelegant 
Proud  Italy, 
Wliose  manners  still  our  tardy  apish  nation 
Limps  after  in  base  oioihriard  imitation. 

Their  own  language  is  worthy  their  care  -,  and  they 
are  judged  of  by  their  handsome  or  awkward  way  of 
expressing  themselves  in  it.  Locke. 

An  awkward  shame^  or  fear  of  ill  usage,  has  a  share 
in  this  conduct.  Swifi, 

Slow  to  resolve,  but  in  performance  quick ; 

So  true,  that  he  was  owkwaM  at  a  trick.     Dryden. 

It  is  an  awkward  thing  for  a  man  to  print  in  de- 
lenee  of  his  own  work  against  a  chimera :  you  know 
not  who  or  what  you  fight  i^ainslL  Fep€» 

What's  a  fine  person,  or  a  beauteous  face. 

Unless  deportment  gives  them  decent  grace  7 

Bless'd  with  all  other  requisites  to  please, 

Some  want  the  striking  elegance  of  ease ; 

The  curious  eye  their  awkward  movement  tires ; 

They  seem  like  puppets  led  about  by  wires. 

Ckwrehitt, 

AWK,  in  ornithology.    See  Alca. 
AWU.    Ger.  ahl.  A  ^arp  pointed  tool.    In 
the  chroniclers  used  for  a  weapon  of  war. 
His  ande  and  lingell  in  a  thong. 
His  tar-boxe  on  his  broad  belt  hong. 
His  breech  of  coyntrie  blew. 

Thou  art  a  eobler,  art  thou? 
Truly,  sir,  all  that  I  live  by  is  the  awU.  ' 

Skaktpoare,  Jvkiu  Cwtar,  foL  109. 

Awls,  among  shoemakers,  are  usually  « little 
flat  and  bend^  in  the  blade,  and  the  point 
ground  to  an  acute  angle. 

AWLAN,  a  small  imperial  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  circle  of  Suabia,  seated  on  the  river  Ko- 
chcr,  fifteen  miles  west  of  Oeting  and  tweWe 
north  of  Heidenheim. 

AWM£,  or  AuME,  a  Dutch  measure  of  cap- 
pacity  for  liquids,  containing  eight  steckans,  or 
twenty  verges  or  verteels ;  answering  to  what  in 
England  is  called  a  tierce,  or  one-eixtli  of  a  ton 
of  France,  or  one-sevendi  of  an  English  ton. 
Arbttthnot. 

AWN,  in  botany.    See  Arista. 

AwM  of  wine,  360  pounds. 
'  AWNING.  A  cover  spread  over  a  boat  or 
vessel,  to  keep  off  the  weather. — ^Awnings  are 
made  of  canvas.  The  length  of  the  main-deck 
awning,  says  Mr.  Gierke,  is  from  the  centre  of 
the  fore-mast  to  the  centre  of  the  main-mast ;  the 
Vol.  III. 


width  corresponds  to  the  breadths  of  the  ship, 
taken  at  tlie  main-mast,  fore-mast,  and  at  the 
mid-way  between.  The  length  of  the  quarter- 
deck awning  is  from  the  centre  of  the  main-mast 
to  the  centre  of  the  mizen-mast ;  and  the  width 
answers  to  the  breadths  of  the  ship,  at  the  main- 
mast, mizen-mast,  and  at  the  mid-way  between. 
The  length  of  the  poop,  or  after-awning,  is  from 
the  centre  of  the  mizen-mast  to  the  ensign-staff, 
about  seven  feet  above  the  deck ;  and  tl^  width 
is  formed  agreeably  to  the  breadths  of  the  ship, 
taken  at  the  mizen-mast,  the  tafiarel,  and  at  the 
mid-way  between.  The  canvas  is  cut  to  the 
given  breadths  of  the  awning,  allowing  about 
nine  inches  to  hang  down  on  each  side,  which  is 
sometimes  scolloped  and  bound  with  green 
baize,  and  is  sewed  together  with  an  inch-seam, 
and  tabled  all  round  with  a  two  or  three  inch 
tabling.  Half  the  diameter  of  the  masts  is  cut 
out  in  the  middle  at  each  end,  and  lacing-holei 
are  made  across  the  ends  to  connect  one  awning 
to  another.  On  the  upper  part,  along  the 
middle  and  sides,  is  sewed  a  one-inch  and  half 
or  two-incli  rope,  to  which  the  trucks  are  sewed 
at  about  three-quarters  of  a  yard  asunder.  A 
thimble  is  spliced  in  each  end  of  the  rope. 
Sometimes  curtains  are  ipade  to  hang  to  the 
sides  of  the  awnings,  of  the  same  len^  as  the 
awnings.  Their  depth  is  taken  from  the  sides 
of  the  awning  to,  the  gun-wale,  supposing  the 
awning  to  be  in  its  place.  The  seams  and  tab- 
lings  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  awnings,  and 
lacing-holes  are  made  along  the  upper  tabling  of 
the  curtain,  and  the  side  tabling  ot  the  awning. 
Gierke's  Elem.  and  Practice  of  Rigging,  vol.  i. 
p.  140.  230.  In  the  long-boat  they  mike  an 
awning,  by  bringing  the  sail  over  the  yard  and 
stay,  and  booming  it  out  with  the  boat-hook. 

AWOR'K, 

Awobk'ino. 


;.! 


In  work.    See  Work. 


Long  they  thus  trauailM,  yet  neuer  met 
Adventure^  which  might  them  aworkhig  set. 

'  Speiuer.  Mother  HMwrd^t  Tale, 

He  first  suborns  a  villain,  that  embraced 
The  nobler  name  of  March-bom  Mortimer^ 
Which,  in  the  title  of  the  house  of  York, 
Might  set  the  monstrous  multitude  awork, 

Drayton.  Mmriet  of  Queem  Margaret, 

Who  shoulde  bee  Uie  makers  of  anye  manor  cloth, 

if  there  lacked  men  of  substaunoe  to  set  siidry  sortes 

a  woorke.  Sir  Tkomae  More't  Workee, 

AWRE'KE.  Ang.-Sax.  awrecan,  to  wreak. 
See  Wreak. 

Than  dame  Prudence,  whan  that  she  saw  how  that 
hire  hnsbande  shope  him  for  to  awreke  him  on  his 
foos,  and  to  beginne  werre,  she  in  ful  bumble  wise, 
whan  she  saw  hire  time,  sayde  him  these  wordes. 

CAoMsr.  The  Tale  of  MeUbetu, 

AWRISH,  a  river  in  the  county  of  Durham, 
which  runs  into  the  Tees  at  Eggleton. 

AWRY'.    Past  participle  awrythed,  of  the 
verb  wrythan,  to   writhe.    Writned,  crooked, 
bended,  distorted,  askance. 
When  I  look  back,  and  in  myself  behold 

The  wand'ring  ways,  that  youth  could  not  descry : 
And  see  the  fearful  course  that  youth  did  hold, 
in  mind  each  stop  I  strayed  awry, 

Paradim  of  Damtg  Veoieet,  1600. 

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Preventing  fate  directs  the  lance  dimg, 
Which  glancing  only  markM  Achates'  thigk. 

Dryden, 
*AX',       }     Ask.  AskiQg.    See  Ask.    These 
Ax'yno.  $  words,  which  are  now  considered 
vulgarisms,  are  the  orig;inal  Saxon  forms. 
Bat  Robin  may  not  wete  of  this,  thy  knave, 
Ne  eke  thy  maiden  Gille  I  may  not  save  ; 
Axe  not  why ;  for  though  thou  cue  me, 
I  wol  not  tellen  goddes  privetee. 

Chaueer.   The  MiUeret  Tale,  v.  i.  p.  140. 

Ax,  a  town  of  France,  the  head  of  a  canton, 
in  the  department  of  the  Arriege,  arrondissement 
of  Foix.  Here  are  warm  baths  which  are  much 
frequented.  It  lies  on  the  river  Arriege.  Five 
leagues  north-west  of  Tarascon.  Population 
1500. 

Ax,  or  Axe,  a  river  of  England,  which  rises  in 
the  county  of  Dorset,  and  entering  Devonshire, 
passes  by  Axminster,  and  afterwards  falls  into 
the  sea  a  little  below  Axmouth. 

Ax,  a  river  of  England,  which  rises  in  Wokey* 
'  Hole,  near  Wells,  in  the  county  of  Somerset, 
and  after  passing  Axbridge,  hWs  into  the  Bristol 
channel,  about  eight  miles  lower  down 

AX,  Battle.    See  Axe. 

AXAM,  a  district  ^and  town  of  Tyrol,  in  the 
lower  valley  of  tlie  Inn,  to  the  south-west  of  In- 
spruck.    Here  a  great  deal  of  flax  is  cultivated. 

AXAMENTA,  in  antiquity^,  the  verses  or 
songs  of  the  salii,  which  they  sung  in  honor  of 
all  men.  The  word  is  formed,  according  to 
some^  from  axare,  to  nominate.  Others  will 
have  the  carmina  saliaria  to  have  been  denomi- 
nated axamenta,  on  account  of  their  having  been 
written  in  axibus,  or  on  wooden  tables.  The 
axamenta  were  not  composed  by  the  salii.  The 
author  of  them  was  Numa  Pompilius ;  and,  as 
the  style  might  not  be  altered,  they  grew  in 
time  so  obscure,  that  the  salii  themselves  did 
not  understand  them.  Varro  says  they  were 
700  years  old. 

Axamenta,  or  Ass  amenta,  in  ancient  music, 
hymns  performed  wholly  vrith  human  voices. 

AXAKA,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Na- 
tolia,  situated  in  a  fertile  district  of  the  same 
name,  fifty  or  sixty  miles  from  Guzel-Hissar. 

AXATi,  a  town  of  ancient  Ba:tica,  in  the 
Bcetis ;  now  called  Lora,  a  small  city  of  Anda- 
lusia, in  Spain,  seated  on  the  Guadalquiver. 

AXAYAC ATL,  a  species  of  fly,  common  about 
the  lakes  of  Mexico ;  the  eggs  of  which,  being 
deposited  in  immense  quantities  upon  the  rushes 
and  corn-flags,  form  large  masses,  which  are 
taken  up  by  fishermen,  and  carried  to  market. 
This  caviare,  called  ahuauhtli,  which  has  much 
the  .same  taste  with  the  caviare  of  fish,  used  to  be 
eaten  by  the  Mexicans,  and  is  now  a  common  dish 
among  the  Spaniards.  The  Mexicans  eat  not 
only  the  eggs,  but  the  flies  themselves,  madd  up 
together  into  a  mass,  and  prepared  with  saltpetre. 

AXBRIDGE,  a  market  town  of  Sometset- 
,shire,  anciently  a  borough,  by  prescription,  send- 
ing members  to  parliament  during  the  reigns  of 
the  first  three  Edwards,  after  which  it  was,  at  its 
own  desire,  excused.  The  corporation  consists 
of  a  mayor,  recorder,  town-clerV,  ten  aldermen, 
and  twenty-two  burgesses,  out  of  whom  a  sheriff, 
seij«mt-at-mace,  and   constables    are   chosen. 


Knit  hose  is  the  only  manufactory.  The  kings 
of  England  formerly  had  a  hunting  chase  here 
Market  on  Saturday.  It  is  twenty-three  miles 
north-west  of  Somerton,  and  131  west  of  London 
AXE'.  Gr.  Ayw,  o^w.  An  adze  or  addice. 
See  Addice. 

My  mangled  body  shows. 
My  blood,  my  want  of  strength,  my  siek  heart  shovs 
That  I  must  yield  piy  body  to  the  earth. 
And  by  my  fall  the  conquest  to  my  foe ; 
Thus  yields  the  cedar  to  the  a*9*t  edga. 
Whose  anns  give  shelter  to  the  princely  eagle. 

Shakspemre,   Third  Port  of  Heney  VL  act  v.  k.  3. 
Loud  sounds  the  axe,  redoubling  strokes  on  strokes, 
On  all  sides  round  the  forest  hnrb  her  oaks 
Headlong.     Deep  echoing  groan  the  thickets  brown. 
Then  rosding,  crackling,  crashing,  thunder  down. 

Pope'9  Homer't  IKad,  zxiu.  U4. 
Like  crowded  forest  trees  we  stand. 

And  some  are  mark'd  to  fall ; 
The  axe  will  smite  at  God's  command. 
And  soon  will  level  all.  Conner. 

Axe,  a  river  in  Somersetshire,  which  &lls 
into  the  Severn  below  Uphill. 

Axe,  or  Ax,  differs  fi«m  the  hatchet,  in  that  it 
is  made  larger  and  heavier,  to  hew  large  stuff; 
and  its  edge  tapering  into  the  middle  of  its 
blade.  It  is  fiimished  with  a  long  handle,  being 
to  be  used  with  both  hands. 

AXEL,  or  Axil,  a  small  fortified  town  of 
Dutch  Flanders,  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands. It  is  seated  among  marshes,  fourteen 
miles  north  of  Ghent. 

,  AXELODUNUM,  the  ancient  name  of  Hex- 
ham, in  Northumberland. 

AXENUS,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Ewxine 
Sea,  the  signification  of  which  is,  inhospitable; 
and  is  perfectly  answerable  to  the  disposition 
and  manners  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
east. 

AXE-STONE,  in  mineralogy,  a  sob-species  of 
jade,  but  not  of  so  light  a  green,  and  somewhat 
of  a  slaty  texture.  The  natives  of  New  Zesland 
work  it  into  hatchets.  It  is  found  in  Cornea, 
Switzexland,  Saxony,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Amazons,  whence  it  has  been  called  Ama- 
Eonian  stone.  Its  constituents  are  silica  505, 
magnesia  31,  alumina  10,  oxide  of  iron  5'6, 
water  2-75,  oxide  of  chromium  0*05. 

AXEY,  the  principal  town  in  the  btand  of 
Axholm.    It  is  thinly  inhabited. 

AXHOLM,  a  river  island  in  the  north-west 
part  of  Lincolnshire.  It  is  formed  by  the  rivers 
Trent,  Idel,  and  Dun;  and  is  about  ten  miles 
long,  ftre  broad,  and  twenty  in  compass.  It  has 
three  villages,  Crowle,  Epworth,  and  Hyrst; 
besides  Axey^  the  chief  town.  The  lower  part 
is  marshy,  but  produces  an  odoriferous  shrub, 
called  gall ;  the  middle  is.  rich  and  fhiitAil, 
yielding  flax  in  great  abundance.  It  also  pT»- 
duoes  an  alabaster,  which  is  used  ibr  making 
lime.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  body  of  a 
woman,  quite  entire,  and  in  a  bent  position,  the 
head  and  feet  almost  in  contact,  was  ibund  in  a 
morass,  which,  from  the  fashion  of  her  sandals, 
was  conjectured  to  have  lain  there  from  the  time 
of  Edward  I.  when  there  were  twe  monasteries 
here. 

AXIACE,  4n  ancient  town  of  Sarmatia  £u* 
Topea;  now  Oczacow. 


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AXIL.    See  Axel. 

AXIIXAy  io  analomy,  or  Ala,  the  caviiy 
under  the  upper-part  of  the  arm;  comn^only 
called  the  arm-pit  It  is  a  dixoinutive  of  axis, 
q.  d.  little  axis.  Abscesses  in  the  axillae  are 
usually  dangerous  on  account  of  the  many  blood- 
vessels, lymphatics,  nerves,  &c.  thereabout,  which 
form  several  large  plexuses.  By  the  ancient 
laws,  criminals  were  to  be  hanged  by  the  axilbe 
if  they  were  under  the  age  of  puberty. 

Axilla,  in  botany,  is  Uie  space  comprehended 
between  the  stems  of  plants  and  their  leaves. 
Hence  we  say,  those  flowers  grow  in  the  axills 
of  the  leaves ;  i.  e.  at  the  base  of  the  leaves,  or 
just  within  the  ajogles  of  their  pedicles. 

'  AXILLARY  Artery  is  that  part  of  the  sub- 
clavian branch  of  the  ascending  trunk  of  the  aorta, 
which  passes  under  the  arm-pits. 

Axillary  Glands  are  situated  under  the 
arm-pits,  enveloped  in  £it,  and  lie  close  by  the 
axillary  vessels. 

Axillary  Nerve,  called  also  the  auricular 
nerve,  arises  from  the  last  two  cervical  pairs ;  runs 
into  the  hollow  of  the  axilla,  behind  tne  head  of 
the  OS  humeri,  between  the  musculus  teres  mijor 
and  minor,  &c.  ^ 

Axillary  Vein,  b  one  of  the  subclavian 
Teins;  which,  passing  under  the  arm-pits,  divides 
itself  into  several  branches;  superior,  inferior, 
external,  internal,  &c.  which  are  spread  over  the 
arm. 

Axillary  Vertebra,  the  second  vertebra  of 
the  back,  so  called  because  it  is  nearest  to  the 
arm-pits. 

AXIM,  a  district  of  Africa,  part  of  the  fertile 
territory  of  Abanta,  on  the  Gold  Coast.  It  is 
directly  east  of  Apollonia,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  river  Ancobra.  The  Dutch  have  a 
fort  in  Axim  called  Fort  Anthony,  situated  on  the 
most  western  promontory  of  C^pe  Three  Points. 
It  is  compact,  well  situated  for  landing,  aad  in 
a  commanding  position.  Ten  leagues  east  of 
Apollonia. 

The  climate  is  so  excessively  moist,  that  it  is 
proverbially  said  to  rain  eleven  months  and 
twenty-nine  days  of  the  year.  This  excessive 
moisture  renders  it  very  unhealthy ;  but  it  pro- 
duces great  quantities  of  tice,  water-melons^ 
lemons,  oranges,  &c.  Here  are  also  produced 
Tast  numbers  of  black  cattle,  goats,  sheep, 
pigeons,  &c.  The  whole  countiy  is  filled  with 
Deautiful  and  populous  villages,  and  the  inter- 
mediate lands  are  well  cultivated.  The  natives 
all  go  naked,  but  are  very  healthy ;  and  there 
is  a,  constant  traffic  carried  on  with  them  by 
the  Europeans  ibr  their  gold.  This  canton  is  a 
kind  of  republic,  the  government  being  divided 
between  tne  Caboceroes  or  chief  men,  and  Ma- 
naceroes  or  young  men.  But  in  their  courts, 
whoever  makes  the  most  valuable  present  to  the 
judges  is  sure  to  gain  his  cause.  The  Portu- 
guese founded  the  nrst  settlement  here,*but  were 
driven  from  it  by  the  Dutch  in  1642. 

AxiM,  a  river  in  the  above  canton,  which  runs 
through  the  town  of  Axim. 

AxiM,  or  Auchombone,  the  capital  of  Axim, 
stands  under  the  cannon  of  the  Dutch  fort  St. 
Antonio.  It  is  secured  behind  by  a  thick  wood 
that  coven  the  whole  declivity  of  a  neighbouring 


hill.  Between  the  town  and  the  sea  runs  an 
even  and  ^acious  shore  of  beautiful  white  sand. 
All  the  houses  are  separated  by  groves  of  cocoa, 
and  other  fruit-trees,  planted  in  parallel  lines, 
each  of  an  equal  width,  and  formmg  an  elegant 
vista.  The  coast  is  defended  by  a  number  of 
small  pointed  rocks,  which  project  from  the 
shore,  and  render  all  access  to  it  dangerous. 

AXINAE'E,  AxiNJEA,  in  natural  history,  a 
*genus  of  the  MoUusca  tribe  (Testacea,)  establish- 
ed by  Poli,  in  his  history  of  the  sheUs  of  the  two 
Sicilies.  The  character  is  taken  from  the  form 
of  the  animal;  the  shell  belongs  to  the  Area 
genus  of  the  linnaean  arrangemoit. 

AXINITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  crystallised  sub- 
stance, found  principally  in  Dauphiny,  in  Franca, 
and  latterly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St.  Just, 
Cornwall.  The  oolors  are  a  light  violet  brown 
The  crystals  resemble  an  axe  in  the  fonn  and 
sharpness  of  their  edges ;  being  flat  rhomboidal 
parallelopipeds,  with  two  of  the  opposite  edges 
wanting,  and  a  small  face  instead  of^each.  They 
become  electric  by  heat  Lustre  splendent. 
Hard,  but  yields  to  the  file,  and  easily  broken. 
Specific  gravity  3*25.  It  froths  like  zeolite  before 
the  blow-pipe,  melting  into  a  black  enamel,  or  a 
dark  green  glass.  According  to  Vaucjuelin's 
analysis^  it  contains  fortv-four  silica,  eighteen 
alumina,  nineteen  lime,  fourteen  oxide  ol  iron, 
and  four  oxide  of  manganese. 

AXINOMANCY,Axii«omantia;  ftom  tdjivii, 
an  axe,  and  fiavrtta,  divination ;  an  ancient  spe- 
cies of  divination,  or  a  method  of  foretelling 
future  events  by  means  of  an  axe  or  hatchet. 
This  art  was  in  considerable  repute  among  the 
ancients;  and  was  performed,  according  to  some, 
by  laying  an  agate  stone  on  a  red  hot  hatchet, 
and  aUo  by  fixing  a  hatchet  on  a  round  stake  so 
as  to  be  exactly  poised;  then  the  names  of  those 
that  were  suspected  were  repeated,  and  he  at 
whose  name  the  natchet  moved  was  pronounced 
guilty. 

AXIOM,         >     Gr.  A(Miyui,   from  a^nm, 

AxioHAt^iCAL.  (  to  think  worthy.  A  self- 
evident  proposition. 

The  univeTsal  axiom  in  which  all  cemplaiMnoe  is 
included,  i»,  that  no  man  should  give  any  preference 
to  himself.  Johtum, 

That  a  coigectiml  critick  should  often  be  mistaken, 
cannot  be  wonderful,  either  to  others  or  himself,  if  it 
be  considered  that  in  his  art  there  is  no  system,  no 
principal  and  axiomaiical  truth  thai  regulates  subor- 
dinate positions. 

Jchmom's  Prrfae$  to  Shaktpeare, 

Axiom,  in  rhetoric,  is  used  by  Hermogenes 
to  denote  grandeur,  dignity,  and  sublimity  of 
style. 

Axioms,  in  logic.  That  the  whole  is  greater 
than  a  part;  that  a  thing  cannot  be,  and  not  be 
at  the  same  time;  and  tliat  from  nodiing,  nothing 
can  arise;  are  axioms  indisputable*  Established 
principles  in  arts  and  sciences  are  also  stiled 
axioms.  Thus  it  is  an  axiom  in  physics,  that 
nature  does  nothing  in  vain;  that  effects  are 
proportional  to  their  causes,  &c.  It  is  an  axiom 
in  geometry,  that  things  equal  to  the  same  thing, 
are  also  equal  to  one  ano&er;  that  if  to  equal 
things  you  add  equals,  the  suras  will  be  equal, 
&c.    It  is  an  axiom  in  optics,  that  the  angle  of 

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incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection,  &c. 

AX  ION,  the  brother  of  Alphesiboea,  whomnr- 
dered  Alcmaeon,  his  sister's  husband,  because  he 
wished  to  take  back  a  golden  necklace  he  had 
given  her. 

AXIOPOLI,  a  town  in  Bulgaria.  Long.  34** 
(f  E.,  lat.  45°  40*  N.    It  was  formerly  called 

AXIOPOLIS;  a  town  of  the  Triballi,  in 
Msesia  Interior.  • 

AXIOS,  a  form  of  acclamation,  anciently  used 
by  the  people  in  the  election  of  bishops.  When 
they  were  all  unanimous,  they  cried  oat  aJitov! 
he  is  worthy !  or  avaJiiov  !  unworthy  I 

AXIOSIS,  a|<o<riCy  in  rhetoric,  denotes  the 
third  part  of  an  exordium;  sometimes  called 
a)ro^o<nc,  and  containing  some  new  proposition 
more  nearly  relating  to  the  subject,  than  the 
irporairic.  Thus  in  Cicero's  oration,  pro  Milone, 
the  protasis  is,  Non  possim  non  timere,  judices, 
▼isa  h^c  nova  judicii  forma :  the  katascue,  Nec' 
enim  ^a  corona  confessus  vester  cinctus  est  qua 
solebat :  the  axiosis,  Sed  me  recreat  Pompei  con- 
silium, cujus  sapientis  non  fuerit,  quern  setiten- 
tiis  Judicium  tradidit,  telis  militum  dedere:  the 
basis,  Quamobrem  adeste  animis  judices,  et  timo- 
rem,  si  quam  habetis,  deponite. 

AXIOTEA,  or  Axiothea,  a  female  philoso- 
pher of  Greece,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Plato, 
and  attended  his  lectures,  dressed  in  the  habit  of 
a  man. 

AXIS,         -N  Lat.  ajris,  Gr.  a^cov,  from  ayccy. 

Axle,  f  to  go  round.    Axis  is  a   line 

AtX  LED,        I  drawn    through  the  centre  of 

Ax  LE-TREE.  3  any  body  round  which  it  re- 
Tolves. 

The  line,  that  we  deiiise  from  thone  to  thother  so. 
As  ojTtfU  is  \  npoA  which  the  heaven's  about  do  go. 

Wyatt. 
Bat  mark  me  also,  these  moninges  of  these  seaen. 
Be  not  aboue  the  axdtree  of  the  first  mooing  heauen. 

Id, 
Inferior  ministers,  for  Man  repair 
His  broken  tutU-ireet,  and  blunted  war. 

Dryden*  VirgU'i  MnaA,  viii. 
And  bade  her  spirits  bear  him  far. 
In  Merlin's  agatc-oxZcd  car. 
To  her  green  isle's  enamelled  steep, 
.    Far  in  the  navel  of  the  deep. 

r.  WarUm,  Th»  Qraoe  of  King  Arthur, 

Axis,  in  anatomy,  the  second  vertebra  of  the 
neck,  thus  called  because  the  first  vertebra  with 
the  head,  moves  thereon,  as  on  an  axis. 

Axis,  in  astronomy,  is  an  imaginary  right  line 
supposed  to  pass  tlurough  the  centre  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  about  which  they  perform  their 
diurnal  revolutions. 

Axis,  in  botany,  a  taper  column  placed  in  the 
centre  of  some  flowers  or  catkins,  about  which 
the  other  parts  are  disposed. 

Axis,  m  conic  sections,  a  right  line  dividing 
the  section  into  two  equal  parts,  and  cutting  all 
its  ordinates  at  right  angles. 

Axis,  in  geometry,  the  straight  line  in  a  plain 
figure,  about  which  it  revolves,  to  produce  or 
generate  a  solid.  Thus  if  a  semicircle  be  moved 
round  its  diameter  at  rest,  it  will  generate  a 
sphere,  the  axis  of  which  is  that  diameter. 

Axis,  in  mechanics.  The  axis  of  a  balance  is 
thai  line  which  it  moves,  or  rather  tarns  about. 


Axis,  in  optics,  is  that  particular  ray  of  light 
coming  from  any  object  which  faWs  perpendicu- 
larly on  the  eye. 

Axis,  common  or  mean,  in  optics,  a  right  line 
drawn  from  the  poiut  of  concourse  from  the  two 
optic  nerves,  through  the  middle  of  the  right  line 
which  joins  their  extremity. 

Axis,  in  peritrochio,  one  of  the  six  mechanical 
powers,  consisting  of  a  peritrochium  or  wheel 
concentric  with  the  base  ot  a  cylinder,  and  move^ 
able  together  with  it  about  its  axb. 

Axis,  in  zoology,  a  very  remarkable  animal, 
of  the  deer  kind  in  all  respects,  except  that 
neither  the  male  nor  female  have  horns;  the  tail 
is  considerably  long,  and  the  whole  shape  and 
make  are  extremely  like  those  of  the  fallow  deer. 
The  female  is  smaller  than  the  male,  and  both 
are  of  a  reddish  tawny  color,  variegated  with 
spots  of  white;  the  belly  is  white.  The  voice  is 
much  more  loud  and  shrill  than  that  of  the  deer. 
It  is  plain  tliat  this  creature  is  neither  of  the  red 
nor  fallow  deer  kind,  whence  Bellonius,  who  saw 
it  at  Cairo  in  Egypt,  was  induced  to  call  it  the 
Axis. 

Axis,  determiiiate,  in  a  hyperbola,  a  right 
line  which  divides  it  into  two  equal  parts,  and  at 
right  angles,  an  infinite  number  of  lines  drawn 
parallel  to  each  other  within  the  hyperbola. 

Axis,  Maonetical,  or  Axis  of  a  Magnet, 
a  line  passing  through  the  middle  of  a  magnet, 
lengthways,  in  such  maimer,  as  that  however  the 
magnet  be  divided,  provided  the  division  be 
made  according  to  a  plane  wherein  such  line  is 
found,  the  load-stone  will  be  made  into  two 
load-stones.  The  extremities  of  such  lines  are 
called  the  poles  of  the  stone. 

Axis  OF  A  Planet,  is  a  line  drawn  through  . 
the  centre,  about  which  the  planet  revolves.  The 
sun,  moon,  and  all  the  planets,  except  Mercuiy 
and  Saturn,  are  known,  by  observation,  to  move 
abodt  their  several  axes ;  and  the  like  motion  is 
easily  inferred  from  those  two. 

Axis  of  a  Sphere,  or  Circle,  is  the  lame 
as  diameter. 

Axis  of  a  Vessel,  is  an  imaginary  ri^t  line 
passing  through  the  middle  of  it  perpendicularly 
to  its  base,  and  equally  distant  from  its  sides. 

Axis  of  Incidence  in  dioptrics,  a  right  line 
drawn  through  the  point  of  incidence  perpendi- 
cular to  the  refracting  surface. 

Axis  of  Oscillation,  is  a  right  line  parallel 
to  the  horizon,  passing  through  me  centre  about 
which  a  pendulum  vibrates. 

Axis  of  Refraction,  is  that  whidi  is  made 
by  the  ray  of  incidence  directly  prolonged  on 
the  bside  of  the  second  medium  by  the  ray  of 
refraction. 

Axis  of  the  Cylinder,  is  properly  that  qui- 
escent right  line,  about  which  the  parallelogram 
turns,  by  whose  revolution  the  cylinder  is  formed. 
Though,,  both  in  right  and  oblique  cylinders,  the 
right  line  joining  the  centres  of  the  opposite 
bases,  is  also  called  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

Axis  of  the  Earth,  is  a  right  line  upon 
which  the  earth  performs  its  diumal  rotation  from 
west  to  east. 

Axis  of  the  Ionic  Capital,  is  a  line  passing 
perpendicuUrly  through  the  middle  of  the  eye  of 
the  volute. 


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Axis  of  the  Zodiac,  a  line  supposed  to  pass 
through  the  earth  and  terminate  in  the  poles. 

Axis,  Spiral,  isthe  axis  of  a  twisted  column 
drawn  spirally,  in  order  to  trace  the  circumvolu- 
tions without 

AXMINSTER,  a  town  of  Devonshire,  situated 
on  the  river  Ax,  in  the  great  road  between  Lon- 
don and  Exeter,  being  twenty-fivo  miles  east  of 
the  latter  place.  It  was  a  place  of  some  note  in 
the  time  of  the  Saxons,  and  now  contains  about 
2500  inhabitants.  It  has  a  manufactory  of  broad 
and  narrow  cloths,  and  an  extensive  one  of 
carpets,  manufactured  after  the  Turkish  manner : 
its  carpets  are  often  preferred  to  those  from 
Turkey.  The  petty  sessions  are  holden  here. 
King  /Ethelstan  founded  a  minster  here,  for  seven 
priests,  to  pray  for  the  souls  of  those  who  were 
slain  in  a  battle  which  he  fought  with  the  Danes 
at  Bremaldown.  It  has  four  fairs :  on  the  24th 
of  February,  25th  of  April, '24th  of  June,  and 
Wednesday  after  Michaelmas,  with  a  market  on 
Saturday.  It  is  147  miles  west  of  London. 
Long.  3°  8'  W.,  lat.  50°  45'  N. 

AXOLOTI,  in  icthvology,  a  singular  fish 
found  in  the  lakes  of  Mexico.  It  has  four  feet 
like  the  lizard,  no  scales,  a  matrix  like  a  woman, 
and  the  menstrual  flux.  It  h^  the  taste  of  an 
eel.    See  Lacerta. 

AXONES;  a^wvic;  public  laws  of  the  an- 
cient Greeks,  particularly  of  the  Athenians,  so 
named  from  their  mode  of  publication. 

AXTEL  (Daniel),  a  regicide,  and  colonel  in 
the  service  of  the  long  parliament,  was  of  a  good 
family,  and  had  a  tolerable  education.  M  he 
was  of  a  serious  disposition,  and  had  been  very 
early  tinctured  with  puritanical  priqciples,  he 
became  a  fervent  follower  of  such  mimsters  as 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  zealous  preach- 
ing. His  great  attachment  to  these  people,  and 
the  natural  warmth  of  his  temper,  were  the  cause 
of  his  going  into  tlie  army,  in  which  he  behaved 
with  so  much  zeal,  courage,  and  conduct,  that  he 
rose  by  degrees  to  the  several  commands  of  cap- 
tain, major,  and  lieutehant-colonel,  in  a  regi- 
ment of  foot.  It  was  in  this  last  capacity  .that 
he  acted  with  great  vehemence  against  all  endea- 
vours for  a  reconciliation  i^ith  the  king.  When 
the  king  was  brought  before  the  high  court  of 
junice,  colonel  Stubberd  and  Axtel  had  the  com- 
mand of  the  soldiers  below  stairs.  The  king  de- 
manded of  sergeant  Bradshaw,  the  president,  by 
what  authority  they  brought  him  there  ?  and  the 
president  appealing  to  the  charge,  which  was  in 
the  name  of  the  Commons  of  England,  lady 
Fairfax  and  Mrs.  Nelson  are  said  to  have  cried 
out,  *  it  is  hUe ;  not  a  half,  not  a  quarter  of  the 
people.'     Upon  this  colonel  Axtel  cried  out, 

'Down  with  the  w ;  shoot  themP    After 

the  sentence,  the  king  was  carried  through  King- 
street,  in  a  sedan,  bv  two  porters,  who,  out  of  re- 
verence, went  bare-headed,  till  the  soldiers  under 
Axtel's  command  beat  them,  and  forced  tliem  to 
put  on  their  hats.  After  the  king's  death,  when 
Cromwell  was  sent  into  Ireland,  the  regiment  in 
which  Axtel  served  was  drawn  out  by  lot  for 
that  expedition,  which  occasioned  his  going  over 
into  thut  kingdom,  where  he  made  a  considerable 
figure,  was  much  esteemed,  and  raised  by  Crom- 
well to  the  command  of  a  regiment,  and  the  go- 


vernment of  Kilkenny  After  the  Protector's 
death  Axtel  endeavoured  to  conceal  himself,  sus- 
pecting that  he  might  be  called  to  an  account 
lor  the  share  he  had  taken  in  the  trial  of  the 
king;  but  before  tl\e  close  of  the  month  he  was 
discovered  and  committed  to  prison.  On  the 
10th  of  October  the  grand  jury  for  Middlesex 
found  bills  against  twenty-eight  persons,  for 
their  concern  in  tlie  king's  death,  of  whom  Axtel 
was  the  last.  His  trial,  by  the  elaborate  defence 
he  made,  lasted  upwards  of  three  hours :  but  the 
jury,  without  going  from  the  bar,  found  him 
guil^ ;  and  he  was  executed,  on  the  19th,  at 
Tyburn. 

AXUM,  Axon  A,  AxoMis,  or  Aksum,  in  Abys- 
sinia, the  capital  of  a  powerful  state  in  the  time 
of  the  Ptolemies,  and  perhaps  of  all  Abyssinia; 
still  retaining  monuments  of^its  former  splendor. 
An  ancient  throne  of  granite,  and  two  rows 
of  obelisks,  struck  Mr.  Salt  as  amongst  the  most 
beautiful  ancient  relics  he  had  ever  seen.  But  per- 
haps the  most  curious  of  all  is  a  long  Greek  in- 
scription, which  records  the  victories  of  one  of  the 
Ptolemies  and  the  extent  of  their  empire.  Fru- 
menttus,  the  aposde  of  Ethiopia,  was  the  first 
bishop  of  Axum,  and  many  churches  had  been 
excavated  from  the  surrounding  mountains  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  fifUi  century.  It  carried 
on  a  considerable  trade  with  India  and  Arabia, 
through  the  port  of  Adubs.  It  is  the  place 
whera  the  kings  of  Abyssinia  are  crowned.  Mr. 
Salt  found  it  to  be  in  lat.  14°  6'  36"  N.  Its 
present  population  is  about  3000.,  The  inhabit- 
ants are  rude  and  inhospitable.  They  wear  coarse 
woollen  clothes.  The  monks  prepare  the  best 
parchment  in  all  Abyssinia.  The  church  of 
Axum  appears  to  have  been  built  in  1657,  and 
is  considered  by  Mr.  Salt,  excepting  that  of 
Chelicut,  as  the  finest  in  the  province  of  Tigr6. 
The  town  stands  agreeably  sheltered  by  hills,  at 
the  comer  of  an  extensive  valley.  It  is  de- 
scribed by  Bruce  as  containing  600  houses. 

AXUNGIA,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes  old 
lard,  or  the  driest  and  hardest  of  any  fat  in  the 
bodies  of  animals ;  but  more  properly  it  signifies 
only  hog's,  lard.  ^ 

AxuNNYXA  LuN^s,  an  affected  name  given  by 
the  German  chemists  to  the  terra  goltbergensis, 
from  their  imagining  that  it  contains  some  par- 
ticles of  silver,  and  owes  to  them  its  virtues  in 
medicine. 

AxuKGiA  SoLis  is  used  for  the  terra  silesiaca,. 
and  said  to  be  good  against  the  plague,  pestilen- 
tial fevers,  &c. 

AxvNOiA  ViTRi,  Sakdiver,  or  salt  of  glass, 
a  kind  of  salt  which  separates  from  the  glass 
while  it  is  in  fusion.  It  is  of  an  acrimonious 
and  biting  taste.  The  farriers  use  it  for  cleansing 
the  eyes  of  horses.  It  is  also  made  use  of  for 
cleansing  tlie  teeth ;  and  it  is  sometimes  applied 
to  running  ulcers,  the  herpes,  or  the  itch,  by 
way  of  desiccative. 

AXYLUS,  an  ancient  hero  of  Arisba,  cele- 
brated by  Homer  for  his  hospitality,  which 
gained  him  the  appellation  of  the  Friend  of  M  ai2- 
kind.  • 

AXYRIS,  a  genus  of  the  triandria  order,  an<l 
monoecia  class  of  planUi,  ranking  in  tlie  natuml 
method  under  the  twelfth  order  lK>lorace».    Th^ 


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calyx  of  the  male  is  tripartite ;  it  has  no  corolla. 
The  calyx  of  the  female  consists  of  two  leaves ; 
it  has  two  styli  and  one  seed.  There  are  four 
species,  none  of  them  natives  of  Britain. 

AY.    Sax.  Ever.    For  ever. 
A  kyng  ^at  strines  with  hise,  he  may  not  wels  spede. 
Where  so  he  testis  or  riues  he  lyues  ay  in  drede. 

A.  BftiRftf. 
And  now  in  darksome  dungeon,  wretched  thndl^ 
Remedyless  for  aye  he  dothe  him  holde. 

SpenterU  FmerU  Qtieeme. 
Either  prepare  to  die, 
Or  on  Diana's  altar  to  protest 
For  agfe,  austerity  and  single  life. 

Shahpeare, 
The  sonlp  though  made  in  time,  survives  for  aye; 
And,  though  it  hath  beginning,  sees  no  end. 

Sir  J.  JDofMf . 
And  join  with  thee  calm  peace,  and  quiet. 
Spare  fast>  that  oft  with  gods  doth  diet, 
AAd  hears  tlie  muses  in  a  ring. 
Ay  round  about  Jove's  altar  sing. 

I  MiUon't  n  Pmteroao, 

O  to  thy  [the  cock's]  cursed  scream  discordant  still, 
Liet  harmony  aye  shut  her  gentle  ear. 

Bea*tie*9  Mmrtta» 

Ay,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Mame,  near  the  river  Marne,  remarkable  for  its 
excellent  wines.  It  lies  twelve  miles  soath  of 
Rheims,  and  one  mile  and  a  half  north-east  of 
Epemay.    Inhabitants  2600.  • 

AYAG,  or  Katachu,  one  of  the  Andrea- 
no&kie  islands,  in  the  eastern  or  Pacific  Ocean, 
about  150  versts  in  circamference,  and  consisting 
of  several  high  and  rocky  mountains,  the  inter- 
vals of  which  are  bare  heath  and  moor  ground ; 
but  in  the  whole  island  there  is  not  one  forests 
tree.  The  productions  resemble  those  of  Kamt- 
schatka. 

AYAMONTE,  a  sea-port  town  of  Andalusia 
in  Spain,  vnth  a  strong  castle  built  on  a  rock ; 
seated  on  the  mouth  of  the  Guadiana,  eighty- 
five  miles  north-west  of  Cadiz.  It  has  a  com- 
modious harbour,  a  productive  sardel  fishery, 
fruitful  vineyards,  and  excellent  wine.  Popula- 
tion about  6000. 

AYAS,  a  town  and  castle  of  Caramania,  in 
the  government  of  Adana,  on  the  bay  of  Ayas, 
near  the  Jypoo,  and  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Gulf  of  Scanderoon,  or  Iskenderoon,  the  ancient 
Sinus  Issicus.  It  is  fortified  all  round;  and  here 
are  the  remains  of  a  fort  and  artificial  pier.  A 
little  to  the  westward  is  a  round  tower  with  an 
Arabic  inscription.  Myriads  of  fish,  numerous 
fine  turtle,  and  aquatic  birds,  abound  on  the 
shore.  This  place  is  supposed  to  be  the  ancient 
EjgK.    Long.  35°  48'.  E.,  lat.  36**  46'  N. 

AYASH,  a  village  on  the  same  coast,  sur- 
rounded by  the  rums  of  a  town  that  has  occupied 
a  considerable  space  of  ground,  and  containing 
the  remains  of  a  theatre  and  many  other  edifices. 
The  most  conspicuous  of  the  whole  is  a  temple, 
situated  on  a  projecting  eminence.  Its  columns 
are  of  the  composite  order,  fluted,  and  about 
four  feet  in  diameter.  This  is  conjectured  to 
have  been  the  ancient  Sebasta. 

AY AVIRI,  a  town  of  lima,  in  Peru,  remark- 
able for  many  stately  tombs  of  the  Peruvian  no- 
bility. 


AYBAR,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Navarre,  on  tlie 
Arragon,  famous  for  a  battle  fought  here  in  the 
year  1451,  betwen  John  king  of  Castile,  and  his 
son  Don  Carlos,  in  which  the  latter  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner.  Three  miles  south  of  San- 
guesa. 

AYDON  Bridge,  or  Hetdon  Bridge,  a 
town  in  Northumberland,  five  miles  west  of  Hex- 
ham, so  named  from  its  bridge  over  the  TVne. 
It  has  a  market  on  Tuesday,  and  a  £eur  on  July 
21st,  22d,  23d,  and  24th. 

AYE.  Ayex.  The  imperative  of  the  French 
verb  flwir,  to  have ;  signifying  have  it,  possos 
it,  enjoy  it  The  expression  is  similar  in 
Swedish,  German,  and  Dutch. 

Return  you  thither  f 
Ay,  madam,  with  the  swiftest  wing  of  speed. 

Shahpeon. 
What  say'st  thou?  wilt  thou  he  of  our  consort? 
Say  ay,  and  be  the  captain  of  us  all.  Id. 

Sometimes  in  mutual  sly  disguise. 
Let  ayei  seem  tioi,  and  not  seem  oyet; 
Ayea  be  in  courts  denials  meant. 
And  iMW  in  bishops  give  consent. 
Thus  aye  proposed,  and,  for  reply, 
'    No  for  the  first  time  answer'd  aye. 
They  parted  with  a  thousand  kisses. 
And  fight  e'er  since  for  pay  like  Swisses. 

Gay's  Fabiee.  Aye  and  No. 

AYEK  Jemani,  a  species  of  cornelian,  much 
valued  by  the  Arabians. 

AY  EL,  Fr.  in  law,  a  writ  vrhich  lies  where  the 
grand&ther  was  seized  in  his  demesne  on  the 
day  be  died,  a  stranger  enters  the  same  day  and 
dispossesses  the  heir. 


Aysjs-^Ao.™. 


AYENIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  pentan- 
dria  order  and  gynandria  class  of  plants,  ranking 
in  the  natural  pethod  under  the  thirty-seventh 
order,  columniferae.  The  calyx  has  two  leaves ; 
the  petals  are  in  the  form  of  a  star,  with  long 
ungues ;  and  the  capsule  has  five  cells.  There 
are  three  species  all  natives  of  the  West  Indies. 

AYERBE,  or  Ayerve,  the  capital  of  a  ba- 
rony, in  the  district  of  Huesca,  Artagon,  situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  thirty-two  miles 
north  of  Saragossa. 

AYERSTOWN,  a  town  of  the  United  States, 
in  New  Jersey,  thirteen  miles  south-east  from 
Buriington. 

AYESHA,  the  wife  of  Mahomet,  and  daugh- 
ter of  Abubeker.  The  impostor  had  a  greater 
regard  for  her  than  for  any  of  his  wives, 
though  she  had  no  children ;  and  his  follower 
highly  respected  her.  She  opposed  Ali^s  suc- 
cession and  raised  an  army  against  him;  but 
after  a  severe  contest  was  made  prisoner.  The 
conqueror,  however,  dismissed  her  with  civility. 
This  turbulent  woman  died  in  677,  aged  sixty- 
seven. 

AYGULA,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  simia  or 
ape. 

AYGULUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  sca- 
rabseus  that  inhabits  India. 

AYLESBURY  (Sir  Thomas),  merits  a  place 
in  a  vfork  of  this  kind,  not  only  as  a  learned 
man  himself,  but  as  the  patron  of  men  of  letteis. 
He  was  bom  in  London  in  1576,  was  educated 


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at  Westminster,  and  atadied  at  OaBfindy  wkere  he 
took  his  degree  di  A;M.  in  1605,  He  became 
secretary  to  Charles  eaorl  of  Nottingham,  lord 
high  amnirol,  and  gave  so  many  proofs  of  his 
skill  in  mathematics,  that  he  retained  his  secre- 
taryship under  the  duke  of  Buclungfaam  upon 
bis  succeeding  the  earl.  By  the  duke's  influence 
he  was  appointed  master  of  requests,  and  master 
of'the  mint,  and  created  a  baronet.  The  profits 
of  these  lucrative  offices  he  applied  to  the  most 
benevolent  purposes.  He  not  only  made  all 
men  of  science  welcome  to  his  table  and  afforded 
fliem  bis  best  countenance,  but  also  gave  regular 
pensions  to  such  of  them  as  were  in  narrow  cir- 
eumatanoes.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  a  man  of 
so  benevolent  a  character  should  himself  have 
afterwards  experienced  adversity.  In  oonse- 
qnence  of  his  steady  adherence  to  the  king,  he 
was,  in  1642,  stripped  of  his  places  and  estate^ 
but  he  bore  up  cheerfully  under  hb  misfortunes, 
and  in  1649  retired  with  his  family  to  Brussels. 
He  died  at  Bnada  in  1657,  aged  eighty-one. 

Aylesbuht  (William),  the  son  of  the  baronet, 
took  his  degree  of  A.M.  at  Christ  Church,  in 
the  sixteenth  year  of  his  age,  and  like  his  father, 
was  a  sufferer  by  his  adherence  to  the  cause  of 
royalty.  Kmg  Charles  I.  early  appointed  him 
travelling  preceptor  to  George  Villiers  duke  of 
Buckingham,  and  his  brother.  Lord  Francis. 
During  their  travels  in  Italy  he  was  nearly  killed 
by  an  assassin.  He  returned  to  England  during 
the  civil  war,  but  after  the  king's  death  retited  to 
Antwerp.  In  1650  he  again  returned  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  experienced  great  difficulties, 
being  often  in  want  of  daily  necessaries.  At 
last,  in  1657,  the  protector  having  fitted  out  a 
fleet  for  the  West  Indies,  he  was  engaged  as 
secretary  to  the  governor  of  Jamaica,  the  climate 
of  which  soon  cut  him  off. 

AvtESBUKT.    See  Ailesbuby. 

AYLESFORD.    See  Ailbsfobd. 

AYLETS,  or  Sea  Swallows.  In  heraldry, 
they  are  often  called  Cornish  choughs,  and  are 
painted  sable,  beaked,  and  legged  gules. 

AYLETT  (Robert),  an  English  author  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
Hall,  Cambridge,  whero  he  took  the  degree  of 
LL.I).  in  1614,  and  afterwards  became  master 
in  Chancery.  He  wrote  Susanna,  or  the  Arraign- 
ment of  the  Two  Elders,  a  poem,  1632,  8vo. 
besides  several  odier  poetical  pieces.  He  is 
thought  by  some  to  have  been  the  author  of  th& 
Britannica  Antiqua  lUustrata,  which  is  generally 
attributed  to  his  nephew,  Aylett  Sammes. 

AYLIN  (John),  an  Italian  writer  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  His  chief  work  is  a  History  of 
Friuli,  printed  in  Muratori^s  Antiquitates  Italictt 
medii  ^vi,  Milan,  1740. 

AYLMER  (John),  bishop  of  London  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  was  bora  in  1521,  at  Aylmer^ 
hall,  in  Tilney,  Norfolk.  While  a  boy  he  was 
distinguished  for  his  quick  parts,  by  the  marquis 
of  Dorset,  afterwards  duke  of  Suffolk;  who  sent 
him  to  Cambridge,  made  him  his  chaplain,  and 
tutor  to  his  children.  One  of  these  was  the  un- 
fortunate Lady  Jane  Oniy,  who  soon  became 
perfectly  acouainted  with  the  Latin  and  Greek. 
His  first  preterment  was  to  the  archdeaconry  of 
Stow,  which  gave  him  a  seat  in  the  convocation 


hdd  in  the  first  year  of  queen  Mary,  wheie  he 
resolutely  opposed  the  return  to  popery,  to 
which  the  generality  of  the  clergy  were  mclined. 
He  was  soon  after  obliged  to  take  shelter  among 
the  Protestants  in  Switzerland.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth  he  returned  to  England.  In 
1562  he  obtained  the  archdeaconry  of  Lincoln ; 
and  was  a  member  of  the  &mou8  synod  of  that 
year,  which  reform^  and  settled  tbe  doctrine 
and  discipline  of  the  church  of  England.  In 
1576  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  London.  He 
died  in  1594,  aged  seventy-three;  and  was  buried 
in  St.  Faurs.  He  published  An  Harbrowe  for 
faithful  and  trewe  Subjects  against  the  late  blowne 
Blaste  concerning  the  Government  of  Women, 
&c.  In  answer  to  Knox,  who  published  a  book  at 
Geneva  under  this  title.  The  first  Blast  against 
the  monstrous  Regimen  and  Empire  of  Women. 
Strype  gives  the  following  instance  of  his  courtly 
courage :— Queen  £li»beth  being  once  tormented 
with  the  tooth-ache,  and  yet  afraid  of  having  the 
tooth  drawn,  bishop  Aylmer  being  by,  to  encour* 
age  her  majesty,  sat  down  in  a  chair,  and  calling 
to  the  operator, '  Come,*  said  he, '  though  I  am 
an  old  man,  and  have  but  few  teeth  to  spare, 
draw  me  this ;'  which  was  done;  and  the  queen 
seeing  him  make  so  slight  a  matter  of  it,  sat  down 
and  had  hers  drawn  also.. 

AYLOFFE  (Sfr  Joseph),  of  Framfield  in  Sus- 
sex, was  descended  from  a  Saxon  feroily  anciently 
seated  at  Bocton  Aylof,  in  Kent,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  the  Third.  He  was  bora  about  1708; 
received  the  early  part  of  his  education  at 
Westminster  school ;  admitted  of  Lincoln's  Inn 
1724 ;  and  in  the  same  year  was  entered  a  gen* 
tleman  commoner  at  Oxford,  which  he  quitted 
about  1728 ;  was  elected  F.A.S.  Feb.  10,  1731 ; 
one  of  the  first  council,  under  their  charter,  in 
1751 ;  vice-president  and  F.R.S.  June  3,  1731. 
He  prevailea  on  Mr.  Kirby,  painter  of  Ipswich,  - 
to  make  drawings  of  a  great  number  of^  monu- 
ments and  building  in  Suffolk,  of  which  twelve 
were  engraved,  with  a  description,  1748 ;  and 
others  remain  unpublbhed.  On  the  building  of 
Westminster-bridge  he  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  commissioners,  1736-7;  and  on  the  estal>- 
lishment  of  the  Paper-Office  on  the  respectable 
footing  it  is  at  present,  by  the  removal  of  the 
Sute  Papers  from  tbe  old  gate  at  Whit^all  to 
new  apartments  at  the  treasury,  he  was  nomi- 
nated the  first  in  the  commission  for  the  care 
and  preservation  of  them.  In  1757  he  circulated 
proposals  for  printing  by  subscription,  Encyclo' 
psecua ;  or,  a  rational  Dictionary  or  Arts,  Sciences, 
and  Trade.  In  1772  he  published  in  4to.  Ca- 
lendars of  the  Ancient  Charters,  &c.  and  of  the 
Welsh  and  Scottish  Rolls  now  remaining  in  th^ 
Tower  of  London,  &c.  and  in  the  introduction 
gives  a  judicious  and  exact  account  of  our  Pub-' 
lie  Records.  He  drew  up  the  account  of  the 
chapel  of  London-bridge,  of  which  an  engraving 
was  published  by  Vertue  in  1748,  and  again  by 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  1777.  His  historica 
description  of  the  interview  between  Henry  VIII 
and  Francis  I.  on  the  Champ  de  Drap  d'O^* 
from  an  original  painting  at  Windsor,  and  hii 
account  of  the  paintings  of  the  same  age  at  Cow- 
dray,  were  inserted  in  the  third  vol&me  of  the 
Aroh«ologia,  and  printed  separately  to  accom* 


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puij  engnvingi  of  two  of  these  pictoras  by  the 
Soaety  of  Antiquaries,  1775.  His  aoooimt  of 
the  body  of  Edirard  I.  as  it  appeared  on  opening 
hb  tomb,  1774,  was  printed  m  the  same  volume 
p.  376.  His  intimate  acquaintance  with  every 
part  of  Westminster  Abbev  displayed  itself  in 
his  accurate  description  of  five  monuments  in  the 
choir,  engraved  in  1779  by  the  same  socie^. 
He  superintended  the  new  edition  of  Leland's 
Collectanea,  in  nine  vols.  8vo. ;  and  also  of  the 
liber  Niger  Scaccarii,  in  two  vols.  8vo. ;  to  each 
of  which  he  added  a  valuable  appendix.  He 
also  revised  an  edition  of  Heame's  Curious  Dis- 
courses, 1771,  two  vols.  8vo.;  and  the  Regis- 
trum  lioffense,  published  by  Mr.  Thorpe,  in 
1769,  folio.  At  the  beginnmg  of  the  seventh 
volume  of  Someis's  Tra^  is  advertised  A  CoU 
lection  of  Debates  in  Parliament  before  the 
Restoration,  from  MSS.  by  Sir  Joseph  Aylofie, 
bart.  which  is  supposed  never  to  have  appeared. 
Sir  Joseph  died  at  his  house  at  Kennington-lane, 
Lambeth,  April  19, 1781,  aged  seventy-two. 

AYMAR  rjames),  a  celebrated  impostor,  born 
tt  Veran,  in  Dauphine.  He  became  ramous,  and 
acquired  considerable  wealth  about  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  by  giving  out  that  he 
was  in  possession  of  a  divining  rod  for  bringing 
to  light  hidden  treasure.  The  cheat  was  detects 
ed,  and  he  was  suffered  to  fall  back  into  his 
former  obscurity ;  but  the  noise  he  had  raised 
gave  occasion  to  De  Vallemont's  learned  book  on 
tiie  powers  of  the  divining  rod. 

AYMARES,  a  district  of  Peru,  forty  leagues 
south-west  of  that  city,  abounding  in  sugar,  cat- 
tle, com,  and  mines  of  gold  and  silver. 

AYMON  (John),  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  of 
Piedmont,  who  took  part  with  the  Protestant 
cause,  and  afterwards  returned  to  the  Catholic 
iaith.  Cardinal  de  Naoilles  gave  him  a  pension, 
and  he  wrote  several  books  in  opposition  to  the 
Reformers.  He  likewise  publbhed  the  letters 
of  Cyril  Lucar,  Les  Synodes  nationaux  des 
Eglises  reform^es  de  France,  1710,  3  vols.  4to.,- 
and  Tableau  de  la  Cour  de  Rome,  1710, 12mo. 

AYpQUANTOTOTL,  or  Avis  Ayoquanto- 
TOTL,  in  ornithology,  the  name  under  which  the 
oriolus  xanthomus  of  Gmelin  is  described  by 
some  old  writers.  « 

AYORA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Valencia.  Long:. 
16«  40*  E.,  lat.  39*  5' N. 

AYR,  or  Air,  in  Scotland.    See  Air. 

Ayr,  or  Air,  a  river  of  Fiance,  in  the  duchy 
of  Bar,  which  abounds  in  fish,  and  fidls  into  the 
Aisne,  near  Grandpi^,  in  the  department  of  the 
Ardennes. 

AYRES,  an  English  penman  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  was  employed  in  the  service 
of  Sir  William  Ashhurst,  in  1694,  to  whom  he 
dedicated  a  treatise,  entitled  Arithmetic  made 
Easy.  In  1695  he  published  his  Tutor  to  Pen-t 
manship,  engraved  by  John  Strut.  He  lodged 
at  the  Hand-and-Pen,  St.  Paul's  Church-yard, 
where  he  probably  kept  a  school. 

AYRMlN,  or  Aterm in  (William),  a  bishop 
of  Norwich  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  and  III. 
was  descended  of  an  ancient  iamily  at  Osgodby 
in  Lincolnshire.  He  was  a  canon  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  York,  and  afterwards  in  that  of  Wells; 
and  was  for  some  time  keeper  of  the  seal,  and 


vice-chancellor  to  king  Edward  II.  under  John, 
bishop  of  Nonrich.  About  A.  D.  1319,  a  war 
having  broke  out  between .  England  and  Scotland, 
Ayrmin  was  taken  prisoner  in  a  battle  between 
the  Scotch  and  Yorkists.  Recovering  his  liberty 
he  was  made  chancellor  under  Edward  III.  and 
afterwards  treasurer.  Being  sent  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Rome,  he  ne^ected  the  business 
of  his  embassy,  and  employed  his  time  and  in- 
terest in  obtaining  the  bishopric  of  Norwich, 
which  was  then  vacant;  in  which  application 
meeting  with  success,  he  returned  to  take  pos- 
session of  ^at  see :  which  the  king  hearing,  and 
being  disgusted  at  his  proceedings,  sent  soldiexs 
to  Norwich  to  apprehend  him ;  but  Ayrmin  lay 
hid  in  the  cathedral  church,  till  by  the  interpo- 
sition of  friends  the  king  was  reconciled  to  him, 
and  consented  to  his  consecration.  He  died  in 
1337. 

AYR-MOSS,  a  place  ii^  the  parish  of  Auchia- 
leck  in  Ayrshire,  memorable  tor  a  defeat  of  a 
party  of  those  friends  of  religion  and  liberty, 
called  Covenanters,  during  the  turbulent  i^id  op- 
pressive reign  of  Charles  U. 
AYRON,  a  river  of  Wales,  in  Cardiganshire. 
AYEl^HIRE.  See  Air. 
AYRTON  (Edmund),  was  bom  at  Ripop, 
Yorkshire,  in  the  year  1734,  and  died. in 
1808.  At  the  age  of  thiity  he  became  one 
of  the  gentlemen  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  St. 
James's,  and  subsequently  a  vicar  chond  of  St. 
Paul's  and  Westminster  Abbey.  In  1784  he 
took  his  degree  of  doctor  of  music  in  the  univei^ 
sity  of  Cambridge,  on  which  occasion  he  com- 
pMed  a  grand  anthem  for  a  fiiU  orchestra,  after- 
wards performed  at  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  on  the 
day  appointed  for  the  general  thanksgiving  for 
peace  m  1784.  Dr.  Ayrton  took  a  Iciuling  part 
m  the  commemoration  of  Handel  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

AYI^Y,  or  Every.  Ey,  Teutonic,  an  egg; 
«yr»  eggs;  the  eyery,  or  eggery,  where  the  eggs 
are  deposited.    Used  of  hawks,  or  other  birds. 

Yon  son-lnred  ojfr^f,  whote  immortal  birth 
Bean  you  «loft  beyond  the  sight  of  eaKh. 
The  hearen^onch'd  feathers  of  whose  sprightly  wings 
Skirts  (from  above)  the  palaces  of  kings. 

Dr^fUm.  TheOwL 
The  eagle  and  the  sloik 
On  difb  and  cedar  tops  their  ejfrtea  bi^ld. 

.  MiUon.  Paradim  Lott,  book  rii. 
I  shoald  discourse  on  the  brancher,  the  haggard, 
and  then  treat  of  theii  several  oyriM. 

WaikmU  Amfief. 

AYSCOUGH  (George  Edward),  only  son  of 
Dr.  Ayscoughf  dean  of  Bristol,  was  a  lieutenant 
in  the  guards.  He  wrote  Semiramis,  a  tragedy ; 
and  Letters  from  an  officer  in  the  guards  to  his 
friend  in  England ;  containing  some  accounts  of 
France  and  luly,  8vo.  1778.  He  died  October, 
1779. 

AYSCUE  (Sir  George),  a  gallant  English  ad- 
miral, descended  from  a  good  fiunilv  in  Lincoln- 
shire. He  was  knighted  by  Charles  I.,  which 
however  did  not  wiUihold  him  from  adhering  to 
the  parliament  in  the  civil  war :  he  was  by  them 
constituted  admiral  of  the  Irish  seas,  where  he 
did  great  service  to  the  protestant  interest,  and 
contributed  much  to  the  reduction  of  the  island. 


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in  1651  he  reduced  Bavfaedoes  and  Vii^nia, 
then  held  for  the  king,  to  the  obedience  of  die 
parliament ;  and  soon  after  the  Restoration  be- 
haved with  great  honor  in  the  war  with  the 
Dutch.  In  the  fanio\is  engaf^ement  in  the  be- 
ginning of  Jnne  1666,  when  Sir  George  was  ad- 
miral of  the  white  squadron,  his  ship,  the  Royal 
Prince,  ran  upon  Galloper  sand ;  where,  being 
surrounded  with  enemies,  h}s  men  obliged  him 
to  stnke.  He  went  no  more  to  sea  aJfter  this, 
but  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  retirement. 

AYSEAUX,  a  castle  and  marquisate  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  Hainault,  on  the  Dender. 

AYSERIUS,  or  Asserius.    See  Assbr. 

AYTONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mona- 
delpUa  order,  and  the  pentandria  class  of  plants ; 
the  characters  of  which  are :  the  calvx  is  quin- 

SuepartHe ;  the  corolla  consists  of  four  petals ; 
ie  berry  is  dry,  quadrangular,  unilocular,  and 
many  seeded.  There  ts  but  one  species,  viz. 
A.  Capemis,  a  native  of  the  Cape. 

AYUTLA,  a  river  of  South  America,  in  the 
proviace  of  Guatimala,  which  flows  into  the 
Pacific  Ocean.    Lat.  14*»55'N. 
J  AZAB,  a  place  on  the  coast  of  Abyssinia,  in 

lat.  13*  N.,  where  Bruce  says  *he  found  the  re- 
mains of  a  very  ancient  aqueduct.'  He  supposes 
it  to  be  the  Sabe  of  Strabo ;  and  the  countiy  of 
J  the  Sabsi  so  fimious  for  their  mvrrh  and  frankin- 
cense. *  Those  gums,'  he  adds, '  are  still  pro-^ 
duced  io  the  neighbourhood.*  Behind  are  pits 
of  rock  salt,  whence  the  pieces  used  as  coin  by 
^  the  AbyssiniansRre  extracted.    See  firu^e,  vol.  i. 

Strabo,  xvi.     DM,  iii. 

AiAB,  in  the  Turkish  armies,  a  distinct  body 

of  soldiery  who  are  great  rivals  of  the  J  anissaries. 

\   ^      in  the  oriental  languages  the  word  signifies  an 

[   '      unmarried  person;  the  original  rule  being — ^that 

this  corps  should  be  composed  of  single  men. 
^  AZAB£  Kaberi,  from  kaber,  sepulchre,  and 

«zab,  torment,  denotes  a  temporary  punishment, 
which,  as  the  Mahommedans  say,  the  wicked 
must  suffer  after  death.  Their  crimes  are  hereby 
expiated,  and  Mahomet  opens  the  gate  of  Paradise 
to  all  who  believe  in  him. 

AZALDUS,  in  old  law  Latin,  a  sorry  horse. 
AZALEA,     AiiBRiCjaN     17PRI0BT    Honet- 
BUCKLE,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and 
pentandria  class  of  plants ;  ranking,  in  the  natural 
method,  under  the  eighteenth  order,  bicomes. 
The  corolla  is  bell-shaped ;  the  stamina  are  in- 
serted into  the  receptacle ;  and  the  capsule  has 
iive  cells.    Th%re  are  six  species,  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  are  the  following:  1.  A.  nudi- 
flora,  or  red  American  upright  honeysuckle, 
grows  taller  than  the  visoosa,  and  in  its  native 
country  will  sometimes  arrive  at  the  height  of 
twelve  feet,  but  in  Britain  never  rises  to  above 
half  that  height    It  has  several  stems  with  ob-. 
long  smooth  leaves.    2.  A.  rubriflora,  a  species 
with  bright  red  flowers,  was  found  by  Mr.  Light- 
foot  upon  the  tops  of  ^many  mountains  in  the 
Iligfahuids  of  Scotland.    3.  A.  viscosa,  with  a 
white  flower,  is  a  low  shrub,  arising  with  several 
stems  to  the  height  of  two  or  three  feet    The 
leaves  come  out  in  clusters  without  any  order  at 
the  end  of  the  shoots,  and  their  edges  are  set 
with  very  short  teeth  which  are  rough.    The 
flowers  come  out  in  clusters  between  the  leaves, 


of  honeysncke,  and 


have  mwsh  the  apn 
are  as  well  acentea 

AZAMOR,  a  small  sea^rttown  of  the  king- 
dom of  Morocco  in  Africa.  It  is  situated  on  the  rivei 
Morbeya,  in  the  province  of  Duq^aella,  at  some 
considerable  distance  fix)m  its  moutn.  This  town, 
though  formerly  very  considerable,  is  obstructed 
in  its  maritime  commerce  by  the  dangerous  en- 
trance of  the  river.  It  was  unsuccessfully  be- 
sieged by  the  Portuguese  in  1508 ;  it  was  taken 
however,  in  1513,  by  the  duke  of  Braganza,  but 
abandoned  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
iury.  Mr.  Jackson  calculates  its  population  at 
1000.    It  is  eighty  miles  north  of  Morocco. 

AZARAD£0,  a  sea-port  town  of  Brasil,  in 
the  bay  of  Spiritu  Santo.  Long.  60''  lO'  W. 
lat.  20^18' S. 
AZARAKIT£S,asect  of  Mahommedan  Arabs 
AZARECAH,  a  sect  of  heretical  Mussulmans 
who  acknowledge  no  punishment,  temporal  or 
spiritual. 

AZARIAH;  from  nV,  and  n\  i.  e.  the  help 
of  the  Lord ;  king  of  Judah.  See  Uzziah.  Also 
the  name  of  various  high  priests  and  princes  ot 
tlie  Jews. 

AZARIAS,  a  Jewish  rabbi  and  historian  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  1574  he  nublished  at 
Mantua,  in  Hebrew,  a  book  entitled  The  Light 
of  the  Eyes.  Many  historical  and  miscellaneous 
subjects  are  treated  of  in  this  work ;  and  it  con- 
tains a  Hebrew  version  of  the  letter  of  Aristeas 
on  the  Septuagint. 

AZARIST,  a  city  of  Rhieva,  on  the  river  Amo 
which  was  visited  by  the  English  factors  in  1741     . 
AZAROLA,  the  service  tree. 
AZARUM,  a  small,  dry,  blackish,  stringy, 
medicinal  root,  much  used  in  France  as  a  specific 
for  the  farcy  in  horses.    The  azarum,  called  also 
nardus  sylvestris,  grovrs  in  the  Levant,  Canada, 
and  about  Lyons  in  France.    The  first  is  reputed 
the  best     It  is  given  in  powder,  from  the 
quantity  of  one  oiyice  to  two. 

AZAY,  or  AsSAiE-LE-RiDEAU,  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Indre  and 
Loire,  situated  on  ue  Indre,  the  head  of  a  can- 
ton, with  a  castle,  and  1700  inliabitants.  It  was 
in  former  times  a  place  of  strength,  and  the  seat 
of  a  royal  governor.  Five  leagues  south-west  of 
Tours. 

Azit-svr-Cher,  a  town  in  France,  situated 
on  the  river  Cher,  and  belonging  to  the  arron- 
dissement  of  Toura,  in  the  department  of  the 
Indre  and  Loire.  Number  of  houses  above  230. 
Two  leagues  and  a  half  E.S.E.  of  Tours.  Many 
other  villages  and  hamlets  in  France  bear  this 
name. 

AZAZEL,  a  word  relating  to  the  institution 
of  the  scape-goat,  in  the  Jewi^  religion,  respect- 
.  ing  which  there  are  various  opinions.  St  Jerome 
and  Theodoret  call  the  goat  itself  by  this  name. 
Dr.  Spencer  says  the  scape-goat  was  to  be  sent 
to  Azazel,  by  which  is  meant  the  devil.  M.  le 
Clerc  translates  it  pnecipitium,  making  it  to  be 
that  steep  and  inaccessible  place  to  which  the 
goat  was  sent,  and  where  tt  was  supposed  to 
perish. 

AZED,  in  the  materia  medica,  a  name  given 
by  the  Arabian  writeis  to  a  kind  of  camphor, 
which  they  make  the  third  in  value,  placmg  it 


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after  die  alcaiuniri  and  abriagi.  The  fint  of  these 
was  the  finest  of  all  the  kinds  oi  camphor,  and 
was  collected  tolerably  pure  from  the  tree,  as  it 
grew  in  Cansnr,  the  place  whence  it  was  named. 
The  second  was  the  same  camphor,  rendered  yet 
monB  pure  by  sublimation ;  this  was  a  discovery 
of  one  of  the  kings  of  that  country,  and  the  cam- 
phor was  named  from  him.  The  third  kind,  or 
azed,  was  the  same  wiA  what  we  now  receive 
from  the  Indies,  under  the  name  of  crude  or 
rough  camphor.  The  word  azed  signifies  only 
large,  and  was  used  to  express  the  camphor 
formed  into  large  cakes.  Avicenna  savs  this 
camphor  was  gross,  of  a  dusky  color,  and  much 
less  Drigfat  and  pellucid  then  the  other  kinds. 

AZEDARA-vHy  or  Azeraoach,  in  botany, 
the  bead-tree. 

AZEEMABAD,  the  Mahommedan  name  of 
Patna,  which  see. 

AZEITAO,  a  town  in  Portuguese  Estrema- 
dura,  south  of  the  Tagus,  with  a  manu&cture  of 
chintz,  and  various  4ye-houses.  Population  2350. 
Fi>e  miles  N.N.  W.  of  Setuval. 

AZEKAH,  in  ancient  geography,  a  city  of  the 
Amorites,  in  the  lot  of  Judah ;  situated  between 
Eleutheropolis  and  Aelia ;  where  the  five  kings  of 
the  Amorites  and  their  army  were  destroyed  by  hail. 

AZELBURO,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  formerly 
called  Augusta  Acilia. 

AZELFQGE,  in  astronomy,  a  fixed  star  of  the 
second  magnitude,  in  the  swanV  tail. 

AZEM,  AsEU,  Assam,  or  Acbak,  a  country 
of  Asia,  north  of  Ava.    See  Assam. 

AZEMAFOR,  in  alchemy,  red  lead. 

AZEMECH,  the  Arabian  name  for  the  star, 
called  the  virgin's  spike. 

AZENAY,  a  town  of  France,  in  Poitou,  de- 
partment of  the  Vendee,  arrondiesement  of 
Sables  d'Olonne.  Population  3000.  Five 
leagues  north  of  Sables  aOlonne. 

AZERBIJAN,  or  AoEBBEiTZAN,  a  province 
of  Persia,  part  of  the  ancient  Media,  bounded 
by  Ghilan  and  the  Caspian  sea  on  t^e  east,  and 
on  the  west  by  Kurdistan  and  Armenia.  It  is 
separated  from  the  latter  by  theAraxcM,  and  from 
the  province  of  Irak  on  the  south,  by  Kizilozein, 
or  tJie  Golden  stream.  The  cUmate,  which  is 
ordinarily  temperate,  is  cold  in  winter,  and  se- 
verely felt  by  the  poorer  inhabitants,  from  the 
scaccity  of  fiiel.  Tne  provinee  is  watered  by  the 
two  rivers  already  named,  and  by  the  Jungatty, 
which  is  larger  man  either,  and  abounds  in  fish; 
the  Yesdian,  Agi,  and  other  lesser  streams.  On 
the  frontier  also  is  tiie  lake  Urumea,  which  is 
Salter  than  the  sea.  Its  minerals  are  lead,  cop- 
per, saltpetre,  and  sulphur ;  here  is  aUo  a  kind  of 
beautifiil  transparent  marble,  or  jasper,  which 
takes  the  highest  polish,  and  is  used  in  the  build- 
ings of  Tabriz,  Sniraz,  and  Ispahan,  under  the 
name  of  Tabriz  marble.  The  cultivation  of  the 
land,  which  consists  of  fine  undulating  eminences 
and  rich  valleys*  is  here  carried  on  chiefly  by  ir- 
rigation ;  the  oxen  axe  used  for  the  plough,  and 
the  best  soU  yields  from  fifty  to  sixty  fold.  Most 
of  the  villages  are  surroun<ted  with  orchards  and 
gardens,  which  produce  fruit  of  almost  every 
descnption.  A  considerable  quantity  of  wine 
is  made;  Vkd  provisions  are  cheap  and  abundant. 


The  name  of  this  province  is  said  to  signify  tbe 
country  of  fire,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
derived  firmn  the  number  of  fire  temples  of  the 
Guebres.  It  is  divided  into  twelve  districts, 
in  which  are  several  cities  and  towns  of  im- 
poftance,  as  Tabriz,  or  Tauris,  the  capital,  ood- 
taining  30,000  inhabitants,  Urumea,  Shebuster, 
and  Maragah. 

AZERGUE,  Bahb^bl,  or  the  Blue  River, 
the  principal  stream  of  Abyssinia,  which,  rising 
in  tne  kingdom  of  Gojam,  passes  through  the 
lake  of  Dmbea,  and,  after  a  winding  coarse 
through  Abyssinia  and  Sennaar,  falls  into  the 
Nile  above  Gerri.  Travellers  described  it  as  the 
principal  branch  of  the  Nile,  till  D'Anville 
showed  that  this  distinction  belonged  to  the 
Bahr-eUAbiad. 

AZEVEDO  (Ignathis),  a  Portuguese  Jesuit, 
bom  iu  1527.  He  was  heir  to  a  huidsome  for- 
tune, but  turned  his  bade  upon  it  for  a  religious 
life,  and  went  as  a  missionary  to.  India.  In 
1570  he  was  going  out  a  second  time,  when  the 
ship  was  taken  by  pirates,  who  kilied  all  the 
missionaries,  about  forty  in  number. 

AZIMEN,  in  astrology,  certain  degrees  in  the 
zodiac,  wludi,  when  they  axe  ascendant,  persons 
bom  under  them  ate  said  to  be  afflictM  with 
lameness,  or  some  other  imperfection. 

AZIMUTH,  in  astronomy,  an  arch  of  the 
horizon,  intercepted  between  the  meridian  of  the 
place  and  the  azimuth,  or  vertical  cirde  passing 
through  the  centre  of  the  object,  which  is  equal 
to  the  angle  of  the  zenith,  formed  by  the  meridian 
and  vertical  circle.  It  is  found  by  this  propor- 
tion :  As  the  radius  to  the  tangent  of  the  tatitade 
of  the  place,  so  is  the  tangent  of  the  sun's  or 
star's  altitude,  for  histance,  to  the  coaiiie  of  the 
azimuA  from  the  south,  at  the  time  of  the 
equinox. 

Azimuth  Circles  are  represented  by  the 
rhumbs  on  common  sea  charts,  and  on  the  globe 
they  are  represrated  by  the  quadrant  of  altitude^ 
when  screwed  in  the  zenith.  On  these  azimuths 
is  reckoned  the  height  of  the  stars  aod  of  the  sun 
when  not  in  the  meridian. 

Azimuth  Compass,  an  instrument  for  finding 
either  the  magnetical  azimuth  or  amplitude  c^ 
an  heavenly  object.  The  learned  Dr.  Knight 
invented  soine  time  ago  a  very  aiecnrate  and 
usefid  searcompass,  which  is  at  present  used 
in  the  navy,  and  will  be  found  described  under 
the  article  Compass.  This  instrnment,  with  the 
following  contrivance  added  by  the  ingenions  Mr. 
Smeaton,  answers  the  purposes  of  an  ar^miith  and 
amplitude  oompaas.  The  cover  of  Ihe  wooden 
box  being  taken  off,  the  compass  is  in  a  condition 
to  be  made  useof  in  the  binnacle,  when  die  wear 
ther  is  moderalc ;  but  if  the  sea  runs  high,  as  the 
inner  box  is  hung  very  free  upon  its  centre,  the 
better  to  answer  its  other  purposes,  it  vrill  be  ne- 
cessary to  slacken  the  milled  nut,  placed  upon  one 
of  the  axes  that  support  the  ring,  and  to  lighten 
the  nut  on  the  outside  that  corresponds  to  it.  By 
this  means,  the  inner  box  and  ring  will  be  lifted 
up  from  the  edges  upon  which  they  rest  when 
fiee,  and  the  friction  will  be  increased,  and  that 
to  any  degree  necessary  to  prevent  the  too  gieaf 
vibrations  which  otherwise  would  be  oocasiooed 


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by  the  motton  of  the  ship.  To  make  die  com- 
pm  uMfiil  in  taking  the  magnetic  aztnrath  or  am- 
plitude of  the  sun  and  stars,  as  also  the  beariiigs 
of  headlands,  ships,  and  other  objects  at  a  dis- 
tance, the  brass  edge,  designed  at  first  to  su|^M>rt 
the  card,  and  throw  the  weight  thereof  as  near 
Ifae  drcnmference  as  possible,  is  itself  divided  into 
degrees  and  halves,  which  mar^be  easily  estimated 
into  smaller  parts  if  necessaiy.  The  divisions  are 
determined  by  means  of  a  catgut  line,  stretched 
perpendicalarly  with  the  box,  as  near  the  brass 
«dge  as  may  be,  that  the-  pa^laz,  arising  from  a 
different  position  of  the  ooserver,  may  be  as  little 
is  possible.  Underneath  the  card  tf  e  two  small 
weights,  stidmg  on  two  wires,  plaoed  at  right  an- 
gles to  eadi  other;  which  being  moved  nearer  to, 
or  fiother  firom^  the  oentre,  counterbalsmce  the 
dipping  of  die  Card  in  different  latitudes,  or  re- 
store die  equilibrium  of  it  where  it  happens  W 
any  odier  means  to  be  too  much  out  of  level. 
There  is  also  added  an  index  at  the  top  of  the  inr- 
ner  box,  which  maybe  put  on  and  taken  off  at 
pleasure ;  and  serve  for  all  altitudes  of  the  object 
It  oon«sts  of  a  bar,  equal  in  length  to  the  diame- 
ter of  the  inner  box,  eadi  end  being  furnished 
with  a  peroendicular  stile,  with  a  slit  parallel  to 
the  sides  tneieof :  one  of  the  slits  is  narrow,  to 
which  the  eye  is  applied ;  and  the  other  is  wider, 
with  a  smau  catgut  stretdied  up  the  middle  of  it, 
and  &om  thence  to  die  ton  of  the  other.  There  is 
also  a  Ime  drawn  along  me  upper  snr&ce  of  the 
bar.  These  four,  viz.  the  narrow  sht,  the  horizon- 
tal catgut  thread,  the  perpendicular  one,  and  die 
line  on  the  bar,  are  in  the  same  plane  which  dis- 
poses itself  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  when 
the  inner  box  is  at  rest  and  hangs  free.  Tliis  in- 
dex does  not  move  round,  but  is  always  placed 
on' so  as  to  answer  the  same  side  of  the  box. 
When  the  sun's  azimuth  is  desired,  and  his  rays 
are  strong  enough  to  cast  a  shadow,  turn  about 
the  wooden  box  till  the  shadow  of  the  horizontal 
thread,  or,  if  die  sun  be  too  low,  till  that  of  the 
perpendicular  thread,  in  one  stile,  or  the  light 
through  the  slit  on  the  other,  ialls  upon  the  line 
in  the  index  bar,  or^brates  to  an  equal  distalice 
on  each  side  of  it,  gendy  touching  the  box  if  it 
vibrates  too  &r :  observe,  at  the  same  time,  the 
degree  marked  upon  the  brass  edge  by  the  catgut 
line.  In  counting  the  degree  for  die  azimuth,  or 
any  other  angle  that  is  reckoned  from  the  meri- 
dian, make  use  of  the  outward  circle  of  figures 
upon  the  brass  edge ;  and  the  situation  of  theindex 
bar,  with  regard  to  the  card  and  needle,  will  al- 
ways direct  upon  what  <)uarter  of  the  compass  the 
object  is  placed.  But  if  the  sun  does  not  shine 
out  sufficiently  strong,  place  the  eye  behmd  the 
narrow  slit  in  one  of  the  stiles,  and  turn  the  wooden 
box  about,  till  some  part  of  the  horizontal  or  per- 
pendicular thread  appears  to  intersect  the  centre 
of  the  sun,  or  vibrate  to  an  equal  distance  on  each 
side  of  it,  using  smoked  glass  next  the  eye  if  the 
tun's  light  is  too  strong.  In  this  method  another 
observer  will  be  generally  necessary,  to  note  the 
degree  cut  by  the  nonius,  at  the  same  time  that 
the  first  gives  liotice  that  the  diread  appears  to 
split  the  object.  The  other  observations  will  be 
easily  performed :  only,  in  case  of  the  sun's  am- 
phtude,  take  care  to  number  the  degree  by  the 
Mp  of  the  inner  circle  of  figures  on  the  card, 


which  are  the  complement  of  the  outer  to  90* ; 
and,  consequendy,  show  the  distance  from  east 
to  west  The  azimuth  of  the  stars  may  also  be 
bbserved  by  night ;  a  proper  light  serving  equally 
fi)r  one  observer  to  see  tae  tbread,  and  the  other 
the  degree  upon  the  card.  It  may  not  be  amiss 
to  remark  farther,  that  in  case  the  inner  dox 
should  lose  its  equilibrium,  and  consequendy  the 
index  be  out  of  the  plane  of  a  vertical  circle,  an 
accurate  observation  may  still  be  made,  provided 
the  sun's  shadow  is  diiiinct ;  for,  by  observing 
first  with  one  end  of  die  index  tovrards  the  sun, 
send  then  the  other,  a  mean  of  the  two  obser- 
vations will  be  the  tnidi. 
-  AziifftJTH  Dial,  a  d^al  whose  gnomon  is  per- 
pendiouiar  to  the  plane  of  the  horizon. 

AziwuTH,  Macketical,  an  arch  of  the  ho- 
rizon intercepted  between  the  azimuth,  or  veiv> 
tical  circle,  passing  through  the  centre  of  any 
heavenly  body,  ami  the  magnetical  meridian. 
This  is  found  by  observing  the  object  with  an  azi^ 
muth  compass. 

AZINCOURT,or  AoiNootTET.  See  AoiKcorRT* 

AZLEEL,  the  name  of  an  angel  mentioned 
in  die  book  ascribed  to  £noch. 

AZM UT,  or  Asmxts,  an  ancient  and  large 
town  of  Matolta,  eighty-ibur  miles  south-east  of 
Scutari.    It  is  inhabited  by  Greek  christians. 

AZO,  a  town  of  Asia  in  die  East  Inijies,  seated 
on  the  frontiers  of  Azem,  on  die  river  Laquia. 

Azo  I.  and  II.  earls  of  Estein  Italy,  in  the 
tenth  eentury.  They  claimed  their  descent  from 
the  .Accii,  a  patrician  fiunily  of  ancient  Rome 
Their  posteri^  setding  afterwards  in  Germany, 
eave  nse  to  the  illustrious  house  of  Brunswick ; 
from  which  that  of  Hanover  and  the  present  royal 
IhralWDf  Great  Britain  are  lineally  descended. 

Azof,  or  Azov,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Rus- 
sia, in  the  government  of  Yekatorinoslsrifi',  at  die 
moUdiof  die  Don;  lit. 46**  53' N.,^ long.  39''  14' 
£.  When  Dr.  Clarke  saw  it  in  1800,  it  did  not 
contain  more  than  fifty  houses ;  the  garrisofi  con- 
sisted  of  a  few  wom»out  invalids,  ami  the  works 
were  abandoned  to  decay.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
swamp ;  and  the  interior  of  the  country  is  a  barren 
desert.  It  was  anciendy  a  considerable  port/ 
but  the  waters  of  the  bay  have  been  diminishing 
for  many  years.  Tanai's  is  mentioned  by  Strebo, 
as  a  settlement  of  the  Bosporani,  l)Ut  Dr.  Clarke 
could  iind  no  trace  of  the  aiioient  town  n^ar  the 
Bite  of  Azov,  and  supposes  it  must  have  been  fit 
the  embouchete  of  the  Danaetz  or  northern  arm 
of  the  Don.  Its  ancient  history  is  very  obscure ; 
but  it  passed  from  the  Polovties  to  the  Geno- 
ese, who  called  it  la  Tana;  was  wrested  from 
them  by  Tamerlane  in  1392;  and  possessed, 
after  his  deoease,  by  the  kh&ns  ot  the  Krim  till 
1471,  when  it  iett  into  the  hands  of  the  Tutks. 
Peter  the  Great  took  it  by  assault,  and  laid  out 
large  sums  upon  improving  its  fortifications,  but 
was  obliged  to  give  it  up  at  the  peace  of  1  Til. 
Thefortifications  were  demolished,  in  compliance 
with  the  terms  made  at  the  peace  of  Belgrade  in 
1739;  but  it  was  finally  ceded  to  RuMa  ir 
1774. 

The  sea  of  Azof,  named  from  the  above  town, 
was  the  Palus  Meotis  of  the  ancients,  and  the 
Mar  de  Zabacchi  of  the  middle  ages.  It  is  210 
miles  long,  and  about  fifty  broad ;  diougb  pro- 


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perly  only  a  bav  of  the  Black  sea,  with  whidi 
It  is  united  by  the  straiu  of  Ca£&  (Keffeh).  Its 
principal  port  is  Taganrok.  Its  fish  are  small, 
but  plentiful ;  so  that  60,000  are  often  taken  at 
one  draught.  This  sea  seems  to  be  gradually 
filling  up  with  the  alluTial  earth  brought  -down 
by  the  Don ;  and^  during  violent  east  winds,  the 
waters  are  driven  so  iar  back,  where  it  is  from 
thirteen  to  fourteen  miles  broad,  as  to  allow  a 
passage  over  the  sand  from  Jagan  Rock  to  the 
opposite  coast.  But  when  the  wind  changes  the 
water  flows  back  with  such  rapidity,  that  many  of 
those  who  have  attempted  to  cross  this  tempo- 
rary route  are  overwhelmed  by  the  letummg 
tide.  The  deepest  soundings  are  from  thirty- 
five  to  forty  feet.  The  whole  surface,  except  a 
portion  towards  the  centre,  freezes  during  about 
a  mo^th  in  winter.  A  new  island,  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  shore,  was  thrown  up  on  the  5th 
of  September,  1799,  with  phenomena  evidently 
Tolcanic. 

AZOGA  Ships,  are  those  Spanish  ships, com- 
monly called  the  quicksilver  ships,  from  their 
carrying  quicksilver  to  the  Spanisn  West  Indies, 
to  extract  the  silver  out  of  the  mines  of  Mexico 
and  Peru.  These  ship  are  prohibited  to  carry 
any  goods  except  for  the  king  of  Spain. 

AZOGUES,  a  town  of  Quito,  South  America, 
ten  miles  north-east  of  Cuenza. 

AZOIXJ.    See  Acelum. 

AZONI ;  from  a  privative,  and  Coyif,  country; 
in  mythology,  a  term  anciently  applied  to  such 
of  the  gods  as  were  not  the  private  divinities  of 
any  particular  country,  but  were  acknowledged 
in  every  country,  and  worshipped  by  every  nation. 
They  were  superior  to  the  gods  called  zonsi, 
who  were  supposed  to  inhabit  particular  parts  of 
the  world,  ana  never  to  stir  out  of  the  district  or 
zone  that  was  assigned  them.  Such  in  Egypt 
were  Serapis,  Osiris,  and  Bacchus;  and  m 
Greece,  the  Sun,  Mars,  the  Moon  and  Pluto. 
They  were  called  by  the  Romans  dii  communes. 

AZOOPHAGCS.;  from  a,  (loov,  animal,  and 
fayw,  to  eat;  in  natural  history,  a  term  used  by 
authors  to  express  such  insects  or  animals  as  feed 
on  herbs,  never  eating  the  flesh  of  any  living 
creature. 

AZORES,  or  Western  Islands,  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  situated  between 
the  thirty-seventh  and  fortieth  degrees  of  latitude, 
and  about  800  miles  from  the  western  shore  of 
Portugal.  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  given 
to  them  on  their  first  discovery  by  the  Portu- 
guese, from  Aoor,  a  falcon,  on  account  of  the 
numerous  goshawks  which  they  found  there. 
They  have  also  sometimes  been  called  Terceras, 
from  the  principal  island.  The  Azores  still  be- 
long to  the  crown  of  Portugal,  and  are  considered 
as  forming  three  separate  ^clusters.  St.  Mary 
and  St.  Michael  lie  at  the  eastern  extremity ;  the 
five  inlands  of  Tercera,  Graciosa,  St.  George, 
Pico,  and  Fayal,  form  a  central  group ;  while 
Corvo  and  Flores  are  more  detached,  and  lie 
farther  north-west.  The  geographers  of  Arabia, 
in  the  middle  ages,  appear  to  nave  had  some 
knowledge  of  these  isUnds;  but  they  were  not 
known  to  Europeans  till  towards  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  Vander  Berg,  a  Flemish 
meichaaty  being  driven  by  contrary  winds  on 


these  shores,  and  intelligence  of  the  event  reach* 
ing  the  court  of  Lisbon,  an  expedition  was  fitted 
out  to  take  possession  of  them.  The  Flemings 
took  possession  of  Fayal,  where  traces  of  them 
are  still  visible.  When  Portugal  became  subject 
to  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1580,  these  islands  fell 
under  Spanish  control  till  the  duke  of  Braganza 
was  raised  to  the  throne  in  1640.  They  were 
now  for  a  long  period  much  neglected  by  the  home 
government ;  but  their  situation  being  most 
salubrious,  and  highly  favorable  to  commerce, 
they  encreased  and  prospered  spontaneously. 
Towns  and  cities  were  founded,  and  the  popular 
tion  rose  to  between  200,000  and  300,000. 

The  first  Portuguese  minister  whose  wisdom 
was  directed  to  the  fostering  of  these  islands  was 
Pombal ;  '  he  taught  the  Azoreans  that  they  might 
become  a  people,  and  Portugal  that  she  might 
cease  to  be  a  despot.    During  his  mission,  tbe 
blands  were  improved  by  his  authority,  adorned 
by  his  munificence,  and  extolled  by  his  praise.* 
But  the  liberal  administration  of  Pombal  was 
succeeded  by  a  sullen  and  bigoted  ministry,  com- 
posed of  the  most  (urious  churchmen.   A  cabinet 
BO  formed,  soon  destroyed  the  foundations  of  the 
rising  prosperity  which  had  been  laid  during  the 
former  administration.    The  islands  were  inun- 
dated with  bigoted  ecclesiastics ;  a  .circumstance 
which  was  attended  by  the  destruction  of  com- 
merce, the  extinction  of  arts  and  sciences,  and 
the  consequent  introduction  of  indigence  and 
barbarity.     'AH  the  island<i,'  says  a  late  his- 
torian, who  had  resided  in  the  country, '  are 
under  the  religious  dominion  of  a  sordid  and 
luxurious  priesthood,  and  subject  to  the  dvil 
control  of  a  licentious  military  power;  to  a 
government  which  condemns  the  country  to  a 
perpetual  state  of  ignorance  and  sloth,  and  which 
confines  the  whole  of  its  intercourse  with  the 
civilised  world  to  the  banks  of  the  T^gus,  or  the 
port  of  Lisbon.    For  the  last  hundred  and  fifty 
years,  the  peaceable  islanders  have  had  to  with- 
draw tlieir  eyes  fix)m  tlie  rest  of  the  world,  from 
every  general  public  care,  and  fix  them  steadily 
and  perpetually  on  the  court  of  Portugal.'  Such 
is,  and  such  has  long  been  the  gloomy  and 
miserable  state  of  political  degradation  in  which 
the  Azores  are  sunk.    The  spirit  of  the  people 
has  been  palsied  by  the  arbitrary  measures  of  the 
government;  yet  they  are  described  by  those 
who  have  been  resident  among  them,  as  an 
honest  race,  who  prefer  peace  to  conquest,  aod 
who  seek  distinction  in  mdustry  rather  than  in 
arms ;  as  '  an  innocent  people,  who  are  as  emi- 
nent in  the  humble  vale  of  domestic  life,  as  the 
hero  in  the  stormy  regions  of  blood  and  warfiue. 
Their  whole  happiness,  however,  consists  in  their 
domestic  and  personal  comforts,  for  country  they 
have  none.    They  have  no  common  principle  o! 
union ;  no  common  bond  of  action  ;  they  form  a 
community  not  insensible  to  the  ties  of  kindred, 
but  uncemented  by  national  feeling ;  a  political 
blank  in  themselves,  and  comparatively  useless 
to  the  parent  state.'    See  Hbtory  of  the  Azores, 
London,  1813. 

Ia  1591  these  islands  were,  for  twelve  succes- 
sive days,  shaken  by  violent  concussions^  and 
the  Villa  Franca  entirely  destroyed.  A  similar 
occurrence   took    place  in  1757.     There  caa 


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indeed  be  litUe  doubt  of  their  volcuiic  origiD, 
and  deep  subterranean  connexion  with  very 
active  volcanoes.  New  islands  have  frequendy 
been  raised  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  by  the 
power  of  volcanic  action.  In  1720  one  of 
these  phenomena  took  place,  on  approaching 
which,  the  next  day,  an  English  captain  observes, 
'we  made  an  island  of  fire  and  smoke;  the 
ashes  fell  on  our  deck  like  hail  and  snow,  the 
fire  and  smoke  roared  like  thunder  or  great 
guns.'  Another  instance  of  this  kind  happened  in 
1811,  near  the  western  extremity  of  St.  Michael, 
when  flames  were  seen  issuing  from  the  sea, 
accompanied  by  volumes  of  smoke  and  showers 
of  scoria  and  ashes.  The  rocks  remained  just 
below  the  surface,  with  the  waves  dashing  vio- 
lently over  them,  and  soundings  of  80  fathoms, 
were  found  almost  close  to  the  new  island.  The 
presence  of  subterraneous  fire  is  also  indicated 
oy  its  effect  on  numerous  springs  throughout  the 
islands.  Some  of  these  are  so  hot,  that  they 
bum  the  hand.  ^  These  have  of  late  been  con- 
siderably resorted  to  as  warm  baths,  which  they 
answer  the  more  conveniently,  as  a  cold  spring 
is  always  at  hand.  In  other  places,  boiling 
fountains  rise  to  a  considerable  height,  and  dis- 
solve in  vapor. 

The  Azores  are  discovered  from^  a  great  dis- 
tance, by  a  high  mountain  called  the  Pico,  or 
peak,  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  pesJc  of 
Teneriffe,  and  rising  about  7000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  ocean.  Their  whole  appearance  is 
mountainous,  but  many  delightful  and  fertile 
valleys  separate  the  rounded  and  conical  hills,  of 
of  which  the  greater  part  of  their  surface  is  com- 
posed. The  islands  are  subject  to  violent  winds, 
and  the.fury  of  the  waves  is  sometimes  injurious 
to  the  low  grounds  near  the  sea.  Wheat,  bar- 
ley, Indian  com,  and  valuable  woods  are  pro- 
duced; but  their  chief  produce  is 'wine  and 
fruits,  both  of  which  are  exported  in  large 
quantities.  The  wine  has  some  resemblance  to 
Madeira,  but  is  inferior  in  quality.  The  oranges 
are  much  esteemed. 

The  best  vines  are  raised  on  the  lofty  sides  of 
the  Pico,  from  which  wine  is  made,  and  exported 
through  Faya),  by  which  name  it  is  known.  It 
b  decidedly  inferior  to  Madeira,  but  being  50 
per  cent,  cheaper,  obtains  a  considerable  sale. 

Pico  exports  a  fine  species  of  wood,  little  in- 
ferior to  mahogany.  The  trade  was  formerly 
cramped,  by  being  carried  on  through  the  medium 
of  Portugal ;  but,  since  the  emigration  of  the 
court,  the  inhabitants  have  begun  to  traffic  di- 
.  recUy  with  England  and  America ;  a  circumsUnce 
that  has  much  invigorated  this  commerce. 

Angra,  the  chief  town  of  Terceras,  is  the  seat 
of  government :  but  Pen^  del  Gada,  or  the  city 
of  St  Michael,  is  the  largest  town  of  the  islands, 
and  the  seat  of  the  bishop  and  principal  eccle- 
siastical authorities. 

Azores  is  also  the  name  of  a  small  group  of 
islands  of  the  Atiantic,  north  of  St  Domingo. 

AZORIUM,  in  old  law  Latin,  azure. 

HZCfTE;  firom  a,  privative,  and  Kam,  I  live; 
a  name  eiven  by  the  French  chemists  to  a  species 
of  air  which  is  destractive  of  animal  life ;  not 
fitted  for  respiration,  it  is  also  incapable  of  sup- 
poiting  oombusUoD.    It  is  said  to  form  about 


fi>ur-fifU)s  of  our  atmosphere ;  but  being  there 
mixed  with  the  remaining  fifi^  of  another  air, 
having  properties  the  reverse  of  its  own,  it  be- 
comes suited  to  our  existence.  See  Gas  Ni- 
trogen. 

AZOTH,  in  ancient  chemistryithe  first  matter 
of  metals,  or  the  mercury  of  a  metal ;  more  par- 
ticularly that  which  alchemists  call  the  mercury 
of  philosophers  which  they  pretended  to  draw  from 
all  sorts  of  metallic  bodies. 

AzoTH  is  also  a  name  given  to  the  philosopher's 
stone.  When  the  Arabs  began  to  study  che- 
mistry, their  metaphorical  and  hieroglyphical 
manner  of  writing  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  a 
practice  of  calling  the  means  made  use  of  for 
brining  metals  to  perfection,  by  the  name  of 
medicines,  and  imperfect  metals  by  the  name  of 
sick  men,  and  gold  by  that  of  a  sound  and  lively 
person.  Hence  it  was  supposed,  that  these  were 
to  be  understood  literally,  especially  upon  find- 
ing the  impurities  of  the  baser  metals  called 
by  the  name  of  leprosies;  and  hence  rose  the 
opinion,  that  the  imperfect  metals  might  be 
turned  into  gold,  and  the  bodies  of  such  men 
into  sound  ones,  by  the  same  preparation ! 

AzoTH,  AzoTus,  or  Ashdod,  one  of  the  five 
cities  of  the  Philistines,  and  a  celebrated  sea-port 
on  the  Mediterranean,  situated  about  fourteen  or 
fifteen  miles  south  of  Ekroo,  between  that  and 
Ascalon.  It  was  in  this  city  that  the  idol  Dagon 
fell  down  before  the  ark ;  and  so  strong  a  place 
was  it,  if  we  may  believe  Herodotus,  that  it  sus- 
tained a  siege  of  twenty-nine  years  by  Psaramiti- 
cus  king  of  Egypt  It  was,  however,  taken  by 
the  Maccabees  m  a  much  shorter  time ;  who 
burnt  both  city  and  temple,  and  with  them  about 
8000  men.  The  town  is  now  called  by  the  Arabs 
Hasaneyan.  It  is  but  thinly  inhabited,  though 
the  situation  is' very  pleasant.  With  regard  to  the 
houses,  those  that  were  built  iu  the  time  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  which  are  now  inhabited  by  Mahom- 
medans,  still  preserve  some  claim  to  admiration ; 
but  the  modem  buildings,  tjiough  generally  of 
stone,  have  nothing  in  them  which  can  attract  the 
notice  of  a  traveller.  The  streets  are  pretty  broad, 
the  inhabitants  mostiy  Mahommedans,  with  a  few 
christians  of  the  Greek  communion,  who  have  a 
church  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishop  of 
Gaza.  The  town  is  about  a  mile  and  a  halt  in 
circumference ;  and  has  in  it  a  mosque,  a  public 
bath,  a  market-place,  and  two  inns.  The  num- 
ber of  the  inhabitants  is  between  2000  and  3000. 
The  most  remarkable  things  in  this  place  are  an 
old  stracture  with  fine  marble  pillars,  which  the 
inhabitants  say  was  the  house  that  Sampson 
pulled  down ;  and  to  the  south-east,  just  out  of 
the  town,  the  water  in  which  the  Ethiopian  eu- 
nuch was  baptized  by  the  evangelist  Philip. 
There  are  several  ancient  buildings  with  capitals 
and  pillars  standing. 

AZPEYTIA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Biscav,  canton  of  Guipuscoa,  on  the 
river  Urola.  To  this  place  belongs  the  village  of 
Loyola,  oiice  the  property  of  the  celebrated 
father  Ignatius  Loyola,  founder  of  the  order  of 
Jesuits. 

AZPILCUETA  (Martin),  sumamed  Navarre, 
was  born  at  Verasoa,  near  Parapeluna,  in  Spain, 
in  1494.    He  was  professor  of  hiw  in  several  uni« 


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versities,  aiid  died  at  Rome  in  1586.    IIu  worics 
were  printed  at  Lyons,  in  6  vok.  iblio,  1597. 

AZRAH-BEN-AREN,  a  town  of  the  Arabian 
Irak,  situated  on  the  river  Tigris,  fifteen  miles 
N.N.W.  of  Koma. 

AZUA,  a  small  town  on  the  south  side  of  the 
island  of  St.  Domingo,  seated  on  a  deep  bay. 

AZUBAH,  the  daughter  of  Shilhi  and  mother 
of  king  Jehoshaphat. 

AZUELA,  a  large  river  of  South  America,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Quito,  which  enters  theJlma- 
zons. 

AZUL,  a  river  of  Mexico,  in  the  country  of 
the  Appaches,  which  enters  the  Gila. 

AzuL,  Rio,  or  the  Blub  Rivbr^  a  river  of 
North  America,  in  California. 
AZUM,  a  port  of  Abyssinia  on  the  Red  Sea. 
AZTJRE,  ^  Fr.  oner ;  Ital.  agurro ;  from  the 
Az'uRED,  >  Arabic  haztdy  the  name  of  a  stone 
Az'uRN.  J  brilliantly  blue,  bmt  not  transpa- 
rent; sky-«olored  blue. 

And  on  hit  shield  enueloped  ftenenfold» 
He  bore  &  crowned  little  ernulin. 
That  deckt  the  asure  field  wilh  her  faire  pooldred  skin. 
Spenter't  Faerie  Queene,  book  hi.  c  2. 
By  whose  aid 
(Weak  masters  though  ye  be)  I  have  bedimm'd 
The  noon-tide  sun,  call'd  forth  the  mutinous  winds. 
And  'twixt  the  green  sea  and  the  aimred  vault 
Set  roaring  war.  Shaktpean,  Tempeet. 

His  spear 
He  waUt  with,  to  snppoit  uneasie  steps 
Over  the  baming  marie,  not  like  thoee  steps 
On  heaven's  omirs.  MiUom,  Paradite  JUti. 

By  the  mshyi  fringed  bank. 
Where  grows  the  willow,  and  the  osier  dank. 

My  sliding  chariot  stays. 
Thick  set  with  agate,  and  Uxe  atntm  sheen 
Of  turkis  blue,  and  emerald  green. 
That  in  the  channel  strays.  Id,  Comau. 

As  when  the  moon,  refulgent  lamp  o£  night. 
O'er  heaven's  clear  atntni  spreads  her  saered  Ught ; 
When  not  a  breath  disturba  the  deep  sereae. 
And  not  a  eload  o'ercasts  the  solemn  scene  ; 
.« round  her  throne  the  vivid  planeta  roll. 
And  ataia  annombered  gild  the  glowing  polo^ 

Pope.  HoamU  lUad, 
How  many  bright 
And  splendid  lamps  shine  in  heaven's  temple  high. 
Day  hath  his  golden  sun,  her  moon  the  night. 
Her  fix'd  and  wand'ring  stars  the  asiun  sky. 

F<ttrfu*i  Trant.  Tam't  Jenu.  Ddh. 

Azure  Stone.  Azure,  among  painters,  which 
at  present  signifies  a  fine  blue  color  resembling 
that  of  the  skv,  was  formerly  appropriated  to  lapis 
lazuli ;  which  is  thus  defined :  Lustre  glistening : 
fine  grained,  uneven  fracture.  It  scratches  glass, 
but  scarcely  strikes  fire  with  steel.  Opaque,  or 
translucent  on  the  very  edges.  Easily  broken. 
Specific  gravity  2*85.  In  a  very  strong  heat  it 
intumesces,  and  melts  into  a  yellowish  black 
mass.  After  calcination  it  forms  a  jelly  with 
acids.  Bv  a  late  and  most  interesting  research 
of  MM.  Cflement  and  Desormes,  it  appears  to  be 
composed  of  thirty-four  silica,  thir^-three  alu- 
mina, three  sulphur,  and  twenty-two  soda.  (Ann. 
de  Chimie,  tom.  57.)  In  tliis  analysis,  however, 
a  loss  of  eight  per  cent,  was  experienced.  These 
chemists  consider  the  abote  ingredients  essential, 
and  die  24  of  lime,  and  1*5  of  iron,  which  they 
have  occasionally  met  with,  as  accidental.    The 


best  specimens  are  from  China,  Persia*  And 
Great  Uucharia.  They  are  made  red-hot  in  fiie 
fire,  and  thrown  into  water  to  render  them  pul- 
verisable.  They  are  then  reduced  to  4  fine  pow- 
der, and  intimately  combined  with  a  varnish, 
formed  of  resin,  wax,  and  boiled  linseed  oil 
This  pasty  mixture  is  put  into  a  linen  clodi,  and 
repeatedly  kneaded  witti  hot  water :  the  first  wa- 
ter, which  is  usually  dirty,  is  thrown  away ;  the 
second  gives  a  blue  of  the  first  quality ;  and  the 
thifd  yields  one  of  less  value.  The.  process  is 
founded  on  the  property  which  the  coloring 
matter  of  azure-stone  has  of  adhering  less  firmly 
to  the  resinous  cement,  than  the  foreign  matter 
with  which  it  is.  a:isociated.  When  azure-stone 
has  its  color. altered  by  a  moderate  heat,  it  is 
reckoned  bad.  MM.  Clement  and  Desormes 
consider  the  extraction  of  ultramarine  as  a  spe- 
cies of  saponification. 

Azure,  in  heraldry,  the  blue  color  in  the 
arms  of  any  person  below  the  rank  of  a  baron. 
In  the  escutcneon  of  a  nobleman,  it  is  called  sap- 
phire ;  and  in  that  of  a  soverei^  prince,  Jupi- 
ter. In  engraving,  this  color  is  expressed  oy 
lines  or  strokes  drawn  horizontally.  M.  Upton 
and  his  followers  rank  this  color  before  gules. 
This  color  may  signify  justice,  perseverance,  and 
vigilance ;  but  according  to  G.  Leigh,  when  it 
is  compounded  with 


Or 

Arg. 
Gul. 
Ver. 
Pur. 
Sab. 


{Cheerfulness. 
Vigilance. 
Readiness. 
Enterprise. 
Goodness. 
Moomfulness. 


AZUREA,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  ohry- 
ganea,  with  black  wings,  violet  behind.  lixm. 
The  lower  wings  are  obliquely  violet.  It  inha- 
bits the  north  of  Europe.  Abo,  in  zoology,  a 
species  of  lacerta  that  inhabits  Africa. 

AZUREUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  can- 
bus,  of  an  azure  color,  with  red  legs  and  anten- 
na. It  inhabits  Leipsic.  Fabricius.  2.  A  spe- 
cies of  cimex,  of  a  imddle  size ;  dull  green  color ; 
and  yellowish  mouth  and  legs.  Inhabiting  Guinea. 
The  abdomen  is  yellowish,  with  black  dots  in  the 
middle. 

AZURIN,  in  ornithology,  a  name  assigned  by 
Bufibn,  Hist.  Ois.  to  the  species  of  turdus,  since 
called  specifically  cyanurus  by  Gmelin. 

AZURIT£,  m  mineralogy,  a  blue  substancei 
which  occurs  principally  in  Styria.  Its  crystal- 
line form,  as  well  as  some  other  of  its  other  cha- 
racters, distinguish  it  firom  lazulite,  or,  as  it  is 
more  commonly  termed,  lapis  lazuli,  of  which  at 
itsi  first  discovery,  it  was  regarded  as  a  variety. 

AZYGOS,  in  anatomv,a  vein  rising  within  the 
thorax,  on  the  riebt  side,  having  no  fellow  on 
the  left;  whence  it  is  called  dZvyoQ,  or  vena  sine 
pari.    See  Anatomy. 

AZYMA«  or  Azymes;  from  a  negative,  and 
Zvftti,  ferment;  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread 
among  the  Jews. 

AZ I  ME.  Gr.  alvuoQt  without  ferment ;  a,  the 
privative,  and  (v/«9,  torment. 

They  had  (they  said,  i.  e.  the  tranalaton  of  King 
James's  Bible)^  on  the  one  side,  avoided  the  scrapQ* 
losity  of  the  poritaaes^  who  left  the  old  eodesiastica 


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words  and  betook  'them  to  otbet ,  as  wken  they  put 
wMfaiag  ibr  baptum,  »ad  cangi«g«lSon  for  chveh  ; 
and  on  the  other  hand,  had  thonned  the  obecaritie 
of  the  papUtSFin  their  oMmm,  tiuuke»  lational,  holo- 
cauftu,  piepoce,  paache,  and  a  number  of  auch  like, 
whereof  their  late  tcanslation  was  foU,  and  that  of 
purpose  to  darken  the  sense,  that  since  they  must 
needs  translate  the  Bible,  yet  by  the  langoa^  diereof 
it  might  be  kept  from  being  understood. 

Pre^  «o  Kmff  Jameet  INMs . 
AzTME,  or  AzTBTus,  a  term  much  used  in 
the  controversies  between  the  Greek  and  Roman 
church ;  the  latter  of  whom  contend,  that  the 
bread  in  the  mass  ought  to  be  azymus,  unleaven- 
ed, in  imitation  of  the  paschal  bread  of  the  Jews, 
and  of  our  Saviour,  who  instituted  the  sacra- 
ment on  the  day  of  the  passover.  In  the  council 
of  Florence  it  was  decreed,  that  the  point  lay  at 
the  discretion  of  the  church;  and  that  either 
leavened  or  unleavened  bread  might  be  Used. 
The  Lutheran  church  uses  unleavened  bread  to 
this  day ;  and  a  respectable  modem  commenta- 
tor sa}^ :— '  If  any  respect  should  be  paid  to  the 
primitive  institution,  m  the  celebration  of  this 
divine  ordinance,  then  unleavened,  unyeasted, 
bread  should  be  used.  In  every  sign  or  tvpe, 
the  thing  signiiying  or  pointing  out  that  which 
is  beyond  itself,  should  either  have  certain  pro- 
perties, or  be  accompanied  with  certain  circum* 
stances,  as  expressive  as  possible,  of  the  thine 
signified.  Bread,  simply  considered  in  itself 
may  be  an  emblem  apt  enough  of  the  body  of 
our  Lord  Jesus,  whicn  was  given  for  us ;  but  the 
design  of  God  was  evidently  that  it  should  not 
only  point  out  this,  but  also  the  disposition  re- 
quired in  those  who  should  celebrate  both  the 
antetype  and  the  type ;  and  this  the  apostle  ex- 
plains to  be  sincen^  and  truth  (1  Cor.  v.  6 — 8), 
the  reverse  of  malice  and  wickedness.    The  very 


taste  of  the  bread  was  instructive ;  it  pointed  out 
to  every  communicant,  that  he  who  came  to  the 
table  of  God  with  malice  or  ill-will  against  any 
soul  of  man,  or  with  wickedness,  a  profligate  or 
sinful  life,  might  expect  to  eat  and  dripk  judg- 
ment tp  himself,  as  not  discerning  that  the  Lord's 
body  was  sacrificed  for  this  very  purpose,  that 
all  sin  might  be  destroyed,  and  tnat  sincerity 
cAucpiyaia,  such  purity  as  the  clearest  light  can 
discern  no  stain  in,  might  be  diffused  through 
the  whole  soul;  and  that  truth,  the  law  of 
ligbtepttsness  luad  true  holiness,  m^ht  regulate 
and  guide  aU  the  actions  of  life'. — Dr.  Adam 
Clarht  m  the  New  TeatametU. 

AZYMITES,  in  church  history,  christians 
who  administei:  the  eudiarist  with  unleavened 
bread.  This  appellation  is  given  to  the  Latin 
church  by  the  Greek,  because  the  members  of 
the  former  uaws  fermented  bread  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  eucharist.  They  also  call  the  Armi- 
niaas  and  Maconites  by  the  same  name,  and  for 
the  same  reason. 

AZYMOUS,  something  unfermented^or  made 
without  leaven,  as  unleavened  bread.  Sea  bis- 
cuit is  of  this  kind ;  and  therefore,  according  to 
Galen,  less  wholesome  than  bread  that  has  been 
fermented. 

AZZALUM,  in  the  ancient  physiology,  a  spe- 
cies of  iron,  reputed  the  most  excellent  of  all, 
supposed  to  have  been  brought  from  India, 
whence  it  was  called  Indicum;  but.  In  reality, 
according  to  some,  brought  from  China* 

AZZO  (Fortius),  an  Italian  lawyer,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Bologna,  where  he  was  chosen  professor 
of  jurispradence  in  1 190  He  wrote  a  work 
held  in  great  estimation,  entitled,  A  Summary  of 
the  Code  and  the  Institutes.  He  died  about 
1220. 


B. 


B,  the  second  letter  of  the  English  and  most 
other  alphabets.  It  is  the  first  consonant,  and 
first  mute,  and  its  pronunciation  is  supposed  to 
resemble  the  bleating  of  a  sheep. 

B  is  also  one  of  those  letters  which  the  eastern 
gramiDarians  call  labialf  because  the  principad 
oigans  employed  in  its  pronunciation  are  the  lips. 
It  is  pronounced  by  pressing  the  whole  length 
of  them  together,  and  forcing  them  open  with 
a  strong  breath.  It  has  a  near  affinity  with  the 
other  labials  P  and  V,  and  is  often  used  for  P, 
both  by  the  Armenians  and  other  Orientals,  as 
in  Betna  for  Petrut,  apteru  for  ahserUf  &c. ;  and 
by  the  Romans  for  V,  as  amabit  for  amavit,  hema 
for  vema 

As  a  numeral,  B  was  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Hebrews  to  denote  2 ;  but  among  the  Romans 
for  300,  and  with  a  dash  over  it  (thus  b  )  for 
3000. 

B,  is   also  an  abbreviation.     See  Abbbe- 

▼lATIOV. 


In  music  B  stands  for  the  tone  above  A;  as 
B^,  or  ^B,  does  for  B  flat,  or  the  semitone  major 
above.  A  B  also  stands  for  bass ;  and  B  C  for 
ha»to  continuo,  or  thorough  bass. 

BA,  a  small  sea-port  town  of  Africa  on  the  Slave 
coast,  where  the  Dutch  have  a  fectory. 

Ba,  a  river  of  Scotland,  in  Argyleshire. 

BAA-BA,  17.  n.  )     Lat;  baloy  to  crv  like  a 

Baa.  s,  ]  sheep.     The  bleating  of  a 

sheep. 

Therefore  then  art  a  sbeep  ; 

Such  another  proof  would  make  me  cxy  baa, 

Shahpean. 

Baadstbd,  or  Batsted,  a  sea-port  town  in  the 
province  of  Schonen,  Sweden,  situated  in  a  bay 
of  the  Cattegat,  ten  miles  north  of  Eneelholm, 
sixteen  souUi  of  Helmstadt  Long.  12^  45'  £., 
lat.  56°  28'  N. 

BAAGGE,  two  small  islands  in  the  Baltic  be- 
longing to  the  crown  of  Denmark » the  one  lying 
between  the  islands  of  Zealand,  l$Ioen.  and  Fal- 


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irter.  Long.  12*»  3'  E.,  lat.  54**  56'  N.  And  tlie 
other  in  the  Little  Belt*  Ion.  g"*  49'  £.,  lat.  55"* 
10'.  N. 

BAAL,  [Vs^a,  Lord,  Syr.]  Bel,  orBELUs; 
an  idol  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  Phoenicians,  or 
Canaanitea.  The  former  worshipped  Mars  un- 
der this  name,  according  to  Josephns:  who, 
speaking  of  Thurus,the  successor  oiNinus,says, 
'To  this  Mars,  the  Assyrians  erected  the  first 
statue,  and  worshipped  him  as  a  god,  calling  him 
Baal/  It  is  probable  from  what  is  recorded, 
2  Kings  xxiii,  5,  11,  that  the  Phoenicians  wor- 
shipped the  sun  under  the  name  of  Baal.  The 
temples  consecrated  to  this  god  are  called  in 
scripture  Chamanim,  which  signifies  places  •en- 
closed with  walls,  in  which  was  kept  a  perpetual 
fire.  Maundrel,  in  his  journey  from  Aleppo  to 
Jerusalem,  observed  some  traces  of  these  enclo- 
sures in  Syria.  As  the  word  baal,  in  the  Punic 
language,  signifies  lord  or  master,  it  doubtless 
meant  the  supreme  Deity,  the  Lord  and  Master 
of  the  universe.  It  is  often  joined  with  the  name 
of  some  ^se  god,  as  Baal-berith,  Baal-peor, 
Baal-zephon,  &c.  This  deity  passed  from  the 
Phoenicians  to  the  Carthaginians,  who  were  a 
colony  of  Phoenicians ;  as  appears  from  the  Car- 
thaginian names,  Hannibal,  Asdrubal,  &c.  accord- 
ing to  the  custom  of  the  east,  where  kings  and 
great  men  added  to  their  own  names  those  of 
their  gods.  This  deity  is  also  frequently  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  in  the  plural  number,  Ba«r 
lim:  which  may  signify,  either  that  the  name 
Baal  was  given  to  several  different  gods ;  or  that 
there  were  many  statues  bearing  different  appel- 
lations, consecrated  to  this  idol.  Amobius  tells 
us,  that  Baal  was  of  an  uncertain  sex ;  and  that 
bis  votaries,  when  they  called  upon  him,  invoked 
him  thus ;  '  Hear  us,  whether  thou  art  a  god  or  a 
goddess.'  Some  learned  men  think  that  Sie  Baal 
of  the  Phoenicians  is  the  Saturn  of  tiie  Greeks ; 
which  is  probable  from  the  conformity  there  is 
between  tne  human  sacrifices  offered  to  Saturn, 
and  those  which  the  scripture  tells  us  were  offer- 
ed to  Baal.  Others  are  of  opinion,  that  Baal 
was  the  Phoenician,  or  Tyrian  Hercules ;  a  god 
of  great  antiquity  in  Phoenicia. 

Baal.    See  Baalatq-beeb. 

BAALAH .  1 .  A  city  transferred  from  the  tribe 
of  Judah  to  the  Simeonites.  2.  The  original 
name  of  Kiijath-jearim,  in  Judah. 

BAALATH,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Dan. 

BAALATH-BEER,  or  Baal,  a  city  of  the 
Simeonites,  on  the  south-west  border. 

BAAL-BECK,  or  the  Valley  of  Baal,  a  fer- 
tile country  of  Asia,  between  Lebanon  and 
Antilibanus,  about  thirty  miles  firom  Damascus ; 
where  there  was  formerly  a  magnificent  temple 
of  the  sun,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  visible. 
Some  geographers  make  it  a  part,  and  others  the 
whole  of  Caek>  Syria ;  but  all  agree  that  it  was 
one  of  the  most  pleasant  spots  on  the  earth.  The 
ruins  of  the  temple  are  still  admired.  See  Balbec. 

BAAL-BERITH,  the  god  of  the  Shechemites. 
Bochart  conjectures  that  Berith  is  the  same  as 
Beroe,  the  daughter  of  .Venus  and  Adonis,  who 
was  nven  in  marriage  to  Bacchus ;  and  that  she 
gave  Der  name  to  the  city  of  Berith,  in  Phoenicia, 
and  became  afterwards  the  goddess  of  it.  Baal- 
berith  signifies  Lord  of  the  covenant,  and  may  be 


taken  fbr  the  god  who  presides  over  alliances 
and  oaths,  in  like  manner  as  the  Greeks  had  their 
ZtwopKutQf  and  the  Romans  their  Dens  Fidius, 
or  Jupiter  Pistius.  The  idolatrods  Israelites 
made  Baal-berith  their  god.  Judges  viii.  33. 
.  BAAL-GAD,  Bag  ad,  or  Begad,  in  ancieDt 
mythology,  an  idol  of  the  Syrians,  whose  name 
was  composed  of  baal,  lord,  and  gad,  chance  or 
fortime ;  the  god  of  chance  or  rortune.'  After 
the  god  of  thunder,  the  god  of  chance  was  one 
of  the  first  worshipped  by  mankind. 

BAAL-HAMON,  a  place  where  Solomon  had 
a  vineyard,  and  where  probably  he  sacrificed  to 
Baal,  in  his  dotage,  to  please  his  idolatrous  wives. 

BAAL-HANAN,  the  son  of  Achbor,  and  the 
seventh  king  of  the  Edomites.  From  his  name 
it  appears  probable  that  the  worship  of  Baal  had 
at  that  early  period  taken  place  anM»g  the  de- 
scendants of  Esau. 

BAAI^HAZOR,  a  city  near  Ephraim,  about 
eight  miles  north-east  of  Jerusalem,  between 
Bethel  and  Jericho.  In  this  city  Absalom  held 
his  treacherous  festival  for  murdering  liis  brother 
Amnou. 

BAAL-HERMON,  a  part  of  Mount  Hermon. 

BAALIM,  in  antiquity,  inferior  deities  among 
the  Phoenicians.    See  Baal. 

BAAUS,  a  king  of  the  Ammonites,  who  sent 
Ishmael,  the  son  of  Nethaniah,  to  murder  the 
brave  Gedaliah,  the  viceroy  appointed  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar over  the  remnant  ot  the  Jews,  whom 
he  had  left  in  Jerusalem.  (Jer.  xi«  17.)  For  this 
he  was  justly  punished  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who 
soon  aftct  invaded  hb  country,  and  reduced  it 
to  a  desert. 

BAAL-MEON,BeOH,  OrBETHBAAL-MEOK,a 

city  of  Canaan,  which  was  taken  firom  the  Amor- 
ites  and  given  to  the  Reubenites.  (Num.  xxxii. 
38.)  It  was  afterwards  taken  by  the  Moabites, 
and  at  last  destroyed  bv  the  Chaldeans.  It  had 
been  rebuilt,  however,  for  it  was  inhabited  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees. 

BAALrPEOR,  Baal-phegob,  or  Bel-phet 
GOR,  an  idol  of  the  Moabites  said  Midianites. 
We  are  told,  that  Israel  joined  himself  to  Baal- 
peor,  and  that  Solomon  erected  an  altar  to  this 
idol  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Baal-peor  has 
been  supposed  a  Priapus,  and  that  the  worship 
of  him  consisted  in  the  most  obscene  practices. 
Others  have  thought  that  as  Baal  is  a  general 
name  signifying  Lord,  Peor  may  be  the  name  of 
some  great  prince  deified  after  his  death.  Mede 
supposes,  that  Peor  being  the  name  of  a  moun- 
tain in  the  country  of  Moab,  on  which  die  tem- 
ple of  Baal  was  built,  Baal-peor  may  be  only 
another  n^e  of  that  deity,  taken  from  die  situ- 
ation of  his  temple ;  as  Jupiter  is  styled  Olym- 
pus, fi-om  his  temple  built  on  Mount  Olympus. 
Selden,  who  is  of  this  opinion,  conjectures  like- 
wise, Uiat  Baal-peor  is  the  same  with  Pluto; 
which  he  grounds  upon  these  words  of  the 
Psalmist,  Psal.  cvi.  *  They  joined  themselves 
unto  Baal-peor,  and  eat  the  offerings  of  the  dead ;' 
though  by  the  offerings  of  the  dead,  in  this  pas- 
sage, may  be  only  meant  sacrifices  made  to  idols, 
who  are  very  properly  called  the  dead,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  true,  who  is  justly  and  em- 
phatically styled  the  living,  God. 

BAAL-PERAZIM,  a  place  in  the  valley  of 


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B^phahny  about  three  miles  smith-west  of  Jeru- 
salem, Khere  David  routed  the  Philistines. 

BAAL*S-BAY,  and  Da4L's  River,  a  bav  and 
river  in  West  Greenland,  situated  between  Isear's 
Sound  and  Delft's  Point,  opposite  Hudson's 
Strait. 

BAAL-SHALISHA,  a  place  belonging  to  Sa> 
maria,  probably  near  GUgal,  the  birth  place  of  a 
prophet,  whose  name  is  not  recorded,  who,  in  a 
time  of  famine,  miraculously  fed  100  men  with 
twenty  barley  loaves.  See  2  Kings  iv.  42,  44. 
BAAL-TAMAR,  a  place  near  Gibeah,  where 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin  was  almost  extirpated  by 
the  other  eleven  tribes.    See  Judg.  xx.  33. 

BAALTIS,  a  goddess  among  the  Phfcniciaml*. 
Some  suppose  that  she  was  the  same  with  the 
Diana  of  tne  Greeks. 

BAAL-ZEBUB,  Beei^zebub,  or  Belzebub, 
[suf^S^S,  i.e.  the  lord  of  flies,]  the  idol,  or  god 
of  th^  Ekronites  -In  Scripture  he  is  called  the 
Prince  of  Devils.  His  name,  the  God-fly,  some 
think  was  a  mock  appellation  bestowed  on  him 
by  the  Jews.  But  this  seems  not  very  probable, 
as  his  worshipper,  Ahaziah,  called  nim  by  this 
name.  Perhaps  Beelaebub  tras  characterised  like 
the  god  Achor,  who  was  worshipped  at  Cyrene, 
as  the  preserver  from  flies.  He  had  a  &mous 
temple  and  oracle  at  £kron.  Ahaziah,  king  of 
Israel,  being  dangerously  hurt,  sent  to  this  deity 
to  enquire  if  he  should  be  cured.  The  Jews 
accuse  our  Saviour  of  driving  out  devils  in  the 
name  of  Beelzebub,  their  prince.  Scaliger  derives 
the  name  of  this  deity  from  Baalim-sebahim, 
which  signifies  the  lord  of  sacrifices. 

BAAL-ZEPHON  n  mentioned  in  Exodus 
xiv.  2,  as  opposite  to  Pihahiroth,  during  the 
peregrinations  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness ; 
but  whether  it  was  a  fortified  place,  built  to 
guard  the  frontier  of  Egypt,  at  the  north  point  of 
the  Red  Sea,  or  an  idol  erected  in  that  statin, 
commentators  are  not  agreed.  Perhaps  UHb 
parties  mav  be  right  An  idol  of  Baal  might  be 
set  up  in  tlie  fort,  which  would  naturally  take  its 
same  from  the  deity. 

BaAN  (John  d'),  a  Dutch  portrait  painter, 
bom  in  1^33,  and  died  in  1702.  He  resided 
some  time  in  Eagland,  under  the  patronage  of 
Charles  II.  His  son  James,  who  died  in  1700, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-seven,  was  little  inferior  to 
his  fether  in  portrait  painting,  and  superior  to 
him  in  some  other  branches. 

BAANITES,  the  followers  of  one  Baanes, 
who  adopted  and  disseminated  the  Manichean 
notions  in  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  sentury. 

BAAR,  mountains  in  the  duchy  of  Wirtera- 
bui^h,  which  are  a  pait  of  that  long  range  called 
Abenow,  or  Abneba. 

BAARAS,  Baharas,  or  Bacbaras,  an  ex- 
traordinary kind  of  root,  said  to  grow  in  the 
valley  of  Baaras,  near  Mount  Lebanon,  whence 
the  name.  By  the  account  which  Jose3[>hus  gives, 
it  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  vegetable  phosphorus ; 
for  he  represents  it  as  of  a  flame  color,  emitting 
rays  of  light  in  the  night,  and  disappearing  by  day. 
BAARD,  in  old  recoids,  a  transport  ship. 
BAART    (Peter),,  a    Dutch    poet   of  the 
eighteenth  century,  author  of  'Georgics,'  descri- 
bing«  the  niral  pleasures  and  occuptaions  of  his 
Vox..  III. 


countrymen,  and  of  a  poem  entitled  the  *  Triton 
of  Friesland.' 

BAASHA  NtrPS,  Heb. i.e.  pressing  together, 
the  son  of  Ahijah,  and  the  third  king  of  .Israel, 
after  its  separation  from  Judah ;  one  of  the  many 
monarchs  who  have  waded  through  blood  to  a 
throne.  I  Kings  xv.  and  xvi.  He  died  A.  M. 
3013,  in  the  twenty*fourth  year  of  his  reign. 

BAAT,  in  the  language  of  the  Siamese,  answer- 
ing to  tical  in  that  of  the  Chinese,  denotes  a 
weight  and  coin  current  in  those  kingdoms,  and 
weighs  about  half  an  ounce. 

BABA,  a  town,  district,  and  river  of  South 
America,  in  the  province  of  Guayaquil,  and 
kingdom  of  Quito.  The  district  is  twenty-two 
leagues  in  extent ;  it  abounds  in  cacoa ;  and  its 
population  amounts  to  4000  souls. 

Baba,  an  impostor,  who  appeared  among  the 
Turks  in  1240.  He  maintained  that  there  is  but 
one  God,  and  that  he  was  his  messenger.  He 
drew  considerable  attention,  and  vrith  a  number 
of  followers  overran  Natolia.  His  success,  how- 
ever, vras  short-lived,  for  he  was  defeated,  and 
his  sect  sunk  into  obscurity. 

BABA-DAGI,  or  Baba-tagh,  see  Babatagii. 

BABAHOYO,  a  town,  district,  and  river  of 
Soutli  America,  in  the  province  of  Guayaquil, 
and  kingdom  of  Quito,  in  lat.  1°  4r  S.  There 
is  a  custom-house  and  royal  arseaal  in  the  town^ 
which  is  a  great  mart  for  trade.  The  district  is 
extremely  level  andj  fertile,  and  abounds  in  cat- 
tle. Cotton,  rice,  soap,  tobacco,  cocoa,  and 
fruits  ar9  the  principal  exports. 

BABANOlV,  or  Balbakon,  a  town  of  the 
kingdom  of  Cambodia,  on  the  river  Cambodia. 
Long.  105**  10'  E.  lat,  12^  17'  N. 

BABA-TAGH,  a  laroe  town  in  the  district  of 
Silistria,  in  European  Turkey,  situated  between 
two  mountains,  it  has  a  college,  five  mosques, 
and  10,000  inhabitants.  Here  have  generally 
been  the  head  quarters  of  the  Grand  Vizier  s 
army  in  the  wars  between  Turkey  and  Russia. 
I^yazM  I.  peopled  it  with  a  Tartarian  colony, 
and  its  name  (Saint's  Hill)  is  derived  from  the 
tomb  of  Sar)  Saltic  Bey,  a  celebrated  Tartarian 
saint,  buried  on  one  of  ^e  neighbouring  moun- 
tains. This  mountain-TOOs  was  the  £^r^  (thf 
neck)  ef  the  Greeks.  Ptolemy  places  it  in  lat. 
11^ 

BAjB-BAHA,  one  of  the  richest  districts  of 
Abyssinia,  according  to  Mr.  Bruc^,  about  twelve 
miles  from  the  river  Baha,  and  near  the  lake 
Tzana.  This  on  the  south,  and  Woggora  on  the 
north,  are  the  two  granaries  that  supply  the  re5t 
of  the  kingdom.  It  contains  a  number  of  small 
villages ;  m  which  the  queen  and  many  of  her 
relations  have  their  bouses  and  possessions. 
These  are  all  surrounded  with  kolquall  trees,  as 
large  in  the  trunk  as  those  of  the  province  of 
TigT^,  but  less  beautifiil. 

BABBLE,  v.  &  n.  s.^k     Germ.  babbeUn ;  Fr. 

Bab'ler,  n.f.  (babUUr.     Probably  re- 

Bab'bling,  a.  &  n.    A^ceives  its  origin  from 

Bab'blement.  n.  s.  3  the  tower  of  Babel, 
when  the  confusion  of  tongues  took  (dace,  and 
marks  a  superfluous  and  improper  use  of  speech. 
To  talk  vritnout  reflection  and  without  meaning, 
noisy  repetition;  to  betray  secrets ;  to  talk  much 

Z 


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with  unintelligible  rapidity.  Babbling^,  among 
hunters,  is  when  the  hounds  are  too  busy  after 
Uiey  have  found  a  good  scent.  It  is  used  figura- 
tively to  indicate  mere  senseless  sounds. 

He  told  me  mexyly,  yt  logicke  be  reckoned  but  ba!h 
Ut^e  mnsicke  to  serae  for  imgen. 

Sir  Thoma$  Mortis  Workt. 

Joba  bad  eonned  over  a  catalogue  of  bard  -words ; 

tbeee  he  used  to  hahUe  indilEeiently  in  all  compaaiee. 

Arbuihmoi, 

The  apoatle  bad  no  looker  pvoposed  it  to  the  mas* 

ters  at  Athens,  but  he  himself  -was  ridiculed  as  a 

balMer,  Rogtn, 

This  is  mere  moral  haJbhU,  3fiUon» 

Deluded   all  tbb  while  with  ragged  notions  and 

btMlemanU,  while  the  expected  worthy  and  delightful 

knowledge.  U. 

With  volleys  of  eternal  haMU 

And  damour  more  unanswerable.      HuHbrat, 

To  stand  up  and  bahUe  to  a  crowd  in  An  alehouse 

till  silence  is  commanded  by  ihe  stroke  of  a  hammer, 

is  as  low  an  ambition  as  can  taint  the  human  mind. 

Utterers  of  secrets  be  from  thence  debarred 
Bahblen  of  felly.  Faerie  Queeiie. 

We  hold  our  time  too  precious,  to  be  spent 
With  such  a  hahbier.  Shahpeare, 

The  habbU»g  echo  mocks  the  hounds.  Id. 

The  bahbUng  echo  had  descried  his  face. 

AddiMn. 
There  at  the  foot  of  yonder  nodding  beech. 
That  wreathes  ito  old  fantastic  root  so  high. 
His  listless  length  at  noontide  would  he  stretch. 
And  pore  upon  the  brook  that  habbUi  by.        Orojf, 

BA'BE,n.«.  -J     Welsh  teAon;  Dutch  haih- 
Ba'bt^  n.  $,      I  haerd ;  Ital.  bambino ;  an  in- 
Ba'bish^  ad,    ^fiuit ;  a  child  of  either  sex  in 
Ba'bery.  n.  f .  J  its    earliest  stage  of   being. 
Childish,  belonging  to  iijfancy,  applied  to  dolls 
and  images  and  playthmgs,  Oie  playthings  of 
chitdren,  and  the  finery  that  pleases  them. 
Who  all  that  piteous  storie  which  befell 
About  the  -woefijl  couple  which  were  slaine. 
And  theire  young  bloodie  beUbe  to  him  gan  tell 
With  whom  whiles  he  did  in  the  wood  remaine 
His  horse  poiloyned  was  by  subtitle  traine. 

Faerie  Q^eem. 
Those  that  do  teach  your  babee 
Do  it  with  gentle  means,  and  easy  tasks. 

Shahpaare, 
Come,  poor  bahe : 
1  have  heard,  (but  not  believed,)  the  spirits  of  the 

dead. 
Hay  walk  again  :  if  such  thing  be,  thy  mother 
Appeared  to  me  Isst  night  \  for  ne'er  was  dream 
So  like  awaking.  /d. 

Command  my  best  obedience  to'  the  queen. 
If  she  dares  trust  me  -with  her  litde  babe, 
111  shoVt  the  king.  U, 

The  bakjf  beats  the  nnzae,  and  quite  athwart 
Goes  all  decorum.  Id, 

Sweet  baheel  who  like  the  little  playful  fawns. 
Were  wont  to  trip  along  these  verdant  lawns. 


The  archduke  saw  that  Perkin  would  prove  a  run- 
nagate ;  and  it  was  the  part  of  children  to  fall  out 
about  ftoWet.  Boopm. 

If  he  be  bashful  and  will  soon  blush ; 
They  call  him  a  babiA  and  ill  brought  up  thing. 

Aecham, 
So  have  I  seen  trim  books 
With  golden  leares  and  painted  babery. 
Of  rilly  boys,  please  unacquainted  sight.  Sidney, 


BABELy  a  city  and  tower  undertaken  to  be 
built  by  the  whole  human  race  soon  after  die 
flood,  and  remarkable  for  the  miraculous  frus- 
tration of  the  attempt  by  the  confusion  of 
languages.    See  Babylon. 

Bab£L,  a  town  of  Egypt,  in  the  Delta,  sup- 
posed by  D'Anville  to  be  the  ancient  By  bios. 
It  is  forty  miles  north  of  Cairo. 

Babel  (St.),  a  small  town  of  France,  in  Au- 
▼ergne,  department  of  the  Puy  de  Dome,  eight 
miles  nordi-east  of  Issoire,  thirteen  east  of 
Brioude. 

BAB-EL-MANDEB,  or  Babelkandel,  li- 
tijcrally  the  gate  of  affliction,  a  promontoty  and 
strait  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Red  Sea, 
about  seven  leagues  broad;  the  strait  forming  the 
communication  between  that  sea  and  the  Indian 
Ocean.  There  is  a  mountain  or  island  in  the 
middle  of  the  strait,  sometimes  called  EfMandel, 
as  well  as  Pef)m  or  Mehdnf,  which  divides  the 
strait  into  two  parts,  of  which  the  eastern, 
though  narrowest,  is  most  frequented,  as  it  has 
deep  water,  and  is  free  from  shoals.  ^  It  is  at 
most  three  geographical  miles  in  width,'  says 
Bruce,  ^  and  has  twen\y  or  thirty  &thoms  water/ 
lord  Valentia  and  Niebuhr  make  the  breadth  of 
the  strait  between  Pertm  and  the  Asiatic  shore 
the  same  as  Bruce;  between  it  and  the  coast 
there  are  from  fifteen  to  twen^  English  miles. 
His  lordship  observes,  that  *  Perhn  should  be 
kept  close  on  the  larboard  side,  in  order  to  avoid 
a  aeep  bay  to  the  eastward  of  the  eape,  which 
has  been  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  strait/ 
The  wider  or  western  channel  is  much  ob- 
structed by  rocks  and  small  islands.  The  Ara- 
bian cape  is  in  lat.  12''  40"  N.,  long.  43"  33'  K 
Niebuhr^s  Reisebeschreibung,  i.  448.  Brace's 
Travels,  i.  361.  Lord  Valentia's  Travels,  ii.  13. 
Vincent's  Periplns,  i.  1 1 1 .  The  island  is  said  to 
be  9bout  five  miles  in  circumference,  barren  and 
scarcely  inhabited. 

BABEN,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Sea,  about 
eighteen  miles  long,  by  si<  in  breadth,  sur- 
rounded by  some  smaller  ones.  Long.  tdffiZl' 
E.,  lat  r  41'  S. 

BABENHAUSEN,  a  maiket  town  in  ihe 
circle  of  ihe  Iller,  Bavaria,  with  two  casdes,  a 
Latin  school,  and  1600  inhabitants.  It  is  six- 
teen miles  S.  E.  of  Ulm,  twenty-six  W.  S.  W.  of 
Augsburg. 

BABGAUM,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  Dow- 
latabad,  twenty-two  miles  north  of  Poonah. 
'  BABI,  a  small  island  near  the  west  coast  of 
Ceram,  in  the  Eastern  Seas.    Long.  128"  3'  E., 
lat.  3"  6'  S.  • 

BABIC,  or  Barabeo,  «  town  of  Persia,  si- 
tuated in  a  fertile,  uncultivated  plain,  towards  d)e 
north-west  of  the  province  of  Kerman.  It  has 
formerly  been  a  fine  city,  but  is  now  falting  into 
decay.  Here  are,  however,  four  gates,  from 
each  of  which  long  streets  lead  to  the  market- 
place in  the  centre^  and  the  dome  over  the 
market-place,  which  is  esteemed  the  largest  in 
Persia,  is  in  complete  preservation.  Babic  be- 
ing at  an  equal  distance  from  the  cities  of  Ker- 
man, Shiraz,  and  Yezd,  was  in  former  times  a 
great  mart  of  commerce,  the  greater  part  of  the 
merchandise  which  was  sent  to  the  port  of  Gom- 
broon, on  the  Persian  gulf,  passing  through  it. 


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A  Iieutenant-goTernor  resides  bei«/  under  ihe 
control  of  the  prince  governing  Kerman.  *rhe 
avenues  to  the  town  are  planted  with  ^it-trees, 
and  the  gardens  are  said  still  to  surpass  those  of 
both  Shiraz  and  Ispahan  in  beaut^  and  taste. 
Fruit  of  eveiy  kind  is  in  such  profusion  as  to  have 
given  occasion  to  the  sayinff,  that '  if  all  Persia, 
except  thu  district,  were  a  desert,  Shvdir^  Babio 
would  supply  it  with  fruit/ 

BABlliUS,  an  astrologer  in  the  time  of 
Nero,  who  advised  the  emperor  to  put  all  th< 
leadinc  men  of  Rome  to  death,  that  he  roif^ht 
avert  me  danger  which  seemed  to  hang  over  bis 
head,  from  the  appearance  of  a  hairy  comet. 
'  Nero  strictly  followed  this  advice. 

BABILIX),  a  river  of  South  Amenca,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Granada,  which  falls  into  ihe  Ma. 
dalena. 

BABINGLEY,  a  village  in  the  counter  of 
Norfolk,  two  miles  ndrth-east  from  Castle  Rising, 
is  only  remarkable  as  being  the  place  in  which 
the  first  Christian  church  in  East  Axiglia  was 
erected.  Some  hills  in  the  vicinity  are  said  to 
be  called  Christian  hills  from  this  event 

BABINGTON  (Gervase),  bishop  of  Wor- 
cester, was  bom  in  Nottinfffaamshire ;  and  sent 
to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was 
made  fellow;  and  in  1578  was  incorporated 
A.M.  at  Oxford.  .He,  however,  made  Cam- 
bridge the  place  of  his  residence,  where  he  be- 
came an  eminent  preacher;  and  being  now  D.  D. 
was  made  domestic  diaplain  to  Henry,  eaii  of 
Pembroke.  In  1588  he  was  installed  prebend 
of  Hereford,  and  in  1591  bishop  of  Landaff.  In 
1594  be  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Exeter^  and 
thence  to  Worcester  in  1597.  About  this  time 
he  was  m^de  queen's  counsel  for  the  marches  of 
Wales.  He  was  a  consideiable  bene&ctor  to  the 
library  of  the  cathedral  of  Worcester,  where  he 
was  buried  in  May  1610.  Historians  agree  that 
he  was  ft  learned  and  pious  man,  but  his  wri- 
tings, like  those  of  most  of  his  contemporaries, 
abound  with  puns  and  auaint  expressions.  His 
works  were  printed  botn  in  folio  and  quarfQ  in 
1^15  and  1637. 

Babihctov  fAnthony),  one  of  the  sufferers  in 
the  cause  of  me  unfortunate  Mary,  queen  of 
Scotland.  He  was  bom  of  a  good  family  in 
Derbyshire,  and  inherited  a  plentiful  fortune. 
Havine  di^ingnished  himselt  by  his  learning 
and  tsJents,  he  was  recommendea  bv  the  arch- 
bishop of  Glasgow  to  the  queen ;  asid  being  na- 
turally of  an  ardent  temper,  he  resolved  to 
devote  himself  to  her  service.  Accordingly,  he 
not  only  entered  into  the  scheme  of  an  enthu- 
siastic priest  named  Ballard,  for  dethroning 
Elizabeth,  but  when  one  Savage  undertook  to 
assassitiate  ihe  English  queen,  he  agreed  in  the 
design,  and  engi^ed  five  other  gentlemen  as  ac- 
complices. But,  after  their  design  was  rioe  for 
execution,  Pollv,  one  of  the  associates,  disco- 
vered the  whole  to  Walsingham,  secretary  of 
state;  and  they  were  arrested,  condemned,  and 
executed,  in  1586. 

BAB<£UF  (Francis  Noel),  an  active  man  in 
the  French  revolution.  From  a  footman  he  had 
risen  to  a  lawver's  clerk,  and  afterwards  became 
attorney.    When  the  revolution  commenced,  he 


a^med  the  name  of  Gracchus,  and  eiig?.ged  in 
conducting  an  incendiary  journal,  entiUra  The 
Tribune  <n  the  People;  but  his  concern  in  a 
conspiracy  being  discovered,  he  was  condemned 
to  be  guillotined,  and  the  execution  was  only 
prevented  by  his  killing  himself  in  prison,  in 
1797. 

BABOLISA,  called  also  Babolitzna  Ca- 
B£THNA,  a  town  of  Hungary,  or  rather  of  Scla- 
vonia,  seated  near  the  river  Drave. 

BABOLSCA,  or  Babolza,  a  market  town  of 
Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Shumeg  and  circle  of 
Canischa.  It  was  formerly  fortified,  and  fiom 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  end  of  the  se- 
venteenth century,  alternately  in  the  possesnoii 
of  the  Turks  and  Imperialists.  It  is  now  inha- 
bited by  Croats,  and  is  twenty-two  miles  S.S.E. 
of  Canischa, 

BABOON,  in  zoology,  the  name  of  that  tribe 
of  apes  (simia,  Linneus)  which  have  short  tails, 
comprehending  the  speqies  apedia,  sphinx,  mor- 
mon, maimon,  and  porcaria.  They  have  very 
muscular  bodies,  lu  the  Engli^  language 
baboon  has  the  same  application  as  baboiun  in 
the  French,  of  which  many  accounts  have  been 
given  by  Bufibn,  Sonnini,  and  others.  Virey 
observes,  that  they  are  a  ferocious  and  very  las- 
civious kind  of  ape,  found  in  manyparts  of  the 
old  woild,  and  especially  in  Africa,  llieir  muzzle, 
he  remains,  is  a  little  lengthened  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  a  dog,  and  on  that  account 
they  have  sometimes  been  called  synges  cyanoce- 
phales,  and  also  maggots.  They  live  on  fruits, 
seeds,  roots,  leaves,  insects,  &c.  In  a  state  of 
captivity  they  are  altogether  imtameable,  are 
fond  of  wine  and  spirituous  liquors;  and  the  fe- 
males, it  is  assertea,  have  an  antipathy  to  the 
fiiir  sex,  as  the  males  have  against  men.  See 
Simia. 

^BABOUIN  A  MusBAU  de  Cbiev,  of  Sonnini 
(edit  Bu£fon),  in  zoology,  the  simia  hymadryas, 
linnsus;  and  dog-faced  ape,  Pennant. 

BABOUR  (;Sultan),  tlie  founder  of  the  Mogul 
dynasty  in  Hindostan,  was  descended  from  the 
great  Timor,  or  Tamerlane,  and  was  sovereign  of 
Cabul.  While  engaged  in  an  expedition  against 
Samarcand,  he  was  deprived  of  his  hereditary 
dominions,  and  reducea  to  the  utmost  extremity 
,by  the  Usbecks.  But  on  recovering  his  fortunes, 
he  invaded  Hindostan,  and  in  1525  overthrew 
and  killed  sultan  Ibrahim,  the  hist  Hindoo  em- 
peror of  the  Patau  or  Afghan  race,  and  firmly 
established  himself/ on  the  throne.  He  died  in 
1530.  Ferishta,  a  Persian  historian  of  Hin- 
dostan, informs  us,  that  this  prince  wrote  an 
elegant  hlstoijr  of  his  own  life^  and  is  noted  as  . 
the  fijfdt  Indian  sovereign  who  had  the  roads 
he  travelled  measured  af&r  him. 

BABIIAHAM,  formerly  Badburham,  a  small 
place  in  the  county  of  Cambridge,  four  miles 
north-west  of  linton.  The  manor  of  this  place 
was  formeriy  in  the  possession  of  Sir  Horatio 
Pallavicini,  collector  of  the  Pope^s  dues  in  the 
reign  of  queen  Mary ;  and  who,  on  Elizabeth's 
accession,  detained  the  money  he  had  gathered. 
Lord  Orford,  in  his  Anecdotes  of  Painting,  cites 
the  following  epitaph  on  him,  from  Sir  John 
Crew  :— 

Z  3 


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Here  lies  Horatio  Palavaxene, 

Who  robbed  the  Pope  to  lend  the  quccnc. 

He  WM  a  thiefe — a  thiefe  j  thon  lycst : 

For  what?  he  robbed  but  Antichrist. 

Hym  Death  with  besom  swept  from  Bab'rah 

Into  the  bodom  of  old  Abraham; 

Bat  then  came  Hercale*  with  his  rlub 

And  struck  him  down  to'Behebub. 
Sir  Horatio  was  one  of  the  commanders  against 
the  Spanidi  Armada,  and  his  portrait  is  pre- 
served in  the  tapestry  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
The  register  of  this  parish  records  the  marriage 
of  his  widow  with  Sir  Oliver  Cromwell,  the 
Protector^s  uncle. 

BABREA,  a  mountainous  district  in  the 
province  of  Gujrat,  situated  on  the  peninsula 
f>etween  the  Gulfs  of  Cambay  and  Cutch.  It 
contains  many  strong  holds  and  various  small 
rivers,  which  flow  into  the  Gulf  of  Cambay. 
Here  is  the  famous  fortress  of  Chitpour  and  the 
temple  of  Diu.    It  is  subject  to  the  Mahrattas. 

BABU,  a  smail  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam, 
near  Cambodia.    Long.  103''  48^  K,  lat.  9""  42^  N. 


BABUAN*,  a  small  island,  said  to  be  about 
twenty-five  miles  in  circumference,  which  is  the 
most  northerly  of  thePhilippines.  Long.  1 23*  E., 
lat.  19''43'N. 

BABUYANES  Isles,  a  number  of  islands  off 
the  north  coast  of  Luzon,  the  principal  Philip- 
pine, between  the  nineteenth  and  twentieth  de- 
grees of  north  latitude.  The  largest  are  named 
Babuan,  Calayay,  Dalupiri,  Camiguen,  and 
Fuga,  and  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  each 
in  circumference.  Besides  these,  there  are 
many  small  rocky  islets.  Although  so  flair  north, 
the  Babuyanes  isles  are  much  infested  by  the 

Siratical   cruisers  of  Magindarao.    Their  pro- 
uctions  are  v^ax,  ebony,  bananas,  cocoas,  and  ' 
plantains. 
BABU'L-ALWAB.    See  Derbend. 
BA'BU'L-BAWA'DI  (Gates  of  the  Dcaerts), 
or  Mahrah,  a  province  on  the  south  coast  of 
Arabia,  so  named  from  its  being  the  southern 
entrance   to   the  great   central  deserts.      See 
Mahrah. 


BABYLON. 


BABYLON,  Heb.  Babel,  in  ancient  geogra- 
phy, the  capital  of  Babylonia  or  Chaldea,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  situated  in  N.  lat.  33°,  £.  long. 
42°  46'  30" ;  or,  according  to  the  observations  of 
M.  Beauchamp  (Mem.  Ac.  Sc.  Paris,  1787), 
N.  lat.  320  34'^  ^nd  E.  long.  .44°  12'  30"  upon 
the  river  Euphrates,  and  considered  for  many 
ages  the  wonder  of  the  world.  The  few  vestiges 
that  yet  remain  of  its  ancient  ruins  are  placed  by 
blast  geographical  writers,  at  a  town  called  Hilla 
or  Elugo,  about  fifteen  leagues  south-west  of 
Bagdad.  It  was  on  or  near  Uie  site  of  this  city, 
that  the  descendants  of  Noah,  according  to  the 
Hebrew  text,  101  years  after  the  flood;  or  531, 
according  to  the  Septuagint,  began  to  build  a 
city  and  tower,  the  top  of  which  should  reach  to 
heaven ;  an  impious  attempt,  which  ended  in  the 
confusion  of  their  language,  and  their  dispersion 
oyer  the  face  of  the  whole  earth.  See  Genesis, 
xi.  1 — 9.  That  before  this  period  all  mankind 
spoke  one  language  cannot  be  thought  incredible, 
or  even  improbable;  for  since  the  family  of 
Noah,  the  only  one  in  the  world,  are  known  to 
have  dwelt  together,  we  cannot  suppose  that  any 
material  change  could  have  been  effected  in  their 
language  during  a  single  century,  or  even  the 
period  assigned  |by  the  Septuagint  calculation. 
Besides  which,  numerous  histories  and  traditions 
still  current  in  Asia,  though  dashed  with  super- 
stition and  fable,  allude  to  the  same  events :  all 
tending  to  confirm,  in  the  most  unequivocal 
manner,  the  main  strokes  and  outlines  of  the 
Mosaic  narrative.  Josephus  ascribes  the  build- 
ing of  the  tower  to  Nimrod  (See  Bochart's  Pha- 
leg.  i.  10.),  whose  name  is  also  affixed  to  some 
of  the  remains  of  Babylon.  Abydenus  (as  quoted 
by  Eusebius,  Prspar.  Evangel,  ix.  14.),  observes, 
that  the  first  m^,  contemning  the  power  and 
authority  of  the  gods,  and  relying  on  their  own 
extraordinary  strength,  built  a  lofty  tower,  which 
nearly  reachpd  the  sky,  in  the  place  where  Babel 
then  stood.    But  the  winds  coming  to  the  assist- 


ance of  the  gods,  overturned  the  whole  mass 
upon  the  heads  of  its  builders,  and  from  its  ruins 
Babylon  was  afterwards  built.  The  gods  also  at 
the  same  time  caused  mankind,  who  had  beibre 
all  spoken  the  same  language,  to  speak  hencefor- 
ward in  different  tongues.  Plato  also,  (Polit. 
p.  272.  ed  Steph.),  relates  a  similar  tradition, 
wherein  he  says,  that  in  the  golden  age,  one 
common  language  was  spoken  both  by  men  and 
beasts,  but  that  Jupiter  confounded  their  tongues 
as  a  punishment  for  their  insolence  in  claiming 
eternal  youth  and  immutability.  After  the  confii* 
sion  of  languages,  the  people/  left  off  to  build  the 
city',  savs  Moses ;  but  they  must  afterwards  have 
resumed  it,  for  in  the  next  verse  he  adds,  that 
the  name  of  it  was  called  Babel,  which  signifies 
confusion,  alluding  to  the  confusion  in  the  lan- 
guages of  its  builders.  It  is  afterwards  mentioned 
as  the  chief  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Nimrod,  the 
son  of  Cush,  from  which  period  no  further  ac- 
count is  given  of  it  in  the  sacred  writings,  till  the 
captivity  of  Israel  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  730 
years  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era,  when  it  was  so  heightened  and  improved  as 
to  be  called  *  great  Babylon,'  <  the  glory  of  king- 
doms,' *  the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees'  excellency,' 
'  the  golden  city,'  *  the  lady  of  kingdoms.*  See 
the  prophets  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Daniel.  The 
Greeks  have  nevertheless,  supplied  this  1515 
years  interval  of  silence,  and  nave  given  a  com- 
plete history  of  the  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  em- 
pires, together  with  a  magnificent  sketch  of  their 
renowned  metropolis  in  the  zenith  of  its  sloiy 
under  Semiramis,  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  others. 
The  learned  Bochart  connects  the  sacred  and 
profane  histories  together,  by  supposing  the  city 
of  Babylon,  and  the  tower  of  Belus,  mentioned 
by  the  Greek  historians,  to  be  the  same  as  those 
related  by  Moses. 

Babylon,  according  to  the  concurrent  testimony 
of  the  ancients,  was  seated  on  a  plain  (the  plain 
of  Shinar   in   Scripture),  and   surrounded  by 


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water.  The  places  about  Bkbylon,  as  Abydenus 
informs  us,  trom  Megasthenes,  (Euseb  Pnep. 
Evang.  1.  ix.  c.  41.  p.  41.  p.  457.),  are  said  from 
the  beginniug  to  have  been  overwhelmed  with 
waters,  and  therefore  called  the  sea  ;  according 
to  the  language  of  Isaiah,  xxi.  1.  '  the  burden  of 
die  desert  of  the  sea.'  Jeremiah  calls  the  city 
itself  a  mountain,  li.  25,  on  account  of  the  great 
hei^t  of  its  walls,  towers,  palaces,  and  temples^ 
which,  according  to  Berosus,  as  quoted  by  Jose- 
phus  (ubi  infra),  resembled  mountains.  The 
founding  of  this  metropolis  is  attributed  by  some 
historians  to  Semiramis,  by  others  to  Belus,  who 
is  thought  by  many  to  have  been  the  same  with 
Nimrod  already  alluded  to,  but  was  indebted  for 
•  its  chief  improvements  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  his 
son  Evilmerodach,  and  his  widow  Nitocris. 
Nebuchadnezzar  repaired,  enlarged,  and  embel- 
lished it  to  such  a  degree,  that  he  may  be  said  to 
have  built  it,  according  to  his  own  vain-glorioiis 
lK>ast,  Dan.  iv.  30.  Nor  is  this  asserted  only 
in  Scripture,  but  likewise  by  heathen  authors. 
Megastn^nes,  Berosus,  and  Abydenus.  (See 
Josephus,  Antiq.  1.  x.  c.  11.  sect  i.  t.  i.  p.  536. 
€d.  Haverc.)  Eusebius,  (Praep.  Evangel.  1.  ix.  c. 
41.  p.  457.  ed.  Vgeri.)  The  chief  works  of  Ba- 
oylon,  mentioned  by  historians,  were  the  prodi- 
gious walls  of  the  city,  the  temple  of  Belus,  Ne- 
buchadnezzar's palace,  the  hanging  gardens,  the 
bank  of  the  river,  the  artificial  lake,  and  the  canals. 
This  city  was  surrounded  with  walls,  in  thick- 
ness eighty-seven  feet,  in  height  350,  and  in 
compass  480  furlongs,  or  sixty  of  our  miles ; 
according  to  Herodotus,  who  was  himself  at  Ba- 
bylon ;  and  most  writers  give  us  the  same  dimen- 
sions. Diodorous  Siculus,  however,  diminishes 
the  circumference  of  these  walls  very  considera- 
bly, and  takes  somewhat  from  the  height  of  them ; 
though  he  seems  to  add  to  their  breadth,  by  say- 
ing, that  six  chariots  might  drive  abreast  thereon ; 
while  Herodotus  writes,  that  one  chariot  only 
might  turn  upon  them;  but  then  he  places  build- 
ings on  each  side  of  the  top  of  these  walls,  which, 
according  to  him,  were  bui  one  story  high ;  which 
may  pretty  well  reconcile  them  together.  Those, 
who  give  the  height  of  these  walls  but  at  fifty 
cubits,  speak  of  them  only  as  they  wbre  after  the 
time  of  Darius  Hystaspis,  who  had  caused  them 
to  be  beaten  down  to  that  level.  The  ground 
plan  of  these  walls  formed  an  exact  square,  each 
side  of  which  was  120  furlongs,  or  fifteen  miles, 
in  length;  and  they  were  all  built  of  large 
bricks  cemented  together  with  bitumen,  which  in 
a  short  time  grows  harder  than  the  brick  and 
stone  which  it  cements.  Without  the  walls,  the 
city  was  encompassed  with  a  vast  ditch,  filled 
with  water,  and  lined  witn  bricks  on  both  sides ; 
and,  as  the  earth  that  was  dug  out  of  it  served  to 
make  the  bricks,  we  may  judge  of  the  depth  and 
largeness  of  the  ditch  from  the  height  and  thick- 
ness of  the  walls.  In  the  whole  compass  of  the 
wall  there  were  100  gates,  that  is,  twenty-feve  on 
each  of  tiie  four  sides,  all  of  solid  brass.  Between 
every  two  of  these  gates,  at  proper  distances,  were 
three  towers;  four  more  at  the  four  comers  of 
this  great  square,  and  three  between  each  of  these 
comers  and  the  next  gate  on  either  side ;  and 
each  of  these  towers  was  ten  feet  higher  than  the 
walls,  in  those  parts  where  towers  were  needful 


for  defence.  For  some  parts  nf  the  walls,  being 
upon  a  morass,  and  inaccessible  by  an  enemy, 
they  stood  in  no  need  of  towers.  Thus  the  whole 
number  of  these  towers  amounted  to  more  than 
250.  From  the  twenty-five  gates  in  each  side  of 
this  square,  thereof  as  a  straight  street,  extending 
to  the  corresponding  gate  in  the  opposite  wall ; 
whence  the  whole  number  of  the  streets  must 
have  been  but  fifty ;  but  they  were  each  about 
fifteen  miles  long,  twenty-five  of  them  crossing . 
the  other  twenty-five  exactly  at  right  angles. 
Besides  these  whole  streets,  we  must  reckon  four 
half  streets,  which  were  but  rows  of  houses  facing 
the  four  inner  sides  of.  the  wajls.  These  four  ' 
half  streets  were  properly  the  four  sides  of  the 
city  within  the  walls,  and  were  each  of  them 
200  feet  broad,  the  whole  streets  bein^  about 
150  of  the  same.  By  this  intersection  of  the 
fifty  streets,  the  city  was  divided  into  676  squares, 
each  of  four  furlongs  and  an  half  on  each 
side,  or  two  miles  and  a  quarter  in  compass. 
Round  these  squares  on  every  side  towards  the 
streets  stood  the  houses,  all  three  or  four  stories 
in  height,  beautified  with  all  manner  of  orna- 
ments: and  the  space  within  each  of  these 
squares  was  void,  or  taken  up  by  gardens,  &c. 
A  branch  of  the  Euphrates  divided  the  city  into 
two,  running  througn  the  midst  of  it,  from  north 
to  souUi,  over  which,  in  the  middle  of  the  city, 
was  a  bridge,  a  furlong  in  length,  or,  as  some  say, 
no  less  than  five  furlongs,  though  but  thirty  feet 
broad.  At  each  end  of  this  bridge  were  two 
palaces ;'  the  old  palace  on  the  east  side,  the 
new  one  on  the  west  Aide  of  the  river;  the 
former  of  which  took  up  four  of  the  squares, 
and  the  latter  nine.  The  temple  of  Belus,  which 
stood  next  to  the  old  palace,  took  up  another  ot 
the  squares.  That  part  or  half  or  the  city  on 
the  east  side  of  the  nver  was  the-  old  town,  and 
the  other  on  the  west  was  added  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar; both  being  included  wiUiin  the  vast 
square  bounded  by  the  walls.  It  is  supposed, 
that  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  destroyed  tne  old 
seat  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  Nineveh,  proposed 
that  this  new  onie  should  rather  exceed  it ;  and 
that  it  was  in  order  to  fill  it  with  inhabitants 
that  he-  transported  such  numbers  of  the  captives 
from  other  countries  hither.  But  notwithstanding 
his  great  conquests  it  was  never  wholly  inha- 
bited; for,  Cyms  removing  the  seat  of  the 
empire  soon  after  to  Shushan,  Babylon  fell  by 
degrees  to  decay.  So  far  was  it  from  being 
finished  according  to  its  original  design,  that, 
when  Alexander  came  to  Babylon,  Q.  Curtius 
tells  us,  *  no  more  than  ninety  furlongs  of  it 
were  then  built ;'  which  can  only  be  understood 
of  so  much  in  length ;  and,  if  we  allow  tlie 
breadth  to  be  as  much,  no  more  than  8100  square 
furlongs  were  then  built  upon ;  but  the  whole 
space  within  the  walls  contained  14,400  square 
furiongs;  and  therefore  there  must  have  been 
6300  square  furlongs  remaining  unbuilt,  which, 
Curtius  tells  us,  were  ploughed  and  sown.  Be- 
sides this,  the  houses  were  not  contiguous,  but 
built  with  a  void  space  on  each  side. 

The  next  great  work  of  Nebuchadnezzar  was 
the  temple  of  Belus.  The  wonderful  tower, 
hovrever,  that  stood  in  the  middle  of  it,  was  not 
his  work,  but  was  built  many  ages  before,  beinijf 


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the  &111011S  tower  of  Babel,  as  is  commoDly  sup- 
posed. This  is  said  to  have  been  oomp<Mied  of 
eight  pyramidal  ones  ndsed  above  one  another^ 
aiMi  is  stated  by  Herodotus  to  have  been  a  fur- 
long in  hei^t ;  but  as  there  is  an  ambiguity  in 
his  expression,  it  has  been  disputed  whether 
each  ot  the  towers,  was  a  furlong  in  length,  or 
the  whole  of  them  taken  together.  Even  on  the 
latter  supposition,,  it  must  have  exceeded  the 
highest  w  the  Egyptian  pyramids  by  179  feet, 
though  it  fell  short  of  its  breadth  at  the  basis  by 
tl^irty-three.  The  way  to  go  up  was  by  stairs  on 
the  outside  round  it ;  whence  it  seems  most  likely 
that  the  whole  ascent  w^,  by  the  benching  in, 
dmwn  by  a  sloping  line  nom  the  bottom  to  the  top 
eight  times  round  it ;  and  that  this  made  the  ap- 
pearance of  eight  towers,  one  above  the  other. 
In  thi^e  different  compartments  or  stones  were 
magnificent  rooms,  with  arched  roohf  supported 
by  pillars,  forming  parts  of  the  temple  when  the 
tower  was  consecrated,  those  of  the  uppermost 
story  being  thought  most  sacred.  Over  the 
entire  top  was  an  observatory.  Diod.'  Sic.  1.  ii. ; 
and  Calisthenes,  the  philosopher  who  accom- 
panied Alexander  in  the  conquest  of  Babylon, 
tbund  astronomical  observations  which  carried  up 
the  account  as  high  as  the  115th  year  after  the 
flood,  or  B.  C.  2334,  and  fifteen  years  from  the 
building  of  the  tower  of  Babel.  Till  the  times 
of  Nebuchadnenar,  it  is  thought  that,  this  tower 
constituted  the  whole  of  the  temple  of  Belus; 
but  he  made  great  additions,  bv  vast  edifices 
round  it,  in  a  square  of  two  furlongs  oo  every 
side,  and  a  mile  in  circam£eience;  thns  exceeding 
the  square  of  the  temple' of  Jerusalem  by  1800 
feet.  On  the  outside  of  these  buildings  was  a 
wall,  which  enclosed  the  whole ;  and,  from  the 
regularity  with  which  the  city  was  marked  out, 
it  is  supposed,  that  this  wall  was  equal  to  the 
square  wherein  it  stood,  and  so  is  concluded  to 
have  been  two  miles  and  an  half  in  circum- 
ference. In  this  w^dl  were  several  gates  leading 
into  the  temple,  all  of  solid  brass.  In  the  temple 
were  several  images  of  massy  gold,  one  of  them 
forty  feet  in  height.  The  whole  weight  of  its 
statues  and  decorations,  according  to  Diodorus  Si- 
culus,  amounted  to  above  5000  talents  in  gold, 
above  twenty-one  millions  of  our  money :  an 
equal  sum  in  treasure,  utensils,  and  ornaments, 
not  mentioned,  is  allowed  for. 

Next  to  this  temple,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
river,  stood  the  old  psdace  of  the  kings  of  Baby- 
lon, which  was  four  miles  in  circumference,  and 
exactly  opposite  to  it,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
liver,  was  the  new  one  built  by  Nebucfaadnexzar, 
eight  miles  in  circumference.  The  tower  or 
temple  stood  till  the  time  of  Xerxes.  But  that 
prince,  on  hisv  return  from  the  Grecian  expe- 
dition, having  first  plundered  it  of  its  inmiense 
wealth,  demolished  the  whole,  and  laid  it  in 
ruins.  Alexander,  on  his  return  to  Babylon 
from  his  Indian  expedition,  proposed  to  rebuild 
it,  and  make  it  tne  seat  of  his  empire,  and 
even  employed  10,000  men  to  clear  away  the 
rubbish.  But  his  death  happening  soon  after,  a 
stop  was  put  to  all  further  proceedings  in  that 
design. 

Nothing  was  more  wonderful  at  Babylon  than 
the  hancping  gardens,  which    Nebu( 


made  in  compUraent  to  his  wife  Amyitis ;  who 
being  a  Mede,  and  retaining  a  strong  inclination 
for  the  mountains  and  forests  of  her  own  country, 
was  desirous  of  having  something  like  them  at 
Babylon.    They  are  said  to  have  contained  a 
square  of  four  plethra,  or  400  feet,  on  each  side; 
and  to  haice  consisted   of  terraces  one  above 
another,  carried  up  to  the  height  of  the  wall  of 
the  city,  the  ascent  from  terrace  to  terrace  h&n% 
hj  steps  ten  foet  wide.    The  whole  pile  coo- 
sisted  of  substantial  arches  upon  arches,  and  was 
strengthened  by  a  wall  surrounding  it  on  CTerv 
side,  twenty-two  feet  thick.    Tlie  floors  on  each 
of  them  were  laid  in  this  order :  first,  on  the 
tops  of  the  arches  was  a  pavement  of  stones 
sixteen  feet  long,  and  four  feet  broad ;  oyer  t)iis 
a  layer  of  reeds,  mixed  virith  a  great  quantity  of 
bitumen;  over  this  were  two  courses  of  brick, 
closely  cemented   together  with  plaster;   and 
over  all  these  thick  sheets  of  lead,  and  on  diese 
the  earth  or   iLould  of   the   garden.     Upon 
the  uppermost  of  these  terraces  was  a  reservoir, 
supplied  with  water  from  the  river.    The  other 
worKs  attributed  to  Nebuchadnenar  by  Bcrosus 
and  Abvdenus,  were  the  banks  of  the  river,  the 
artificial  canals,  and  the  great  artificial  lake  said 
to  have  been  sunk  by  Semiramis.    The  canals 
were  cut  out  on  the  east  side  of  the  Euphrates, 
to  convey  its  waters,  when  il  overflowed  iu 
banks,  into  the  Tigris,  before  they  reached  Baby- 
lon.   The  lake  was  on  the  west  side  of  Babylon; 
and,  according  to  the  lowest  computation,  forty 
miles  square,  160  in  compass,  and  ub  depth  thirty- 
five  fiaet,  as  Herodotus,  or  seventy*five,  as  Megas- 
thenes  will  Have  it ;  the  former,  perhaps^  mea- 
sured from  the  surface  of  the  sides,  and  the  latter 
from  the  tops  of  the  banks  that  were  cast  up 
upoi)  them.    This  lake  was  dug  to  receive  the 
waters  of  the  river,  wliile  the  bai£s  were  building 
on  each  side  of  it    But  both  the  lake,  and  the 
canal  which  led  to  it,  were  preserved  after  that 
work  was  completed,  being  found  of  great  use, 
not  only  to  prevent  idl  orerflowings,  but  to  keep 
water  all  the  year,  as  a  common  reservoir,  to  be 
let  out,  on  proper  occasions,  by  sldices,  for  the 
improvement  of  the  land.    The  banks  were  built 
of  brick  and  bitumen,  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
to  keep  it  within  its  channel ;  atid  extended  on 
each  side  throughout  the  whole  length  oi  the  city, 
and  even  farther,  according  to  some  writers. 
Within  the  dty  thqr  were  built  firom  the  bottom 
of  the  river,  and  of  the  same  thickness  with  the 
walls  of  the  city  itself.    Opposite  to  each  street, 
on  either  side  of  the  river,  was  a  brasen  gate  in 
the  wall,  with  stairs  leading  down  from  it  to  the 
river :  these  gates  were  open  by  day,  and  shut 
by  night.  Berosns,  Megasthenes,  and  Abydenus, 
attribute  all  these  works  lo  Nebuchamaezzar ; 
but  Herodotus  tells  us,  the  bridge,  the  banks, 
and  the  lake,  were  the  work  of  the  qneen  Nito- 
cris  already  alluded  to,  who  may  have  fbushed 
what  Nebuchadnezzar  left  imperfect.    Such  is 
the  description  ancient  histonans  give  of  this 
dty ;  which,  if  the  accounts  are  not  examrated, 
must  have  exceeded  every  specimen  of  human 
grandeur  that  has  yet  appeared.    Many  of  the 
modems,  however,  are  of  opinion  that  these  des- 
criptions are  exaggerated ;  although  it  is  certain 
that  few  other  arguments  can  be  buought  against 


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the  reality  of  them,  tlian  that  ^e  do  not  now  see 
siinilar  designs  executed. 

The  taking  of  Babylon  by  CyniB^  as  pi^pbe- 
cied  in  the  scriptaies,  fonns  one  of  the  most 
striking  and  imoortant  events  in  Uie  variable 
page  of  ancient  nistory.    War  had  commenced 
between  die  Medes  and  Persians,  and  Babylo- 
nians, in  the  reign  of  NerigUssar,  apd  had  been 
carried  on  with  very  bad  saccess  on  the  side  of 
the  kutt  named  people.    Cyrqs,  who  commanded 
the  Median  and  Persian  army,  having  subdued 
the  several  nations  inhabiting  U>e  great  continent 
from  the  Sjgeaa  sea  to  the  Euphrates,  bent  his 
march  towards  Babylon.    Nabonadius,  hearing 
of  it,  immediately  advanced  against  him.    In  the 
engagement  whidi  ensued,  the  Babylonians  were 
deieated ;  and  the  king,  retreating  to  his  metro- 
polis, was  blocked  up  and  closely  besieged  by 
Cyrus.   But  the  reduction  of  the  dty  was  no  com* 
mon  enterprise.    Its  walls  and  towers  were  well 
manned,  and  the  place  stored  with  all  provisions 
for  twenty  years.     Cyrus,  despairing  of  being 
able  to  take  it  by  storm,  caused  a  line  of  circum- 
vallation  to  be  drawn  quite  round  it,  with  a  large 
and  deep  ditch;  reckoning,  that  if  all  communi- 
cation with  the  country  were  cut  off,  the  besieged 
would  be  obliged  to  surrender  through  femine. 
That  his  troops  might  not  be  too  mucb  CEUigued, . 
ho  divided  his  army  into  twelve  bodies,  appoint- 
ing each  body  its  month  to  guard  the  trendies; 
but  tiie  besieged,  looking  upon  themselves  to  be 
out  of  danger,  insulted'  him  from  the  ramparts, 
and  despised  all  his  efforts.    Cyrus  having  spent 
two  whole  years  before  Bal>yion,  without  making 
any  progress  in  the  siege,  at  la^  thought  of  the 
following  stratagem,  which  put  him  in  possession 
of  it    He  was'  informed  that  a  great  annual 
solemnity  was  to  be  held  at  Babylon;  and  that 
the  inhabitants  on  that  occasion  were  accustomed 
to  spend  the  whole  night  in  revelry.     On  this 
night  he  accordingly  sent  a  strong  detachment  to 
the  bead  of  the  canal  leading  to  the  great  lake, 
with  orders  at  a  certain  time,  to  break  down  the 
bank  which  was  between  the  lake  and  the  canal, 
and  to  torn  the  whole  current  into  the  lake.    At 
the  same  time  he  appointed  one  body  of  troops 
at  the  pkice  where  the  river  entered  the  city,  and 
another   where    it   came  out;   ordering  them 
to  march  in  by.  the  bed  of  the  river  as  soon  as 
they  should  find  itfordable.*  Towards  the  even- 
ing he  opened  the  head  of  the  trenches  on  both 
sides  of  the  river  above  the  ci^y,  that  the  water 
might  discharge  itself  into  them;  by  which  means, 
amd  the  breaking  down  of  the  great  dam,  the  river 
was  soon  drained.  Then  the  two  bodies  of  troops 
entered  the  channel;  the  one  commanded  by 
Gobryas  and  the  other  by  Gadates*  and  finding 
the  gates  left  open,  they  penetrated  into  the 
heart  of  the  city  without  opposition.    Those  who 
were  in  Uie  palace  opening  the  gates  to  know 
the  cause  of  this  confusion,  the  Persians  rushed 
in,  took  the  palace,  and  killed  the  king  as  became 
out  to  meet  them.     Cyrus  took  possession  of 
Babylon,  in  the  name  of  his  uncle  Cyaxares  II. 
called  in  scripture  Darius  the  Mede :  A.  M.  3468. 
The  manner  in  which  this  city  was  taken  is 
remarkable,  from  its  coinddence  with  tlie  pro- 
phecy of  that  event  in  Isa.  xlv.  1,2.       *  The 
two-leaved  gates'  were  literally  opened  before 


him,  and  the  gates^were  '  not  to  be  shut,'  &c.  On 
these  praphecles,  see  bishop  Newton,  bishop 
Lowth  on  Isaiah,  &c. 

Widi  Babylon  fell  the  empire  of  Babylonia, 
aecordfiog  to  the  striking  language  written  on  the 
wall  of  &e  palace  the  same  night  in  which  the 
city  was  taken,  and  interpreted  by  the  prophet 
Daniel ;  *  Mene,  God  hath  numbered  thy  king- 
dom and  finished  it*    See  Dan.  ch.  v. 

The  history  of  the  ruins  of  this  great  city  is  all 
which  we  have  now  to  present  to  the  reader.  An 
insurrection,   under    Darius    Hystaspes,  B.C. 
500,  provoked  that  prince  to  overthrow  the  walls 
and  gates  which  had  been  left  by  Cyrus.    We 
also  learn  from  a  fragment  of  Dtodorus  Siculus, 
produced  by  Valesius,  and  (torn  him  quoted  by 
Vitringa,  Comment,  in  Jesaiam,  ch.  xiii.  vol.  1, 
p.  421,  that  one  of  the  kings  of  Parthia  sent 
many  of  the  Babylonians,  under  the  most  trivial 
pretences,  into  slavery ;  burnt  the  forum,  together 
with  some  of  the  temples;  and  demolished  the 
best  parts  of  the  city,  JB.  C.  130  years.    Diodo- 
rus   Siculus,  \.  ii.  asserts,  that  in  his  time,  B.  C. 
44,  only  a  small  part  of  it  was  inhabited,  and 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  space  within  the 
lindent  walls  was  tilled.     Strakoo,  who  wrote 
fourteen  years  after  him,  in  his  1.  xvi.  p.  1073, 
applies  to  Babylon  what  a  comic  poet,  said  of 
Megalpolis  in  Arcadia :  '  Tlie  great  oity  is  now 
become  a  great  desert,'    ^^T^Jt  H.  N.  1.  6.  ch. 
XXX.,  publiSied  A.D.  66y  affirms  that  it  was 
reduced  to  solitude  by  Uie  neighbourhood  of 
Seleucia.     Pausanias,  A.D.  153,  says,  Arcad. 
ch.  xxxiii.  p.  668.  ed.  Kuhuii,  *  that  d  Babylon, 
the  greatest  city  the  sun  ever  saw,  nothing  re- 
mained but  ^e  walls.'    Maximus  Tyrius,  Diss. 
6.,  and   Lucian,    Eyriov,   sive    Contemplantes, 
mention  it  as  a  neglected  place;  the  latter  inti- 
mating that  in  a  little  time  it  would  be  sought 
for  and  not  be  found,  like  Nineveh.    Eusebius 
has  preserved  an  oration  of  Constantine  the  great, 
in  wnich  that  emperor  states,  that  he  himself  was 
upon  the  spot,  and  behdd  the  desolate  and 
miserable  condition  of  the  dty.    St.  Jerome  in- 
forms us,  that  about  the  close  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, it  was  converted  in^o  a  chase  to  keep  wild 
beasts  in,  for  the  diversion  of  the  Persian  kings , 
that  all  was  in  the  utmost  state  of  desolation, 
except  the  brick  walls,  which  were  occasionally 
repaired  to  prevent  the  animals  from  escaping ; 
a  circumstance  which  literally  fiilfilled  the  pro- 
phecy of  Isaiah  xiii.  21.    Ilieron,  Comment,  on 
isa.  ch.  xiii.  ch.  xiv.  vol.  3.  p.  111.  115.  ed. 
Benedict.    Benjamin  of  Teudela,  who  Uved  in 
the  twelfth  centuiy ,  affirms,  Itin.  p.  66,  that  some 
ruins  were  sUll  to  be  seen  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
palace,  into  which  travellers  were  afraid  to  enter 
on  account  of  the  serpents  and  scorpions  that 
inhabited  the  interior.   jPexeira,  a  Portuguese,  is 
cited  by  Bochart,  and  Prideaux,  as  giving  a  s;mi 
lar  account  of  this  place ;  variout  otner  travellers 
have  fiirtber  confirmed  them.    Tavernicr  says, 
that  at  the  division  of  the  Tigris,  a  short  dis- 
tance from  Bagdad,  is  the  foundation  of  a  dty 
which,  from  its  appearance,  may  have  been  a 
league  in  compass;  of  which  some  of  tlie  walls 
yet  standing  occupy  suffident  breadth  to  allow  six 
coaches  to  pass  upon  them  abreast,  and  are  com- 
posed of  bunit  bricks  ten  feet  square  and  three 


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BABYLONIA. 


feet  thick.  This  place  is  represented  by  the 
chronicles  of  the  coantiy  as  the  seat  of  ancient 
Babylon,  lianway  says,  TraT.  vol.  4.  pt.  3.  ch. 
XX.  p.  78,  that  the  ruins  of  Babylon  ne  fifteen 
leagues  south  of  Bagdad,  and  are  now  so  much 
effaced  by  time,  that  scarcely  an^  vestiges  of 
them  remain  to  point  out  the  original  situation 
of  the  city.  Nicbuhr,  who  lived  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  gave  a  description  which  has  thrown  a 
Tight  upon  the  question  respecting  the  original 
site  of  Babylon.  But  the  most  complete  and 
satisfactory  account  is  given  by  Mr.  Kich,  who 
resided  for  some  time  at  the  court  of  the  Pasha 
of  Bagdad,  on  the  part  of  the  East  India  Com- 
t>an^,  and  possessea  greater  advantages  for  snch 
an  mquiry  than  any  of  his  predecessors.  He 
expected,  he  says,  to  have  found  on  the  site  of 
Bsfhylon  both  more  and  less  than  he  actually  met 
with;  more,  because  he  supposed  he  should  have 
been  able  to  have  identified  some  of  the  ancient 
buildings,  which  was  quite  impossible ;  '  less 
because  he  could  form  no  conception  of  the  pro- 
digious extent  of  the  whole  mass  of  ruins,  tneir 
size,  solidity,  and  the  perfect  state  of  some  of 
their  parts.' 

The  traces  of  the  city  begin  to  show  themselves 
near  Mohaeril,  a  khan  or  inn,  nine  mi^s  from 
Hillah,  and  nearly  thirteen  leagues  south  of  Bag- 
dad; the  wliole  country  round  exhibiting  here 
and  there,  detached  masses  of  bricks  and  bitu- 
men. Three  mounds  attract  particular  attention 
by  reason  of  their  extraordinary  magnitude. 
Hillah,  in  lat.  32""  28'  N.,  stands  east  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  on  that  side  also,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  small  elevations,  and  one  very  con- 
siderable ruin,  are  all  the  remains  of  any  anti- 
quity. Two  miles  above  Hillah  commences  a 
mound  or  enclosure  of  circular  appearance, 
thought  to  have  been  the  ancient  boundary  wall. 
It  includes  an  area  of  two  miles  and  a  half  one 
way,  and  one  mile  and  one  third  the  other.  On 
the  east  side  two  straight  dykes  or  vnlh  of  earth 
run  ^m  north  to  south,  parallel  with  the 
Euphrates,  and  forming,  togemer  with  the  river 
and  the  ends  of  the  enclosure  above-mentioned, 
an  oblong  area,  containing  three  principal  mounds 
of  rubbish,  which  rise  more  than  100  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  river.  The  largest  mass  of  these 
ruins,  called  by  the  Arabs  Makallebah,  pro- 
nounced by  the  natives  Majellib^h,  in  English 
tubvertedy  is  what  Rennell  and  Petro  della  Valle 
thought  to  be  the  tower  of  Belus.     The  figure 


is  oblong,  and  the  sides  which  face  the  caidinal 
points  measure  as  follows :  (he  northern  side  200 
yards,  the  southern  219,  the  western  136,  aad  the 
eastern  192;  the  highest  elevation  is  141  fieet. 
On  the  south-east  angle  appeared  something  like 
a  turret,  and  in  the  rubbish  were  found  whole 
bricks,  having  on  them  inscriptions  in  Cvveatic 
CHARACTERS,  foT  which  see. 

The  next  important  min  is  called  by  the  Arabs 
El  Kair,  the  castle,  a  mile  to  the  south  of  the  for- 
mer ;  consisting  of  vrails  and  piers,  eight  feet  in 
thickness,  feeing,  like  the  former,  d£  cardinal 
points.  It  is  adorned  with  buttresses,  pilasters, 
and  niches  of  fine  burnt  brick,  laid  in  lime  mor- 
tar of  extraordinary  tenacity.  Beneath  this 
building  are  subterranean  caverns  and  passages, 
which  are  still  unexplored.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood is  an  atheleh,  tamarix  artieulata,  considered 
by  the  natives  to  have  been  coeval  widi  the  dty. 
Mr.  Rich  also  found  another  curious  min,  west 
of  the  river,  and  about  six  miles  soudi-west  of 
Hillah,  which  he  coincides  with  Niebuhr  Reisse, 
ii.  289,  in  considering  as  the  celebrated  tower  of 
Belus ;  especially  as  the  Arabs  call  it  Birs  Nem- 
rild,  tiie  tower  of  Nimrod.  (Tlie  word  birs, 
which  embarrassed  Mr.  Rich,  being  nothing  else 
than  the  Persian  word  boR,  as  Gesenius  has 
justly  expressed  it.)  This  celebrated  remain, 
which  the  Jews  denominate  the  prison  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, forms  a  mound  of  fine  burnt  bricks, 
with  inscriptions  on  them ;  it  is  of  oblong  figure, 
762  yards  m  circumference,  and  on  the  east  side 
about  sixty  feet  in  height ;  but  rises  on  the  west 
in  a  conical  form  to  the  height  of  198  feet,  the 
base  occupying  a  breadth  of  28. 

No  wori£s  0?  art  yet  discovered  in  these  ruins 
have  been  thought  beautiful;  but  bricks  and 
gems,  with  inscriptions  and  sculptures  similar  to 
those  brought  from  Persepolis,  evince  the  early 
connexion  between  the  Babylonian  and  Persian 
empires.  The  inscriptions  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  bricks  were  buried  in  a  substratum  of  mortar,, 
and  not  designed  to  be  seen  or  read ;  whence  it 
has  been  inferred,  that  they  are  charms  or  ma- 
gical formulae  to  protect  the  building  firom  the 
attack  of  demons  and  evil  spirits.  For  a  further 
illustration  of  this  subject  we  refer  the  reader  to 
Gesenius,  in  Ersch's  Encyclo.;  Rich's  Memoir 
on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon,  1818;  Maurice's  Ob- 
servations on  ditto,  1816;  and  the  numerous 
other  works  already  quoted. 


BABYLONIA. 


BABYLONIA,  or  Cualdea,  a  renowned 
kingdom  of  Asia,  said  to  have  been  tlie  most 
ancient  in  the  world,  lying  between  thirty  and 
thirty-five  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  bounded, 
according  to  Ptolemy,  on  the  north  by  Mesopo- 
tamia, on  the  east  by  the  Tigris,  on  the  west  by 
Arabia  Deserta,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  part  of  Arabia  Felix.  Babylonia  was 
founded  by  Nimrod,  the  grandson  of  Ham,  who 
is  also  said  to  have  built  Nineveh,  the  ancient 
capital  of  Assyria.  Various  have  been  the  con- 
jecturej  of  the  teamed  respecting  these  two  king- 


doms ;  some  supposing  them  to  have  been  the 
same,  others  imagining  that  Babylonia  was  an 
early  province  of  Assyria,  although  it  is  plain 
from  the  best  authorities,  that  they  remained 
perfectly  distinct  till  the  time  of  Ninas;  who 
naving  conquered  the  former,  reduced  it  to  a 
tributary  dependance  upon  the  latter;  in  which 
state  it  continued  till  the  effeminate  reign  of 
Sardanapalus ;  as  did  also  Media,  Persia,  Egypt^ 
and  other  kingdoms  At  length  Arbaces,  gover- 
nor of  Media,  taking  advantage  of  that  monarch's 
indolence,  threw  off  his  allegiance  by  the  advice 


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of  Belesis,  a  Cbaldean  priest ;  Che  Babylonians 
followed  the  example,  and  with  the  assistance  of 
fhe  Persians,  ana  other  allies  to  whom  the 
tyranny  of  their  Assyrian  lords  was  equally 
odious,  attacked  the  empire  on  all  sides,  and 
after  a  determined  and  obstinate  perseverance, 
overthrew  the  Assyrian  army,  besieged  Sardana- 
palus  in  his  capital,  and  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  the  empire,  A.  A.  C.  821. 

The  whole  territory  was  then  divided  into 
three  kingdoms,  viz.  the  Assyrian,  Median,  and 
Babylonian.  Arbaces  retaining  the  supreme 
authority,  fixed  his  imperial  residence  at  £cba- 
laua,  in  Media;  nominated  Belesis  to  the  go- 
vernment of  Babylon,  and  Phul  to  that  of  As- 
syria; at  the  same  time  conferring  upon  them 
the  title  of  kings.  Phul,  who  reigned  during  the 
time  of  Menahem,  king  of  Judah,  re-established 
and  greatly  enlarged  the  Assyrian  empire ;  and 
at  his  death  bequeathed  the  kingdoms  of  Assyria 
and  Babylonia  to  his  two  sons,  the  former  to 
Tiglath-Pileser,  the  latter  to  Nabonasser,  in  the 
year  B.  C.  747. 

From  this  period  to  the  year  625,  B.  C.  when 
Kabopolasser  began  his  reign,  nothing  remark- 
able occurs  in  Uie  history  of  Babylon,  except 
that  Assaradinus,  or  Esarhaddon,  brother  and 
successor  of  Senacherib,  king  of  Assyria,  took 
possession  of  that  kingdom,  B.  C.  680;  and 
that  upon  his  death,  B.  C.  668,  the  kingdoms 
were  again  separated.  The  Scripture  mentions 
,  only  five  Assyrian  kings,  viz.  Pul,  Tiglath-Pile- 
ser, Shalmaneser,  Sennacherib,  and  Esarhaddon. 
In  the  twentietli  year  of  Nabopolasser,  B.  C. 
606,  in  the  reign  of  Chynalidan,  the  Sardanapa- 
lus  of  the  Greeks,  Nineveh  was  taken  and  de- 
stroyed, by  the  united  armies  of  the  Medes  and 
Babylonians,  under  Cyaxares  and  Nabopolasser, 
when  the  seat  of  the  empire  was  transferred  to 
Babylon.  ,  This  Nabopolasser,  called  also  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, was  the  father  of  the  celebrated 
Nebuchadnezzar,  whose  history  is  so  famous  in 
the  sacred  Writings,  and  who  commenced  his 
reign  604  years  B.  C.  two  years  after  the  con- 
quest of  Tsineveh.  This  prince  raised  the  em- 
pire of  Babylon  to  its  highest  pitch  of  glory,  and 
spread  his  dominions  over  a  wide  extent  of  tet- 
ritory,  stretching  from  Media  on  the  north-east, 
beyond  Egypt  on  the  south-west,  and  compre- 
hending the  several  kingdoms  of  Assyria,  Persia, 
Syria,  Phoenicia,  Canaan,  North  Arabia,  Idumea, 
and  Egypl.  After  Nebuchadnezzar,  little  is 
known  of  Babylon,  except  the  names  of  his  suc- 
cessors, Evil-Merodach  and  his  queen  Nitocris, 
his  son-in-law  Neriglissar,  Laborosoarchod,  the 
son  of  the  latter,  and  Nabonadius,  the  son  of 
Evil-Merodach  by  Nitocris,  Labynitus  of  Hero- 
dotus, and  Belshazzar  of  Scripture,  in  whose 
.reign  the  city  of  Babylon  was  broken  up,  and 
the  empire  extinguished  by  Cyrus  tlie  Persian, 
'  538  years  B.  C.  See  Anc.  Un.  Hist.  vol.  iii. 
p.  367—437.  Rollings  Anc.  Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  1— 
153. 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  world.  Babylonia  was 
knovni  by  the  names  of  Shivar,  or  Shivaar,  which 
appellation  it  seems  to  have  retained  in  the  time 
of  Daniel.  In  the  days  of  Abraham,  a  king  of 
Shivar  is  mentioned  called  Amraphel,  who  under 
Chedarlaomer,  king  of  El^,  or  Persia,  made 


war  upon  the  Canaanites.  The  name  of  Baby- 
lon is  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
tower  of  Babel,  and  that  of  Chaldsa  from  Chal- 
deans or  Chasdim.  Joseph  Ant.  I.  i.  c.  7. 
These  names  were  not  synonymous ;  Babylonia,' 
properly  intending  the  country  more  immediately 
m  the  neighbourhood  of  Babylon,  and  Chaldsea, 
the  territory  lying  south  of  the  former,  and  reach- 
ing downward  as  far  as  the  Persian  gulf.  Both 
nevertheless  are  commonly  employed  as  general 
names  of  the  whole  empire,  and  in  that  sense 
are  taken  indifferently  for  each  other,  Chaldsa 
being  the  name  used  in  Scripture,  and  Babylonia 
the  most  common  in  profane  authors.  Diodor, 
Sic,  1.  ii.  c.  11, 12.  Sirabo,  1.  xvi.  sub.ivit. 

The  chief  cities  of  Babylonia  were  Babylon, 
Vologsia  or  Vologesocerta,  built  by  Vologesis, 
king  of  the  Parthians,  on  the  Euphrates,  about  the 
time  of  Vespasian ;  Barsita,  thought  to  be  the 
Borsippa  of  Strabo,  sacred  to  Diana  and  Apollo, 
and  called  Borisippeni,  from  its  being  the  habi- 
tation of  a  certain  sect  of  the  Chaldsans ;  Idic- 
cara,  on  the  Euphrates  and  the  borders  of  Arabia 
Deserta;  Coche,  in  the  island  of  Mesene,  formed 
by  the  Tigris,  Saura,  and  Pombeditha,  of  which 
the  situation  is  very  uncertain. 

The  air  of  this  country  was  for  the  most  part 
salubrious  and  temperate,  though  occasionally 
subject  to  hot  pestilential  winds.  The  rains 
according  to  Herodotus,  were  seldom,  the  defi- 
ciency of  which  the  inhabitants  supplied,  by 
inventing  wheels  and  engines  for  watering  the 
land,  and  also  by  cutting  numerous  canals  by 
which  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
were  carried  in  different  directions,  and  diffused 
over  the  whole  surface  of  the  empire.  The 
southern  parts  of  Babylonia  between  the  rivers, 
have  been  compared  to  the  Delta  of  Egypt,  in 
consequence  of  their  natural  and  artificial  islands, 
and  from  their  lying  under  the  same  parallel  of 
latitude.  The  region  of  Chaldaa  between  the 
mountains  of  Babylon  and  the  Euphrates,  is  also 
well  watered  by  lakes,  rivers,  and  canals,  which 
greatly  refresh  every  part  of  the  surface,  and  its 
produce,  according  to  Herodotus,  1.  i.  c.  193,  is 
by  this  means  rendered  equal  to  a  third  part  of  Asia, 

In  short,  it  was  one  of  the  finest  countries  for 
com  in  ^e  world;  and  so  luxuriant,  that  it 
commonly  yielded  a  hundred  times  more  than 
what  was  sown;  and,  in  good  years,  it  yielded 
three  hundred  times  more  than  it  received.  The 
leaves  of  its  wheat  and  barley  were  fi)ur  inches 
broad.  'Though  I  know,'  says  Herodotus, '  that 
the  millet  and  the  sesaihe  of  that  country  grow 
to  the  size  of  trees,  I  will  not  describe  them  par- 
ticularly, lest  those  who  have  not  been  at  Baby- 
lonia should  think  my  account  fabulous.'  They 
had  no  oil  but  what  they  made  from  Indian  com. 
For  producing  fig-trees,  vines,  and  olives,  it  was 
not  famous,  but  the  country  abounded  with  palm- 
trees,  which  grew  spontaneously ;  and  most  of 
them  bore  fruit,  of  which  the  inhabitants  made 
bread,  wine,  and  honey.  Some  of  them,  as  of 
other  trees,  the  Greeks  called  male  ones.  They 
tied  the  fruit  of  the  male  to  the  trees  which  bore 
dates ;  that  the  mosquito,  leaving  the  male, 
might  cause  the  date  to  ripen,  by  penetrating  it ; 
for  without  that  assistance  it  came  not  to  maturity. 
Musquitoes  breed  in  the  male  palms  as  in  the  wild 


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ftg-trees.  The  great  feitilitv  of  the  apil  was  owing, 
in  a  great  measure,  to  ue  inundation3  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  in  the  months  of  June, 
July,  and  August^  caused  by  the  melting  of  the 
snow  upon  the  mountains  of  Armenia.  From 
the  circumstance  of  its  being  low,  flat,  and  well 
watered,  this  country  abounded  with  >^iUowp, 
and  was  hence  called  the  ^Valley  of  ^yillows,'  as 
Prideaux  (Con.  pt.  i.  b.  i.  p.  105,)  after  Bochart 
corrects  the  text,  Is.  x.  5,  7.  Israel,  Ps.  cxxxvii. 
1,  3,  sat  c|own  in  their  captivity  by  the  rivers  of 
Babylon^  and  hung  their  harps  upon  jLhe  wil- 
lows. 

To  facilitate  the  purposes  of  commerce  the 
Babylonians  nd\igated  the  Euphrates,  by  means 
of  anall  boats,  nearlv  round,  constructed  like 
wicker  baskets,  which  were  covered  with  hides, 
and  guided  by  two  oars,  or  paddles.  These 
boats  had  neither  head  nor  stem ;  but,  being  of 
different  sizes,  were  very  useful  for  .carrying  their 
goods  to  Babylon;  whence  they  returned  by 
wd,  the  strength  of  the  current  not  allowing 
them  to  return  by  water 

The  inhabitants  of  this  country  were  divided, 
not  only  into  two  great  tribes,  mbylonf^n^  and 
Chaldeans,  properly  so  called,  but  into  nume- 
rous inferior  jects  and  divisions,  three  of  which 
are  said  to  have  fed  up^n  nothing  but  fish,  dried 
in  the  sun,  formed  into  paste,  and  afterwards 
baked  in  rolls  as  a  substitute  for  bread. 

Physicians  are  said  to  have  been  unknbwn  in 
Babylonia,  to  supply  the  want  of  which  they  car- 
ried their  sick  into  the  public  forum,  to  consult 
those  who  passed  by  on  the  nature  and  cure  of 
their  diseases.  Every  one  who  saw  a  sick  per- 
son was  obliged  to  go  to  him  to  inquire  into  his 
distemper,  and  tell  him  if  he  ever  had  the  same 
hipnselt,  ox  if  he  knew  any  one  that  had,  and  how 
he  was  cured ;  together  with  such  other  inquiries 
as  the  sick  person  raig^t  be  induced  to  propose. 
They  embalmed  their  dead  with  honey ;  and  in 
their  monming  imitated  the  Egyptians. 

The  laws  of  marriage  among  tne  Babylonians 
were  peculiar,  and  were  celebrated  by  the  an- 
cient writers  for  tfieir  wisdom  and  utility.  On 
what  ground  the  reader  will  determine.  When 
the  girls  were  nu^riageable,  they  were  ordered 
to  meet  in  a  certain  place,  where  the  younff  men 
likewise  assembled.  They  were  then  sold  by  the 
public  crier:  but  he  first  sold  the  most  beautiful 
one ;  and  then  put  up  others  to  sale,  according 
to  their  degrees  of  beauty.  The  rich  Babylonians 
were  emulous  to  carry  off  the  finest  women,  who 
were  sold  to  the  liighest  bidders.  But  as  the 
young  men  who  ^ere  poor  could  not  aspire  to 
have  fine  women,  they  were  content  to  take  the 
more  homely,  with  the  money  which  was  given 
with  them,  from  the  produce  of  the  sale  of  tlie 
finest  women!  A  fiuher  could  not  give  his 
daughter  in  marriage  as  he  pleased ;  nor  was  he 
who  bought  her  allowed  to  take  her  home,  witli- 
out  giving  security  that  he  would  marry  her 
^ut,  after  the  sale,  if  the  parties  were  not  agree- 
able to  each  otlier,  the  law  enjoined  that  the 
money  should  be  restored.  The  inhabitants  of 
any  of  their  towns  were  permitted  to  marry  wives 
at  these  auctions.  Such  were  the  early  customs  o^ 
the  Babylonians.  But  they  afterwards  made  a 
lawj  which  prohibited  the  inhabitants  of  different 


towns  to  intermarry,  and  by  which  husbands  wei< 
punished  for  treating  their  wive^  ill. 

>  The  Babylonians  vere  not  without  consider- 
able taste  for  the  arts.  Of  their  music  and  poetry 
we  have  certain  records.  They  also  excetled  in 
architecture  and  sculpture;  also  in  the  arts  of 
designing  and  casting  meUds.  Their  manufac- 
tories of  rich  embroideries,  sumptuous  vestments, 
magnificent  carpets,  and  fine  linen,  were  famous; 
9nd  their  purple  constituted  a  considerable  article 
of  eastern  commerce.  They  yrere  naturally  a 
commercial  nation,  for  which  their  metropolis 
afforded  peculiar  advantages ;  seated,  as  it  was, 
in  tlie  midst  of  the  world,  and  having,  by  means 
of  its  two  chief  rivers,  an  easy  access  to  the 
northern  and  western  parts  ^  ai^d,  by  means  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  to  the  western. 

At  first,  it  is  said,  the  Babylonians  worshipped 
only  the  sun  and  moon ;  but  they  soon  multi- 
plied their  divinities.  They  deified  Baal,  Bel,  or 
Belus,  one  of  their  kings,  and  Merodach-Bala- 
dan.  They  also  worshipped  Veuus  under  the 
name  of  Myletta  She  and  Belus  were  the  prin- 
cipal deities  of  the  Babyloniai>s.  The  practice 
of  sacrificing  human  victims  is  said  to  have  been 
fjrst  introduced  into  the  world  by  the  Babyloni- 
ans in  the  worship  of  these  deities.  They  counted 
their  day  from  sun-rise  to  sun-rise.  They 
solemnised  five  days  in  the  year  with  great  mag- 
nificence, and  almost  the  same  ceremonies  with 
which  the  Romans  celebrated  their  Saturnalia; 
and  the  Babylonians,  generally  speaking,  were 
very  much  addicted  to  judicial  astrology.  Their 
priests,  who  openly  professed  that  art,  were 
obliged  to  commit  to  writing  all  the  events  of 
the  lives  of  their  illustrious  men ;  and  on  a 
fancied  connexion  between  those  events  and  the 
motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  principles 
of  their  art  were  founded.  They  pretended  that 
some  of  •  their  boo|cs,  in  which  tneir  historical 
transactions  and  revolutions  wer^  accurately  com- 
pared with  the  courses  of  the  stars,  were 
thousands  of  years  old.  •  And  although  we  may 
dispute  this  assertion  of  their  astrologers,  it  is 
nevertheless,  true  tfa^  they  had  made  a  loi^ 
system  of  observations ;  and  that  some  of  these 
were  extant  in  the  days  of  Aristotle,  which  were 
older  than  the  Babylonish  empire.  See  Astro- 
nomy, Index. 

The  government  of  Babylon  was  despotic,  and 
the  succession  hereditary.  Their  potentates  as- 
sumed divine  titles,  and  received  divine  honors, 
which  shoyirs  the  spirit  a^d  force  of  the  Scripture 
comparison  between  Babylon  and  jpapal  Rome. 
The  ofiicers  by  whom  the  affairs  ot  government 
were  administered,  were  both  civil  and  militaiy, 
and  were  divided  into  three  classes.  The  first 
had  the  diarge  of  virgins,  and  of  their  dbposal 
in  marriai^e.  Th^  were  also  to  judge  in  ca^es 
of  adultejy,  and  all  matter^  connect^  with  the 
rights  and  institutes  of  matrimony.  The  second 
took  cognizance  of  thefts ;  and  tne  third  of  all 
otlier  crimes.  The  chief  officers  of  the  king's 
household  were  the  captain^  of  the  guard,  who 
executed  the  commands  of  the  sovereign.  The 
prince  of  the  eunuchs,  who  had  the  care  of  the 
youth  of  the  palace ;  the  prime  minister,  resem- 
bling the  Turkish  vizier,  who  sat  m  the  king's 
gate  to  hear  complaints  and  pass  judgioetit; 


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i  and  a  masler  ckf  the  magicians,  whose  province  it 
was  to  satisfy  the  king  on  all  subjects  that  re- 

(  lated  to  fiitunt^. 

.  Of  the  cnminal  laws  of  Babylon  little  is 

i  known,  except  that  their  punishments  were  cruel 

j  and  capricious — as  beheading,  cutting  to  pieces, 

^  turning  the  house  of  the  criminal  into  a  dung- 

\  hill,  Imming,  &c.    Such  is  the  account  com- 


BAC 


monly  given  by  historians  of  this  renowned  and 
ancient  monarchy,  one  of  the  four  great  empires 
of  the  earth,  so  frequently  employed  in  the  nand 
of  Providence  as  a  scourge  to  execute  the  di^e 
threatenings  upon  surrounding  nations.  Imis, 
however,  is  but  a  general  view,  and  for  a  more 
detailed  description,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the 
authorities  already  quoted. 


Babylon  is  a  term  employed  in  the  Scriptures, 
fiarticnlarly  in  the  first  epistle  of  St.  Peter,  and 
the  book  of  Revelation,  to  designate  a  great  ene- 
m^  to  the  Christian  faith ;  and  is  generally  ap- 
plied, by  Protestants,  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
churdi;  which,  from  her  pride,  oppressive  and 
persecuting  spirit,  but  chiefly  from  ner  idolatry, 
Dears  great  resemblance  to  Babylon.  Whoever 
reads  the  sixth  chapter  of  Baruch,  and  com- 
pares it  with  the  history  of  the  papal  apostacy, 
will  see  theiustice  and.  force  of  tne  application. 
See  also  Wmh^t  Paraphrase,  vol.  ii.  p.  661, 
and  753. 

Babylonia  Cura,  in  astrology,  the  art  of 
casting  nativities. 

BABYLONIAN,  Babylonius»  ^  used,  in 
ancient  writers,  for  an  astrologer,  or  any  thing 
relating  to  astrology. 

BABYLONICA.    See  Babylonics. 

Babylon  icA  Texta,  a  rich  sort  of  weavings, 
or  hangings,  denominated  from  the  cit^  of  Baby- 
lon, where  their  practice  of  interweaving  divert 
colors  in  the  hangings  first  obtained.  Hence 
also  Babylonic  garments,  Babylonic  skins,  Baby- 
Ionic  carpets,  housings,  &c. 

BABYLONICS,  Babylonica,  in  literary 
history,  a  fragment  of  the  ancient  history  of  the 
mrorld,  ending  at  267  years  before  Chnst;  and 
attributed  to  Berosus,  a  priest  of  Babylon,  about 
the  time  of  Alexander.  The  Babylonics  are 
sometimes  cited  in  ancient  writers  by  the  title  of 
Chaldaics.  They  are  generally  consonant  with 
Scripture,  whence  the  author  is  usually  supposed 
to  have  consulted  the  Jewish  writers.  Berosus 
speaks  of  ap  universal  deluge,  an  arlc,  &c.  He 
reckons  ten  generations  between  the  first  man 
and  the  deluge  ;  and  marks  the  duration  of  the 
seyeral  generations  by  saroi,  or  periods  of  223 
lunar  months ;  which,  reduced  to  years,'  differ 
not  much  from  the  chronology  of  Moses.  Only 
a  few  imperfect  extracts  are  now  remaining  of 
the  work;  preserved  chiefly  by  Josephus  and 
Syncellus.  Annius  of  Viterbo,  to  supply  the 
loss,  forced  a  complete  Berosus ! 

BABYLONII  NuMERi,  Babylonican  num- 
bers, or  the  computation  of  astrologers. 

BABYROUSSA,  in  loology,  a  synonyme  of  a 
species  of  sus.  It  is  the  homed  hog  of  Grew ; 
porcus  indicus  babyroussa  dictus  of  Ray;  and 
baby-roussa  of  Bunon.  In  the  arrangement  of 
the  Frendi  naturalists,  it  belongs  to  the  genus 
cochons  and  order  pachydermes.    See  Sus. 

BAC,  or  Back,  in  brewing  or  distilling,  a 
large  flat  tub,  or  vessel,  wherein  the  wort  is  put 
to  stand  and  oool.  There  is  a  branch  of  trade 
called  back-making,  for  fiirabhing  these  vessels. 

Bac,  in  navigation,  is  used  for  a  praam,  o^ 
ferry-boat.    See  Back. 

BACA,  an  ancient  valley  in  Palestine.  Some 


commentators  suppose  it  to  be  the  same  with  the  - 
valley  of  Rephaim,  where  the  Jews,  in  journey- 
ing to  their  solemn  f^vals,  stopped  for  refresh- 
ment, as  it  abounded  with  springs,  and  vras  well 
shaded  with  mulberry  trees,  which  the  name 
Baca  signifies.    See  I^lm  Ixxxiy.  6, 

Baca,  or  Baza,  a  town  of  Spain,  ip  Granada, 
situated  in  a  valley  called  Hoya  de  Baza.  It  is 
encompassed  with  old  walls,  has  a  ruined  castle, 
and  a  church,  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary. 
The  land  about  it  is  well  cultivated,  and  is  fer- 
tile in  wheat,  wine,  honey,  hemp,  and  flax,  being 
watered  by  the  Guadalentin.  It  is  thirty-five  miles 
north-west  of  Almeira. 

BACACUM,  a  town  of  the  Nervii  in  Gallia 
Belgica ;  now  Bavay,  in  Hamault. 

BAC  AIM,  or  Bazaiu,  a  sea-port  town  of 
the  Deccan  of  Hindostan,  on  the  Msdabar 
coast. 

BACALAL,  a  lake  of  Mexico^  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Yucatan,  forty  miles  long,  and  sixteen 
broad.  It  is  thirty-six  miles  soum-west  of  Val- 
ladolid. 

B^CANO,  a  lake  of  Italy,  in  the  pope's  terri- 
tories, from  which  issues  the  river  Varca. 

BACANORA,  a  town  of  North  America,  in 
New  Mexico,  seated  onr  the  Hiagra. 

BACANTIBI,  in  fecclesiastical  history,  vran- 
dering  clerks,  who  strolled  from  church  to  church. 
The  word  seems  formed  by  corruption  from  va- 
cantivi. 

BACASERAY,  a  considerable  town  in  the 
peninsula  of  Crim  Tartary.  It  was  taken  from 
the  Turics  by  the  Russians,  in  1736.  It  is  seventy 
miles  south  of  Precop. 

BACBAKIRI,  in  omithologjr,  the  name  by 
which  le  Merle  &  plastron  nOir  de  Ceylan  of 
Buflbn,  is  known  at  the  Cane  of  Good  Hope, 
because  its  note  very  clearly  expresses  the  syl- 
lables bac-ba-ki-ri.  It  is  tne  green-pye  from 
Ceylon  of  Edwards ;  Ceylon  thrush  oflatham ; 
ana  turdus  Zeylonus  of  Linnseus. 

BACCA,B£Bey,  in  botany,  is  used  to  signify 
such  fruits  as  consist  of  pericarpium  full  of  juice 
and  seeds,  without  any  valves. 

BACC£  Bbrmudiekscs,  in  the  materia  me- 
dica,  the  berries  of  the  sapindus,  or  soap-berry 
tree. 

BACCALARIA,  m  middle  age  ivriters,  a 
kind  of  country  farms,  consisting  of  several 
manses. 

Baccalaria  Domtnicaria,  Baccalaria  Ik- 
DOMiNicATA,  were  more  particularly  used  for  a 
ikrro  belonging  to  the  lord,  and  kept  in  his  own 
hands. 

BACCALAUREATE,  Baccalaureatcs,  a 
bachelor's  degree;  the  first  degree  in  arts  and 
sciences  in  an  university.    See  next  article. 

BACCALAUREUS  ;  Latin,  frum  bacca  lau- 


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rea,  a  bay  berry ;  a  bachelor  in  an  upiversity,  so 
called  because  anciently  their  heads,  at  g^ua- 
tioi^  were  adorned  with  a  garland  of  bay  berries. 

BACCARACH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
lower  Palatinate ;  formerly  imperial  and  free,  but 
now  subject  to  Prussia.  It  is  famous  for  excel- 
lent wine ;  and  is  situated  on  the  east  shore  of 
the  Rhine,  thirty-eight  miles  south  of  Coblentz, 
and  forty-eight  north  of  Deux  Ponts.  This  place 
is  mentioned  by  historians  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  the  customs  formerly  collected  on  tlie 
Rhine  here  w^  so  productive,  that  it  received  the 
name  of  the  golden  toll.  A  spring,  of  an  oily 
consistence,  rising  in  the  middle  of  the  river  near 
it,  affects  both  the  smell  and  color  of  the  water 
to  a  considerable  distance.  The  island  of  Heil- 
esen,  just  below  it,  contains  a  monument,  to  be 
seen  at  low  water,  adorned  with  sailptures  and 
inscriptions.  It  appears  to  have  been  an  ancient 
altar  of  Bacchus;  is  still  termed  Bacchi  ara,  and 
is  said  to  give  ihe  town  its  name.  There  are 
large  slate  quarries  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
the  town  contains  manufactures  ofpowder  and 
starch.  Population  about  1200.  The  town  suf- 
fered much  in  the  thirty  years  war.  The  count 
palatine  formerly  resided  in  the  castle  of  Sta- 
lecke,  near  this  town. 

BACCARUM,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
acarus,  found  on  gooseberries,  currants,  and  other 
fruit-trees.  Also  a  spe^nes  of  cimex,  of  a  fulvous 
color.    Inhabits  Europe. 

BACCASERY.    See  Bacaseray. 

BA'CCATED,  adj.  Lat.  baccatus,  beset  with 
pearls ;  having  many  berries. 

Johmon  frmn  Diet. 

BACCATUS,  in  botany,  berried,  or  soft,  like 
a  berry ;  an  epithet  for  a  capsule,  a  drupe,  a  si- 
lique,  and  an  aril,  as  Baccata  capsula,  a  capsule 
with  a  fleshy  coat.  Baccata  drupa,  a  drupe  with 
a  succulent  coat,  &c. 

BACCHiE,  in  antiquity,  1.  the  priestesses  of 
Bacchus,  who  celebrated  the  mysteries  of  that 
god ;  2.  the  ivy  crowns  or  garlands  worn  by  the 
priests  of  Bacchus,  in  offering  sacrifices  to  him. 

BACCHANAL,  ».  ».  )    From  Lat.  toe- 

.  Bac'chanalian.  ad.  k.n.s.S  chanaUa.  The 
feasts  and  revels  of  Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine ;  a 
worshipper  of  Bacchus,  or,  in  modem  usage,  a 
drunkard  or  riotous  person. 

Ha,  my  Brave  emperor !  shall  we  dance  now  the 
Egyptian  hacdiamaU,  and  celebrate  our  drink  ? 

ShaltBpeare* 

What  wild  fuiy  was  there,  in  the  heathen  hac- 
ckanalt,  which  we  have  not  seen  equalled  7 

Dgcojf  of  Pieisf. 

Both  extremes  were  banish'd  from  their  walls ; 
Carthuuan  fasts,  and  fulsome  baechanala.  Pope* 

And  now  Childe  Harolde  was  sore  sick  at  heart. 
And  from  his  fellow  hwHAtmak  would  flee.  Byron, 
BACCHANALIA,  Bacchanals,  religious 
feasts  in  honor  of  Bacchus,  were  celebrated  vrith 
much  solemnity  among  the  ancients,  particu- 
larly the  Athenians,  who  even  computed  their 
years  by  them,  till  the  conunencement  of  the 
Olympiads.  They  are  sometimes  also  called 
orgia,  from  the  Greek  Qcynf  fury;  on  account 
of  the  madness  and  enthusiasm  wherewith  the 
people  appeared  to  be  possessed  at  the  time  of 
their  celebration.  They  were  held  in  autumn, 
«nd  took  their  rise  from  Egypt ;  whence,  accord- 


ing to  Diodorus,  they  were  brought  into  Greece 
by  Melampus.  The  form  of  the  solemnity  de- 
pended at  Athens,  on  tlie  archon,  apd  was,  at 
first,  exceedingly  simple;  but,  by  degrees,  it 
became  encumbered  with  a  number  of  ridiculous 
ceremonies,  and  attended  with  much  dissolute- 
ness and  debauchery ;  insomuch,  that  the  Romans 
grew  ashamed  of  them,  and  suppressed  them  by 
a  decree  of  the  senate  throughout  all  Italy.  The 
women  had  a  great  share  in  these  solemnities, 
which  were  said  to  have  been  instituted  on  their 
account ;  for  a  great  number  of  tliem,  according 
to  the  tradition^  attended  Bacchus  to  the  con- 

3uest  of  the  Indies,  carrying  in  their  hands  the 
lyrsus  (i.  e.  a  little  lance,  covered  with  ivy  aiid 
vine  leaves),  and  singing  his  victories  and  tri- 
umphs. The  ceremony  was  kept  up  after  Bac- 
chus*s  deification,  under  the  title  of  Bacchanalia, 
and  the  women  were  installed  priestesses  there9f, 
under  that  of  Bacchs,  or  Bacchantes.  Tliese 
priestesses,  at  the  time  of  the  feast,  ran  through 
the  streets,  and  over  the  mountains,  covered  with 
tiger's  skins,  their  hair  dishevelled,  their  thyrsus 
in  one  hand,  and  torches  in  the  other,  howling 
and  shrieking,  Evoi  (rajSoi.'  Evoi  Bocxc'  l» 
lojcxc .'  or  Ia»  Bacxc  •'  ^^  ^e  men,  some  repre- 
sented Pan,  others  Silenus,  others  satyrs.  Men 
and  women  met  promiscuously  at  the  feast,  quite 
naked,  except  only  that  the  vine  leaves,  and  clus- 
ters of  grapes,  bound  their  heads  and  loins ;  here 
they  danced  and  jumped  tumtdtuously,  and,  with 
strange  gesticulations,  sung  hymns  to  Bacchus, 
till,  being  weary  and  giddy,  they  fell.  Livy  has 
left  us  a  particular  account  (xxxix.  8,  &c.)  of 
the  enormities  practised  at  these  festivals,  and 
which  led  to  their  suppression.  There  were  two 
principal  Bacchanalia  neld  annually,  viz. 

Bacchanalia  Dionysia,  or  Majora,  the 
greater  Bacchanalia,  so  called  from  one  of  Bac- 
chus's  names  (see  Bacchus),  celebrated  in  the  city 
about  spring  time ;  and 

Bacchanalia  Len/ea,  or  Minora,  the  lesser 
festival,  celebrated  in  the  open  fields  about 
autumn. 

Bacchanalia  signify  also  pictures,  or  basso 
relievos,  whereon  the  feast  is  represented,  con* 
sisting  chiefly  of  dancing,  nudities,  and  the  like. 
There  are  antique  Bacchanals,  still  seen  on  seve- 
ral ancient  friezes.  Thos^  painted  by  Poussin 
are  excellent. 

BACCHANTES,  priestesses  to  Bacchus. 

BACCHARACH  Wine,  an  excellent  kind  of 
wine,  by  many  mistaken  for  Rhenish  ;  but  from 
which  Portzius  observes  it  differs  in  color,  taste, 
flavor  and  strength.    See  Baccarach. 

BACCHARIS,  in  botany,  Ploughman's  Spike- 
nard :  a  genus  of  *he  polygamia  superflua  order, 
and  syngenesia  class  of  plants ;  rankine  in  the 
natural  method  under  the  forty-ninth  order,  com- 
positae  discoides.  The  characters  are  :  a  naked 
receptacle,  and  hairy  pappus ;  with  a  cylindrical 
imbricated  calyx,  and  feminine  florets  mixed  with 
the  hermaphrodites.  There  are  seven  species,  all 
natives  ot  warm  climates;  of  which  the  two 
following  chiefly  merit  notice.  1.  B.  Halimifolia, 
or  Virginia  groundsel  tree,  a  native  of  Virginia 
and  oUier  parts  of  North  America.  It  grows 
about  seven  or  eight  feet  high,  with  a  crooked 
shrubbery  stem ;  and  flowers  in  October.    2.  B. 


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BACCHUS. 


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Ivefolia,  or  African  tree  grotmdsel,  a  native  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  as  well  as  of  Peru  and 
other  warm  parts  of  America. 

Bacchari?,  in  pharmacy,  a  sweet  ointment 
used  among  the  ancient^  so  called  perhaps  from 
the  aboye  plant  being  a  principal  ingredient 
in  it. 

BACCHI,  in  fobulous  history,  a  kind  of  mar- ' 
chines  in  the  form  of  goats,  said  to  have  been  nsed 
by  Jupiter  in  his  wars  against  the  giants.  Rudbeck 
describes  two  kinds  of  Bacchi,  one  made  like  the 
battering  ram,  wherewith  Jupiter  demolished  the 
enemy's  fortifications ;  the  other  contrived  to  cast 
fire,  from  whence  the  Greeks  are  conjectured  to 
have  framed  their  idea  of  the  chimera. 

BACCHIC,  something  relating  to  the  ceremo- 
nies of  Bacchus.  The  celebrated  intaglio,  called 
Michael  Angelo's  ring,  is  a  representation  of  a 
Bacchic  ieast. 

Bacchic  Sono  is  sometimes  used  for  a  chanson 
i  boire,  or  composition  to  inspire  jollity.  But 
in  a  more  proper  sense,  it  is  restrained  to  a  dithy- 
rambic  ode  or  hymn. 

BACCHICA,  in  botany,  Hedera,  or  ivy. 

BACCHINI  (Benedict),  a  learned  monk  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  was  a  native  of  Parma, 
and  entered  at  the  age  of  sixteen  into  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  Mount  Cassino.  He  after- 
wards travelled  as  secretary  to  the  abbot  of  Fer- 
lara.  At  length  he  settled  at  Parma,  and  esta- 
blished a  periodical  journal,  which  he  conducted 
for  some  years  with  learning  and  success :  but 
his  criticisms  created  enemies,  who  procured  his 
banishment.  He  retreated  to  Modena,  and  re- 
sumed his  journal  under  the  patronage  of  the 
duke  of  Modena.  He  was  alpo  historiographer 
and  librarian  to  the  duke.  He  subsequently  be- 
came abbot  of  a  Benedictine  monastery,  and  was 
also  chosen  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  at 
Bologns!,  where  he  died  in  1721,  aged  seventy. 
Bacchini  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time.  His  literary  journal  extends  to  nine  vols. 
4to. ;  besides  which,  he  published  De  Sistroruin 
Figuris  ac  Differentia,  Bononiae,  1691,  4to.; 
De  Ecclesiastics  Hierarchite  Originibus,  Mo- 
dens,  1703,  &c.  &c. 

BACCHIS,  or  Balus,  king  of  Corinth,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Pruinnides,  and  reigned  with 
such  moderation  and  equity,  that  to  commemo- 
rate him  his  successors  were  called  Bacchids. 
The  Baccbids  afterwards  becoming  numerous, 
they  chose  one  as  president,  with  regal  authority. 
This  institution  was,  however,  overturned  by 
Cypselus  making  himself  absolute. 

BACCHIUS,  a  follower  of  Aristoxenus,  sup- 
posed by  Fabricius  to  have  been  tutor  to  the 
emperor  Marcus  Antoninus,  and  consequendy  to 
liave  lived  about  A.  D.  140.  He  wrote  in  Greek 
a  short  introduction  to  music  in  dialogue,  which 
Meibomiushas  published  with  a  Latin  translation. 

Bacchius,  in  ancient  poetry,  a  foot  composed 
of  a  short  syllable  and  two  long  ones ;  as  Sgestas. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  god  Bacchus,  because 
it  frequently  entered  into  the  hymns  composed  in 
his  honor.  The  Romans  called  it  likewise  sno- 
triiis,  tripodius,  and  saltans;  and  the  Greeks 

Bacchius  and  Bitbvs,  two  renowned  gladia- 
tors of  equal  age  and  strength ;  whenre  the  pro- 


verb, expressive  of  equality,  Bithus  contra  B^c- 
chium. 

BACCHUS,  in  heathen  mythology,  the  god 
of  wine.  He  is  seldom  named  in  modern  times, 
but  as  a  sensual  encourager  of  feast  and  jollity  : 
he  was  regarded  in  a  more  respectable  light  by 
the  ancients,  who  worshipped  him  in  different 
countries  under  the  appellations,  in  l^pt,  of 
Osiris;  in  Mvsia,  Fanaces;  in  India,  Dionysius; 
Liber,  throughout  the  Roman  dominions ;  Ado- 
neus,  in  Arabia;  and  Pentheus,  in  Lucania. 
Mythologists  furnish  reasons  for  all 'these  diffe- 
rent names.  The  Greeks  and  the  Romans  ascribed 
to  the  Bacchus  whom  they  worshipped,  the 
several  actions  Aid  attributes  of  the  many  divi- 
nities known  by  that  name,  and  by  other  equiva- 
lent denominations  in  different  countries.  How- 
ever, antiquity  chiefly  distinguished  two  gods 
under  the  title  of  Bacchus ;  the  one  of  £^pt, 
the  other  of  Thebes  in  Boeotia. 

The  Bacchus  of  Egypt  vnis  the  son  of  Ammon, 
and  considered  as  the  same  widi  Osiris.  He 
was  brought  up  at  Nysa,  a  city  of  Arabia  Felix, 
whence  he  acquired  the  name  of  Dionysius,  or 
the  god  of  Nysa ;  and  was  the  conqueror  of  India. 
This  Bacchus  was  one  of  the  elder  gods  of  Egypt, 
although,  according  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  he 
flourished  but  one  generation  before  the  Argo- 
nautic  expedition.  Bacchus,  says  Hermippus, 
was  potent  at  sea,  conquered  eastward  as  ^  as 
India,  returned  in  triumph,  brought  his  army 
over  the  Hellespont,  conquered  Thrace,  and  left 
music,  poetry,  and  dancing  there. 

BAccBtTS  of  Thebes  was  the  son  of  Jupiter  by 
Semele,  the  daughter  of  Cadmus,  and  ranked  as 
the  youngest  of  the  Grecian  deities.  Diodonis 
Siculus  tells  tis,  that  Oroheus  first  deified  the 
son  of  Semele  by  the  name  of  Bacchus,  and  ap- 
pointed his  ceremonies  in  Greece,  to  render  the 
nmilv  of  Cadmus,  the  grand&ther  of  the  Grecian 
BaccW,  illustrious.  According  to  this  author, 
it  was  die  son  of  Semele  who  invented  farces 
and  theatres,  and  who  first  established  a  musical 
school,  excepting  from  all  military  functions  such 
musicians  as  discovered  great  abilities  in  dieir 
art :  on  which  account,  says  the  same  author, 
musicians  formed  into  companies  have  since  fre- 
quently enjoyed  great  privileges.  Paosanias,  in 
his  Attics,  speaks  of  a  place  at  Athens  conse- 
crated to  Bacchus  the  singer :  whence  it  should 
seem  that  Bacchus  was  regarded  by  the  Atheniana 
not  only  as  the  god  of  wine,  but  of  song ;  and  it 
must  be  owned,  that  his  followers,  in  their  cups, 
have  not  been  unincUned  to  pay  him  service  in 
this  way.  Indeed  it  is  clear,  that  in  none  of  the 
origies,  processions,  and  fo^vals,  instituted  by 
the  ancients  to  the  honor  of  this  prince  of  bons- 
vivans,  music  was  forgotten.  We  find  not  only 
that  musicians,  male  and  female,  regaled  him 
vrith  the  lyre,  the  flute  :and  the  song ;  but  that 
he  was  accompanied  by  fawns  and  satyrs,  play- 
ing upon  timbrels,cymrals,  bag-pipes,  and  horns; 
these  Suidas  calls  tus  mmstrels,  and  Strabo  gives 
them  the  appellation  of  Bacchi,  Sileni,  Satyri, 
Bacchs,  Lena,  Thye,  &c.  These  representa- 
tions have  furnished  subjects  for  the  finest 
remains  of  ancient  sculpture;  and  the  most 
voluptuous  passages  of  ancient  poetry  are  de- 
scriptions of^the  orgies  and  festivals  of  Bacchus. 


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Bacchus,  is  represented  on  medals  in  the  form 
of  a  boy  or  jroutb,  an  old  man,  or  a  female,  as  in 
ligs.  1,  2,  3 ;  he  is  mostly  naked,  as  in  fig.  4, 


Fig.  2. 


Bacchus,  in  entoroology«  a  4arge  species  of 
flcarabsus,  Uiat  inhabits  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
2.  A  species  of  curcnlio.  3.  A  species  of 
monoculus. 

BACcaus,  in  ichthyology,  a  name  given  by 
tome  to  the  myxon,  a  fish  of  the  mullet  kind, 
remarkable  for  the  red  color  of  its  lips,  and 
the  extremity  of  the  covering  of  the  gills.    See 

MUGIL. 

BACCHUS-BOLE.    See  Botany. 

BACCHYLIDES,  a  femous  Greek  poet,  the 
nephew  of  Simonides,  and  the  contemporary  and 
rival  of  Pindar.  Both  sung  the  victories  of 
Hiero  at  the  public  games.  Besides  ,Odes  to 
athletic  victors,  he  was  the  author  of  love  verses, 
prosodies,  dithyrambics,  hymns,  paeans,  par- 
thenia,  or  songs  to  be  sung  by  a  chorus  of 
virgins  at  festivals,  &c.  "nie  chronology  of 
Eusebius  places  the  birth  of  Bacchylides  in  the 
eighty-second  Olympiad,  about  A.  A.  C.  450. 

BACCITEROUS.    See  Box  ant. 

BACCINA,  or  Baccinuu,  a  basin  to  hold 
water  to  wash  the  hands,  The  holding  the 
basin,  or  waiting  at  the  basin,  on  the  day  of  the 
king's  coronation,  was  an  ancient  tenure  in  ser- 
ieantry. 

BACCIQ  (Franqisco  Bartolomeo,  or  Barte- 
lemi  di  S.  Marco),  a  celebrated  history  and  por- 
trait painter,  was  bom  atSavignano  near  Florence, 
in  1469,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Roselli ;  but  his 
principal  knowle<^e  in  the  art  was  derived  from 
Da  Vmci.  He  understood  the  true  principles  of 
design  better  than  most  masters  of  his  time,  and 
was  also  a  considerable  painter  of  perspective. 
Raphael,  after  he  had  quitted  the  school  of  Pe- 
rugmo,  studied  the  art  of  uniting  colors  under 
him,  as  well  as  the  rules  of  perspective.  Some 
years  after  the  departure  of  Raphael,  Baccio 
visited  Rome ;  and  oy  the  observations  he  made 
m  the  antiquities  and  the  works  of  Raphael, 
which,  by  that  time,  were  universally  admired, 
he  improved  much,  and  manifested  his  abilities 
by  a  picture  of  St.  Sebastian,  which  he  finished 
at  his  return  to  Florence.  This  was  so  well  de-. 
signed,  so  naturally  colored,  and  had  so  strong 
an  expression  of  agony,  that  it  was  removed 
horn  the  convent  where  it  was  exhibited,  as  it  had 
made  too  strong  an  impression  on  the  imafina- 
iions  of  many  women.  He  is  accounted  the 
first  inventor  of  the  machine  called  a  layman  by 
the  artists,  and  vrhich  is  still  in  general  use. 
Upon  that  he  placed  his  draperies,  to  observe, 
with  great  exactness,  their  natural  and  their  most 
elegant  folds.  A  capital  oicture  of  the  ascen- 
sion^ by  Baccio,  is  in  the  Florentine  collection. 
He  died  in  1517. 


where  he  stands  under  the  shadow  of  a  vine- 
branch,  near  an  altar,  at  which  the  emperor 
Commodus  is  offering  him  divine  Ijonors. 


Pig.  3. 


Baccio,  or  Baccius  (Andrew),  a  celebrated 
physician  of  the  sixteenth  century,  bom  at  St. 
Elpideo.  He  practised  physic  at  Rome  with 
great  reputation,  and  was  finst  physician  to  pope 
Sixtus  V.  The  most  scarce  and  most  valuable 
of  his  works  are,  1.  De  Thermis.  2.  De  Natu- 
rali  Vinorum  Historia.  3.  De  Venenis  et  An- 
tidotis.    4.  De  Gemmis  ac  Lapidibus  pretiosis. 

BACCrVOROUS,  aty.  From  fcocca,  a  berry, 
and  voro,  to  devour,  Lat.    Devouring  berries. 

BACCOFOE,  in  botany,  a  fruit  like  the 
banana,  very  common  in  Guinea,  but  whiter, 
thicker  and  shorter.  The  taste  and  smell  are 
agreeable ;  and  some  pretend  that  on  cutting  it 
through  transversely,  there  is  the  figure  of  a  cru- 
cifix on  each  side  of  it.   Phil.  Trans.   No.  108. 

BACCULI.    See  Bacilli. 

BACH,  a  town  of  Lower  Hungary,  in  tlie 
county  of  Tolu,  seated  on  the  Danube. 

Bach  (.Tohn  Sebastian),  a  celebrated  musician, 
bom  at  Eisnach  in  Germany  in  1685.  He  was 
patronised  by  the  duke  of  Saxe  VVeimer,  who 
appointed  him  his  musician  in  1708;  and  at 


Dresden  he  gained  a  victory  over  a  fiimous 
French  organist,  whose  vanity  led  him  to  chal- 
lenge all  the  German  musicians.  As  an  organist, 
he  was  thought  equal  to  Handel,  and  the  excel- 
lence of  his  compositions  testify  him  to  have  been 
among  the  foremost  in  the  science.  He  died  in 
1754. 

Bach  (Charles  and  John),  sons  of  die  above, 
were  both  very  eminent  as  performers  and 
composers  of  music.  Charles  lived  at  Ham- 
burgn  in  1773,  and  John  was  in  En^and  in  17C3. 

BACHA,  a  river  of  Asiatic  Russia,  which 
joins  the  Jenesei  on  the  right. 

Bacha,  in  ornithology,  a  spgpies  of  falco, 
figured  in  the  fifteenth  plate  of  Le  Vaillant's  work 
on  the  birds  of  Africa.  It  is  about  the  siie  of 
the  common  buzzard,  and  naturally  belongs  to 
that  tribe  of  rapacious  birds. 

BACHAUMONT  (Francois  le  Coigneux  de), 
a  French  poet.  He  was  counsellor  to  the  par- 
liament, but  his  love  of  ease  and  pleasure  made 
him  give  up  his  post  and  renounce  his  profes- 
sion- Contracting  an  intimacy  with  Cbapelle, 
he  was  joined  with  him  in  writing  A  Journey  to 
Montpelier,  in  which  there  is  much  vivacity  dis- 
playea;  besides  which  he  wrote  several  other 
works,  in  a  humorous  style.  He  died  at  Paris 
in  1702,  aged  seventy-eight. 

Bachaumont  (Louis-Petit),  a  French  writer, 
bom  at  Paris,  was  author  of  Secret  Memoirs 
towards  a  History  of  the  Republic  of  Letters  in 
France,  thirty-six  volumes,  12mo.  and  other 
works.     He  died  in  1771. 


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BACHELORS. 


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EACHBIiIER  (Nicholas),  an  eminent  French 
sculptor  and  architect.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Mi- 
diad  Angelo,  and  omameBted  the  cnurches  of 
Toulouse,  bis  native  city.    He  died  about  1554. 

BACH'ELOR,  n.  i .  )     This  is  a  word    of 

Bacr'clossrip,  n.  s. )  very  uncertain  etymo- 
logy ;  it  not  being  well  known  what  was  its  ori- 
ginal sense.  Junius  derives  it  from  ^cbei}Xoc»  a 
man  of  full  stature  but  of  effeminate  and  imma- 
ture mind ;  Menage,  from  hat  chemlier,  a  knight 
of  the  lowest  rank ;  Spelman,  from  baadus,  a 
staff;  Caias,  from  hucceUaf  an  allowance  of  pro- 
vision. The  most  probable  derivation  seems  to 
be,  from  hacca  laumt^  the  berry  of  a  laurel  or 
bay ;  bachelors,  being  young,  are  of  good  hopes, 
like  laurels  in  the  berry.  Dr.  Lawrence  ob- 
serves, that  Menage's  et3rmology  is  much  con- 
firmed by  the  practice  in  our  universities  of  call- 
ing a  bachelor.  Sir.  In  Latin,  haccdaureui. 
The  former  of  these  words  describes  the  person ; 
the  lattpr  his  condition.  The  more  common  ac- 
ceptation is  a  man  unmarried.  Its  secondary 
meaning  is  one  who  takes  his  first  degree  at  the 
university  in  any  profession ;  and  its  last  and 
liow  obsolete  sense,  is  a  knight  of  the  lowest 
order. 

Shall  I  never  tee  a  hadidor  of  threescore  tgain? 


When  I  said  I  would  die  a  hachdor,  I  did  not 
think  I  ihoold  live  till  I  were  married.  Id, 

fler  mother,  living  yet,  can  testify. 
She  was  the  fint  firuit  of  my  hatMonktf,       Id, 

But  he  told  dio  latter,  that  is  to  say,  Mr.  SpecUtor, 
he  told  the  haehelcn  that  their  liros  and  actions  had 
been  so  peculiar  that  he  knew  not  by  what  name  to 
call  them.  Spectator, 

Being  a  boy,  new  fiocAdbr  of  arts,  I  chanced  to 
speak  against  Che  pope.  Aicbam. 

1  appear  before  your  honour,  in  behalf  of  Maitinui 
ScriUems,  baekdor  of  physic.  Mart.  SerihUnu, 

^  Bacheloe,  in  ancient  times,  was  a  denomina- 
tion given  to  those  who  had  attained  to  knight- 
hood, but  had  not  a  number  of  vassak  sufiicient 
to  have  their  banner  carried  before  them  in  the 
field  of  batde ;  or  if  they  were  of  the  order  of 
bannerets  were  not  of  age  to  display  their  own 
banner,  but  obliged  to  march  to  battle  under 
another's  banner.  It  was  also  a  title  given  to 
young  cavaliers  who,  having  made  their  first 
campaign,  received  die  military  girdle  accord- 
ingly. And  it  served  to  denominate  him  that 
had  overcome  another  in  a  tournament  the  first 
time  he  ever  engaged. 

Bachelor,  in  die  six  companies  of  merchants 
ait  Paris,  was  a  name  given  oefore  the  Revolu- 
tion to  the  elders,  and  such  as,  having  served 
the  offices,  had  a  right  to  be  called  by  me  mas- 
ters and  wardens  to  be  present  with  them,  and 
assist  them  in  their  fimctions. 

Bachelors,  in  the  livery  companies  of  Lon- 
don, are  those  who  are  not  yet  admitted  to  the 
lively.  These  companies  generally  consist  of  a 
master,  two  wardens,  the  liveiyj  and  the  bache- 
lors, who  are  yet  but  in  expectation  of  dignity  in 
the  company,  and  have  their  functions  only  in 
attendance  on  the  master  and  wardens,  liiey 
are  also  called  yeomen. 

Bachelors,  in  the  university  sense,  are  per- 
sons who  have  attained  to  the  baccalaureate,  or 


first  degree  in  arts,  divinity,  law,  or  physic. 
This  degree  in  some  universities  has  no  exist- 
ence. It  was  first  introduced  in  the  thirteenth 
centurjr  by  pope  Gregory  IX.  The  ibMowinff 
regulations  are  observed  respecting  it  in  Oxford 
and  Cambridge:  In  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, a  bachelor  of  arts  must  reside  the  greater 
part  of  twelve  several  terms,  the  first  and  last 
excepted.  The  statutable  exercbes  before  ad- 
mission, ad  respondendum  qutestioni  (a  form  in 
which  the  father  of  the  college  asks  each  student 
a  question  before  his  graduation),  are  two  acts  and 
two  opponencies.  A  bachelor  of  divinity  must 
be  a  master  of  arts  of  seven  years  standing :  his 
exercises  are,  one  act,  after  the  fourth  year,  two 
opponencies,  a  concio  ad  clerum,  and  an  Eng- 
lish sermon.  The  ten-year  men,  who  are  candi- 
dates for  this  degree,  are  tolerated  by  a  statute 
12  Eliz.  They  are  persons  who,  being  twenty- 
four  years  of  age  and  upwards,  ore  admitted  at 
any  college  to  ^e  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  di- 
vinity after  ten  years.  Diuing  the  last  two  years 
they  must  reside  the  greater  part  of  three  several 
terms.  Their  exercises  are  the  same  as  in^  tlie 
regular  course.  A  bachelor  of  laws  must  t>e  of 
six  years  standing  complete,  and  must  keep  the 
greater  part  of  nine  several  terms.  The  exercise 
is  one  act.  A  bachelor  of  physic  must  keep  the 
greater  part  of  nme  seversJ  terms,  and  may  be  - 
admitted  any  time  in  his  sixth  year :  the  exercise 
is  one  act  and  one  opponency.  A  bachelor  of 
mvisi^  must  enter  his  name  at  some  college,  and 
perform  a  solemn  piece  of  music  as  an  exercise 
prior  to  his  degree. 

In  the  university  of  Oxford,  a  bachelor  of  arts 
must  keep  sixteen  terms,  and  appear  once  as  a 
respondent  in  the  schools.  A  bachelor  of  divi- 
nity must  be  master  of  arts  of  seven  years  stand- 
ing :  his  exercises  are  one  act,  two  opponencies, 
and  a  concio  ad  clerum  after  the  fifth  year.  A 
bachelor  of  laws  must  be  a  master  of  arts  of 
three  years  standing :  his  exercises  are  one  act 
and  two  opponencies.  A  bachelor  of  medicine 
must  be  a  master  of  arts  of  one  year  standing 
his  exercises  are  one  act  and  one  opponency.  r%. 
bachelor  of  music  must  produce  a  competent 
testimonial  that  he  has  applied  himself  to  thac 
science  during  seven  years,  and  must  perform  a 
piece  of  music  of  nve  parts  publicly  in  the 
music  school. 

Bachelors,  Knights,  the  most  ancient,  bjt 
the  lowest  order  of  knights  in  England;  known 
by  the  name  of  knights  only.  They  jire  styled 
knights  bachelors,  either  (according  to  some)  as 
denoting  their  degree,  quasi  bas  aievaliers ;  or, 
according  to  others,  because  this. title,  like  the 
fortune  of  an  unmarried  man,  does  not  descend 
to  their  posterity.  The  custom  of  the  ancient 
Germans  was  to  give  their  young  men  a  shield 
and  a  lance  in  the  peat  council ;  this  was  eoui- 
valent  to  the  toga  virilis  of  the  Romans.  Before 
this  they  were  not  permitted  to  bear  arms,  b:^ 
were  accounted  as  part  of  the  father's  household , 
a^r  it,  as  part  of  the  public.  Hence  some  de- 
rive the  usage  of  knighting,  which  has  prevailed 
all  over  the  western  world  since  its  reduction  oy 
colonies,  fix>m  those  northern  heroes.  Knights 
are  called  in  the  Latin  equites  aurati;  aurad, 
from  the  gilt  spurs  they  wore,  and  equites,  be- 


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cause  they  always  served  on  horseback ;  for  it 
is  observable  that  almost  all  nations  call  their 
Vnlghts  by  some  appellation  derived  from  a' 
horse.  They  are  also  called  in  our  law  milites, 
because  they  formed  a  part,  or  indeed  the  whole  of 
the  royal  army,  in  virtue  of  their  feudal  tenures : 
one  condition  of  which  was,  that  every  one  who 
held  a  knight*s  fee  (which  in  Henry  II /s  time 
amounted  to  twenty  pounds  per  annum)  was 
obliged  to  be  knighteu,  and  attend  the  king  in 
his  wars,  or  pay  a  fine  for  his  non-compliance. 
The  exertion  of  this  prerogative,  as  an  expedient 
to  raise  money  in  the  reign  of  Charles  t.  gave 
groat  offence,  though  warranted  by  law  and  the 
-ecent  example  of  queen  Elizabeth.  At  the  res- 
toration it  was,  together  with  all  other  military 
branches  of  the  feudal  law,  abolished,  and  it  now 
only  exists  in  an  honorary  title,  conferred  by  the 
king's  lightly  toucliing  the  person,  who  is  then 
kneeling,  on  the  right  shoulder  with  a  drawn 
sword,  and  saying,  *  rise,  sir.'  See  Knigut  and 
Nobility. 

On  bachelors,  or  unmarried  men,  the  Roman 
censors  frequently  imposed  fines.  Dion  Hali- 
camasseus  mentions  an  old  law  by  which  all 
persons  of  full  age  were  obliged  to  marry.  But 
the  most  celebrated  law  of  the  kind  was  that 
made  under  Augustus,  called  the  lex  Julia  de 
maritandis  ordinibus ;  by  which  bachelors  were 
made  incapable  of  legacies  or  inheritances  by 
will,  unless  from  their  near  relations.  This 
brought  many  to  marry,  according  to  Plutarch's 
observation,  not  so  much  for  the  sake  of  raising 
heirs  to  their  own  estates,  as  to  make  themselves 
capable  of  inheriting  those  of  others.  The  rab- 
bins maintain,  that,  by  the  laws  of  Moses,  every 
body,  except  a  few  particular  persons,  is  obliged  in 
conscience  to  marry  at  twenty  years  of  age ;  and 
that  this  makes  one  of  their  61 3  precepts.  Hence 
those  maxims,  so  frequent  among  their  casuists, 
that  he  who  does  not  take  the  necessary  mea- 
sures to  leave  heirs  behind  him,  is  not  a  man,  but 
ought  to  be  reputed  a  homicide.  Lycurgus  was 
not  more  favorable  to  this  state  of  life.  By  his 
laws,  bachelors  are  branded  with  infamy,  ex- 
cluded from  all  ofHces  civil  and  military,  and 
even  from  the  shows  and  public  sports.  At 
certain  feasts  they  were  forced  to  appear,  to  be 
exposed  to  the  public  derision,  ana  led  round 
the  market-place.  On  one  occasion,  the  women 
led  them  in  this  condition  to  the  altars,  where 
they  were  obliged  to  make  amende  honorable 
to  nature,  accompanied  with  a  number  of  blows 
and  lashes  with  a  rod.  To  complete  the  affront, 
they  forced  them  to  sing  certain  songs  com- 
posed in  their  own  derision.  The  Chris- 
tian religion  has  been  supposed  to  be  more 
indulgent  to  the  bachelor  state;  because  the 
apostle  Paul  has  recommended  it  as  prefer- 
aole  (as  it  certainly  was)  during  the  early  ages 
of  Christianity,  when  a  man  was  in  danger  of  suf- 
fering, not  only  in  his  own  person  or  property, 
but  in  those  of  his  nearest  and  dearest  con- 
nexions, for  the  saif.e  of  religion ;  which  rendered 
such  persecutions  more  dresulfiil  and  severe  upon 
the  married  than  the  unmarried.  The  ancient 
church,  overlooking  this  principle,  upon  which 
the  apostle's  advice  is  evidently  founded,  recom- 
neiided  the  bachelor  sUte,  as  well  as  that  of 


perpetual  virginity  in  the  other  sex,  as  not  ooly 
more  perfect  than  the  married  state,  but  even  as 
highly  meritorious  :  and  thus  gave  birth  to  the 
absurd  system  of  monasteries,  nunneries,  and  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy ;  which  for  so  many  ages  has 
burdened  Europe,  with  thousands  of  idle  drones 
of  both  sexes.  In  the  canon  law,  we  find  in- 
junctions on  bachelors,  when  arrived  at  puberty, 
either  to  marry  or  to  turn  monks  and  profess 
chastity  in  earnest.  In  England  there  was  a 
tax  on  bachelors,  afler  twenty-five  years  of  age, 
£l2.  -10s.  for  a  duke;  and  a  common  persou  Is. 
by  7  Wil.  III.  1695.  They  were  also  taxed  by 
Mr.  Pitt  in  an  extra-duty  on  their  servants. 

Bachelors  of  thc  Church,  baccalarii  ecde* 
sisB,  an  inferior  class  of  ecclesiastics,  mentioned 
in  some  old  records,  which  speak  of  the  bishop 
with  his  canons  and  baccalani. 

Bachelor's  Pear,  in  botany,  a  name  some; 
times  given  to  the  solanum  mammosum. 

BACKER,  a  lofty  ridge  of  mountains  in 
Styria,  circle  of  Ciily,  near  the  Drave,  about 
sixty-five  miles  in  circuit. 

BACHIAN,  or  Batchiak,  one  of  the  Mo- 
lucca islands  in  the  eastern  ocean,  separated  by 
a  narrow  channel  only,  from  the  island  of  Gilolo. 
It  is  about  fifty  miles  long,  and  twenty  in  average 
breadth,  but  much  narrower  in  the  middle  than 
towards  each  end.  The  native  prince  of  this  island 
early  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Spaniards  aad 
Portuguese,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Dutch  in 
1610.  It  is  fertile  in  sago,  and  other  fruits  of 
the  climate;  and  was  formerly  considered  as 
producing  better  cloves  tlian  any  other  island  of 
these  seas.  On  this  island  the  Butch  fixed  their 
principal  settlement,  before  Amboyna  attained 
Its  present  pre-eminence.  Bachian,  covered  with 
forests,  contains  a  burning  mountain;  beds  of 
coral  adorn  its  shores,  and  gold  has  been  classed 
among  its  products.  It  is  under  the  government 
of  a  sultan,  the  sovereign  of  Oby,  Ceram,  Coram, 
and  another  contiguous  islet.  The  inhabitants 
are  Malay  Mahommedans,  who  are  considered 
as  the  most  eastern  disciples  of  the  Arabian  pro- 
phet. The  chief  town  is  Sabongo.  Latitude 
about  0^  48' S.;  and  long.  129^  0'  E. 

'BACHILERIA,  in  old  law  Latin,  the  com- 
monality, as  distinguished  from  the  nobility. 

BACHILLL    See  Bacilli. 

BACHMUTH,  or  Bakhmoud,  the  chief  town 
of  a  circle  in  the  government  of  Ekaterinoslav, 
in  European  Russia,  situated  on  a  river  of  that 
name,  which  falls  into  the  Donetz.  It  is  well 
fortified,  and  has  a  citadel  for  the  protection  of 
its  saltrworks.  It  has  belonged  successively  to  the 
governments  of  Voronetz  and  New  Russia,  and 
was  erected  into  its  present  government  in  1775. 
The  circle  of  Bachmuth  borders  on  the  govern- 
ment of  Voronetz,  and  the  country  of  the  Don 
Cossacs,  and  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  parts  of 
Little  Russia.  When  a  scarcity  of  water  prevails 
in  the  summer,  the  supplies  are  brought  from  the 
Donetz.  104  miles  N.;N.  W.  of  Azoph,  and  1 12 
east  of  Ekaterinoslav. 

BACHNEU,  or  Bovghu,  a  market  town  of 
Transylvania,  in  the  coun^  of  Kokelburg,  on  the 
river  Little  Rokel. 

BACHU.    See  Baku. 

BACILLARIA,  in  entomology,  a  genus  of 


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the  dan  rermM,  uid  order  infusiora :  its  body 
coniistiiig  of  cylindrical,  straw-like  filaments. 
The  only  species  is  the  B.  paradoxa,  seu  vibrio 
pazilifer. 

BACILLI,  or  Baculi,  in  medicine  (from 
bacillus,  Lat.  a  staff,)  such  compositions  as  are 
made  up  in  a  cylindrical  figure,  like  a  stick. 

BACILLUM,  in  medicine,  dim.  of  baculum, 
a  troche  in  the  form  of  a  stick. 

Bacillum,  in  chemistry,  iron  instruments  in 
the  shape  of  a  baculum,  or  staff. 

BACK,  n.  f.  V.  a.  &  adv,  )      Sax.  bac,   baec; 

Backed,  adj.  S  Germ,  back.    The 

noun  signifies  the  hinder  part  of  the  body;  the 
outer  part  of  the  hand  opposed  to  the  palm;  the 
Chick  part  of  any  tool  opposed  to  the  edge.  The 
adveib  denotes  the  situation  of  being,  and  he 
uirection  of  going.  The  adjective  points  out  the 
back  as  the  adiunct  of  being;  the  simple  cir- 
cumstance of  having  a  back;  and  the  verb  is 
used  in  various  senses,  intimately  connected  and 
easily  traced  to  one  common  source,  the  original 
Ptymon,  namely,  to  mount  on  the  back  of  a  horse ; 
to  break  a  horse ;  to  place  upon  the  back ;  to 
maintain,  to  strengthen,  to  support,  to  defend,  to 
justify,  and  to  second. 

His  back,  or  rather  biutfaen,  •how'd 
Ai  if  it  stooped  with  its  own  load.        Budibnu. 

Did  they  not  vwear,  in  express  words. 
To  prop  and  back  the  house  of  lords  ? 
And  after  tiim'd  out  the  whole  honsefol.         Id. 
Part  following  enter  ;  ptfrt  remain  without. 
And  mount  on  others  back»,  in  hopes  to  share. 

Dfydeu. 

The  epistles  being  written  from  ladies  forsaken  by 

their  lovers,  many  thoughts  came  6aeA  upon  us  in 

divers  letters.  Id, 

'  Factious,  and  fav'ring  this  or  t'other  side. 

Their  wagers  ftocA  their  wishes.  Id. 

Methought  love  pitying  me,  when  he  tew  this. 
Gave  me  your  hands,  the  bathi  and  palms  to  kiss. 


Those  who,  by  their  ancestors,  have  been  set  free 
from  a  constant  drudgery  to  their  bach»  and  their 
bellies,  should  bestow  some  time  on  their  heads. 


He  might  conclude,  that  Walter  would  be  upon 
the  king's  taeft,  as  his  majesty  was  upon  his. 

CSarendb*. 

As  the  voice  goeth  round,  as  well  towards  the  ha/A 
as  towards  the  fkont  of  him  that  speaketh,  so  does  the 
«cho :  for  yoa  have  many  bath  echoes  to  the  place 
where  yon  stand.  Boom. 

And  all  within  it  full  of  wyndingsis 
And  hidden  ways  that  scarce  an  hound  by  smell 
Can  follow  out  those  false  footsteps  of  his 
He  none  can  baokB  retnme  that  once  are  gone  amis. 
i^pMMT.  Faem  QuMne. 
At  the  hoar  of  death,  all  friendships  of  the  worid 
bid  him  adieu,  and  the  whole  creation  turns  its  back 
«pon  him.  S^fA. 

A  great  malice,  bmdked  with  a  great  inten^st,  can 
have  no  advantage  with  a  man,  but  from  hi^  expec- 
Utions  of  something  without  himself.  Id. 

Boeh  you  shall  not  to  the  house,  unless 
You  undertake  that  with  me.  ShaJupeme. 

That  roan  shall  be  my  throne. 
Well,  I  will  baek  him  strait.     O  Esperauce ! 
Bid  Butler  lead  him  forth  into  the  park.         Id, 
Vol.  111. 


He  hath  a  garden  circummur'd  with  brick. 
Whose  western  side  is  with  a  vineyard  backed.    Id. 
As  I  slept,  methought 
Great  Jupiter,  upon  his  eagle  backed, 
Appear'd  to  me.  Id, 

Belike  he  means 
-     Baek'd  by  the  poVr  of  Warwick,  that  false  peer, 
T*  aspire  unto  the  crown.  Id, 

You  are  strait  enough  in  the  shoulders,  you  care 
not  who  sees  your  back ;  call  you  that  hacUng  of  your 
friends?  a  plague  upon  such  haekmg!  give  me  them 
that  will  face  me.  Id, 

He  sent  many  to  seek  the  ship  Argo,  threatening 
that  if  they  brought  not   hack  Medea,  they  should 
suffer  in  her  stead.       RaUigh'i  Hittory  of  the  Wwld 
Where  they  are,  and  wny  they  came  not  hack. 
Is  now  the  labour  of  my  thoughts.  ifiJftin 

Baek  to  thy  native  island  might'st  thou  sail 
And  leave  half-heard  the  melancholy  tale.     Pope 

So  rag'd  Tydides  boundless  in  his  ire. 
Drove  armies  hack  and  made  all  Troy  retire,      la: 

Tiiis  C»sar  found,  and  that  ungrateful  age. 
With  losing  him  went  hack  to  blood  and  rage. 

WaBar 
I've  been  surpris'd  in  an  unguarded  hour, 
But  must  not  now  go  back  ;  the  love,  that  lay 
Half  smother'd  in  my  breast,  has  broke  through  all 
Its  weak  restraints.  Addieom 

How  shall  we  treat  this  bold  aspiring  man? 
Success  still  follows  him,  and  hackt  his  crimes. 

Id 
To  thee.  Almighty  God  to  thee. 
Our  childhood  we  resign ; 
Twill  please  us  to  look  bocft  and  see. 
That  all  our  lives  were  thine.  WaUe. 

First  Fear  his  hand  its  skill  to  try. 
Amid  the  chords  bewildered  laid. 
And  back  recoil'd  he  knew  not  why. 
E'en  at  the  sounds  himself  had  made* 

CoOim 
Direct  us  how  to  hack  the  winged  horse  ; 
Favour  his  flight  and  moderate  his  course. 

/tofcommOA. 

These  were  seconded  by  certain  demilaunces,  and 

both  backed  with  men  at  arms.  St  J.  Hajfwaird, 

The  patrons  of  the  ternary  number  of  principles, 

and  those  that  would  have  five  elements,  endeavour 

to  hack  their  experiments  with  a  specious  reason. 

BoyU. 
We  have  I  know  not  how  many  adages  to  hack  the 
reason  of  this  moral.  L'Eaircmge. 

Back,  in  the  menage,  and  among  farriers 
A  horse's  back  should  be  straight,  not  hollow, 
which  is  called  saddle-backed :  horses  of  this 
kind  are  generally  light,  and  carry  their  heads 
high,  but  want  in  strength  and  service.  A  horse 
with  a  weak  back  is  apt  to  stumble.  In  the 
French  riding-schoob,  to  mount  a  horse  a  dos,  is 
to  mount  him  bare-backed,  without  a  saddle. 
.  To  Back  an  anchor,  in  maritime  affairs,  empen^ 
neUeruneanerey  Fr.  to  cany  out  a  small  anchor, 
as  the  stream  or  kedge,  ahead  of  the  large  one, 
by  which  the  ship  usually  rides,  in  order  to  sup- 
port  it,  and  prevent  it  from  loosening,  or  coming 
Lome  in  baa  ground.  In  this  situation  the  lattei 
is  confined  by  the  former,  in  the  same  manner 
that  the  ship  is  restrained  by  the  latter. 

To  Back  astern  in  rowing,  seier  d  cuUr,  Fr. 
is  to  manage  the  oars  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
the  usual  method,  so  as  that  the  boat  or  vessel 
impressed  by  their  force,  shall  retreat  or  move 
witn  her  stem  foremost. 

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Back  the  starboard  oars  I  seie  tribord  !  avec  let 
amrom,  Fr.  the  command  to  confine  the  abore 
roaoagemeat  to  the  oars  on  the  rig^ht  hand  side  of 
the  boat  only,  in  order  to  turn  her  round  more 
speedily  to  that  direction. 

7b  Back  and  fill,  coifferetfaire  servir  let  voiles, 
Fr.  is  an  operation  generally  performed  in  nar- 
row rivers,  when  a  ship  has  the  tide  in  her  favor, 
and  the  wind  is  against  her. — Exam. '  We  were 
obliged  to  back  and  fill  occasionally  to  get  up 
the  Thames.' 

To  Back  the  sails,  mettre  A  tcier,  Fr.  is  to  ar- 
range them  in  a  situation  that  will  occasion  the 
ship  to  retreat  or  move  astern,  in  consequence  of 
the  tide  or  current  in  her  &vor,  and  the  wind 
contrary,  but  light.  This  operation  is  particu- 
larly necessary  in  narrow  chamoels,  when  a  ship 
is  carried  along  sideways  by  the  strength  of  that 
tide  or  current,  and  it  becomes  requisite  to  avoid 
any  object  that  may  intercept  her  course,  as 
shoals,  or  vessels  under  sail,  or  at  anchor :  it  is 
also  necessary,  in  a  naval  engagement,  to  bring  a 
ship  back,  so  as  to  lie  oppposite  to  her  adversary, 
when  she  is  too  far  advanced  in  the  line ;  and 
also  in  fleets  under  convoy,  where  ships  are  too 
much  crowded,  by  the  above  operation  they  may 
be  preserved  from  falling  aboard  each  other.  See 
the  article  Aback. 

Back  the  main-topsail !  hrasu  le  grand  hunier 
tur  le  m&t!  Fr.  the  command  to  brace  that  sail 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  wind  may  exert  its 
force  against  the  fore-part  of  the  ssul,  and  "by 
thus  laying  it  aback  materially  retard  the  ship*s 
course. 

Back,  or  Dutchman's  Cap,  an  islet  of  the 
Hebrides.    Long.  6**  %r  W.,  lat.  56°  29'  N. 

BACKAR,  or  Behkur,  a  district  and  town  of 
Hindostan,  in  the  province  of  Moultan.  The 
town  is  situated  on  an  island  formed  by  the  In- 
dus, near  its  junction  with  the  Dommoody ;  for- 
merly it  was  called  Munsoorah,  and  had  a  strong 
fort.    Long.  70°  2'  E.,  lat.  28°  31'  N. 

BACK  BAR,  the  bar  in  a  chimney,  for  sus- 
pending vessels  over  the  fire. 

BACK-BFiAR,  Back-berknd,  Backbekovd, 
in  old  law,  a  criminal  caught  carrying  off  soipe- 
thing  on  his  back.    See  Backcarrt. 

BACK'BITE,  V,       ")     From  back  and  bite. 

Back'biter,  n.t,       >  A  familiar  term  for  the 

Back'bitingly,  oiv.  J  calumny  and  calum- 
niators which  shun  the  presence  of  their  victims. 
To  censure  the  absent;  the  coward  who  defames 
in  the  dark. 

Use  his  men  well  Davy,  for  they  are  airant  knaves 
and  wUl  haekbUe.  Shaktpeare. 

Nobody  is  boond  to  look  npon  his  haekhii«r,  or  his 
undexminer,  his  betrayer,  or  his  oppressor,  as  his 
friend.  SatUh. 

BACK-BOARD,  in  maritime  affairs,  is  of  a 
semi-circular  figure,  placed  transversely  in  the 
after-part  of  a  boat,  like  the  back  of  a  chair,  to 
recline  against  while  sitting  in  the  stem  sheets. 

BACK-BOND,  in  Scots  law,  a  bond  granted 
by  him  who  receives  a  deed  to  declare  the  pur- 
pose of  it,  and  to  bind  the  granter  to  perrorm 
accordingly. 

BACK'BONE,  n.  i.  from  back  and  bone. 
The  bone  of  the  back. . 


Hie  baekbome  should  be  divided  into  maiy  vsMalm 

for  eommodions  bending*  and  not  to  be  one  eotee 

rigid  bone.  R&g. 

BACK'CARRY.    Having  on  the  back. 

Manhood  in  his  forest  laws,  noteth  it  for  one  of 

the  four  circumstances  or  cases,  wherein  a  forester 

may  arrest  an  oflfender  against  vert  or  venison  in  the 

forest,  vis.  stable^tand,  dog-draw,  baekcany,  and 

bloody  hand.  Owdl. 

BACK'DOOR,  n.  $.    From  back  and  door. 

Tlie  door  behind  the  house ;  privy  passaged 

The  procession  durst  not  return  by  the  way  it  came; 

but,  after  the  devotion  of  the  monks,  passed  out  at  a 

backdoor  of  the  convent.  Additm. 

Popery,  which  is  so  far  shut  oat  as  not  to  re-enter 

openly,  is  stealing  in  by  the  ftodUber  of  atheism. 

ilttsfney. 
BACKER,  or  Bakker  (Jacob),  a  painter  of 
portraits  and  history,  was  bom  at  Hartingen  m 
1609,  but  spent  the  greatest  part  of  his  life  at 
Amsterdam.  He  was  remarkable  for  an  uncom- 
mon readiness  of  hand  and«  freedom  of  pencil. 
His  incredible  expedition  appeared  in  a  portrait 
of  a  lady  from  Haerlem,  whom  he  painted  at  half 
length,  and  began  and  finished  in  one  day; 
though  he  adorned  the  figure  with  rich  drapery 
and  several  ornamental  jewels.  He  also  painted 
historical  subjects  with  success ;  aad  has  left  a 
fine  picture  of  Cimon  and  Ipbigenia.  In  de- 
signing academy  figures,  his  expression  was  so 
just,  and  his  outline  so  correct,  that  he  obtained 
the  prize  from  all  his  competitorB ;  and  his  works 
are  bought  up  at  very  high  prices  in  the  Low 
Countries.  The  Carmelites  diurch  at  Antwerp 
has  a  capital  picture  of  his  of  the  Last  Judgment 
He  died  in  1651. 

Backer,  or  Barker  (Jacques,  or  James), also 
a  painter  of  history,  was  bom  at  Antwerp  in 
15S0,  and  learned  the  principles  of  painting  from 
his  fiither,  who  was  very  knowing  in  his  profes- 
sion, though  his  works  were  in  no  great  estima- 
tion. After  his  death  he  lived  with  one  Palermo, 
a  dealer  in  pictures,  who  avariciously  took  care 
to  keep  him  incessantly  employed,  and  sent  his 
paintings  to  Paris  to  be  disposed  of,  where  they 
were  exceedingly  admired.  The  judicious  were 
eager  to  purchase  them ;  and  though  the  trans- 
actor sold  them  at  a  great  price,  yet  the  artist  was 
not  proportionably.  rewarded,  but  continued  still 
in  tue  same  depressed  condition.  His  merit, 
indeed  was  universally  allowed,  but  his  name, 
and  the  narrowness  ot  his  circumstances,  were  as 
universally  unknown.  He  had  a  clean  light 
manner  of  penciling,  and  a  tint  of  oolor  that  was 
extremely  agreeable.    He  died  in  1560. 

BACKEREEL,  or  Ba^querelli  (William), 
a  painter  of  history,  bom  at  Antwerp,  and  a  dis- 
ciple  of  Rubens,  at  the  same  time  with  Vandyck. 
When  each  of  them  quitted  that  master,  and 
commenced  painters,  oackereel  was  little  infe- 
rior to  Vandyck,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  worics 
of  the  former,  in  the  church  of  the  At-gnstin 
monks  at  Antwerp.  He  had  likewise  a  taste  for 
poetry ;  but  exercising  that  talent  too  freely  in 
writing  satires  against  the  Jesuits,  they  compelled 
him  to  fly  from  Antwerp.  Sandrart  observes, 
that  in  his  time  there  were  seven  or  eight  eminent 
painters  of  this  name  in  Italy  and  the  Low  Coun- 
tries. 
BACKER6UN6E,  a  distriet  iu  the  south- 


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east  part  of  Bengal,  a  oonaiderable  portion  of 
which,  called  Bokla,  situated  near  the  sea-side, 
was,  in  1584,  overwhelmed  by  the  sea,  and 
scarcely  has  recovered  from  the  inundation: 
the  other  parts  are,  however,  very  productive,  but 
Deing  subject  to  inundations,  are  very  unhealthy. 
But  there  are  settled  here  a  number  of  the 
descendants  of  the  Portuguese,  who/in  the  year 
1666,  were  invited  by  the  nuwab,  Shaista  Khan, 
to  desert  the  raja  of  Arracan,  and  enter  into  his 
service.  Also  a  town  in  the  province  of  Bengal, 
capital  of  a  district  120  miles  east  of  Calcutta; 
it  is  the  residence  of  the  English  magistrate,  and 
carries  on  a  very  considerable  trade  in  rice,  salt, 
and  cotton  cloths.  Long.  89°  20'  E.,  lat.  22° 
42' N. 

BACK-FRAME  Wheel,  for  laying  cordage, 
from  a  six-thread  ratline,  to  a  two-inch  rope,  is 
about  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  hung 
between  two  uprights,  fixed  by  tenons,  on  a 
truck,  and  supported  by  a  knee  of  wood.  Over 
its  top  is  a  semi-circular  frame,  called  the  head, 
to  contain  three  whirls  (that  run  on  the  brasses), 
with  iron  spindles,  secured  by  a  hasp  and  pin. 
They  are  worked  by  means  of  a  leather  band  en- 
circling the  whirls  and  wheel.  Three  of  the 
whirls  are  turned  when  hardening  the  strands, 
and  only  one  when  closing  the  rope,  the  strands 
being  hung  together  on  it  The  truck,  on  which 
the  b  ack-frame  wheel  is  fixed,  runs  on  four  wheels, 
and  is  made  of  three-inch  oak  plank,  about  nine 
feet  long,  and  thirteen  inches  broad  at  one  end, 
and  eleven  inches  broad  at  the  other. 

BACKTRIEND,  «.  i .  From  back  and  friend. 
A  friend  backwards ;  that  is,  an  enemy  in  secret. 

Set  the  restleM  ixnportatuties  of  talebearen  and 
baekfriemdt  against  fair  words  and  profeadoiii. 

L'Eiirttt^. 

Far  is  our  church  from  encroaching  upon  the  civil 
power ;  as  some  who  a^  baekfrienit  to  both  would 
maliciously  insinuate.  South, 

BACKGAM'MON,  11. 1.  From  bach  gammon^ 
Welsh,  a  little  battle ;  a  play  or  game  at  tables, 
with  box  and  dice.' 

Till  finding  your  old  foe  the  hangman. 
Was  like  to  lurch  you  at  bachgammon.  Hvdjbnu, 

In  what  esteem  are  you  with  the  vicar  of  the  pa- 
rish? can  you  play  with  him  at  ftod^ammofif     Smfi, 

Backgammon,  a  game  played  with  dice 
and  tables,  to  be  learned  only  by  observation 
and  practice.  It  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
in  Wales,  in  the  period  preceding  the  Conquest. 
Gloss,  ad  Leges  Wallicas,a  voc.  Tawlbwrdd,  cited 
by  Henry,  vol.  iv.  p.  404.  8vo. 

This  game  is  played  with  dice,  upon  a  table, 
by  two  persons.  'The  table  is  divided  into  two 
parts,  upon  which  there  are  twenty-four  black 
and  white  spaces,  called  points.  Each  adversary 
has  fifteen  men,  black  and  white,  to  distinguish 
them ;  and  they  are  disposed  of  in  the  following 
manner :  Supposing  the  game  to  be  played  into 
the  right  hand  table,  two  are  placed  upon  the 
ace  point  in  the  adversary's  table,  five  upon 
the  SIX  point  in  the  opposite  table,  three  upon 
the  cinque  point  in  the  hithermost  table,  and 
five  on  the  six  point  in  the  right-hand  table. 
The  grand  object  in  this  game  is  for  each  player 


to  bring  the  men  round  into  his  right  hand  tabl^ 
by  throwing  with  a  pair  of  dice  those  throws 
that  contribute  towards  it,  and  at  tlie  same  time 
prevent  the  adversary  doing  the  like.  The  first 
best  throw  upon  the  dice  is  esteemed  aces,  be- 
cause it  stops  the  six  point  in  the  outer  table,  and 
secures  the  cinque  in  tne  thrower's  table;  whereby 
the  adversary's  two  men  upon  the  thrower's  ace 
point  cannot  get  out  with  either  quatre,  cinque, 
or  six.  This  throw  is  an  advantage  often  given 
to  the  antagonist  by  the  superior  pUyer.  When 
he  carries  his  men  home  in  oider  to  lose  no 
point,  he  is  to  carry  the  most  distant  man  to  his 
adversary's  bar  point,  that  being  the  first  stage 
he  is  to  place  it  on ;  the  next  stage  is  six  points 
farther,  viz.  in  the  place  where  the  adversary's 
five  men  are  first  placed  out  of  his  tables.  He 
must  go  on  in  this  method  till  all  his  men  are 
brought  home,  except  two,  when  by  losing  a 
point,  he  may  often  save  the  gammon,  by  throwing 
two  fours  or  two  fives.  When  a  hit  is  only 
played  for,  he  should  endeavour  to  gain  either  his 
own  or  adversary's  cinque  point :  and  if  that 
fails  by  his  being  hit  by  the  adversary,  and  he 
finds  him  forwarder  than  himself,  in  that  case  he 
must  throw  more  men  into  the  adveisaiy's  tables; 
which  is  done  in  this  manner :  he  must  put  a 
man  upon  his  cinque  or  bar  point;  and  if  the 
adversary  fails  to  hit  it,  he  may  then  gain  a  for- 
ward game  instead  of  a  back  gan\e ;  but  if  the 
adversary  hits  him,  he  should  play  for  a  back 
game:  and  then  the  greater  number  of  men 
which  are  taken  up  makes  his  game  the  better, 
because  by  these  means  he  will  preserve  his 
game  at  home :  and  then  he  should  endeavour  to 
gain  both  his  adverssury's  ace  and  trois  points,  or 
his  ace  and  deuce  points,  and  take  care  to  keep 
three  men  upon  the  adversary's  ace  point,  that  in 
case  he  hits  him  from  thence,  that  point  may 
remain  still  secure  to  himself.  A  back  game 
should  not  be  played  for  at  the  beginning  of  a 
set,  because  it  would  be  a  great  disadvantage, 
the  player  running  the  risk  of  a  gammon  to  win 
a  single  hit. 

A  variety  of  instructions  with  regard  to 
this  curious  game,  are  given  by  Mr.  Hoyle, 
who  calculates  the  odds  of  the  game  with 
great  accuracy.  The  following  particulars, 
however,  may  be  of  use  to  the  generality  of 
players.  If  a  player  has  taken  up  two  of  the 
adversary's  men,  and  happens  to  have  two,  three, 
or  more  points  made  in  nis  own  tables,  he  should 
spread  his  men,  that  he  may  either  take  a  new  point 
in  his  tables,  or  be  ready  to  hit  the  man  whicn  the 
adversary  may  happen  to  enter.  If  he  finds,  upon 
the  adversary's  entering,  that  the  ^ame  is  upon  a 
par,  or  that  the  advantage  is  on  his  own  siae,  he 
should  take  the  adversary's  roan  up  whenever  he 
can,  it  being  twenty-five  to  eleveu  that  be  is  not 
hit :  except  when  he  is  playing  for  a  single  hit 
only ;  then  if  playing  the  throw  otherwise  gives 
him  a  better  cnance  for  it,  he  ought  to  do  it. 
As  it  is  five  to  one  against  his  being  hit  with 
double  dice,  he  should  never  be  deterred  from 
taking  up  any  one  man  of  the  adversary's.  If 
he  has  taken  up  one  of  the  adversary's  men,  and 
should  happen  to  have  five  points  in  his  own 
tables,  and  forced  to  leave  a  blot  out  of  his  tables, 

3Aa 


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366  BACK  G  A  M  M  O  N. 

he  sJiould  endeavour  to  leave  it  upon  doublets  men  to  bear,  he  may  be  forced  to  make  an  ar« 
preferable  to  any  other  chance ;  because  the  odds  or  a  deuce  twice  before  he  can  bear  all  his  men, 
are  thirty-five  to  one,  that  he  is  not  hit;  whereas  and  consequently  will  require  seven  throws  in 
it  zs  only  seventeen  to  one  but  he  is  hit  upon  bearing  them';  so  that,  upon  the  whole,  it  is 
any  other  chance.  When  the  adversary  is  very  about  equal  whether  the  aaversary  is  gammoned 
forward,  a  player  should  never  move  a  man  from  or  not.  Suppose  a  player  has  three  men  upon 
his  own  quatre,  trois,  or  deuce  points,  thinking  hb  adversary  s  ace  point,  and  five  points  in  his 
to  bear  that  man  from  the  point  where  he  put  it,  own  tables,  and  that  the  adversary  has  all  his 
as  nothing  but  high  doublets  can  give  him  any  men  in  his  tables,  three  upon  eadi  of  bis  five 
chance  for  the  hit.  Instead  of  playing  an  ace  highest  points.  Has  the  player  a  probability  of 
or  a  deuce  from  any  of  those  points,  he  should  gammoning  his  adveifiary  or  not  T 
play  them  from  his  own  size  or  highest  points.  Points, 

so  that  throwing  two  fives,  or  two  fours,  his  size    For  bearing  three  men  from  his  6th  pomt  is    18 

and  cinque  points  beine  eased,  would  be  a  con-    From  his  5th  point 15 

siderable  advantage  to  him ;  whereas,  had  they    From  his  4th  point 12 

been  loaded,  he  must  have  been  obliged  to  play    From  his  3rd  point 9 

otherwise.    It  is  the  interest  of  the  avdversaiy  to    From  his  2nd  point 6 

take  up  the  player  as  soon  as  he  enters.    The  — ' 

blot  should  be  left  upon  the  adversary's  lowest  In  all  60 

point ;  that  is  to  say,  upon  his  deuce  point  Bringing  his  three  men  from  the  adver- 
rather  than  upon  his  trois  point;  or  upon  his  trois  sary's  ace  point  to  his  size  point  in 
point  rather  tnan  upon  his  quatre  point ;  or  upon  his  own  tables,  being  eighteen  points 
his  quatre  point  preferable  to  his  cinque  point,        each,  and  making  together  54 

for  a  reason  before  mentioned :  all  the  men  the  — 

adversary  plays  upon  his  trois,   or  "his  deuce  There  must  remain  6 

points,  are  deemed  lost,  being  greatly  out  of  It  is  plain  from  this  calculation,  that  the  player 
play ;  so  that  those  men  not  having  it  in  their  has  much  the  best  of  the  probability  of  the  gaun- 
power  to  make  his  cinque  point,  and  his  game  mon,  exclusive  of  one  or  more  blots  which  the 
being  crowded  in  one  place  and  open  in  another,  adversary  is  liable  to  make  in  bearing  his  men, 
the  adversary  must  be  greatly  annoyed  by  the  supposing  at  the  same  time  tne  throws  to  be 
player.  If  the  player  has  two  of  the  adversary's  upon  an  equality.  Suppose  two  blots  are  left, 
men  in  his  tables,  he  has  a  better  chance  for  a  hit  either  of  which  cannot  be  hit  but  by  double  dice; 
than  if  he  had  more,  provided  his  game  is  for-  one  must  be  hit  by  throwing  eight  and  the  other 
warder  than  that  of  his  antagonist ;  for  if  he  had  by  throwing  nine ;  so  that  the  adversary  has 
three  or  more  of  the  adversary's  men  in  his  only  one  die  to  hit  either  of  them.  What  are 
tables,  he  would  stand  a  worse  chance  to  be  hit.  the  odds  of  hitting  either  of  them  ?  Hie  chances 
When  a  player  is  running  to  save  the  gammon,    of  two  dice  being  in  all  36 

if  he  should  have  two  men  upon  his  ace  point,  — 

and  several  men  abroad,  although  he  should  lose       The  chance  to  hit  6,  are  6  and  2  twice      2 

one  point  or  two  in  putting  his  men  into  his        5  and  3  twice       2 

tables,  it  is  his  interest  to  leave  a  man  upon  the        2  Deuces I 

adversary's  ace  point,  because  it  will  prevent  his        2  Fours       I 

adversary  from  bearing  his  men  to  tne  greatest       The  chances  to  hit  9  are  6  and  3  twice  .      2 

advantage,  and  at  the  same  time  the  player  will        5  and  4  twice       ^ 

have  a  chance  of  the  adversary's  making  a  blot,        2  Trois        t 

which  he  may  chance  to  hit.     However,  if  a  — 

player  finds,  upon  a  throw,  that  he  has  a  proba-        For  hitting  in  all 11 

bility  of  saving  his  gammon,  he  should  never       Chances  for  not  hitting,  remain    ...    25 
wait  for  a  blot,  as  the  odds  are  greatly  against        So  that  the  odds  are  twenty-five  to  eleven 
his  hitting  it,  but  should  embrace  that  oppor-  against  hitting  either  of  these  blots, 

tunity.  This  method  may  be  taken  to  find  out  the 

The  following  are  directions  for  calculating  the  odds  of  hitting  three,  four,  or  five  blots  upon 
odds  of  saving  or  winning  the  gammon.  Sup-  double  dice ;  or  blots  made  upon  double  and 
pose  the  adversary  has  so  many  men  abroad  as  single  dice  at  the  same  time.  After  knowing 
requires  three  throws  to  put  them  into  his  tables,  how  many  chances  there  are  to  hit  any  of  those 
And  at  the  same  time  that  the  player's  tables  are  blots,  they  must  be  added  altogether,,  and  then 
nade  up,  and  that  he  has  taken  up  one  of  the  subtracted  from  the  number  thirty-six,  ¥^ch  are 
adversary's  men ;  in  this  case  it  is  about  an  the  chances  of  the  two  dices,  and  the  question  is 
equal  wager  that  the  adversary  is  gammoned,    solved. 

For,  in  all  probability,  the  player  has  borne  two  The  laws  of  Backgammon  are,  1.  If  a  map 
men  before  be  opens  his  tables,  and  when  he  is  taken  from  any  point,  it  must  be  played;  if 
bears  the  third  man,  he  will  be  obliged  to  open  two  men  are  taken  from  it,  they  also  must  be 
his  size  or  cinque  point.  It  is  then  probable  played.  2.  A  man  is  not  supposed  to  be  played* 
that  the  adversaiy  is  obliged  to  throw  twice  before  till  it  is  placed  upon  a  point  and  quitted.  3.  If 
he  enters  his  men  in  the  player's  tables,  twice  a  player  has  only  fourteen  men  in  play,  there  is 
more  before  he  puts  that  man  into  his  own  no  penalty  inflicted,  because  by  bis  playing 
tables,  and  three  throws  more  to  put  the  men  with  a  less  number  than  he  is  entitled  to^  he 
wliich  are  abroad  into  his  own  tables,  in  all  plays  to  %  disadvantage,  for  want  of  the  deficieni 
seven  throws.    Now  the  player  having  twelve    man  to  make  up  his  tables.    4.  If  he  bean  any 


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BAG 


number  of  men  before  he  has  entered  a  man 
taken  up,  and  which  of  course  he  was  obliged 
to  enter,  such  men  so  borne  must  be  entered 
again  in  the  adrersary's  tables  as  well  as  the 
man  taken  up.  5.  If  he  has  mistaken  his  throw 
and  played  it,  and  his  adversary  has  thrown,  it 
is  not  in  the  choice  of  either  of  tlie  players  to 
alter  it,  unless  they  botli  agree  so  to  do. 

The  probable  method  of  prolonging  a  hit  at 
backgammon,  affords  a  case  of  instruction,  as 


An  improved  construction  of  this  machine  was 
proposed  by  Dr.  Hales  in  1747,  which  not  only 
renders  it  fit  for  winnowing  corn  sooner  and 
better  than  by  any  other  means  hitlierto  used, 
but  also  for  cleariug  it  of  the  very  small  com, 
seeds,  smut-balls,  &c. 

BACKHOUSE,  n.  i.  From  back  and  house. 
The  buildings  behind  the  chief  part  of  the  house. 

Their  backhouK$,  of  more  necewarj  tkan  cleanly 
service,  as  kitchens,  stables,  are  climbed  up  unto  by 

Carew. 


a 

well  as  curiosity ;  for  there  is  a  probability  of  steps, 

making  the  hit  last  by  one  of  the  players  for  BACKHUYSEN     (Ludolph),    an    eminent 

many  hours,  although  they  shall  both  play  as  painter,  bom  at  Embden,  in  1631,  who  received 

iast  as  usual.    Suppose  B  to  have  borne  thirteen  his  earliest  instruction  from  Albert  Van  Ever- 

men,  and  that  A  has  his  fifteen  men  in   B*s  dingen;  but  acauired  his  principal  ki\owledge 

tables,  viz.  three  men  upon  his  size  point,  as  by  firequenting  me  painting  rooms  of  different 

many  upon  his  cinque,  (juatre,  and  trois  points,  masters.    One  of  tnese  was  Henry  Dubbels, 


two  upon  bis  deuce  pomt,  and  one  upon  his 
ace  pomt.  A  in  this  situation  can  prolong  it 
by  bringing  his  fifteen  men  home,  always  se- 
curing six  close  points  till  B  has  entered  his  two 
men,  and  brought  them  upon  any  certain  point ; 
as  sooa  as  B  has  gained  that  point,  A  will  open 
an  ace^  deuce,  or  trois  point,  or  all  of  them ; 
which  done,  B  hits  one  of  them,  and  A,  taking 
care  to  have  two  or  three  men  in  B*s  tables,  is 
ready  to  hit  that  man;  and  also  he  being  certain 
of  taking  bp  the  other  man,  has  it  in  his  power 
to  prolong  tne  hit  almost  to  any  length,  providc^l 
he  takes  care  not  to  open  such  points  as  two 
foure,  two  fives,  or  two  srxes,  but  always  to 
open  the  ace,  deuce,  or  trois  points,  for  B  to  hit 
him. 

We  add  the  following  two  critical  cases  for  a 
back  game:  1.  Suppose  the  fore  game  to  be 
played  by  A,  dud  that  all  his  men  are  placed  as 
usual ;  B  has  fourteen  of  his  men  placed  upon 
his  adversary's  ace  point,  and  one  man  upon  his 
adversary's  deuce  point,  and  B  is  to  throw; 
who  has  the  best  of  the  hit?  Answer:  A  has 
the  best  of  it,  gold  to  silver :  because,  if  B  does 


whose  skill  in  his  art  was  great ;  and  he  was 
equally  communicative  of  his  knowledge  to 
others.  From  him  Backhuysen  obtained  more 
benefit  than  from  all  the  painters  of  his  time. 
His  subjects  were  sea-pieces,  ships,  and  sea-ports. 
He  had  not  practised  long  when  he  became  the 
object  of  general  admiration ;  so  that  his  draw- 
ings were  sought  after,  and  several  of  them  were 
bou^t  up  at  100  fiorins.  He  studied  nature  at^ 
tentively  m  all  her  forms ;  in  gales,  calms,  storms, 
clouds,  rocks,  skies,  lights,  and  shadows ;  and 
expressed  every  subject  with  so  sweet  a  pencil, 
and  such  transparence  and  lustre,  as  placed  him 
aboTe  all  the  artists  of  bis  time,  except  the 
younger  Vandervelde.  It  was  a  frequent  custom 
with  Backhuysen,  whenever  he  could  procure 
resolute  manners,  to  go  to  sea  in  a  storm,  to 
store  hb  mind  vdth  images  directly  copied  from 
nature ;  and  the  moment  he  landed,  impatiently 
to  ran  to  his  pallette  to  delineate  those  incidents  of 
which  the  traces  might,  by  delay,  be  obliterated. 
He  perfectly  understood  the  management  of  the 
Chiaro-scuro,  and,  by  his  skill  in  that  part  of  his 
art,  gave  uncommon  force  and  beauty  to  his  ob- 


not  throw  an  ace  to  take  his  adversary *s  deuce   jects.    His  works  may  easily  be  distinguished  by 


point,  which  is  twenty-five  to  eleven  against  him, 
A  vrill  take  up  B's  mei^  in  his  tables,  either 
singly  or  to  make  points ;  and  then  if  B  secures 
either  A's  deuce  or  trois  point,  A  will  put  as 
many  men  down  as  possible,  in  order  to  hit,  and 
thereby  get  a  back  game.  It  is  evident  that  the 
back  game  is  very  powerful  ;•  consequently,  who- 
ever practises  it  must  become  a  greater  proficient 
at  the  game  than  he  could  by  any  other  means. 


the  freedom  and  neatness  of  his  touch,  the  clear- 
ness and  natural  agitation  or  quiescence  of  the 
water,  a  peculiar  tint  in  his  clouds  and  skies, 
and  the  exact  proportions  of  his  ships.  He 
painted,  for  the  Burgomasters  of  Amsterdam, 
a  large  view  of  the  city,  for  which  they  gave  him 
1300  guilders,  and  afterwards  presented  it  to  the 
king  of  France.  No  painter  was  ever  more 
honored  by  the  visits  of  kings  and  princes  than 


2.  Suppose  A  to  have  five  men  placed  upon  his    Backhuysen ;  the  king  of  Pmssia  was  one  of  the 

size  point,  as  many  upon  his  quatre  point,  and    *" ^  " —  '*  ~  ^ '"^ '^ '^ 

the  same  number  upon  his  deuce  point,  all  in  his 
own  tables.  At  the  same  time  let  us  suppose  B 
to  have  three  men  placed  upon  A's  ace  point,  as 
many  upon  A's  tiois  point,  and  the  same  number 
upon  A's  cinque  pomt,  in  his  own  tables,  and 
three  men  placed  as  usual  out  of  his  tables ; 
Who  has  the  best  of  the  hit  ?  Answer :  The  game 
is  equal  till  B  has  gained  his  cinque  and  quatre 
points  in  his  own  tables ;  which,  if  he  can  effect, 
and  by  playing  two  men  from  A's  cinque  point, 
in  order  to  force  his  adversary  to  blot  by  tnrow- 
ing  a  cane,  which,  should  B  hit,  he  will  have  the 
best  of  the  hit 

BACK-HEAVER,  a  machine  long  used  in 


number ;  and  Peter  the  Great  often  endeavoured 
to  draw  after  vessels  which  he  had  designed. 
He  died  in  1709. 

BACKING.    See  Horsemanship. 

Backing  Warrants,  in  law,  denotes  the 
signing  of  such  as  have  been  issued  by  a  justice 
of  the  peace  in  one  county,  by  a  justice  of  the 
peace  in  another,  which  is  necessary  before  they 
can  be  executed  there.  This  practice  is  authorised 
by  statutes  23  Geo.  II.  c.  26.  and  24  Geo.  II. 
c.  55. 

BACKNANG,  a  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Wir- 
temberg,  circle  of  Heilbronn,  and  district  of  the 
Lower  Neckar.  It  lies  on  the  Murr,  and  con- 
tains   3020    inhabitants,    many  of  whom   are 


several  parts  A  England,  particularly  in  Hamp-    woollen-weavers  and  tanners.     Eight  miles  east 
ihire,  Wiltshire,  and  Sussex,  for  winnowing  com.    of  Marbah,  and  twelve  north-east  of  Stutgard. 


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BACK-PAINTING,  the  method  of  painting 
mezzotiuto  prints,  pasted  on  glass,  with  oil-colors. 
See  Mezzotinto.  It  consists  chiefly  in  laying 
the  print  upon  a  piece  of  crown-glass,  of  such  a 
size  as  fits  it;  To  do  this,  the  print  should  be 
laid  in  clean  water  for  two  days  and  nights,  if 
the  print  be  on  very  strong,  close,  and  hard 
gummed  paper;  "but  if  upon  an  open,  soft, 
spungy  paper,  two  hours,  or  more,  will  some- 
times suffice.  The  paper  or  picture  having  been 
sufficiently  soaked,  take  it  out  and  lay  it  upon 
two  sheets  of  paper,  and  cover  it  with  two  more; 
and  let  it  lie  tnere  a  little  to  draw  out  the  mois- 
ture. In  the  mean  time,  take  the  glass  the  pic- 
ture is  to  be  put  upon,  and  set  it  near  the  fire  to 
warm  ;  take  Strasburg  turpentine,  warm  it  over 
the  "fire  till  it  is  grown  fluid,  then,  with  a  hog's- 
hair  brush,  spread  the  turpentine  very  smooihly 
and  evenly  on  the  glass,  llien  take  the  mezzo- 
tinto print  from  between  the  papers,  and  lay  it 
upon  the  glass ;  beginning  first  at  one  end,  rub- 
bing it  down  gently  till  it  lie  close,  and  there  be 
no  wind  bladders  between.  After  this  riib  or 
roll  off  the  paper  from  the  back  of  the  print,  till 
it  looks  black,  i.  e.  till  nothing  appears  but  the 
print,  like  a  thin  film  left  upon  the  glass,  and  set 
it  aside  to  dry.  Then  varnish  it  over  with  some 
white  transparent  varnish,  that  the  print  may  be 
seen  through  it;  and  it  is  then  fit  for  painting. 
The  utmost  care  is  necesaaiy  in  rubbing  or  rolling 
the  paper  off  the  print  so  as  not  to  tear  it,  es- 
pecisilly  in  the  light  parts.  Or  the  prints,  instead 
of  being  soaked,  maybe  rolled  up  and  boiled  for 
about  two  hours,  more  or  less,  according  to  the 
Quality  of  the  paper ;  and  that  will  render  it  as 
fit  for  nibbing,  rolling  or  peeling,  as  the  other 
method.  This  being  done,  and  the  oil-colors 
prepared,  ground  very  fine,  and  tempered  up 
very  stiff,  lay  on  the  back  of  the  transparent 
prints  such  colors  as  each  part  requires ;  letting 
the  master-lines  of  the  print  still  guide  tiie  p€fn- 
cil ;  and  thus  each  particular  color  will  lie  fair  to 
the  eye  on  the  other  side  of  the  glass,  and  almost 
as  well  as  a  painted  piece,  if  it  be  done  neatly. 
The  shadows  of  the  print  are  generally  sufficient 
for  the  shadow  of  every  color ;  but  if  it  is  wished 
to  give  a  shadow  by  the  pencil,  let  the  shadows 
be  laid  on  first,  and  the  other  colors  afterwards. 
In  this  kind  of  back-painting  it  is  not  necessary 
to  lay  on  the  colors  very  smooth.  As  the  chief 
aim  is  to  have  the  colors  appear  well  on  the  fore- 
side  of  the  print,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  lay 
the  colors  on  thick  enough,  that  its  body  may 
strike  the  color  of  it  plainly  through  the  glass. 

BACK'PIECE,n.».  From  back  and  piece. 
The  piece  of  armour  which  covers  the  back. 

The  morning  that  he  was  to  join  battle,  his  ar- 
mourer put  on  his  baclqnece  before,  and  his  breast- 
plate behinri  Camden. 

BACK-QUADRANT,  the  same  with  Back- 
STAFF.    See  Quadrant. 

BACK  RIVER,  a  river  of  Maryland,  which 
runs  into  the  Chesapeake. 

BACK'ROOM,  n.  t.  From  back  and  room. 
A  room  behmd ;  not  in  the  front. 

If  you  have  a  fair  prospect  backwards  of  gardens, 
it  may  bo  convenient  to  make  backrooms  the  larger. 
Mos.  Mech,  Bxtrcmt, 


BACKS,  among  dealers  in  leather,  denote  the 
thickest  and  best  tanned  hides,  used  chiefly  for 
soles  of  shoes. 

BACK'SIDE,  n.  f.  From  back  and  side. 
The  hinder  part  of  any  thing ;  the  hind  part  of 
an  animal ;  the  yard  or  ground  behind  a  house. 

If  the  quicksilver  were  rubbed  from  the  iodbuls  of 
the  speculum,  the  glass  would  cause  the  same  ringi 
of  colours,  but  more  faint ;  the  phenomena  depend 
not  upon  the  quicksUver,  imless  so  far  as  it  iaereates 
the  reflection  of  the  hoMAe  of  the  glass.        Nemtan, 

A  poor  ant  carries  a  grain  of  com^  climbing  up  a 
wall  with  ber  head  downwards  and  her  hadudt  up- 
wards. Addum. 

The  wash  of  pastures,  fields,  commons,  roadt, 
streets,  or  haekniet,  are  of  great  advantage  to  all 
sorts  of  land.  Mmrimtr. 

BACK-SINEWS  of  a  Horse,  the  eitensor 
tendons  of  the  foot,  placed  behind  the  fore-leg, 
and  very  frequently  injured  by  over-exertion. 
The  inflammation  hereby  produced  is  best  re- 
moved in  the  first  instance  by  emollient  and 
astringent  cataplasms. 

BACK'SLIDE,  v.n.  ^  From  back  and  slide. 

Back'slider,  n.  f .      >Td  retrograde  in  rdi- 

Back'sliding.  3gion.      Exclusively  a 

scriptural  and  theological  term.  Its  precise 
signi^cation,  as  employed  by  divines,  b  not  apos- 
tac^  as  stated  by  Dr.  Johnson,  but  a  tendency 
to  It.  It  supposes  a  religious  profession  ad- 
vanced to  a  state  of  spirituality  and  consistency, 
and  a'  receding  from  that  state  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  in  principle  or  practice :  but  it  does 
not  amount  to  a  total  abandonment  of  either. 

The  hackdider  in  his  heart  shall  be  filled  with  h» 
own  ways.  Solomm. 

lily  focJbUdHMjT  diall  reprove  thee.  Jeremiah. 

Remember  thy  baek^Mjfi  £rom  me ;  lament  over 
them :  confess  them  before  me ;  and  look  to  God  to 
enable  thee  to  take  thy  step*  with  move  firmness,  and 
to  offer  up  thy  prayers  with  more  spiritnmlity.     CecU. 

BACK'STAFF,ii.f.  From  back  and  suff; 
because  in  taking  an  observation,  the  obseiver's 
back  is  turned  toward  the  sun^  An  instrument 
useful  in  taking  the  sun's  altitude  at  sea.  It 
was  sometimes  called  Davis's  quadrant,  from  its 
inventor,  captain  John  Davis,  a  Welchman,  and 
a  celebrated  navigator,  who  produced  it  about 
the  year  1590. 

This  instrument  consists  of  two  concentric 
arches  of  box-wood,  and  three  vanes :  the  arch  of 
the  longer  radius  is  of  30°,  and  the  other  60\ 
making  between  them  90°,  or  a  quadrant:  als(> 
the  vane  at  the  centre  is  called  the  horiion-vaoe, 
that  on  the  arch  of  60°  die  shade*vane,  and  that 
on  the  other  arch  the  sight-vane.  *  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  give  a  more  minute  description,  since 
more  complete  and  accurate  instruments  have 
entirely  superseded  the  use  of  this. 

BACK'STAIRS,  n.  i .  From  back  and  stain. 
The  private  stairs  in  the  house. 

i  condemn  the  pracdce  which  hath  Lately  crept  into 
the  court  at  the  backatain,  that  some  pridced  for 
sheriffs  get  out  of  the  bill.  Bmam. 

BACK'STAYS,  n.  i.  From  back  and  sUy. 
Ropes  or  stays  which  keep  the  masts  of  a  ship 
from  pitching  forward  or  overboard. 

The  Backstays,.  Fr.  galhauhant,  are  long 
ropes  extending  from  the  top-mast-heads  to 
the  starboard  and  larboard  sides  of  the  ship, 
where  they  are  farther  extended  to  the  channeb ; 


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they  are  u&ed  to  second  the  efforts  of  the 
Mhrouds,  in  supporting  the  masts,  when  strained 
by  a  weight  ot  sail  in  a  fresh  wind. 

They  are  usually  distinguished  into  breast- 
backstays  and  after-backstays;  the  intent  of 
the  first  being  to  sustain  the  roast  when  the  ship 
sails  upon  a  wind ;  or,  in  other  terms,  when  the 
wind  acts  upon  the  ship  sideways ;  the  second  is 
to  enable  her  to  carry  sail  when  the  wind  is 
further  aft ;  and  the  third  kind  take  their  name 
from  being  shifted  or  changed  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  as  occasion  requires.  There  are  also 
backstays  for  the  top-gallant-masts,  in  large 
ships,  which  are  fixed  in  the  same  manner  with 
those  of  the  top-masts. 

A  pair  of  backstays  is  usually  formed  of  one 
rope,  which  is  doubled  in*  the  middle,  and  ias- 
tened  there  so  as  to  form  an  eye,  which  passes 
over  the  mast-head,  from  whence  the  two  ends 
hang  down,  and  are  stretched  to  the  channels, 
by  dead-eyes  and  lanyards.  See  the  article 
I5eai>-eyes,  &c. 

Backstay  Stool,  a  short  piece  of  plank, 
fitted  for  the  security  of  the  dead-eyes,  and 
chains  for  the  backstays,  though  sometimes  the 
channels  are  left  long  enough  at  the  after  end,  for 
the  backstays  to  be  fitted  thereto. 

BA'CKSWORD,  n.  s.  From  back  and  swoid. 
A  sword  with  one  sharp  edge. 

Bull  dreaded  not  old  Lewis  at  6odbioord. 

ArhuOmot, 

BACK  Tack,  in  Scots  law,  a  lease  granted  by 
a  wadsetter,  or  heritable  creditor,  who,  instead 
of  possessing  the  wadset-lands,  grants  a  tack 
thereof  to  the  reverser  or  heritable  debtor,  for 
payment  of  a  certain  sum  in  name  of  tack  duty. 
BACK'WARD,  n.$.  adv.  &  oj^.^  From  back, 
Back'wards,  *  r  and  peaftb, 

BackVardly,  dfh.  A  Sax.  that  is, 

Back'wabdm  ess,  n.  i.  J  towards  the 

back;  contrary  to  forward.  Backward,  as  an 
adverb,  denotes  pimply  the  manner  of  going; 
and  is  distinguished  fiK)m  back,  thus :  a  person 
stands  back  who  does  not  wish  to  be  in  the  way ; 
he  goes  backward  when  he  does  not  wish  to  turn 
his  back  on  an  object.  As  an  adjective,  its  mean- 
ing is  unwilling,  or  averse.  And  hence  it  is 
often  used  in  the  sense  of  hesitating,  dilatory. 
Slow  in  apprehension,  and  in  growth.  The  sub- 
stantives take  their  literal  and  figurative  meaning 
from  the  adverb  and  the  adjective. 

They  went  baehpard,  and  their  facet  were  haek- 


AU  things  are  ready,  if  our  minds  be  so : 
Perish  the  man  whose  mind  is  backward  now. 

Shakqteare, 
It  should  seem  then,  diat  Dobbin's  tail  grows  back- 
ward. '  M 
What  seest  thou  else 
In  the  dark  backward  or  abysm  of  time  t          ^  Jd» 
The  monstroos  s^ht 
dtmck  them  with  horror  backward'^  bat  far  worse 
Uqfd  them  behind.                                           Milton, 
Then  darting  fire  firoii)  her  malignant  eyes. 
She  cast  him  backward  as  Le  strove  to  rise. 

Dr^den. 

We  are  strangely  backward  to  lay  hdd  of  this  safe, 

this  only  method  of  core.  Atterbm^. 


The  thing  by  which  we  an  apt  to  ezaue  our  back- 
wardmeu  to  good  works,  is  the  ill-soccess  that  hath 
been  observed  to  attend  well-designing  charities.    Id. 
Cities  laid  waste,  they  storm'd  the  dens  and  caves 
For  wiser  brutes  are  backward  to  be  slaves.         Pope, 

Our  mutability  makes  the  friends  of  our  nation 
backward  to  engage  with  us  in  alliances.         Additon, 

It  often  falls  out  that  the  backward  learner  makes 
amends  another  way.  SonUk, 

To  prove  the  possibility  of  a  thing,  there  is  no  ar- 
gument to  diat  which  looks  badtwarda;  for  what  has 
been  done  or  suffered  may  certainly  be  done  or  suffer* 
ed  again.  Id, 

Like  Kumid  lions  by  the  hunters  chas'd. 

Though  they  do  fly,  yet  baekwardly  do  go 

With  proud  aspect,  <Usdaining  greater  haste. 

Sidney, 

The  mind  W  backward  to  undergo  the  fatigue  of 
weighing  every  argument.  Watta, 

BACK-WORM.    See  FiLiWDEBs. 

BACO,  a  town  of  Mindoro,  one  of  the  Philip- 
pines, the  capital  of  the  island,  and  residence  of 
a  Spanish  judge.  The  environs  are  well  watered 
by  springs  from  the  mountains,  which  are  covered 
by  sarsaparilla.    Long.  121**  5'  E.,  lat.  13"  18'  N. 

Baco,  in  old  Latin,  a  fiEit  hog. 

BACOBA,  in  botany,  a  name  by  wnich  some 
authors  call  the  banana  tree,  or  musa  fructu 
breviori. 

BACON  (Anthony),  the  son  of  Sir  Nicolas,  and 
elder  brother  to  the  celebrated  lord  chancellor, 
was  bom  in  1558,  and  educated  at  Cambridge. 
He  spent  much  of  his  time  in  travelling,  and  thus 
became  personally  acquainted  with  most  of  the 
literati  ot  his  age.  In  1579,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  resided  for  some 
time ;  and  thence  to  Bourges  and  Geneva,  where 
he  lodged  at  the  house  of  the  celebrated  Theodore 
Beza.  From  Geneva  he  successively  removed 
to  Montpeiier,  Marseilles,  Bourdeaux,  and  Mont- 
auban,  sometimes  communicating  intelligence  of 
importance  to  England.  In  1585  he  visited 
Henry,  king  of  Navarre,  afterwards  the  great 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  who  was  then  at  Beam ; 
and  became  acquainted  with  the  learned  Lam- 
bert Dauaeus,  who,  as  a  mark  of  esteem,  dedicated 
several  of  his  works  to  him.  His  health  failing, 
he  retumed  to  England  in  Febmary,  1501-2 ; 
and  in  1595  took  up  his  residence  at  Essex  house, 
where  he  carried  on  a  most  extensive  corres- 
pondence with  the  foreign  literati,  and  among 
others  with  king  Henry  IV.  The  time  and 
place  of  his  death  is  uncertain. 

Bacon  (Francis),  lord  high  chancellor  of 
England,  under  king  James  I.  was  son  of  Sic 
Nicholas  Bacon,  by  Anne,  daughter  of  Sir  An- 
thony Cook,  eminent  for  her  skill  in  Latin  and 
Greek.  He  was  bom  in  1650;  and  showed  such 
marks  of  genius  that  he  was  taken  notice  of  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  when  very  young.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge;  and 
made  such  progress  ih  his  studies,  that,  before 
he  was  sixteen,  he  had  not  only  traversed  the 
whole  circle  of  the  liberal  arts'  as  then  taught, 
but  began  to  perceive  those  imperfections  in  the 
reigning  philosophy  which  Jie  afterwards  so  ef- 
fectually exposea.  On  his  leaving  the  univer- 
sity his  father  sent  him  to  France ;  where,  before 
he  was  nineteen  years  of  age,  he  wrote  a  general 
view  of  the  state  of  Eurc^ :  but  Sir  Nicholas 


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dying,  he  was  obliged  suddenly  to  return  to 
England,  when  he  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  common   law,  at  GrayVInn.    At  this 
period  the  famous  Earl  of  Essex,  who  could  dis- 
tinguish merit,  entered  into  intimate  friendship 
with  him;  zealously  attempted,  though  without 
success,  to  procure  him  the  office  of  queen's 
solicitor ;  and,  in  order  to  comfort  his  friend  under 
tlie  disappointment,  conferred  on  him  a  present 
of  land  to  the  value  of  £l800.    Bacon,  notwith- 
standing the  EarFs  friendship,  and  even  the  early 
prepossession  of  her  majesty  in  his  favor,  met 
with  many  obstacles  to  his  preferment  during  her 
reign.    His  enemies  represented  him  as  a  specu- 
lative man,  whose  head  was  filled  with  philo- 
sophical notions,  and  therefore  more  likely  to 
perplex  than  forward  public  business.    It  was 
with  great  difficulty  that  lord  treasurer  Burleigh 
obtained  for  him  the  reversion  of  register  to  Ae 
star  chamber,  worth  about  £1600  a-year,  which 
only  fell  to  him  about  twenty  years  after.    He 
did   not  obtain   any    other  preferments   from 
queen   Elizabeth;    though,    it  obedience  to  a 
sovereign  in  the  most  disagreeable  of  all  offices, 
viz.  the  casting  reflections  on  a  deceased  friend, 
entitl^  him,  he  might  have  claimed  it.    The 
people  were  so  clamorous,  even  against  the  queen 
nerself,  on  the  death  of  Essex,  that  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  vindicate  the  conduct  of  the  adminis- 
tration; and  to  Bacon  was  assigned  this  disgrace- 
ful task.     Upon  the  accession  of  James  he  was 
soon  raised  to  considerable  honors ;  and  wrote  in 
fkvor  of  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Scot- 
land and  England.    In  1G16  he  was  sworn  of 
the  privy  council.    He  then  applied  himself  to 
the  reducing  and  recomposing  the  laws  of  England. 
When  attorney-general,  he  distinguished  himself 
by  his  endeavours  to  restrain  duelling,  then  very 
frequent.    In  1617he  was  appointed  lord  keeper 
of  the  great  seal;  and,  in  1618,  lord  chancellor 
of  England,  and  created  Lord  Verulam.    In  the 
midst  of  these  honors,   and  the  multiplicity  of 
business,  he  forgot  not  his  philosophy,  Imt  in 
1620  published  his  great  work  Novum  Organum. 
In   1621   he  was  advanced   Xn  the  dignity  of 
Viscount  St.  Albans,  and  appeared  with  great 
splendor  at  the  opening  of  the  session  of  parlia- 
ment ;  but  soon  after  met  with  a  severe  reverse  of 
fortune .     For  about  t^ic  twelfth  of  March,  a  com- 
mittee of  the  house  of  commons  being  appointed 
to  inspect  the  abuses  of  courts  of  justice,  the 
chancellor  was  openly  accused  of  corruption,  and 
the  king  is  said  to  have  positively  enjoined  him 
to  submit  to  his  peers,  promising  to  reward  him 
aflerwards!    The  chancellor,  though   he  fore- 
saw his  approaching  ruin  if  he  did  not  plead  for 
himself,  resolved  to  obey ;  and  the  house  of  peers, 
on  the  3d  of  May,  1621,  gave  judgment  against 
him,  '  that  he  should  be  fined  £40,000,  and  re- 
main prisoner  in  the  tower  during  the  king's 
pleasure ;  should  for  ever  be  incapable  of  any 
office,  place,  or  employment  in  the  state,  and 
that  he  should  never  sit  in  parliament,  or  come 
within  the  verge  of  the  court.'    The  fault  which, 
next  to  his  ingratitude  to  Essex,  thus  tarnished 
the  glory  of  tibis  illustrious  man,  is  said  to  have 
principally  proceeded  from  his  indulgence  to  his 
servants,  who  made  a  corrupt  use  of  it.   One  day, 
during  bis  trial,  passing  through  a  room  where 


several  of  his  domestics  were  sitting,  upon  their 
rising  up  to  salute  him,  he  said, '  Sit  ddwn,  my 
masters ;  your  rise  hath  been  mv  fall.'  And  we 
are  told  by  Rushworth,  in  his  historical  collec- 
tions, '  that  he  treasured  up  nothing  for  himself 
or  family,  but  was  over-indmgent  to  his  servants, 
and  connived  at  their  takings :  they  were  profuse 
and  expensive,  and  had  at  their  coromanct  what- 
ever he  was  master  of.  The  gifts  taiken  were  for 
the  most  part  for  interlocutory  orders.  His  de- 
crees being  generally  made  with  so  much  equity, 
that  though  gifts  rendered  him  suspected  of  in- 
justice, yet  never  any  decree  made  by  him  was 
reversed  as  unjust.'  It  was  peculiar  to  this  neat 
man  (say  the  authors  of  the  biog.  Brit.)  to  have 
nothing  narrow  and  selfish  in  his  composition : 
he  gave  away  withoilt  concern  whatever  he  pos- 
sessed; and  believing  other  men  of  the  same 
mould,  he  received  with  as  little  consideration. 
He  retired,  after  a  short  imprisonment^  from  the 
engagements  of  an  active  life,  to  the  shade  of  a 
contemplative  one,  which  he  had  always  loved. 
The  king  remitted  Ids  fine,  and  he  was  sum- 
moned to  parliament  in  the  first  year  of  King 
Charles  I.  In  his  recess  he  composed  the  Greatest 
part  of  his  English  and  Latin  works,  and  it  ap- 
pears from  them  that  his  thoughts  were  still  fne, 
vigorous,  and  noble.  The  last  three  years  of  his 
life  he  devoted  wholly  to  his  studies.  lie  died 
in  1626 ;  and  was  buried  in  St.  Michaers  church 
at  St.  Albans,  where  a  monument  of  white  mar- 
ble was  erected  to  him  by  Sir  Thomas  Meautys', 
formerly  his  secretary.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  at  London  in  1740. 
Addison  has  said  of  him,  that  he  had  the  sound, 
distinct,  comprehensive,  knowledge  of  Aristotle, 
vrith  all  the  beautiful  light  graces  and  embellish- 
ments of  Cicero.  Mr.  Walpole  calls  him  the 
prophet  of  arts,  which  Newton  was  afterwards 
to  reveal;  and  adds,  that  his  genius  and  his 
works  will  be  universally  admired  as  long  as 
science  exists.  We  must  add,  firum  another 
writer,  with  regret,  '  as  lung  as  ingratitude  and 
adulation  are  despicable,  so  long  shall  we  lament 
the  depravity  of  this  great  man's  heart.  Alas! 
that  he,  who  could  command  immortal  fiune, 
should  have  stooped  to  the  little  ambition  of 
power.' 

If  parts  allure  theo,  think  how  fiacon  shinM ; 
The  wisest,  brightest,  meanest  of  mankind.     Ftpe. 

Bacon  (Robert),  a  divine  of  the  thirteenth 
ce^atury,  was  bom  about  1168.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  (he 
quickness  of  his  parts.  Thence,  according  to  the 
custom  of  that  age,  he  removed  to  Paris,  where 
he  perfected  himself  in  all  the  branches  of  learn- 
ing. After  his  return  he  settled  at  Oxford,  and 
read  divinity  lectures.  la  1233  he  was  made 
treasurer  of  the  cathedral  church  of  Salisbury; 
and  distinguished  himself  by  a  sermon  before 
king  Henry  III.  at  Oxford.  In  1240  he  lost  his 
great  patron  and  intiniate  friend,  Edmund,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  possibly  this  circum- 
stance, joined  to  his  love  or  a  retired  life,  might 
induce  Bacon,  diough  very  old,  to  enter  into  the 
order  of  Friars  Preachers.  In  gratitude  to  the 
archbishop,   Bacon  wrote  his  life,  which  was 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BACON. 


361 


highly  esteemed.    He  wrote  also  many  other 
learned  pieces,  and  died  in  1248. 

Bacon  (Roger),  a  Franciscan  friar  of  surprising 
genius  and  learning;  bom  near  Ilchester  in  Somer- 
setshire, in  1214.   He  studied  first  at  Oxford^  and 
afterwards  at  Paris,  which,  in  those  times,  was 
esteemed  the  centre  of  literature.    Here  he  made 
so  r&pid  a  progress  in  the  sciences,  that  he  was 
esteemed  the  glory  of  that  university,  and  much 
caressed  by  several  of  his  countrymen,  particu- 
larly Robert  Grouthead,  afterwards  bishop  of 
Lincoln,  his  friend  and  patron.     About  1240 
he  returned  to  Oxford,  ana,  assuming  the  Fran- 
ciscan habit,  prosecuted  experimental  philoso- 
phy, with  unremitting  ardor.    In  this  pursuit, 
in  experiments,  instruments,  and  in  scarce  books, 
he  tells  us,  he  soent,  in  die  space  of  twenty  years, 
no  less  than  Jt2000,  which  was  given  him  by 
bome  of  the  h^tds  of  the  university.    But  such 
extraordinary  talents,  and  his  astonishing  progress 
in  sciences,  which,  in  that  inioiant  ase,  were 
totally  unknown  to  the  rest  of  mankind,  whilst 
they  raised  the  admiration  of  the  more  intelligent 
few,   could  not  fail  to  excite   the  envy  and 
malice  of  hb  illiterate  fraternity ;  who  found  no 
difficulty  in  propagating  the  notion  of  Bacon's 
dealing  with  the  devil.    Under  thi^  pretence,  he 
was  restrained  from  reading  lectures  ;nis  writings 
were  confined  to  his  convent ;  and,  in  1278,  he 
himself  was  imprisoned  in  his  cell.    At  this  time 
he  was  sixty-foui  years  of  age.     Nevertlieless, 
being  permitted  the  use  of  his  books,  he  went  on 
in  the  rational  pursuit  of  knowledge,  corrected 
his  former  labors,   and  wrote  several  curious 
pieces.    When  he  had  been  ten  years  in  con- 
finement, Jerome  de  Ascoli  being  elected  pope, 
Bacon  solicited  his  holiness  to  be  released ;  and 
towards  the  end  of  that  pope's  reign,  obtained 
his  liberty.    He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  the  college  of  his  order,  where  he  died  in 
1294,  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  and  was 
buried  in  the  Franciscan  church.    Such  are  the 
few  particulars,    which  the   most  diligent  re- 
searches have  been  able  to  discover  concerning 
this  very  great  man ;  who,  like  a  single  bright 
star  in  a  dark  hemisphere,  shone  forth  in  an  age 
of  ignorance  and  superstition,  the  light  and  glory 
of  his  country.    His  works  are :  1.  Epistola  fra- 
tris  Roger!  Baconis,  de  Secretis  Operibus  Artis  et 
Naturae,  et  de  NuUitate  Magiee.  raris,  1542,  4to. 
Basil,  1593,  8vo.    2.  Opus  Majus.  Loud.  1733, 
fol.  published  by  Dr.  Jebb.    3.  Thesaurus  Che- 
nicus.  Francf.  1603,  1620.    This  was  probably 
the  editor's  title ;  but  it  contains  several  of  our 
author's  treatises  on  this  subject.    There  are 
said  to  remain  in  different  libraries  several  ma- 
nuscripts of  his  not  yet  published. 

Bacon  (Sir  Nathaniel),  K.  B:and  an  excellent 
painter,  was  a  younger  son  of  Sir  Nicholas,  and 
half  brother  to  the  great  Francis  Bacon.  He 
studied  painting  in  Italy ;  but  his  manner  and 
coloring  approaches  nearer  to  the  style  of  the 
Flemish  school.  Mr.  Walpole  observes,  that 
at  Culford,  where  he  lived,  are  preserved 
some  of  his  works;  and  at  Gorhamburv,  his 
father's  seat,  is  a  large  picture  by  him  m  oil, 
of  a  cook-maid  with  a  dead  fowl,  admirably 
painted.  In  the  same  house  is  a  whole  length 
of  him,  by  himself,  drawn  on  paper,  his  sword 


and  pallet  hung  up,  and  a  half  length  of  his 
mother  by  him. 

Bacon  (Sir  Nicholas),  lord  keeper  of  the  great 
seal  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  bom  at 
Chislehurst  in  Kent,  1510,  and  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge; after  which  he  travelled  into  France, 
and  visited  Paris.    On  his  return,  he  settled  in 
Gray's  Inn,  and  quickly  distinguished  himself  so 
much,  that  on  the  dissolution  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Edmund's  Bury,  in  Suffolk,  he  had  a  grant 
from  king  Henry  VIII.  of  several  manors.   Two 
years  aft^r  he  vras  made  attorney  in  the  court 
of  Wards,  a  place  both  of  honor  and  profit.    In 
this  office  he  was  continued  by  Edward  VI.  and 
in  1552  he  was  elected  treasurer  of  Gray*s  Inn. 
His  great  moderation  and  consummate  prudence 
preserved  him  through  the  dangerous  reigii  of 
qi^een  Mary.    In  the  very  dawn  of  that  of  Eliza- 
beth he  was  knighted ;  and  in  1558,  the  great 
seal  of  England  being  taken  from  archbishop 
Heath^  was  delivered  to  him  with  the  title  of 
lord  keeper,  and  he  was  made  one  of  the  queen's 
privy  council.    He  had  a  considerable  share  in 
the  settling  of  religion :  as  a  statesman  he  was 
remarkable  for  a  clear  head  and  deep  counsels : 
but  his  great  parts  and  hig^  preferment  were  fer 
from  raising  him  in  his  own  opinion,  as  appears 
from  the  modest  answer  he  gave  queen  Elizabeth, 
when  she  told  him  his  house  at  Red-grave  was 
too  little  for  him :  <  Not  so,  madam,'  returned  he^ 
'your  majesty  has  made  me  too  great  for  my 
house.'    After  having  held  the  great  seal  more 
than  twenty  years,  this  able  statesman  and  fiiitlk- 
ful  counsellor  met  with  his  death  by  foiling 
asleep  in  his  room  vnth  a  window  open,  and  the 
current  of  firesh  air  blowing  in  upon  him.    He 
awoke  very  ill,  and  was  immediately  removed 
into  his  bed-chamber,  where  he  died  in  a  few 
dayd,  i.  e.  on  the  26th  of  February,  1578-9.    He 
was  buried  in  St.  Paul's,  where  a  monument  was 
erected  to  him,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  fire 
in  1666.    Sir  Nicholas  was  the  first  lord  keeper 
that  ranked  as  lord  chancellor.    He  was  twice 
married ;  by  his  first  wife  he  had  three  sons  and 
three  daughters ;  and  by  his  second,  two  sons, 
Anthony  and  Francis.    Sir  Nicholas  left  several 
manuscripts,  which  have  never  been  printed. 

Bacon  (John),  an  ingenious  sculptor,  bom  in 
Southwark  in  1740.  He  very  early  manifested 
an  inclinatioQ  for  drawiug,  which  was  encou- 
raged by  bindiog  him  as  an  apprentice  to  a 
manufacturer  of  china,  at  Lamlieth,  when  about 
fifteen  years  of  age.  Here  a  considerable  part  of 
his  employment  was  to  paint  on  porcelain,  in 
which  he  improved  himself  so  much,  in  forming 
small  ornamental  pieces,  that  within  two  years 
all  the  models  of  the  manufoctory  were  committed 
to  him.  This  situation  alfo  afforded  him  an 
opportunity  of  seeing  various  models  executed 
by  other  artists,  which  were  sent  to  a  neighbour- 
ing pottery  to  be  burnt.  In  1758  he  obtained  a 
premium  m>m  the  society  for  the  encouragement 
of  the  arts,  for  a  small  figure  of  Peace,  after  the 
manner  of  the  antique ;  and  eight  different  pre- 
miums afterwards  for  other  figures.  Before  his 
apprenticeship  was  out,  he  formed  a  design  of 
making  statues  in  artificial  stone,  which  he 
afterwards  perfected,  and  which  is  still  carried 
on  in  a  manufactory  in  the  New  Road,  with  suo- 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


369 


BACON. 


cess.  He  first  began  to  work  in  marble  about 
1763,  and  soon  invented  an  instmment  for 
transferring  the  form  of  the  model  to  the  marble 
(getting  out  the  points  as  artists  call  it),  which 
other  sculptors  have  since  adopted.  In  1769  he 
received  the  first  gold  medal  bestowed  by  the 
Royal  Society,  and  next  year  was  chosen  an 
as!K>ciate.  The  exhibition  of  his  statue  of  Mars 
greatly  increased  his  reputation;  and  Dr.  Mark- 
liam,  since  archbishop  of  York,  employed  him  to 
make  a  bust  of  the  kmg,  to  be  placed  in  •the  hall 
of  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford.  While  he 
was  modelling  this  bust,  his  majesty  asked  him 
*  if  he  had  ever  been  out  of  the  kingdom;'  and 
receiving  an  answer  in  the  negative,  said,  •  I  am 
glad  of  it,  you  will  be  the  greater  honor  to  it.' 
By  the  execution  of  this  woHl  he  obtained  the 
royal  patronage,  and  was  employed  to  foi^ 
another  for  the  University  of  Gottingen.  In  1777 
he  was  engaged  in  preparing  a  model  of  a  monu- 
ment, to  be  erected  in  Guy's  hospital  to  the  me- 
mory of  the  founder,  which  he  executed  in  such 
a  manner,  as  recommended  him  to  that  of  Lord 
Chatham,  at  Guildhall.  In  1778  he  became  a 
royal  academician,  and  finished  a  handsome  mo- 
nument to  the  memory  of  Mrs.  Draper,  which  is 
in  Bristol  cathedral.  From  this  period,  his  works 
are  so  numerous,  that  we  can  only  mention  a 
few  of  the  principal : — ^Two  groups  for  the  top 
of  Somerset4)ouse ;  a  statue  of  Judge  Blackstone, 
for  All  Soul's  College,  Oxford ;  another  of  Henry 
VI.  for  Eton  College;  Lord  Chatham's  monu- 
ment in  Westminster  Abbey ;  and  Dr.  Johnson's 
and  Mr.  Howard's  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral.  He 
died  of  an  inflammation  in  his  bowels,  in  1799,  and 
left  a  widow  and  eight  children.  He  was  a  man 
of  most  excellent  character,  and  of  his  religious 
principles,  let  the  inscription  which  he  ordered 
to  be  placed  over  his  grave  testify :  •  What  I  was 
as  an  artist,  seemed  to  me  of  some  importance 
while  I  lived;  but  what  I  really  was,  as  a  be- 
liever in  Christ  Jesus  is  the  only  thing  of  import- 
ance to  me  now.'  Mr.  Bacon  also  po^essed 
respectable  literary  talents. 

Dk  CON,  n.  I.  probably  from  baken,  that  is, 
dried  flesh.  The  flesh  of  a  hog  salted  and 
dried. 

No  wine  ne  drank  she,  neyther  white  ne  red. 
Hire  bord  was  served  most  with  white  and  black 
Milky  and  brown  bred,  in  which  she  fond  no  lack, 
Seinde  batim,  and  sometime  an  ey  or  twey ; 
For  she  was  as  it  were  a  manner  dey!  (^laucer. 

When  it  had  stabbed  or  broke  a  head. 
It  would  scrape  trenchers  or  chip  bread  ; 
Toast  cheese  or  bacon,  tho'  it  were 
To  bait  a  moose-trap  it  would  not  care. 


High  o'er  the  hearth  a  chine  of  bacon  hung. 
Good  old  Philemon  seised  it  with  a  prong. 
Then  cut  a  slice.  Drydm. 

Bacon,  the  flesh  of  swine,  salted,  dried, 
and  generally,  in  this  country,  smoked.  It  is  a 
considerable  article  of  conmierce :  we  shall  de- 
scribe the  most  approved  methods  of  preserving 
it ;  vi*.  that  adorned  in  SomerseUhire.  Tne  last 
three  months  of  the  year  are  selected  as  best 
adapted  for  curing  bacon  here.  When  a  hog  is 
killed  for  bacon,  the  sides  are  laid  in  large 
wooden  troughs,  and  sprinkled  all  over  with  bay 
salt;  thus  they  arc  left  for  twenty-four  hours,  to 


drain  away  the  blood  and  the  superfluous  juiws. 
After  this  first  preparation,  they  should  be  taken 
out,  wiped  very  dry,  and  the  drainings  thrown 
away.  Next  some  fresh  bay-salt,  well  heated  ir. 
a  large  iron  frying-pan,  is  to  be  rubbed  over  the 
meat,  until  it  has  absorbed  a  sufficient  quantity, 
and  this  friction  repeated  four  successive  dayi, 
while  the  meat  is  turned  only  every  other  day. 
If  large  hogs  are  killed,  the  flitches  should  be 
kept  in  brine  for  three  weeks,  and,  during  that 
period,  'turned  ten  times,  then  taken  out,  and 
thoroughly  dried  in  the  usual  manner;  for,  unless 
they  be  tnus  managed,  it  is  impossible  to  pie- 
serve  them  in  a  sweet  state,  nor  will  their  flayor 
be  equal  to  those  properly  cured. 

As  the  preservation  of  the  salt  used  in  this 
process,  wnen  carried  on  to  a  great  extent,  may 
oe  an  object  of  economy,  the  following  method 
may  be  adopted  for  recovering  the  saline  natter 
contained  in  tliese  drainings,  or  in  any  other 
brine ;  it  was  communicated  by  a  person  who 
had  ^een  it  practised  on  the  continent,  where 
culinary  salt  is  sold  at  a  considerable  price.  He 
first  added  such  a  quantity  of  boiling-water,  to 
the  brine  or  drainings,  as  was  sufficient  to  dis* 
solve  all  the  particles  of  the  salt.  This  solutiou 
he  then  placed  in  either  an  iron  or  earthen  ves- 
sel, over  a  fire,  which,  by  boiling,  forced  all  the 
feculent  animal  particles  to  the  top,  so  that  they 
were  carefoUy  removed  by  a  perforated  ladle. 
After  the  liquid  had  become  clear,  it  was  set 
aside  for  twenty-fotv  hours,  in  a  cool  place,  that 
the  coloring  matter  might  subside.  l>ut,  as  the 
combination  it^ad  formed  with  the  boiled  liquor 
was  very  tenacious,  he  contrived  two  different 
ways  of  separating  it :  1.  A  solution  of  alum  in 
water,  one  pint  to  an  ounce  of  that  substance 
was  gradually  dropt  into  the  cold  liquor,  in  the 
proportion  of  a  table-spoonftil  of  the  former  to 
every  gallon  of  the  latter;  and  the  whole  allowed 
to  stand  for  several  hours ;  or,  2.  If  time  and 
circumstances  would  permit,  he  filtered  the  liquor 
by  means  of  long  flannel  slips,  cut  longitudinally 
by  the  web,  but  previously  soaked  in  another 
strong  and  perfectly  clear  solution  of  salt ;  these 
slips  were  so  immersed  into  the  colored  fluid 
that  the  projecting  external  end  reached  another 
vessel,  which  had  been  placed  much  lower  than 
that  containing  the  brine,  or  drainings.  When 
these  particulars  were  properly  attended  to,  the 
absorbed  hquor  became  almost  colorless,  and 
pellucid.  Having  thus  procured  a  clear  liquid 
solution,  nothing  more  was  required  than  to 
evaporate  it  to  dryness,  in  order  to  reproduce 
the  salt  in  its  original  granulated  form.  This 
process  may  be  imitated  without  any  difficulty, 
and  at  very  little  expense.  Dr.  Wmich,  from 
whose  Domestic  Encyclopedia  we  now  quote, 
says,  the  second  method  of  discharging  the  color 
is  preferable;  as  by  this  no  alum  will  be  re- 
quired, which  only  contaminates  the  salt 

Bacon,  the  service  of  the,  a  custom,  men- 
tioned by  our  old  historians  and  law-writers ;  as 
well  as  in  the  Spectator,  as  held  in  the  manor  of 
Whichenacre  in  Stafibrdshire,  and  in  the  priory 
of  Dunnow  in  Essex.  In  the  former  of^  these 
places,  by  an  ancient  grant  of  the  lord,  a  flitch 
of  bacon,  with  half  a  quarter  of  wheat,  was  to  be 
given  to  every  married  couple  who  could  swear 
that  haying  been  married  a  year  and  a  day,  they 


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would  never  within  that  time  have  once  ex- 
changed their  mate  for  any  other  person  on 
earth,  however  richer,  fairer,  or  the  like.  But 
they  were  to  bring  two  of  their  neighbours  with 
them  to  attest  that  they  swore  the  truth.  On  this 
the  lord  of  another  neighbouring  manor  of  Rud- 
low,  was  to  find  a  horse,  saddled,  and  a  sack  to 
carry  the  bounty  in,  with  drams  and  trumpets, 
as  rar  as  a  day's  journey  out  of  the  manor ;  all 
the  servants  being  summoned  to  attend,  and  pay 
service  to  the  bacon.  The  bacon  of  Dunihow, 
first  erected  under  Henry  III.  was  on  much  the 
same  footing ;  but  the  tenor  of  the  oath  was  only 
that  the  parties  had  never  once  repented  their 
connexion,  or  wished  themselves  unmarried 
again. 

Bacon,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of 
Seistan,  eighty  miles  N.  N.  £.  of  Zareng. 

Bacon,  a  town  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island 
of  Lu9on. 

Bacon's  Island,  a  small  island  in  the  Chi- 
nese Sea.    Long.  113*»  5'  E.,  lat.  11*  13'  N. 

BACON-FOSSIL,  in  modem  chemistiy,  a 
singular  fossil  discovered  in  the  parish  of  Cruwys- 
Morchard,  Devon,  a  few  years  since,  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner :— -Some  workmen,  in  sinking  a 
pond,  had  arrived  at  a  depth  of  ten  feet  from  the 
surface,  when  they  struck  upon  a  spongy  sub- 
stance, which  appeared  to  be  a  very  thick  cuticle 
of  a  brown  color:  they  soon  found  pieces  of 
bone  and  solid  fat  of  the  same  hue.  At  length 
the  entire  body  of  a  hog  was  extricated,  reduced 
to  the  color  and  substance  of  an  Egyptian 
raummy :  the  flesh  was  six  inches  thick,  and  the 
hair  upon  it  very  long  and  elastic.  On  proceed- 
ing in  the  worii,  a  considerable  number  of  hogs, 
of  various  sizes,  were  found  in  different  posi- 
tions; in  some  places  two  or  three  together,  in 
othera  singly ;  tne  bodies,  when  exposed  to  the 
air,  still  retained  their  consistency,  and  the 
stratum  continued  for  twelve  feet ;  afler  which 
the  pond,  being  sufficiently  deep,  was  filled  with 
vrater.  The  ground  was  never  known  to  have 
been  broken  up  before;  but  here  had  formerly 
been  a  monastery  of  Augustine  friais.  The  fa- 
mily which  preceded  the  present  possessor  has 
a  journal  of^all  remarkable  events  which  have 
occurred  in  the  parish  during  three  centuries; 
but  there  was  no  entry  which  could  lead  to  a  so- 
lution of  the  phenomenon.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Pol- 
"whele,  who  obtained  a  specimen,  mentions^  in 
bis  History  of  Devon,  that  the  bed  in  which  the 
fossils  lay  was  of  stiff  clay.  He  describes  the 
piece  in  his  possession  to  be  very  light,  some- 
what spongv,  mottled  like  mottled  soap,  and 
evidently  of  a  sebaceous  nature.  On  a  slight 
chemical  analysis,  it  was  mostly  soluble  in 
spirit  of  wine,  while  hot;  but  separated  into 
white  flakes  on  cooling,  in  which  it  resembles 
spermaceti;  but  it  was  easily  convertible  into 
soap  on  being  boiled  in  a  fixed  alkaline  lixivium. 
*  It  is  certaiidy/  he  says, '  an  animal  substance; 
find,  if  I  may  form  any  judgment  from  a  large 
specimen  which  I  immediately  procured,  I  think 
1  may  safely  pronounce  it  to  have  been  originally 
hog's^flesh.' 

BACONGEN,  i  town  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  island  of  Sumatra.  Long.  96^  58'  E.,  lat. 
2*  52'  N. 


BACONO,  a  river  of  the  Caraccas,  South 
America.  It  runs  in  the  mountains  near  Trux- 
illo,  and  serves  as  a  line  of  demarcation  to  the 
provinces  of  Varinas  and  Venezuela.  Thence 
passing  through  the  plains,  it  enters  the  Gua- 
nare,  which  discharges  its  waters  into'the  Por- 
tugueza.  There  is  a  settlement  of  the  same  name 
near  its  source. 

BACONTHORPE,  or  BACONnoRp  (John>, 
styled  the  resolute  doctor,  a  learned  monk,  boiu 
in  the  thirteenth  century  at  Baoonsthorp,  in 
Norfolk.  He  spent  the  early  part  of  his  life  in 
the  convent  of^  Blackney,  near  Walsingham; 
whence  he  removed  to  Oxford,  and  th^ce  to 
Paris ;  where  he  obtained  degrees  in  divinity  and 
law,  9^  was  esteemed  the  principal  of  the  Aver- 
roists.  In  1329  he  returned  to  England,  and 
was  chosen  twelfth  provincial  of  the  En^ish 
Carmelites.  In  1333  he  was  sent  for  to  Rome ; 
where,  we  are  told,  he  first  maintained  the  pope'a 
sovereign  authority  in  cases  of  divorce,  but  that 
he  afterwards  retracted  his  opinion.  He  died  in 
London  in  1346,  with  the  character  of  a  monk  of 
genius  and  learning.  He  wrote,  1.  Commenta^ 
ria  sen  Qusestiones  super  Quatuor  Libros  Senten- 
tiarum;  and  2.  Compendium  Legis  Christi,  et 
quodlibeta:  both  which  underwent  several  edi- 
tions at  Paris,  Milan,  and  Cremona.  Leland, 
Bale,  and  Pits,  mention  a  number  of  his  works 
never  published. 

BACOPA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
class  pentandria,  and  order  monogynia.  Its  ge- 
neric characters  are  cal.  perianth,  one-leavm  : 
COR.  one-petalled :  stam.  filaments,  five;  an- 
thers, sagittate:  PtST.  germ,  ovate;  style  short; 
stigma,  headed :  per.  capsule,  one-celled ;  seeds, 
very  many.  The  only  species  is  the  B.  aquatica, 
native  of  Cayenne.    lAnn.  ^c.  Plant. 

BACOUE  (Leo),  a  French  divine  of  the  se- 
venteenth century.  He  was  first  of  the  Protest- 
ant persuasion,  but  afterwards  changed  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  feith,  turned  Franciscan,  and 
was  made  bishop  of  Pamiers.  He  was  author  of 
a  Latin  poem  on  the  education  of  a  prince.  He 
died  in  1694,  in  his  ninety-fourth  year. 

BACRAG,  the  same  with  Baodiarach  wine. 

BACRAS,  a  town  of  Sennaar,  in  Afirica, 
twenty-five  miles  east  of  Sennaar. 

BACRE,  a  small  town  in  the  territory  of 
Sierra  Leone.    Long.  12°  11'  W.,  lat.  8°  40'  N. 

BACTISHUA  (George  Ebn)|  a  Christian 
physician  at  the  court  of  the  caliph  Almansor, 
who  sent  him  as  a  present  3000  dinars,  with 
three  beautiful  girls  to  supply  the  place  of  his 
wife,  who  vras  old :  Bactishua  seot  them  back, 
observing  that  his  religion  forbad  him  to  have 
more  than  one  woman  for  his  wife. 

BACTRIA,  or  Bactriana,  now  Chorassan,  or 
Khorasan ,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Asia,  bounded 
on  the  west  by  Margiana,  on  the  north  by  the  Oxus, 
on  the  south  by  Mount  Paropismus,  and  on  the 
east  by  the  Asiatic  Scythia  and  the  country  of 
the  Massagetae.  It  was  a  large,  fruitful,  and 
well-peopled  country ;  containing,  according  to 
Ammianus  Marcellinus,  1000  cities,  though  of 
these  only  a  fem  are  particularly  mentioned ;  of 
which,  that  formerly  called  Maracanda,  now  Sa- 
marcand,  is  the  most  considerable.  Of  the  his-* 
tory  of  this  country  we  know  but  little.-  Authors 


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agree  that  it  was  subdued  first  by  the  Assyrians, 
afterwards  by  Cyrus,  and  then  by  Alexander  the 
Great.  Afterwards  it  remained  subject  to  Se- 
leucus  Nicator  and  his  successors,  till  the  time  of 
Antiochus  Theos;  when  Theodotus,  from  go- 
vernor of  that  province,  became  king,  and 
strengthened  himself  so  effectually  in  his  king- 
dom, while  Antiochus  was  engaged  in  a  war  with 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  that  he 
could  never  afterwards  dispossess  him  of  his  ac- 
quisitions. His  posterity  enjoyed  the  kingdom 
for  some  time,  till  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
Scythians,  who  possessed  Bactria  during  the 
reigns  of  Adrian,  Antoninus  Piui,  &c.  The 
Scydiians  were  in  their  turn  driven  out  by  the 
Hubs  and  Turks,  and  these  often  conquered  by 
the  Saracens  and  Tartars;  although  they  were  in 
possession  of  this  country,  in  the  time  of  Ladis 
laus  IV.  king  of  Hungary. 

BACTRIANS,  the  inhabitants  of  Bactria.  In 
ancient  times  they  differed  little  in  their  manners 
from  the  Nomades;  and  being  near  neighbours 
of  the  Scythians,  who  were  a  very  warlike 
people,  the  Bactrian  soldiers  were  reckoned  the 
best  in  the  world.  Their  appearance  was  very 
sava^;  theybeinff  ofan  enormous  stature,  having 
rough  beards,  and  long  hair  hanging  down  their 
shoulders.  Some  authors  assert  that  they  kept 
dogs  on  purpose  to  devour  such  as  arrived  at  ex- 
treme old  age,  or  who  were  exhausted  by  long 
sickness.  They  add,  that  for  all  their  Herceness, 
the  Bactrian  husbands  were  such  dupes  to  their 
wives,  that  they  durst  not  complain  or  them  even 
ft)r  conjugal  infidelity,  to  which  it  seems  the 
latter  were  very  much  aiddicted. 

BACTRIANUS,  in  zoology,  a  spedet  of  the 
camel. 

BACTRIS,  in  botanv,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  moncBcia,  order  hexandria.  Its  ge- 
neric characters  are  cal.  spathe  universal,  one- 
leaved  :  COR.  one-petalled :  stam.  filaments,  six; 
anthers,  oblong:  pist.  germ,  ovate;  style,  very 
short ;  stigma,  headed :  pee.  drupe,  coriaceous, 
seed-nut,  roundish.  The  species  are,  1.  B. 
minor  fructibus,  &c.  sen  cocos  (quincensis)  acu- 
leata,  &c.  a  shrub,  native  of  South  America.  2. 
B.  major  fructu,  &c.  sen  fructus  exoticus,  a 
shrub,  native  of  South  America. 

Bactbis,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  bnichus. 

BACTROP£RATi£,  from  /Socrpoy,  a  staff, 
and  TTfipa,  a  bag ;  an  ancient  appellation  given 
to  philosophers  by  way  of  contempt,  denoting  a 
man  with  a  staff  and  a  budget  it  seems  to  be 
of  this  sect  that  Paschasius  Radbertus  speaks, 
under  the  corrupt  names  of  Baccoperitte,  or  Bac* 
chionita,  whom  he  describes  as  philosophers 
who,  by  way  of  contempt  for  earthly  things,  kept 
nothing  but  a  dbh  to  dxink  out  of;  and  that  one 
of  this  order  seeing  a  peasant  scooping  up  the 
water  in  his  hand,  threw  away  bis  cup  as  a  su- 
perfluity. 

BACULARES,  a  sect  of  Anabaptists,  so 
called,  as  holding  it  unlawftil  to  bear  a  sword,  or 
any  other  arms,  besides  a  staff. 

BACULARIUS,  in  writers  of  the  middle 
age,  an  ecclesiatical  apparitor  or  verger :  who 
carries  a  staff,  baculus,  in  his  hand,  as  an  ensign 
of  his  office. 

BACULE,  in  forufication,  a  kind  of  portcullis, 


or  gate,  made  like  a  pit-fiill  with  a  counterpoise, 
and  supported  by  two  great  stakes.  It  is  vsnallf 
made  b^ore  the  corps  du  guard,  near  the  gale  oi 
a  place. 

BACULI.    See  Bacilli. 

Baculi  Sti.  Pauu,  batoons  of  St  Paiil,a 
kind  of  figured  stones,  of  the  same  substance 
with  those  resembling  the  bristles  of  some  Ame- 
rican echini,  called  by  Dr.  Plott,  lapida  Jada- 
ica. 

BACUIXXMETRY,!!.!.  From  baadMiyUL 
and  furpov.  The  art  of  measttring  distances  br 
one  or  more  staves. 

Baculometet.    See  Geometet. 

BAOULOSUS  Ecclesiasticus,  in  someu- 
cient  laws,  is  used  for  a  bishop,  or  abbot,  digni- 
fied with  the  pastoral  stafi;  or  crosier. 

BACULUS  DiviNATOEius,  or  Vieguu  Di- 
VINA.    See  Baouette  Divivatoire. 

BACUaiUS,  or  Batueius,  king  of  the  lb^ 
rianSy  a  people  on  the  side  of  the  Caspian  kl 
One  day  bemg  hunting,  he  lost  sight  of  his  com- 
pany, tluouj^  a  great  storm  and  sudden  darkness; 
upon  which  he  vowed  to  the  God  of  his  christian 
slave,  that  if  he  were  delivered,  he  would  vor- 
ship  him  alone:  the  day  breaking  up  imiot- 
diately,  he  is  said  to  hai^e  made  good  his  promise, 
and  became  the  apostle  of  his  country. 

BAiy,  (U§.      ^     Quoad,  Dut ;  Sax.  baed; 

Bad'ly,  ado,    >  Ger.  bos ;  probably  connected 

Bad'ness,  n.t.  J  with  th^  Lat  pejug,  worse,  ud 
the  Heb.  botck.  Comparative  worse ;  superi^n 
worst  Bad  respects  moral  and  physical  quali- 
ties indiscriminately ;  whatever  offends  the  tbte 
and  sentiments  of  a  rational  being,  is  bad;  food 
is  bad  when  it  disasrees  with  the  constitntix; 
the  air  is  bad  which  has  any  thing  in  it  disa^ 
able  to  the  senses  or  hurtful  to  the  body;  boob 
are  bad  which  only  inflame  the  imagination  and 
the  passions.  In  one  word,  bad  ]s  equalir 
descriptive  of  mental,  moral,  and  corporeal  dis- 
ease, and  implies  misfortune  or  delioquaKV, 
only  from  its  application.  Badly  means  in  ^^ 
manner  of  bad.  It  is  always  annexed  to  the 
action ;  but  never  to  the  quality  of  things. 

'TIS  good ;  though  music  oft  hath  such  s  chuB. 

To  msko  bad  good,  and  good  provoke  to  harm. 

How  goes  the  day  with  us  !  O  tell  me,  Hubert. 

Badiif,  I  fear.    How  fues  your  mi^escy  ?         '^ 

It  was  not  your  brother's  evil  disposition  made  bis 

seek  his  death ;  bat  a  provoking  merit,  set  a  voii  bv 

a  reproveable  ftotfneis  in  himself.  '*' 

Thoa  may'st  repent, 
Aud  one  had  act,  with  many  deeds  well  doner 
May'st  cover.  ^'** 

Thus  will  the  latter,  as  the  former,  worid 
Still  tend  from  had  to  worse.  ^^ 

Our  anhsppy  fates 
Mix  thee  amongst  the  6ad,  or  make  thee  ran 
Too  near  the  paths  which  virtue  bids  thee  ikoo- 

Daughter  of  Jove,  relentless  pover,  ^ 

I'hou  tamer  of  the  human  breast. 
Whose  iron  scourge,  and  torturing  Iwor,  i 

The  had  affright-— afflict  the  best.  ^     ' 

The  sun  his  annual  coujae  obliquely  m^  I 

Good  days  contractea,  and  enlug'd  the ^^      I 


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I  Reading  vm  had  for  his  eyes,  writing  made  his 

head  ache.  Addimm. 

c  I  did  not  see  how  the  frodnew  of  the  weather  could 

betheking*sfaalt.  /d. 

There  is  one  conrenience  in  the  city,  which  makes 

some  amends  for  the  badttem  of  the  pavement. 

Id,  on  iiaisf. 

[         ^^?  I  The  preterite  of  bid. 

Out  council  was  not  longe  for  to  seche. 
Us  thought  it  was  not  worth  to 'make  it  wist. 
And  granted  withouten  more  aviso. 
And  bad  him  say  his  verdict  as  him  leste.  Chatieer. 
And  for  an  earnest  of  greater  honoor. 
He  bade  me,  £rom  him,  call  thee  Thane  of  Cawder. 

Shaktpeara. 
She  thank'd  me. 
And  bade  me,  if  I  had  a  friend  that  lovM  herj, 
I  should  but  teach  him  how  to  toll  my  story. 
And  that  would  woo  her.  i  Id. 

Thus  God  and  nature  link'd  the  general  £rame, 
\  And  bade  self-love  and  social  be  the  same.      Pcpe, 

But  thou,  0  hope,  with  eyes  so  fair. 
What  was  thy  delighted  measure  7 
Still  it  whisper'd  promised  pleasure. 
And  bade  the  lovely  scenes  at  dbtance  hail !     ColUm, 

BADAGIS,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province 
of  Khorassan,  forty  miles  north  of  Fusheng. 

BADAJOZ,  or  Badajox,  a  large  and  strong 
town,  the  capital  of  Estremadura,  in  Spain.  It 
is  seated  on  an  eminence  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Guadiana,  OFer  which  there  is  a  bridge  of  twenty- 
eight  arches,  and  nearly  1900  feet  in  length,  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  the  Romans.  Gn  this 
bridge  the  Portuguese  were  defeated  in  1661,  by 
Don  John  of  Austria.  Here  are  also  five  ancient 
gates,  but  the  public  buildings,  with  the  exception 
of  the  cathedral,  merit  no  notice :  the  only  ma- 
nufacture is  hats.  Population  14,300.  The 
Roman  Pax  Augusta,  or  which  Badajoz  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  corruption,  stood  on  muc^  higher 
ground.  Badajoz  has  always  been  regarded  as 
an  important  barrier  against  Portugal;  from 
the  frontiers  of  which  it  is  little  more  than  four 
miles.  The  Goths  captured  it  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury; the  Moors  in  the  eighth,  and  Alphonso  of 
Castile  reconquered  it  in  1230.  Lord  Welling- 
ton invested  Badajoz  on  the  l8th  of  March, 
1812;  and  breaches  having  been  made  on  the 
6th  of  April,  it  was  assaulted  on  the  same  n^ht. 
General  Ficton  established  himself  in  the  casUe;' 
but  after  repeated  attempts  upon  the  town  itself, 
the  British  troops  were  obliged  to  retire:  the 
possession  of  die  castle,  however,  so  hi  com- 
manded the  works,  that  the  French  comman- 
dant thought  it  advisable  to  surrender:  1200 
men  oat  of  a  garrison  of  5000,  were  killed  or 
wounded  during  the  siege,  and  of  the  besiegers, 
British  and  Portngnese,  upwards  of  4000.  But 
the  possession  of  Badajoz,  in  conjunction  with 
Ciudad  Rodrigo,  secured  the  defence  of  Por- 
tugal, and  was  thought  well  worth  the  price  paid 
for  it.  The  bishop  of  Badajoz,  suffragan  to  the 
archbishop  of  St.  Jago,  has  under  his  inspection 
a  cathedral  chapter,  an  archdeaconry,  and  fifty 
parishes.  The  chapter  is  composed  of  seven 
dignitaries,  twelve  canons,  four  prebendaries, 
and  six  snbprebendaries.  There  are  besides  in 
the  town  five  parish  diurches,  seven 


teries,  five  nunneries,  and  &Ye  hospitals.  It  is 
the  residence  of  the  captain-general  and  intend- 
ant  of  Spanish  Estremadura,  a  civil  and  military 
governor,  a  royal  lieutenant,  an  alcade  major, 
and  a  contador.  It  has  fourteen  companies  of 
militia,  a  garrison,  two  forts  (Cristobal  and  las 
Pardaleras),  and  an  arsenal.  It  is  eighty-two 
miles  N.N.  W.  of  Seville,  forty-nine  S.  of  Al- 
cantara. ,  Long.  6*»  47'  W.,  lat.  38^  49'  N. 

BADALONA,  or  Badxlova,  a  sea-port  town 
of  Spain,  in  Catalonia,  with  a  citadel.  Earl 
Peterborough  landed  here  with  the  arch-duke 
Charles  in  1704.  Four  miles  north-east  <^  Bar- 
celona.   Long.  2*»  r  E.,  lat.  41°  25'  N. 

BADANACGUPY,  a  town  of  the  Mysore, 
Hindostan,  twenty-eight  miles  south  of  Serin- 
gapatam. 

BADAR,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  ihe  pro- 
vince of  Bejapour,  on  tlie  south  side  of  the 
Krishna,  thirty  miles  south  of  Mirjee.  Long. 
75*»  32*  E.,  lat.  16*»  40'  N. 

BADASKY,  a  town  of  Siberia,  in  the  go- 
vernment of  Irkutzk«  on  the  river  Ajigara,  eig^ity 
nulesN.N.W.of  Irkntzk. 

BADCGCK  (Samuel),  the  son  of  a  reputable 
butcher,  was  bom  at  S^  Molton,  Devonshire,  In 
1747,  and  bred  a  dissenting  clergyman.  He  was 
first  pastor  at  Beer-Regis  in  Dorsetshire,  and 
afterwards  at  Barnstaple,  for  about  ten  years. 
Here  meeting  with  some  of  Dr.  Priestley's  publi- 
cations, he  paid  the  Dr.  a  visit,  and  established 
a  correspondence  with  him.  Upon  investigation 
of  the  subject,  however,  he  found  it  impossible 
to  embrace  Unitarianism.  In  1777  he  removed 
to  his  birth-place,  and  in  1780,  engaged  as  a 
writer  in  the  Monthly  Review.  The  controversy 
then  agitated  by  Dr.  Priestly,  Price,  and  others, 
respecting  the  materiality  of  die  soul,  led  him  to 
publish  nis  thoughts  *  upon  the  subject,  in  a 
pamphlet  entitled,  A  Slight  Sketch  of  the  Con- 
jtroversy  between  Dr.  Priestly  and  his  Oppo- 
nents; which  was  repeatedly  quoted  with  great 
approbation.  In  1 781  he  wrote  a  poem,  entitled 
the  Hermitage,  and  reviewed  Maian's  Thelyp- 
thora,  greatly  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  public. 
In  the  controversy  concerning  the  authenticity 
of  Rowley's  Poems,  he  took  the  negative  side, 
and  displ^ed  his  usual  ingenuity.  In  the 
Monthly  Review  for  1785»  he  attacked  Dr. 
Priestly's  History  of  the  Early  Gpinions  rela^ 
tive  to  Jesus  Christ,  with  such  strength  of  rea- 
soning, that  the  doctor,  without  knowing  his 
antagonist,  complimented  him  in  his  Reply, 
as  a  formidable  and  respectable  antagonist' 
Being  applied  to  by  Dr.  White,  to  assist  him  in 
completmg  his  Bampton  lectures,  he  wrote  the 
greater  part  of  the  fiist,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  seventh 
and  eighth;  with  part  of  the  notes  subjoined  to 
them.  In  1787,  having  expressed  an  intention  of 
conforming  to  the  established  church,  he  was 
ordained  in  Exeter  cathedral  by  his  friend  bishop 
Ross ;  who  gave  him  the  order  of  deacon  and  priest, 
on  two  succeeding  Sundays.  He  died  May  19th, 
1788,  at  the  house  of  his  friend  Sir  John  Chiches- 
ter, bart  in  May-foir.  His  disposition  was  gen- 
tle, humane,  and  lively;  his  jjuagment  acute  and 
comprehensive;  and  his  Uterary  attainments 
great  and  v$mous.  He  was  equally  eminent  as  a 
preacher  and  a  writer. 


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BADDAMMY^atownof  Ilindostan,  in  the 
province  of  Bejapour,  in  the  territories  of  the 
Mahrattas.  It  is  a  place  of  some  strength. 
Thir^  miles  sonth-east  of  Merritch.  Long.  74"^ 
54  E.,  lat.  16**  6'  N. 

BADDERLOCKS,  in  natural  history,  a  Scot- 
tish name  given  to  the  facus  esculentos,  or 
eatable  sea-weed.  It  is  about  four  feet  long, 
and  seven  or  eight  inches  wide,  but  varies  in 
length  from  three  yards  to  a  foot,  and  in  breadth, 
from  a  loot  to  two  inches ;  the  substance  is  thin, 
membranaceous,  and  pellucid ;  the  color,  greeu 
or  olive.  This  fucus  is  eaten  in  the  north  of 
Scotland  both  by  men  and  ca|tle,  and  is  in  its 
greatest  perfection  in  September;  that  which  is 
eaten  by  the  common  people  about  Edinburgh 
is  the  F.  Palmatus,  Dulse,  or  Dils,  which  see. 

BADEAUT,  Loch,  or,  as  it  is  erroneously 
spelt  in  some  maps,  Ba  dwell,  a  good  harbour 
of  Scotland,  on  the  coast  of  Sutherland,  in  the 
parish  of  Edderachylis;  where  shipping  of  all 
sizes  can  enter,  and  tooor  close  to  the  land,  in 
perfect  safety. 

BADEN,  in  geography,  formerly  a  inargra- 
vate  of  Germany,  in  the  circle  of  Suabia,  stretch- 
ing along  the  east  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  forming, 
at  present,  the  roost  important  part  of  a  grand 
duchy  of  the  same  name.  It  consisted  of  two 
divisions,  viz.  Baden-Baden,  and  Baden-Dur- 
lach ;  of  which  the  former,  and  part  of  the  latter, 
formed  a  compact  territory,  surrounded  by  Spire, 
Wirtemberg,  the  bishopric  of  Strasburg,  and 
the  Rhine.  The  coimUy  is  for  the*most  part 
level,  but  intersected  on  the  east  by  branches  of 
the  hilly  Schwartzwald,  or  Black  Forest  The 
most  considerable  part  of  Baden-Durlach  lay 
disjointed  and  insulated  towards  the  south  {  and 
that  part  in  the  upper  margiaviate  lying  in  the 
direction  of  Bale,  was  covered  with  mountains, 
except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Rhine. 
These  divisions,  taken  together  with  the  county 
of  Ebeistein,  include  a  space  of  1186  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  more  than  180,000 
inhabitants,  inaependeni  of  the  military.  Within 
the  limits  of  this  margravate  were  seventeen 
towns,  fourteen  boroughs,  and  upwards  of  five 
hundred  villages  and  hamlets ;  the  whole  yield- 
ing an  animal  revenue  of  nearly  £150,000  ster- 
ling. The  country  abounds  vnth  wood,  wine, 
iron,  cobalt,  and  silver.  The  lEUiine  which  flows 
over  the  whole  sur&ee,  from  north  to  south,  sup- 
plies abundance  of  excellent  salmon.  Whilst 
the  flax,  hemp,  linen,  and  fiuits,  which  are  found 
in  considerable  quantities,  not  only  supply  the 
aggregate  home  consumption  of  the  inhabitants, 
but  form  important  articles  of  exportation.  Silk 
has  abo  been  cultivated  here ;  but  not  with  any 
great  advantage.  The  principal  manu&ctures 
are  of  doth,  stufls,  stcdcings,  jewellery,  &c. 
There  is  also  one  of  steel,  at  Pfortzheim,  and 
one  of  beautifol  earthenware  at  Durladi. 

The  house  of  Baden  is  descended  from  Her- 
man, second  son  of  Berthold  L  duke  of  Zahrin- 
gen,  who  died  A.  D.  1074.  About  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  it  split  into  the  two  lines 
of  Baden-Baden,  and  Baden-Durlach,  in  which 
state  it  continued  for  some  time;  but,  on  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  former,  in  1771,  the  latter  suc- 
ceeded to  tlw  whole  inheritance.  At  the  diet  of 
the  empire,  the  margrave  of  Baden  had  three 


votes  in  the  council  of  princes,  and  one  in  the 
bench  of  counts,  in  virtue  of  his  title  as  coaotof 
Eberstein.  Before  the  memorable  revolutioa  in 
France,  this  prince  possessed  the  following  terri- 
tories :  his  patrimonial  lands,  different  territories 
in  Suabia  and  Bohemia,  portions  of  the  ooanty 
of  Sponheim-Graftenstein,  together  with  the 
bailiwic  of  Roth  on  the  French  side  of  die  Rhine, 
the  lordships  of  Rodemachem  and  Hespringen, 
in  Luxemberg,  and  several  estates  in  Alsace; 
but  when  the  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine  were  oeded  to  France  bv  the  peace  of 
Luneville,  concluded  on  the  9th  of  February, 
1801, 'the  German  princes  were  indemnified  for 
their  losses  by  the  secularisation  of  ecclesiastical 
possessions ;  the  reduction  of  the  imperial  cities, 
and  other  alterations  on  the  rieht  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  and  the  margrave  of  Baden  on  that  occa- 
sion acquired  the  bishopric  of  Constance,  pait 
of  Bale-Strasburg,  and  Spire,  several  bailiwics 
of  the  Lower  Palatinate,  and  in  Hesse,  the  lord- 
ship of  Lahr,  a  number  of  secularised  abbeys,  and 
several  imperial  towns,  together  with  the  title  of 
elector,  and  three  additional  votes  at  the  diet 
His  augmented  possessions  at  this  time  contained 
a  territory  of  2770  English  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  410,000  Wiabitants,  yielding  in 
annual  revenue  £372,000  sterling;  and,  in  the 
year  1803  were  separated  into  three  divisioDS, 
viz.  the  margraviate,  the  palatinate,  and  the  upper 
principality. 

Wlien  the  coalition  was  formed  against  f  ranee 
in  1805,  Bavaria,  Wirtemberg,  and  Baden,  were 
the  allies  of  Buonaparte ;  and  after  the  defeat  of 
the  confederated  powers  at  Austerlitz  had  led  to 
the  peace  of  Presburg.  and  the  subsequent  fonn- 
ation  of  the  Rhenish  confoderatioti  in  1806,  these 
states  participated  in  the  ceded  possessions. 
Baden  was  erected  into  a  grand  duchy,  and  in 
exchange  for  the  towns  and  territory  of  Bibench, 
which  had  been  reduced  from  its  imperial  dig- 
nity, and  assigned  to  Baden,  in  1803,  and  now 
ceded  by  that  government  to  Wirtemberg,  she 
received  the  following  accessions,  the  towns  aad 
territories  of  Billiugen  and  Baeunlingen,  the 
greater  part  of  the  Brisgau,  the  principality  of 
Heitersneim,  the  county  of  Bondor^  the  district 
of  Ortenau,  the  conunandery  of  Bengen,  and  the 
possessions  of  the  provincial  nobility;  also  the 
sovereignty  over  a  ffreat  part  of  Furstenber?, 
Salm-lSrautheim,  and  Loevenstein-Werheim,  as 
well  as  over  the  whole  of  the  Clettgau  and 
Thengen.  The  county  of  Nellenburg  was  shortly 
aftewards  added,  together  with  several  adjacent 
territories,  and  by  means  of  new  acquisitions  and 
interchanges,  the  detached  districts  on  the  lake 
of  Constance  were  rendered  contiguous  to  the 
other  dominions.  These  acquisitions  raised  the 
importance  of  Baden,  and  were  all  guaranteed 
to  die  grand  duke,  in  1815,  by  the  Congress  at 
Vienna. 

Baden,  in  its  present  state,  therefore,  remains 
to  be  considered  as  a  grand  duchy  of  Germany, 
including  the  territories  already  described.  Its 
division  into  a  landgraviate,  a  margraviate,  and 
a  palatinate,  or  the  provinces  of  tlie  Upper, 
Middle,  and  Lower  Rhine,  vras  superseded  in 
1809,  two  years  after  its  commencement,  by  the 
following  distribution  into  nine  circles,  thus 
peopled,  according  to  Mr.  Hassel's  statistics : 


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No. 

Ciitdes. 

Population. 

No. 

Chief  Towa«. 

PopttUtion. 

1 
3 
3 
4 
5 

1? 

.     8 

'-     9 

The  Lake  (Seekreis)    .     . 

The  Danube 

TheWeisen 

The  Treisam 

The  Kinzig 

The  Murg 

The  Pfinz  and  Enz  .     .    . 

The  Neckar 

The  Maine  and  Tauber    . 

89,604 

72,735 
116,954 
125,867 
117,640 

85,112 
131,518 
166,018 

95,382 

1 
2 
3 
4 

■I 

7 
8 
9 

Constance      .         ... 

VilUngen 

Lorrach 

Freyburg  

Offenburg 

Rastadt 

Durlach 

Manheim 

Wertheim 

4,503 
3,316 
1,906 

10,108 
2,888 
4,204 
3,916 

18,213 
3,227 

i 

1,001,630 

52,281 

For  the  general  superintendance  of  the  circles 
are  established  two  divisions  of  the  civil  govern- 
ment, at  Manheim  and  Freyburgh,  besides  which 
each  of  the  circles  individually  has  a  director  and 
two  counsellors  of  its  own.  For  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  there  are  inferior  courts,  and 
above  them  three  courts  of  appeal  at  Freyburg, 
Rastadt,  and  Manheim,  together  with  an  upper 
court  at  the  town  last  mentioned,  analagous  to 
what  is  called  in  France  &e  '  Court  of  Cassation.' 
The  French  code,  also  commonlv  called  the  code 
of  Napoleon,  was  introduced  during  the  usur- 
pation of  Buonaparte,  and  is  still  in  force,  with  a 
tew  modifications.  The  seat  of  the  government 
is  held  at  Carlsruhe,  where  the  Grand  Duke  re- 
sides, under  the  designation  of  Royal  Highness. 
There  are  (bur  ministers  connected  with  the  exe- 
cutive part  of  government,  viz.  those  of  the 
interior,  finance,  justice,  and  war.  Jhe  legis- 
lative part  is  conducted  by  the  Baden  cabinet, 
called  the  ministerial  conference,  of  which  the 
Grand  Duke,  hereditary  duke,  or,  fiiiling  both, 
the  oldest  minister  is  president.  The  government 
has  of  late  manifestea  considerable  solidtude  for 
the  welfare  of  the  people,  by  the  formation  of 
roads,  the  abolition  of  feudal  vassalage,  the 
establishment  of  an  excellent  ^^stem  of  forest 
laws,  and  above  all,  by  the  erection  and  endow- 
inent  of  schools,  academies,  and  public  libraries. 
The  principal  of  these  are  at  Heidelberg,  Man« 
heim,  Baden,  and  Carlsruhe,  Heberlingen, 
Offenburg,  Rastadt,^  Bruchsal,  &c.  Religious 
toleration  is  also  universally  granted,  although 
the  religion  of  the  Grand  Duke  and  national 
establishment  is  Lutheranism. 

M.  Hassel  thus  enumerates  the  difiTerent  re- 
ligions :-— 

Roman  Catholics  .    .    i    .  620,000 

Lutherans 305,900 

Calvinists 61,000 

Jews 15,080 

Mennonites 1,290 

The  surface  of  Baden  is  beautiftilly  diversified 
by  every  variety  of  landscape,  hill  and  dale, 
plain,  and  mountain,  breakii^  on  the  sight  in 
regular  succession.  The  climate  is  agreeable, 
and  the  soil,  gene^lly  speaking,  fertile ;  the  only 
part  incapable  of  cultivation  being  a  portion  of 
the  Black  Forest,  in  Brisgau.  The  country  is 
intersected  bv  the  Maine  and  the  Neckar,  and 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Rhine;  tributary  to 
these  are  numerous  smaller  rivers  and  streams, 


from  several  of  which  the  circles  derive  their 
names.  The  country  bordering  upon  Switzer- 
land is  mountainous,  and  a  chain  runs  fi:om  the 
confines  of  ihat  division  through  the  southern 
part  of  Ba4en  into  the  kingdom  of  Wirtemberg. 
It  afterwafds  forms  a  part  of  the  separating  boun- 
dary between  them,  and  is  joined  by  another 
chain  'stretching  from  east  to  west,  over  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  southern  region. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  beautiful  portions  of 
this  grand  duchy  is  the  country  lymg  round 
Heiddberg  and  its  suburbs.  The  town  itself  ex- 
hibits a  romantic  site,  mild  air,  delightful  prbs^ 
pects,  curious  and  extensive  subterranean  walks, 
which  have  been  lately  closed,  an  ancient  eleo- 
torial  palace ;  but  the  environs,  if  possible,  are 
still  more  beautiful.  Manheim  is  also  well  situ- 
ated, and  forms  a  delightful  appearance  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Neckar  ana  the  Rhine.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
it  was  only  a  pleasant  village,  but  being  shortly 
after  fixed  upon  as  the  residence  of  the  elector, 
and  seat  of  the  court,  it  became  a  flourishing 
place,  although  when  die  court  was  removed,  in 
1777,  the  town  considerably  declined.  The* 
palace  of  the  Grand  Duke,  the  tower  of  the  ob- 
servatory, the  custom  house,  churches,  and  other 
public  buildings,  together  with  the  gallery  of 
paintings,  cabinet  of  antiquitieB,  he  are  objects 
worthy  of  notice ;  as  are  also  the  bridge  of  boats 
over  ue  Neckar,  and  the  flving  bri<^  over  tibe 
Rhine.  The  horses  of  Baden  are  an  excellent 
breed.  In  other  respects  the  domestic  and  wild 
animals  resemble  ti^ose  of  the  other  states  of 
Germany. 

Baden,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  the  same  name,  formerly  the  capital  of 
the  upper  margraviate,  but  included,  since  the 
the  year  1810,  in  the  circle  of  t^e  Murg.  The 
town  is  seated  among  hills,  on  rocky  and  uneven 
ground,  which  renders  the  streets  inconvenient 
and  crooked.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  baths, 
the  word  bad,  in  German,  signifying  bath.  These 
baths  were  known  to  die  Romans  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  are  supplied  by  upwards  of 
300  mineral  springs,  the  waters  of  which  are 
strongly  impregnated  with  sulphur,  salt,  and 
alum.  Some  of  these  springs  are  hot,  and  are 
accounted  good  in  nervous  cases.  Bsiden  con- 
tains a  population  of  2000  inhabitants,  and  is 
now  the  head  of  an  upper  bailiwic.  It  has  a 
lyceum,  with  several  flourishing  manufiustures 
of  earthenware,  potash,  candles,  soap,  and 
leather!  The  ancient  castle,  pow  in  ruins,  stand- 


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BADEN. 


ing  on  a  neiehbourmg  eminence,  overlooks  the 
river  Oelbacn,  commanding  the  pleasing  and 
extensive  prospects  of  a  beaufiful  wine  country. 
The  town  is  twenty-two  miles  N.  £.  of  Strasburg, 
and  forty  S.  S.W.  of  Heidelburg.  Long.  8**  18' 
E.,  lat.  48°  46'  N. 

Baden,  a  small  town  of  Lower  Austria, 
seated  on  die  rivulet  of  Schwocha,  in  a  plain  not 
iar  from  a  ridge  of  hills  which  runs  out  from  the 
mountain  Cetius.  It  is  much  frequented  by  the 
people  of  Vienna,  and  the  neighbouring  region, 
on  account  of  its  warm  baths,  which  are  said  to 
be  twelve  in  number,  and  beneficial  in  disorders 
of  the  head,  as  also  for  the  gout,  dropsy,  and 
most  chronic  distempers.  It  contains  three 
churches,  250  houses,  and  1500  population, 
is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  is  twelve  miles  S.S. 
W.  of  Vienna.    Long.  16°  14'  E.,  lat  48«  2'  N. 

Badkn,  a  district  of  Switzerland,  in  ihe  can- 
ton of  Aargau,  bounded  by  Suabia  on  the  north, 
Zurich  on  the  east.  Lucerne  on  the  South,  and 
Aargau  proper  on  the  west  It  is  thirty  miles  in 
len^,  and  from  eight  to  twelve  in  breadth,  in- 
cluding a  territory  of  176  square  miles ;  and, 
according  to  an  enumeration  made  in  180S,  con- 
tained nearly  47,000  inhabitants,  which  have 
since  increased  considerably.  This  country  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  Switzerland,  and  is  watered 
by  three  navigable  rivers,  the  Limmet,  the  Russ, 
and  the  Aar.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts  and 
eight  bailiwics,  producing  great  abundance  of 
com,  fruit,  and  wine.  Before  the  peace  of  1712, 
this  district  formed  a  separate  canton,  but  when 
the  articles  of  treaty  were  concluded  between 
Zurich  and  Berne,  it  was  divided  among  these 
cantons  and  that  of  Claris.  The  two  first  seizing 
upon  seven-eighths,  and  the  last  the  one-eighth 
then  remaining.  In  the  constitution  of  1798  it 
was  restored  to  its  original  independence,  but  in 
the  re-organization  of  the  cantons  by  the  emperor 
Napoleon,  in  1803,  it  was  united  to  that  of  Aar- 
gau, in  connexion  with  which  it  has  ever  since 
remained. 

Baden,  the  capital  of  the  above  district,  is  a 
small  town  containing  about  1700  inhabitants, 
and  carrying  on  a  considerable  trade.  It  is  seat- 
ed on  the  side  of  the  Limmet,  in  a  pbiin  flanked 
b^  two  hills,  between  which  die  river  runs.  This 
city  owes  its  rise  to  its  baths,  which  were  famous 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans by  the  name  of  Therms  Helvetica.  Seve- 
ral monuments  of  antiquity  have  been  found 
here,  particulariy  in  1420;  when  the  inhabi- 
tants, on  opening  the  large  spring  of  the  baths, 
found  statues  of  several  heattien  gods,  made  of 
alabaster,  Roman  coins,  of  Augustus,  Vespasian, 
Decius,  &c.  made  of  bronze,  and  several  medals 
of  the  Roman  emperors,  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
and  bronze.  There  are  two  churches  in  Baden ; 
one  of  which  is  collegiate,  and  makes  a  good  ap- 
pearance, and  the  other  a  monastery  of  the 
Capuchins,  near  the  town-house.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  rigid  Rgman  Catholics,  and  formerly 
behaved  in  a  most  insolent  manner  to  the  Pro- 
testants, but  they  are  now  obliged  b^  their  mas- 
ters to  be  more  submissive.  In  this  town  were 
held  formerly  the  general  assemblies  of  the  can- 
ton, who  met  in  a  handsome  room,  fitted  up  for 
their  reception  within  the  Capuchin's  monastery ; 


here,  too,  die  negodations  for  peace  between 
France  and  the  empire,  which  had  been  opened 
at  Rastadt,  were  brought  to  a  close,  on  the  seventh 
of  September,  1714.  The  town  at  present 
chooses  its  own  magistrates,  and  enjoys  other 
privileges.  The  governor  resides  in  a  fine  castle 
on  the  other  side  the  Limmet,  erected  after  the 
destruction  of  the  old  edifice  in  1712;  a  hand- 
some wooden  bridge  hangs  over  the  river,  form- 
ing a  beautiful  entrance  to  the  castle,  and  in  front 
of  this  magnificent  residence  is  a  stone  pillar 
erected  in  honor  of  Trajan,  who  paved  a  road 
in  this  country,  eighty-five  Italian  miles  in 
length.  The  badis,  which  are  on  each  side  the 
river,  are  a  quarter  of  a  league  from  the  city. 
Joining  to  the  small  baths  there  b  a  village,  and 
to  the  village  a  town,  which  may  pass  for  a 
second  Baden.  It  is  seated  on  a  hill,  of  which 
the  ascent  is  steep.  There  the  baths  are  brought 
into  inns  and  private  houses,  by  means  of  pipes, 
which  are  about  sixty  in  all.  There  are  also 
public  baths  in  the  middle  of  the  town,  from 
a  spring  which  rises  in  the  street,  where  the  poor 
batne  gratis,  but  they  are  exposed  quite  naked 
to  all  Uiat  pass  by.  All  the  baths  are  hot,  and 
one  to  so  great  a  degree  as  to  scald  the  hand. 
The  springs,  which  originate  in  a  place  called 
Ort-Zum-Bsuden,  are  eight  in  number,  and  are 
impregnated  with  a  great  deal  of  sulphur,  accom- 
panied with  a  little  alum  and  nitre.  The  waters 
are  used  for  drinkine,  as  well  as  bathing,  and 
are  said  to  cure  all  diseases  from  a  cold,  cause, 
head-aches,  vertigos,  &c.  They  strensthen  the 
senses,  cure  diseues  of  the  breast  and  bowels, 
asthmas,  and  obstructions,  and  are  peculiarly 
excellent  for  diseases  of  women.  Baden  is  about 
fourteen  miles  N.  W.  of  Zurich,  twenty-seven 
S.  E.  of  Basle.    Long.  8°  12*  E.,  lat  47*-24'  N. 

Baden,  a  parochial  village  of  Switzerland, 
in  the  Valais,  jurisdiction  of  Leuck.  Here  is 
the  celebrated  bath  commonly  called  the  bath  of 
Leuck,  or  Valais,  which  is  of  heat  sufficient  to 
boil  an  egg,  and  the  water  of  which  is  used  by 
the  inhabitants  both  for  the  purposes  of  bathing 
and  drinking. 

BADENOCH,  a  large  district  of  Inverness- 
shire,  of  which  it  is  the  most  easterly  part, 
bounded  by  Inve^ess  on  the  oorth,  Moray  oo 
the  east,  Athol  on  the  south,  and  Lochab^  on 
the  west.  It  extends  about  thirty-three  miles  in 
length  from  east  to  west,  and  twenty-seven  fiom 
north-east  to  south-west,  where  it  is  oroadest.  It 
has  no  considerable  tovm,  and  is  Teiy  barren 
and  hilly,  but  abounds  with  deer  and  other  kinds 
of  game. 

BADENS  (Francis),  a  historical  and  portrait 
painter,  v^as  bom  at  Antwerp  in  1751,  and  first 
initiated  in  the  art  by  his  father.  Having  visited 
Rome,  he  formed  an  excellent  taste  for  d»ign, 
and  a  manner  exceedingly  pleasing.  On  his  re- 
turn, he  was  usually  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  the  Italian  painter.  His  touch  was  light  and 
spirited,  and  nis  coloring  vrarm;  and  he  was 
the  first  who  introduced  a  ffood  taste  in  coloring 
among  his  countrymen.  While  his  acknowledged 
merit  viras  rewarded  with  every  public  testimony 
of  esteem,  he  received  an  account  of  the  death  of 
his  brother,  who  had  been  assassinated  on  a 
journey;  and  the  intelligence  affected  him  » 


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t!        ▼iolently,  that  it  occasioned  his  own  death  sud- 

i         denly,  in  1603. 

I  BADEBALLY,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  ^in  the 

r  province  of  Bejapour,  seventeen  miles  south-west 
i»f  Raibang. 

I  BADEW  (Richafd  de),  the  original  founder  of 

Clare-hall,  Cambridge.  He  was  bom  at  Badow, 
in  Essex;  and  in  1326  was  chancellor  of  Cam- 
bridge, when  he  laid  the  foimdation  of  a  building 

^  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  University-hall. 
This  being  afterwards  burnt  dovm,  vras  rebuilt 
by  a  daughter  of  Sir  Gilbert  de  Clare,  earl  of 
Gloucester,  and  named  Clare-hall. 

r  BADEY,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province  of 

Khorassan,  140  miles  north-west  of  Herat 

BADGE,  V.  a,  &  n.  s.  A  word  of  uncertain 
etymology;  derived  by  Junius  from  bode  or 
bade,  a  messenger,  and  supposed  to  be  cor- 
rupted from  badage,  the  cr^ential  of  a  mes- 
senger; but  taken  by  Skinner  and  Minsfaew 
from  biigghe,  Dut.  a  jewd^  or  bague,  Fr.  a  ring. 
It  seems  to  come  from  In^ulOf  Lat.  to  carry, 
The  substantive  denotes  a  mark;  or  ornament 
worn  to  show  the  relation  of  the  wearer  to  any 
person  or  cause.  It  also  signiiies  a  token  of 
rank  or  character.  '  An  outward  and  visible  dis- 

'         tinction,  either  honorable  or  disgraceful. 
But  on  his  breast  a  bloody  cross  he  bore, 

^  The  dear  resemblance  of  his  dying  lord ; 

For  whose  sweet  sake  thact  glorious  badge  he  wore. 

A  savage  tigieM  on  her  heUnet  lies ; 
The  famous  badge  Clarinda  ns'd  to  bear.'  Pakftut* 
Mark  the  badge  of  these  men,  then  say  if  they  be 
irae.  Shaktpeare, 

Might  I  but  know  thee  by  thy  household  badge.  Id, 
Sweet  mercy  is  nobility's  true  badge.  Id, 

\  Your  royal  father's  murdered-^— 

Oh,  by  whom? 

Those  of  his  chamber,  as  it  seem'd  had  done 't ; 
Their  hands  and  faces  were  ail  bad/fd  with  blood, 
oQ  were  their  diggers.  lo« 

Let  him  not  bear  the  baidgee  of  a  wreck. 
Nor  beg  with  a  blue  table  on  his  back.        Ihj/dm. 
The  outward  splendour  of  his  office  is  the  badge  and 
the  token  of  that  sacred  character  which  he  inwardly 
bears.  Atterbitrg„ 

Badge,  in  naval  architecture,  a  sort  of  orna- 
ment placed  on  the  outside  of  small  ships,  very 
near  tne  stem,  containing  either  a  window  for  the 
convenience  of  the  cabin,  or  a  representation  of 
it.  It  is  commonly  deoorated  with  marine  figures, 
martial  instruments,  or  such  like  emblems. 

BADGEXESS,  eu^.  From  badge  and  less. 
Hayii^  no  badge. 

Whiles  his  light  heels  their  featrfnl  flight  can  take. 

To  get  some  badgelete  blue  upon  his  back. 

Bithop  HoWm  SaUree, 

BADGER,  n. «.  Perhaps  from  the  Lat.  %ii/itt, 
a  carrier ;  but  by  Junius  aerived  from  the  badger, 
-a  creature  who  stows  up  his  provision.  One 
that  buys  com  and  victuals  in  one  place,  and 
carries  it  unto  another.' — CoweL 

Ba'doeb,  ».  s.  From  bedour,  Fr.  melit,  Lat. 
An  animal  that  earths  in  the  ground,  and  used 
to  be  hunted. 

That  a  brock,  or  badger,  hath  legs  of  one  side 
shorter  than  the  other,  is  received  not  only  by  thcorisU 
and  unexperienced  believers,  but  most  who  behold 
them  daUy. 

V4iL.  IlL 


BADGER,  in  zoology,  the  English  name  of 
a  species  of  ursus.    See  Uasus. 

Badgek-baiting,  or  BADOER-HirNTiiio.  The 
badger  has  suffered  more  perhaps  from  vulgar 
prqudices  than  any  other  animal.  He  has  beeii 
accused  of  destroying  lambs  and  rabbits:  the 
first  unquestionably  without  foundation,  and  it 
is'  uncertain  whether  the  last  charge  be  better 
supported;  for  many  naturalists  maintain  that 
his  sole  food  consists  of  roots,  fruits,  grass,  in- 
sects, and  frogs.  From  this  general  and  double 
accusation,  however,  the  haxmless  badger  has 
been  selected  to  make  sporty  as  it  is  called,  for 
the  vulgar,  in  both  huntmg  and  baiting. 

Hunting  the  badger  is  in  general  only  perform- 
ed by  moonlight:  the  badger,  from  his  natural 
habits,  being  never  to  be  found  above-ground  by 
day.  In  tUs  sport  the  hunters  are  obliged  to 
oppose  art  to  cunning,  and  obtain  by  stratagem 
vvhat  they  cannot  effect  by  strength.  At  a  late 
hour  in  the  evening,  when  the  badger  is  natu- 
rally concluded  to  have  left  his  kennel  or  his 
castle  in  search  of  food,  some  of  the  party,  as 
previously  adjusted,  proceed  to  place  a  sack  at 
length  within  the  burrow,  so  constructed  that  the 
mouth  of  the  sack  directly  corresponds  with  the 
mouth  of  the  earth,  and  is  secured  in  that  posi- 
tion by  means  of  a  willow  hoop,  whidi,  firom  its 
pliability,  readily  submits  to  the  form  required. 
This  part  of  the  business  being  completed,  the 
parties  withdrawn,  and  the  signal  whistle  given, 
their  distant  companions  lay  on  the  dogs,  either 
hounds,  terriers,  lurchers,  or  spaniels,  encourag- 
ing them  through  the  neighbouring  woods,  cop- 
pices, and  hedge-rows ;  which  the  badgers  abroad 
no  sooner  find,  than  being  alarmed,  and  well 
knowing  their  inability  to  continue  a  state  of 
warfare  so  much  out  of  their  own  element,  in- 
stantly make  to  the  earth  for  shelter;  where,  for 
want  of  an  alternative,  and  oppressed  with  fear, 
they  rush  into  certain  destruction,  by  entering 
the  sack :  being  entangled  in  which,  they  are 
soon  secured  by  those  who  are  fixed  near  the 
spot  for  that  purpose,  if  the  badger  escape  by 
the  ill-construction  or  accidental  fidling  of  the 
sack,  and  safely  enter  the  earth,  digging  him  out 
is  not  only  a  very  laborious  but  very  precarious 
attempt;  for  the  badger,  firom  instinctive  inge- 
nuity, will  be  generally  found  to  have  formed  his 
retreat  before  he  can  be  reached:  to  render 
which  the  more  easy,  he  usually  constructs  his 
kennel  among  the  roots  of  some  old  pollard,  in 
the  banks  of  moors,  or  underneath  some  hol- 
low tree ;  from  the  spreading  root  branches  of 
which  the  burrows  run  in  such  various  and  per- 
plexing directions,  that  his  assailants  are  often 
compelled,  after  tiring  themselves  by  digging 
fifteen  or  twenty  feel,  to  relinquish  the  pursuit ; 
corroborating  the  opinion  of  the  common  people, 
that  in  a  loose  and  sandy  soil  badgers  can  make 
a  way  as  fast  as  their  hunters  can  pursue  them : 
whence  drawn-battles  in  such  situations  are  verv 
common  results. 

Badger-baiting  is  a  different  sport,  and  if  pos- 
sible of  a  lower  description.  It  consists  in  attacking 
the  animal  at  a  distance  from  his  burrow,  with 
dogs  of  almost  any  kind ;  but  must  successfully 
with  the  terrier.  The  badger  is  so  rapid  in  his 
motions,  that   the  dogs  are  often  desperateij 


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founded,  and  compelled  to  give  up  the  contest. 
the  looseness  and  tnickness  of  the  badger's  skin 
ire  admirably  contrived  for  his  advantage;  in 
consequence  of  the  latter,  and  especially  in  con- 
auction  with  the  coarseness  and  toughness  of 
lis  hair,  it  is  difficult  for  the  dogs  to  lay  hold  of 
lim ;  and  in  consequence  of  th^  former,  h*^  finds 
ipreat  facility  of  escaping  from  their  grasp  when 
iiey  have  succeeded.  These  sports  have  given 
nse  to  a  very  expressive  proverb  of  'badgering  a 
nan  with  a  request'  for  payment  of  debts,  &c. 

Ba'dg£r-L£Gged.  From  badger  and  legged. 
Having  legs  of  an  unequaT  length,  as  the  badger 
is  supposed  to  have. 

His  body  crooked  all  over,  big4>ellied,  hadger-legged, 
and  his  complexion  •warthy.  L'Ettrange, 

Badgum,  a  town  of  Hindostan  in  Dowlatabad, 
six  miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Oudighir. 

BADHUNTOUL;  Gael,  a  den  of  refuge;  a 
place  in  the  parish  of  Fordice,  in  Banffshire,  io 
former  times  used  as  a  place  of  refuge  from  the 
Danish  invasions. 

BADIA,  in  conchology,  i.  A  species  of  cyprea 
having  an  oblong  gibbous  shell. — Gmelin.  2. 
A  species  of  helix,  called  by  Born,  helix  ungu- 
lina;  and,  3.  A  species  of  patella. 

Badia  (D.),  a  Spaniard,  who  devoted  himself, 
in  1803,  and  four  or  five  following  years,  to  the 
profession  of  Mahommedanism,  as  a  means  of 
exploring  Mahommedan  countries.  He  assumed 
the  name  of  All  Bey  el  Abassi,  and  submitted, 
it  is  said,  to  the  most  distinguishing  rite  of  Is- 
lamism,  the  better  to  pursue  his  plans.  Mr. 
Burckhardt  writes  thus,  respecting  him,  from 
Aleppo :  *  He  called  himself  Ali  Bey,  and  pro- 
fessed to  be  born  of  Tunisian  parents  in  Spain, 
and  to  have  received  his  eaucation  in  that 
country.  Spanish  appeais  to  be  his  native  lan- 
guage, besiaes  whicn  he  spoke  French,  a  little 
Italian,  and  the  Moggrabeyan  dialect  of  Arabic, 
but  badly.  He  came  to  Aleppo  by  the  way  of 
Cairo,  Yafia,  and  Damascus,  with  the  strongest 
letters  of  recommendation  from  the  Spanish  go- 
vernment to  all  its  agents,  and  an  open  credit 
upon  them.  He  seeu^  to  be  a  particular  friend 
ot  the  Prince  of  Peace,  for  whom  he  was  col- 
lecting antiques :  and  from  the  manner  in  which 
it  was  known  that  he  was  afterwards  received  by 
the  Spanish  ambassador,  at  his  arrival  at  Con- 
stantinople, he  must  have  been  a  man  of  dis- 
tinction. The  description  of  his  figure,  and 
what  is  related  of  his  travels,  called  to  my  re- 
collection the  Spaniard  Badia,  and  his  miniature 
in  your  library.  He  was  a  man  of  middling 
size,  long  thin  head,  black  eyes,  large  nose,  long 
black  beard,  and  feet  that  indicated  the  former 
wearing  of  tight  shoes.  He  professed  to  have 
travelled  in  Barbary,  to  have  crossed  the  Lybian 
desert,  between  Barbary  and  Egypt,  and  from 
Cairo  to  have  gone  to  Mecca  and  back.  He 
travelled  with  eastern  magoificence,  but  here  he 
was  rather  shy  of  showing  himself  out  of  doors  : 
he  never  walked  out  but  on  Fridays,  to  the 
prayers  of  noou  in  the  great  mosque.  One  of 
the  before-mentioned  dervises  told  me  that  there 
had  been  a  great  deal  of  talking  about  this  Ali 
Bey,  at  Damascus  and  Ilamar :  they  suspected 
him  of  being  a  Christian,  but  his  great  liberality 
and  the  pressing  letters  which  he  brought  to  all 


people  of  oonaequenoe,  stopped  all  futther  in- 
quiry. He  was  busily  employed  in  arranging 
and  putting  in  order  Ins  journal  during  the  two 
months  of  his  stay  at  Aleppo.'  His  travels  were 
published  at  London  and  in  Paris,  in  1814,  in 
2  vols.  8vo.  under  his  assumed  name.  He  is 
now  known  to  have  been  an  agent  of  Godoy, 
the  Prince  of  the  Peace,  employed  at  the  insti- 
gation of  Napoleon.  He  died  in  Spain  shordy 
after  his  return  to  Europe. 

Badia,  La,  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  Adigetto, 
at  the  place  where  it  branches  from  the  Adige. 
It  is  small  and  open,  but  well-built,  populous 
and  wealthy ;  and  was  formerly  called  Castello 
Piazzone,  haying  two  castles.  The  Adige  is  here 
crossed  by  a  handsome  bridge  five  miles  from 
Legnano,  and  fifteen  W.  S.  W.  of  Rovigo. 

BADIAGA,  in  the  materia  medica,  the  name  ot 
a  sort  of  spongy  plant,  common  in  die  shops  of 
Moscow  and  some  other  northern  kingdoms.  It 
is  used  to  take  away  the  livid  marks,  occasioned 
by  blows  and  bruises,  which  the  powder  is  said 
to  do  in  a  night's  time.  We  owe  the  know- 
ledge of  this  medicine,  and  its  history,  to  Bui- 
baum.  He  observes,  thatthe  plant  is  always  found 
under  water,  and  is  of  a  very  peculiar  nature. 
it  somewhat  resembles  the  alcyonium,  and  some- 
what tlie  sponge,  but  differs  from  both,  it  being 
full  of  small  round  granules,  resembling  seeds. 
It  is  of  a  loose,  light,  and  spongy  structure ;  is 
made  up  of  a  number  of  fibres  of  an  herbaceous 
matter,  and  is  dry,  rigid,  and  friable  between  the 
fingers.  Such  is  the  generic  character  of  the 
badiaga,  of  which  this  accurate  observer  has  found 
three  different  species.  Linnsus  makes  it  a 
species  of  sponge. 

BADIANA,  Badiane,  or  Bandian,  the  seed 
of  a  tree  which  grows  in  China,  and  smells  like 
anise  seed.  The  Chinese,  and  the  Dutch  in 
imitation  of  them,  sometimes  use  the  badiana  to 
give  their  tea  an  aromatic  taste. 

BADIGEON,  in  joiner  work,  saw-dust  mixed 
with  strong  glue,  wherewith  they  fill  up  the  chaps 
and  other  defects  in  the  wood  after  it  is 
wrought. 

Badigeon,  in  statuary,  a  mixture  of  plaster 
and  free-stone  well  ground  together,  and  sifted ; 
used  by  statuaries  to  fill  up  the  little  holes,  and 
repair  the  defects  in  stones,  whereof  they  make 
their  statues  and  other  work. 

BADILE  (Antonio),  history  and  portrait 
painter,  bom  at  Vienna  in  1480,  was  an  eminent 
artist :  but  derived  greater  honor  from  having  two 
such  disciples  as  Paolo  Veronese  and  Baptista 
Zelotti.  He  died  in  1560.  His  coloring, 
especially  of  his  carnations,  was  beautiful ;  and 
his  portraits  preserved  ^the  perfect  resemblance 
of  real  life. 

BADINAGE,  foolery,  buffoonery. 

BADIS,  a  fortress  of  Livonia,  subject  io 
Russia,  twenty  miles  east  of  Revel. 

BADITES,  in  botany,  the  Nymphoea,  or  clava 
Ilerculis :  the  r<x>t  of  which,  according  to  Mar- 
cellus  Empiricus,  bruised  and  eaten  with  vine- 
gar for  ten  days  by  a  boy,  makes  him  an  eunuch 
without  excision. 

BADKIS,  or  Pasik,  a  town  of  Persia  in  the 
province  of  Khorassan,  thirty-six  miles  north  of 
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BADONG,  a  district  of  the  island  of  Balli, 
where  the  Dutch  had  a  small  settlement,  after- 
wards taken  by  the  British. 

BAJX)Oy  two  towns  in  the  kingdom  of 
WooUi,  in  Africa.  They  both  united  dietr 
strength  in  enforcing  the  payment  of  custom 
from  Mr.  Park. 

BADOUCE,  in  natoial  history,  the  East 
Indian  name  of  a  fruit,  Teiy  common  in  that 
part  of  the  world.  It  is  round,  and  of  the  size 
of  one  of  our  common  apples;  yellow  on  the 
outside,  and  white  within.  It  resembles  the 
mangoustan;  but  its  pulp  is  more  ^nspareat; 
its  taste  is  very  agreeable,  and  ha3  some  resem- 
blance to  that  of  our  gooseberries. 

BADRACHILLUM,  or  the  Sacbeo  Moun- 
tain, a  town  of  Ilindostan,  in  Golconda,  on  the 
north-east  side  of  the  river  Godavery,  consisting 
of  100  huts.  Here  is  a  pagoda  of  great  celebrity.  • 
Distant  seventy-iwo  miles  N.W.  of  Rajamun- 
dry,  150  east  of  Hydrabad,  and  134  from 
Vizagapatam. 

BADROWLY,  a  town  of  Hindostan«  in  Guze- 
lat,  sixteen  miles  east  of  Surat. 

BADRYCAZKAM,  an  extensiv^e  mountainous 
district  on  the  northern  borders  of  Hindostan, 
between  the  thirty-first  and  thirty-third  d^rees  of 
northern  latitude;  very  unproductive  and  thinly 
inhabited. 

BADSHIFT  Bay;  a  bay  on  the  coast  of  Pa- 
tagonia, in  the  straits  of  Magellan.  Long.  74® 
t4'  W.  lat.  53°  35  S. 

BADUEL  (Claude),  a  French  protestant  di- 
vine, bom  at  Nismes.  He  went  to  Switzerland 
in  1557,  where  he  tauffht  philosophy  and  mathe- 
matics, and  exercised  his  ministry  till  his  death 
in  1561. 

BADULATO,  a  town  and  territory  of  Na[)les, 
in  Calabria  Ultra,  extremely  productive  in  wine, 
oil,  honey,  turpentine,  cotton  and  silk.  Fourteen 
miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Squillace. 

BADULE,  a  town  of  Ceylon,  fifty-four  miles 
S.E.  of  Candy. 

BAD Y,  a  large  town  of  Africa,  in  the  kingdom 
of  WooUi,  governed  by  an  independent  chief, 
under  the  ippellatioo  of  Faranba. 

BAEA,  m  botany,  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the 
class  diandria,  and  order  mouogynia.  Its  ge- 
neric character  is  coa.  ringent,  the  tube  very  short, 
upper  lip  flat,  tridentate;  lower  lip  flat,  bilobate : 
ca^  bilocular,  quadrivalvular,  contorted:  cal. 
quinquepartite,  equal. 

BAEuKEA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  octan- 
dria  order,  and  monogynia  class  of  plants, 
named  after  Abraham  Baecka,  a  friend  of  Lin- 
naeus. The  calyx  is  a  permanent  perianthiam, 
consisting  of  a  sii^le  funnel-shaped  leai^  cut 
into  five  fragments  at  the  brim;  the  corolla  con- 
sists of  five  roundish  petals  inserted  into  the 
calyx;  the  pericarpium  is  a  globose  capsule, 
made  up  of  lour  valves,  and  containing  four  cells, 
in  whicn  are  a  few  roundish  angular  seeds.  The 
jpecies  are  shrubs. 

BAEDOO,  an  extensive  kingdom  of  central 
AfiacB,  south  of  Tombuctoo,  and  east  of  Bam- 
baita,  to  which  latter  count^  it  is  tributary.  It 
is  trayeaed  by  a  river  called  the  Ba  Nimma,  des- 
cending from  the  mountains  of  Cong.  The  inte- 
rior is  litde  known. 


BAELAMA,  in  zoology,  the  Arabian  name, 
according  to  Forskal,  of  a  species  of  dupea. 

BAENA,  or  Vaena,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
Andalusian  province  of  Cordova,  surrounded 
with  walls,  and  containing  four  parish  churches, 
five  religious  houses,  and  4800  inhabitants. 
Here  arc  some  excellent  salt  works.  It  is 
eighteen  miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Cordova. 

BAEOBOTRYS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
of  the  class  pentandria,  and  order  monogynia. 
Its  generic  character  are  coa.  tubulose,  quinque- 
fid :  CAL.  double,  superior;  exterior  of  two  leaves ; 
inferior  campanulate  quinquedentate.  Berry 
unilocular,  many-seeded.  Willdenow  describ^ 
two  species;  one,  a  native  of  Arabia,  is  figured 
by  Mart.  Vahl.  Symbola  Botanica,  tab.  6. 

BAERSUIS,  or  Vekenstil  (Henry),  a  printer 
and  mathematician  of  the  sixteenth  century.  He 
settled  in  Louvain,  where  he  published  Tables  of 
the  Longitudes  and  Latitudes  of  the  Planets, 
in  1528. 

BAERWALDE,  or  Barwalde,  a  town  of 
New  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  in  the  Prussian 
states,  circle  of  Konigsburgh,  population  1500. 
Here  Gustavus  Adolphus  enterea  into  a  secret 
treaty  with  France  in  1631.  It  is  thirteen  miles 
N.N.W.  of  Custrin,  and  forty-two  E.N.E.  of 
Berlin. 

Bi£TERR£,  an  ancient  town  of  the  Terto- 
sages  in  Gallia  Narbonensis,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Obris.    It  is  now  called  Besiers. 

B^TICA,  a  province  of  ancient  Spain,  so 
called  from  the  river  Bsetis.  It  was  bounded  on 
the  west  by  Lusitania ;  on  the  south  by  the  Medi-< 
terranean,  and  Sinus  Gaditanns ;  on  the  north  by 
the  Cantabric  sea,  now  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  On 
the  east  and  north  east  its  limits  cannot  be  so 
well  ascertained,  as  they  are  known  to  have  been 
in  a  continual  state  of  fluctuation,  each  petty 
monarch  having  had  an  opportunity  of  encroach- 
ing upon  his  neighbour.  The  province  was 
divided  into  two  by  the  river  Betis,  on  the  side 
of  which,  towards  the  Anas,  were  situated  the 
Turdetani,  from  whence  the  kingdom  was  some- 
times called  Turdetania,  though  more  generally 
Bsturia.  On  the  other  side,  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean, were  situated  the  Bastuli,  Bastetani,  and 
Contestani.  The  whole  province  of  Bstica, 
according  to  the  most  probable  account,  is  con- 
tained in  whM  is  now  called  Andalusia,  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Grenada. 

BiETIS,  a  famous  river  of  ancient  Spain,  after- 
wards called  Tartessus,  and  now  Guadalquiver, 
or  the  Great  River. 

BiETOLO,  a  town  of  ancient  Spain,  in  the 
Terraconensis;  now  Badelona,  in  Catalonia. 

BiETURIA.    See  Bstica. 

BiETUS,  in  ichthyoloffy,  a  name  given  by 
Aristode,  and  others  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  to 
the  fish  called  by  die  Latin  writers  cottus ;  par- 
ticuUurly  to  that  species  called  by  us  the  bull- 
head, or  miller's  thumb. 

B^TYLIA,  anointed  stones,  worshipped  by 
the  Phcenicians,  by  the  Greeks  before  the  time  of 
Cecrops,  and  by  other  barbarous  nations.  They 
were  commonly  of  a  black  color,  and  con- 
secrated to  some  god,  as  Saturn,  Jupiter,  the 
Sun,  &c.— Some  are  of  opinion  that  the  origin 
of  this  practice  is  to  be  derived  firom  the  pillar  of 

2  B  t 


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ftone  which  Jacob  erected,  and  near  which  he 
worshipped,  at  Bethel.  These  baetjUa  were  much 
the  object  of  the  veneratioQ  of  the  ancient  hea- 
thens. Many  of  their  idols  were  no  other.  In 
reality,  no  sort  of  idol  was  more  common  in  the 
eastern  countries,  than  that  of  oblong  stones 
erected,  and  hence  termed  by  the  Greeks,  ccovcc* 
pillars.  In  some  parts  of  Egypt  they  were  planted 
on  both  sides  of  tlie  highways.  In  the  temple  of 
Heliogabalus  in  Syria,  there  was  one  pretended 
to  have  fellen  from  heaven.  There  was  also  a 
fimious  black  stone  in  Phrygia,  said  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven.  The  Romans  sent  for  it,  and  the 
priests  belonging  to  it,  with  much  ceremony, 
Scipio  Nasica  being  at  the  head  of  the  embassy. 
The  priests  of  Cybele  carried  a  baetylion  on  their 
breasts  representing  the  mother  of  the  gods. 

B^TYXOS,  the  same  with  Bjetylion  ;  plural, 
Bjetylia.    See  last  article. 

BAEZA,  or  Baeca,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Jaen,  Andalusia.  Its  streets  and 
squares  are  handsome,  and  it  was  in  former  times 
a  place  of  considerable  importance,  the  residence 
of  a  Moorish  king.  It  was  subsequently  a 
bishop's  see,  and  the  seat  of  a  university.  At 
present  it  is  iallen  into  decay,  but  has  still  two 
chapters,  several  parish  churches  and  cloisters,  a 
corregidor,  a  society  under  the  title  of  economi- 
cal, several  good  tanneries,  and  a  population  of 
15,000.  It  is  seventy  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Cordova. 
Long.  3°  35'  W.,  lat.  38*»  4'  N. 

Baeza,  a  city  of  the  province  and  government 
of  Quixos  and  Macas,  in  the  kingdom  of  Quito. 
It  was  formerly  rich  and  populous,  but  has  been 
^raated  by  the  Indians.    Lat.  26''  S. 

BAFFA,  or  Bofo,  a  sea-port  on  the  Grain 
Coast  of  Africa,  which  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  in  pepper.  Long.  8*  52'  W.,  lat.  5**  10*  N. 

Baffa,  a  sea-port  town  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  island  of  Cyprus,  the  ancient  Paphos,  situated 
on  a  rocky  eminence  close  to  the  sea.  Its  hai^ 
hour  is  choked  up  with  sand,  and  is  generally 
avoided  by  mariners,  because  of  its  dangerous 
approach,  and  from  its  having  no  shelter  from 
the  violence  of  the  winds.  The  Turi^s  have  built 
a  castle  on  the  point  of  a  rock  to  the  south-west, 
which  is  defended  by  artillery;  and  it  is  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Turkish  aga.  Of  several  Christian 
churches  only  one  remains,  in  which  the  Greeks 
officiate;  who  still  have  a  bishop  here,  sufiragan 
of  the  archbishop  of  Nicosia.  Pieces  of  fine  rock 
crystal  are  sold  here  under  the  name  of  Baffa 
diamonds:  amianthus  also,  of  superior  quality,  is 
found  in  the  neighbourhood.  It  is  called  cotton 
stone  by  the  natives.  Various  ruins  and  some 
antiquities  are  scattered  over  the  ricinity  of 
Baffa,  among  which  are  many  highly  polished 
blackish  marble  columns,  traditionally  supposed 
by  the  inhabitants  to  have  been  the  materials  of 
the  palace  of  Aphroditis.  Further  east,  others  of 
a  large  size  denote  the  site  of  a  temple.  There 
is  also  cut  out  of  the  rock  a  subterraneous  church, 
dedicated  to  the  seven  sleepers,  and  a.  large  exca- 
Tation,  conjectured  to  have  been  a  cistern. 
Long.  32**  18'  E.,  lat.  34«»  48*  N.  , 

Baffa,  Cape,  a  cape  on  the  south-west  coast 
'  of  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Long.  32«  18*  E.,  lat. 
34**5rN. 

BAFFETASy  or  Baftas,  a  cloth  made  of 


coarse  white  cotton  thread,  whidi  comes  (rom 
the  East  Indies.    That  of  Surat  is  the  best 

BAFFIN'S  BAY;  a  large  gulf  or  bay  of 
North  America,  lies  between  seventy  and  eighty 
degrees  of  nor^  latitude.  It  opens  into  the 
Atlantic  ocean  throudi  Baffin's  and  Davis's 
straits,  between  Cape  Chidley,  on  the  Labrador 
coast,  and  Cape  Farewell  on  thai  of  West  Green- 
land; both  of  which  are  in  about  the  sixtieth 
degree  of  north  latitude;  and  abounds  with 
wl^es  and  walmsses.  On  the  south-west  side 
of  Davis's  straits  it  has  a  communication  with 
•  Hudson's  bay,  through  a  cluster  of  islands,  in 
lat.  74°  20^;  it  communicates  with  Sir  J&mei 
Lancaster's  sound,  through  which  Captain  Panv 
passed  triumphantly,  and  discovered  Barrows 
straits.  Prince  Regent's  Inlet,  &c. 

BAFTLE,  V.  a.  &  n.  s.  "j     In  Fr.  hefier,  from 

Baf'fler,  n.  8.  ^buffle,  'an  ox,  and 

Baf'fled,  adv.  j  signifies  to  lead  by 

the  nose  as  an  ox ;  that  is,  to  amuse  or  disap- 
point ;  to  perplex  by  a  feint.  Its  general  accep- 
tation is  eluding  the  schemes  of  others  by  dex- 
trous management.  It  is  sometimes  explained 
by  the  woru  to  defeat,  to  disconcert,  and  con- 
found. Dr.  Johnson  employs  these  terms  in  his 
definition  of  it.  But  Crabbe  has  well  distin- 
guished them,  and  given  them  different  shades 
of  meaning  in  their  application.  Baffle  expresses 
less  than  defeat ;  deteat  less  than  confound ;  and 
disconcert  less  than  all.  Obstinacy,  persever- 
ance, skill,  or  art,  baffles ;  force  or  riotence  de- 
feats;  awkward  circumstances  disconcert;  the 
visitation  of  God  confounds. 

Where  thou  wilt,  lad^  I'll  make  one ;  an  I  do  not, 
call  me  villain,  and  bajffU  me.  Skakpeare. 

Go,  baffled  cowwd,  lest  I  ran  upon  thoe.      Ifito. 

They  made  a  shift  to  think  themselves  guiltlesf ,  in 
spite  of  all  their  sins ;  to  break  the  precept,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  baffle  the  corse.  South, 

Be  hath  deserved  to  have  the  grace  withdrawn, 
which  he  hath  so  long  baffled  and  defied.     Atterbury, 

Experience,  that  great  baffler  of  specolation,  assures 
ns  the  thing  is  too  possible,  and  brings,  in  all  ages, 
matter  of  fact  to  confate  oar  suppositions. 

Gooemmenioftke  Tsiyw. 
Etroria  lost. 

He  brings  to  Tnnras'  aid  his  baffled  host.     Dryrfea 

When  the  mind  has  bnraght  itself  to  close  thinking* 
it  may  go  on  roundly.  Every  abstnae  problem,  ereiy 
intricate  question,  irill  not  baffle,  discourage,  or  break 
it.  leckt. 

Now  shepherds !  to  yoor  helpless  charge  be  kind. 
Baffle  the  raging  year,  and  fill  their  pena 
With  food  at  will.  ITimuoa. 

BAG',  V.  a.  &  n.  A  sack,  poudi,  or  purse 
Either  artificially  constructed,  or  the  woik  of 
nature. 

Cousin,  away  for  England ;  haste  before. 
And,  ere  our  coming,  see  thou  shake  the  bap 
Of  hoarding  abbots ;  their  imprison'd  angeb 

Set  thou  at  Uberty.  Shakyeere, 

Sing  on,  sing  on,  for  I  can  ne'er  be  doy'd ; 

So  may  thy  cows  their  bniden'd  bage  diatoid. 

Two  kids  that  in  the  vaUey  stayed 
I  found  by  chance,  and  to  my  ibid  cotkrej'd : 
They  drain  two  baggwf  udders  erery  day.  U, 

Like  a  bee,  bagg'd  with  his  honeyed  ▼enom. 
He  brings  it  to  your  hive.  Id,  Dm  StbaHiem 


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Once,  we  eonfetty  beneath  the  patriot's  cloak. 
From  the  ciack'd  Ao^the  dropping  gaiaea spoke. 

Pope, 
We  saw  a  young  fellow  riding  towards  us  fall  gal- 
lop, with  a  bob  wig  and  black  silken  hog  tied  to  it. 


Bag,  in  commerce,  a  term  signifying  a  certain 
quantity  of  some  particular  commodity ;  a  bag  of 
almoncu,  for  instancSe,  is  about  300  weight ;  of 
anise  seeds,  from  300  to  400  \  of  pepper,  from 
li  to  300;  of  cotton  yam,  from  2|  to  4^,  &c. 
Bags  are  used  in  most  countries  to  put  several 
sorts  of  coin  in,  either  of  gold,  silver,  brass,  or 
copper.  Bankers,  and  others,  who  deal  much  in 
current  cash,  label  their  bags  of  money,  by  tying 
a  ticket  or  note  at  the  mouth  of  the  bag,  signify- 
ing the  coin  contained,  the  sum  total,  its  weight, 
and  of  whom  it  was  reoeiYed.  Tare  is  allowed 
for  the  bag. 

Bag,  in  farriery,  is  when,  in  order  to  retrieve 
a  horse's  lost  appetite,  they  put  in  an  ounce  of 
assafoetida,  and  as  much  powder  of  savin,  into  a 
bag,  to  be  tied  to  the  bit,  keeping  him  bridled  for 
two  hours  several  times  a-day ;  as  soon  as  the 
bag  is  taken  off,  he  will  fall  to  eating.  The  same 
bag  will  serve  a  long  time. 

Bag,  in  medicine  and  pharmacy,  a  kind  of 
fomentation,  prepared  of  proper  ingredients,  en- 
closed in  a  bag*  to  be  applied  externally  to  a  part 
diseased,  for  present  relief.  Dispensatory  wnters 
describe  coraial  bags,  used  in  deliquiums ;  bags 
for  the  side,  for  the  stomach,  in  weaknesses  of  the 
stomach ;  anodyne  bags  to  ease  pain  in  any  part. 
Wines  and  ale  are  firMuently  medicated  by  put- 
ting into  them  bags  mil  of  proper  ingredients. 
Sweet  bags,  are  composed  ot  plumes,  scented 
powders,  and  the  like,  enclosed  in  bags,  to  give 
a  firaffrancy  to  clothes,  &c. 

BAGA.    SeeRuTA   Baga. 

BAGADAT,  or  Bagalin,  a  name  by  which 
some  call  the  carrier  pigeon,  the  columba  tabel- 
laria  of  Moore.  The  name  is  probably  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  word  Bagdat,  the  aty  from  whence 
they  are  sometimes  brouc^t  to  £urope;  being 
originally  brought  thidier  from  Bazora. 

BAGALAEN,  or  Buoelen,  a  district  in  the 
south  of  .Java,  nearly  about  the  centre  of  the 
island,  from  east  to  west  The  dialects  of  Scindo 
and  of  this  district,  are  said  to  be  very  distinct 
from  the  Javanese  Proper.  From  the  Bugelen 
dialect  the  Sooloo  language  is  supposed  to  be 
derived. 

BAGAMADER,  or  Bagamedrx,  a  province 
of  Abyssinia  in  A£ica:  so  named  from  the  great 
number  of  sheep  bred  in  it ;  meder  signi^ing 
land  or  earth,  and  bag  a  sheep.  Its  length  is 
estimated  about  sixty  leagues,  and  its  breadth 
twenty,  but  formerly  it  was  much  more  exten- 
sive ;  several  of  its  provinces  having  been  dis- 
membered from  it,  and  joined  to  that  of  Tigre. 
A  great  part  of  it,  especially  towards  the  east,  is 
inhabited  by  wandering  Gallas  and  Caffres. 

BA'GATELLE,n.i.  A^ofette,  Fr.  A  trifle; 
a  thing  of  no  importance. 

Heaps  of  hair  rings  and  cyphered  seals ; 

Rich  trifles,  serious  bagatdiei.  Prior, 

BAGAUD£,  or  Bacaudje,  a  faction  of  pear 
santSp  or  malcontents,  who  ravaged  Gaul  about 


A.  D.  290,  and  assumed  the  name  Bagaudse^ 
which,  according  to  some  authors,  signified,  m 
the  Gaelic  language,  forced  rebels ;  accordmff  to 
others,  r(^bers.  After  seven  months'  siege  they 
stormed  the  city  of  Autun.  Villages  and  open 
towns  were  everywhere  abandoned  to  their  ra- 
vages ;  and  they  shook  off  the  yoke  of  slavery 
only  to  show  their  incompetency  for  freedom,  by 
a  perpetration  of  the  most  cruel  barbarities. 
Two  of  their  most  daring  leaders,  £lianus  and 
Amandus,  had  the  boldness  to  assume  the  title 
and  decorations  of  the  Caesars;  and  die  cabinets 
of  the  curious  still  contain  medals  which  they 
coined.  Maximian,  when  associated  with  Dio- 
clesian  in  the  imperial  government,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  reduction  of  the  Bagaudee.  It  has 
been  said  that  they  were  Christians;  but  even 
Mr.  Gibbon  (ii.  123)  rejects  this  fact. 

BAGAUZE,  the  name  given,  in  the  Antilles, 
to  the  sugar-canes,  after  they  have  passed  through 
the  mill ;  they  are  dried,  and  used  for  boiling 
the  sugar. 

BAGDAD,  or  Bagdat,  a  celebrated  eity  and 
pachalic  of  Asia,  in  Arabian  Irak,,  seated  on  the 
eastern  banks  of  the  Tigris,  which  is  here  up- 
wards of  600  feet  wide.  It  is  300  miles  N.N.W. 
of  Bassora,  210  south  of  Mosul,  and  1350  east 
of  Constantinople.  This  city  is  of  an  oblong 
figure,  about  150O  paces  in-  length,  by  800  in 
breadth,  environed  with  a  high  but  ruined  wall, 
and  a  deep  ditch.  It  has  six  gates  surmounted 
with  cannon,  a  castle,  and  an  armoury ;  but  the 
whole  of  its  defences  are  in  a  very  feeble  and 
contemptible  state.  Here  are  some  handsome 
houses ;  the  markets  are  well  supplied,  and  the 
bazaars  are  magnificent,  containing  from  1200  to 
1500  shops,  loaded  with  every  description  of  east- 
em  merchandise.  Bagdad,  in  &ct,  is  the  greai 
link  of  communication  between  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  even  Europe  and  the  East.  The 
chief  imports  from  India  are,  gold  brocade, 
cloths^  sugar,  pepper,  tin,  sandal-wood,  iron, 
china-ware,  spice,  cudery^  arms,  and  broad-doth ; 
in  return  for  which  they  send  bullion,  copper, 
gall-nuts,  tamarisk,  leather,  and  otto  of  roses. 
From  Aleppo  are  imported  European  silk-stufis, 
broad-clotn,  steel,  cochineal,  gold  thread,  and 
several  other  European  articles,  which  are 
brought  in  Greek  vessels  to  Scanderoon.  The 
imports  from  Persia  are,  shawls,  carpets,  silk, 
cotton,  white  cloth,  leather,  and  saffron:  and 
those  from  Constantinople  are,  bullion,  furs, 
gold  and  silver  thread,  jewels,  brocade,  velvets, 
and  otto  of  roses.  Its.  principal  manufactures 
are  red  aind  yellow  leather  (wnich  is  much  es- 
teemed), silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  smffs;  and 
latterly  a  foundry  of  cannon  has  been  erected. 

Bagdad  exliibits  the  ruins  of  a  number  of 
antique  buildings.  On  the  west  side  of  the 
river  is  a  suburb  connected  with  the  city  by  a 
bridge  of  boats,  upon  which  the  B&b  jisr^, 
(Bridge  gate)  opens.  The  great  extent  of  thi» 
city  anciently  on  the  west,  as  well  as  on  die  east 
side  of  the  river,  appears  firom  the  ruins  all 
round  this  suburb.  Here  are  the  tombs  of  many 
Mahommedan  saints ;  among  others,  those  of  the 
Imkms  Abd  Hanifiik  and  Hanbel,  founders  of 
two  of  the  orthodox  sects ;  and  of  Masa  Kaztm, 
one  of  the  twelve  Imams,  the  successors  of  Ali, 


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so  much  venerated  by  the  Penians.  To  the 
literary  traveller  it  offers  many  other  objects  of 
interest ;  such  as  the  tombs  of  Haroun  Al  Kaschid, 
and  his  consort  Zobeidah,  so  often  mentioned  in 
the  Arabian  Nights;  and  the  remain^  of  some 
fine  mosques  and  colleges,  monuments  of  the 
roost  brilliant  period  of  Arabian  history.  But 
even  the  wrecks  of  many  palaces  and  pnblic 
buildings,  celebrated  by  eastern  writers,  have 
not  entirely  disappeared. 

Bagdad  was  founded  by  the  caliph  Abu  Jafiir 
Almansor  in  766,  and  completed  in  four  years. 
In  the  following  century  the  celebrated  Haroun 
Al  Raschid  reigned  here,  and  under  the  auspices 
of  Zobeida,  his  queen,  and  the  vizier  Jaffer  Bar- 
makeed,  it  rose  into  great  splendor  and  impor- 
tance :  but  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  the 
Turks,  too  years  later;  and  in  the  thirteenth 
century  was  stormed  by  the  Tartar  prince  Hor 
laku,  the  grandson  of  Jenghis  Khan,  who  put 
the  sovereign  to  death,  and  aboli^ed  the  cali- 
phate. Tamerlane  seized  upon  Bagdad  in  the 
year  1416,  and  Kara  Yusef  m  1436.  Shah  Is- 
mael,  the  first  of  the  royal  Persian  house  of  Sefi, 
rendered  himself  master  of  it  in  the  following 
century,  since  which  time,  it  has  been  an  object 
of  constant  contention  between  the  Turks  and 
Persians. 

Bagdad  sustained  a  memorable  siege  by  the 
Turkuh  emperor  Amurath  IV.  who,  with  an 
army  of  300,000  men,  reduced  it  to  great  extre- 
mities: it  surrendered  in  1638,  on  the  promise 
of  indemnity;  but  the  savage  victor,  having 
gained  possession  of  the  place,  put  a  great  pro- 
portion of  the  inhabitants  to  the  sword.  During 
the  following  century,  Nadir  Shah  endeavoured 
in  vain  to  wrest  it  from  the  Turks,  and  was 
obliged  to  retire  with  disgrace ;  and  in  the  course 
of  later  years  its  safety  has  been  frequently  me- 
naced by  the  Wahabees.  In  1750  the  inhabi- 
tants prevailed  upon  the  Porte  to  appoint  the 
pksAkh.  whom  they  chose  to  tiame ;  and  they  have 
ever  since  maintained  this  species  of  virtual  in- 
dependence. 

The  .commerce  of  Bagdad  was  once  very  ex- 
tensive and  flourishing ;  but,  from  the  improvi- 
dent oppression  of  its  rulers,  it  has  now  greatly 
declined.  It  is  ho^mever,  a  place  of  great  resort ; 
the  residence  of  a  pasha;  and  a  constant  resort 
of  pilgrims.  Tavemier  rated  the  population  in 
his  time  at  150,000,  but  they  probably  do  not 
amount  to  50,000  at  present.  This  population 
consists  of  Arabs,  Persians,  Turks,  Jews,  Ar- 
menians, and  other  eastern  Christians,  who  are 
represented  as  generally  courteous  to  strangers, 
and  of  an  independent  spirit.  The  truth  is,  that 
the  p^h^  are  sensible  of  the  advantage  of  their 
distance  from  Constantinople,  and  obey  or  dis- 
obey the  orders  of  the  sultan,  according  to  their 
own  convenience. 

Great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  felt  here : 
in  summer,  especially  when  the  s&mm-yeU,  or 
poisonous  wind,  blows,  die  inhabitants  are 
obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  well  ventilated 
cellars  with  which  most  of  the  houses  are  pro- 
vided: and  in  winter  the  pold  is  sufficient  to 
j>roduce  ice  half  an  inch  thick.  This  is  con- 
sidered as  intolerable ;  and  many  of  the  natives 
are  said  to  perish  by  it.    The  natives  are  like- 


wise snlnect  to  a  ctttaneeos  disorder,  for  which 
no  cure  has  yet  been  discovered  :  it  appears  in 
the  form  of  a  pimple,  then  degenerates  into  aa 
ulcer„  and  at  the  end  of  eight  or  ten  monthi 
dries  up  of  itself,  leaving  a  prominent  mark. 
'  The  inhabitants  of  Aleppo,  ana  other  towns  in 
Syria,  are  also  subject  to  this  disease. 

The  pachalic,  or  vice-royalty,  at  which  Bagdad 
is  tlie  capital,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  Turkish 
dominions.  It  contains  eighteen  sanj^,  or 
military  divisions,  and  two  districts  of  Kurdistan. 
According  to  the  present  distribution  of  the  em- 
pire, it  comprehends  all  its  south-eastern  angle; 
having  Diykr-boer  .and  Mount  Sinjah  on  tbe 
north;  Persia  on  the  east;  the  Persian  gulf  on 
the  south ;  and  the  Euphrates  on  the  west.  It 
therefore  venr  nearly  corresponds  with  the  Me- 
sopotamia of  the  ancients.  Its  area  is  about 
178,100  souare  miles.  The  pacha  is  commabder- 
in-diief  of  the  troops  stationed  in  his  pachalic; 
next  to  him  are  the  aghiU  of  the  janissaries  and 
sipahis.  Their  whole  number  amounts  to  30,000; 
infimtry  and  cavalry  in  nearly  equal  proportions. 
A  corps  of  500  men,  trained  in  the  European 
manner,  which  was  raised  a  few  years  ago,  u 
still  kept  up. 

This  pvovince  has  some  very  fertile  spots :  but 
is  too  much  exposed  to  the  depredations  of  ban- 
ditti to  be  cultivated  in  any  proportion  to  its  ca- 
pabilities. It  includes  many  oelebrated  cities 
and  towns,  such  as  Bagdad!^  Bassora,  Mosul, 
and  Merdin. 

The  revenue  derived  from  the  customs,  a  ca- 
pitation-tax, occasional  contributions  of  the 
towns  and  cities,  and  the  tribute  levied  on  the 
Arab  tribes,  does  not  exceed  7,500,000  piastres, 
or  £375,000. 

BAGDAGSHAN,  a  very  ancient  dty  and  dis- 
trict of  Bokharia,  in  the  province  of  Balkh, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  which  se- 
parate Hindostan  from  Great  Tartary.  The  city 
IS  not  large,  bat  exceedingly  strong  by  its  sima- 
tion ;  and  belongs  to  the  Utan  of  Proper  Buk- 
haria,  who  uses  it  as  a  kind  of  state  prison.  It 
is  well  built  and  very  populous.  It  stands  on 
the  north  side  of  the  nver  Amu,  about  100  miles 
from  its  source ;  and  is  a  great  thoroug^&re  for 
the  caravans  designed  for  little  Bukhana.  The 
inhabitant!  are  enriched  by  mines  of  gold,  silver, 
and  rubies,  which  are  in  the  neighbourhood; 
and  those  who  live  at  the  foot  of  tli^  mountains 
gather  gold  and  silver  dust,  brought  down  in  the 
spring  by  torrents  occasioned  by  the  melting  of 
the  snow  on  the  top.  It  is  150  miles  east  of 
Balkh. 

BAGE  (Robert),  a  novel-writer  of  the  last 
century,  was  the  son  of  a  paper-maker  at  Derby, 
and  bom  in  1728.  He  was  brought  up  to  the 
same  occupation  as  hu  fitther,  but  having  a  taste 
for  literature,  he  gained  a  knowledge  of  ma- 
thematics, and  of  the  French  and  Italian  lan- 
guages. He  wrote  Mount  Henneth,  2  vols.  1781 ; 
Barham  Downs ;  THe  Fair  Syrian;  James  Wal- 
lace ;  Man  as  he  is ;  and  Hermsprong,  or  Man 
as  he  is  not.  The  last  two,  which  appeared, 
when  the  author  was  nearly  seventy  years  of  age, 
were  decidedly  superior  to  the  preceding.  lie 
died  at  Tamworth  m  1 801 .  Three  of  the  earlier 
novels  of  this  writer  have  been  republished  in 


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the  ninth  volume  of  Ballantyne's  NoveUst's  li- 
brary, edited,  with  biographical  prefaces^  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott. 

BAGFORD  (John),  an  antiquary,  and  great 
collector  of  old  English  books,  prints,  &c.  was 
born  in  London.  He  had  been,  m  his  younger 
days,  a  shoemaker ;  afterwards,  a  bookseller ;  and* 
lastly,  for  the  many  curiosities  wherewith  he  en- 
liched  the  £unous  library  of  Dr.  John  Moore, 
bishop  of  Ely,  his  lordship  got  him  admitted  into 
the  Charter-house.  Ha  was  several  times  in 
Holland,  and  on  the  Continent,  where  he  pro- 
cured many  valuable  old  books,  prints,  &c.  some 
'  of  which  he  disposed  of  to  the  late  earl  of  Oxford, 
who  purchased  his  collections,  papers,  &c.  for  his 
library.  In  1707  were  published,  in  the  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,  his  Proposals  for  a  General 
Hutoiy  of  Printing.  He  died  at  Islington,  May 
15, 1716,  aged  65 ;  and  was  buried  in  the  ceme- 
tery of  the  Charter-house. 

BAG'GAGE,  n.  f .  From  bag ;  baggage ;  Fr. 
and  from  bagagiiAy  Ital.  The  furniture  and 
iitimsils  of  an  army ;  or  any  goods  that  are  move- 
able. It  is  likewise  employed  to  designate  a 
dissolute  woman  of  the  baser  sort,  because 
such  usually  follow  camps* 

No  hwrioulofor  the  belly;  it  iriUletin  and  out  the 
enemy  htig  ttd  baggage.  Shahpean. 

They  were  probably  always  in  Teadmess,  and  carried 
among  the  baggage  of  the  army.        Addimm  on  Italg, 

Dolabella  designed,  when  his  affiain  grew  desperate 
in  Egypt,  to  pack  up  bag  and  baggage,  and  sail  for 
Italy.  Afbuthnot, 

A  spark  of  indignation  did  rise  in  her,  not  to  suffer 
such  a'  baggage  to  win  awiy  any  thing  of  hers.  Sidneg, 

Vfhexk  this  baggage  meets  with  a  aian  who  nas 
vanity  to  credit  relations,  she  tains  him  to  account 

Baggage,  in  antiquity,  was  distinguished 
by  the  Romans  into  two  sorts ;  a  greater  and  less. 
Ttic  lesser  was  carried  by  the  soldier  on  his  back, 
and  call^  sarcina ;  consisting  of  the  things  most 
necessary  to  life,  and  which  he  could  not  do 
without.  Hence  colligere  sarcinas,  packing  up 
the  baggage,  is  used  for  decamping,  castra  mo- 
were.  The  greater  and  heaviet  was  carried  on 
horses  and  in  vehicles,  and  called  onera.  Hence 
onera  vehiculoram,  sarcin®  homimun.  The 
baggage  horses  were  denominated  sagmentarii 
equi.  The  Roman  soldiers  in  their  marches  were 
heavily  laden,  in  so  much  that  they  were  called, 
byipvay  of  jest,  muli  mariani,  and  aenimnflB.  They 
had  four  sorts  of  luggage,  which  they  never  went 
without,  viz,  buccellatum,  or  com,  utensils,  valli, 
and  arms.  Cicero  observes,  that  they  used  to 
carry  with  them  above  half  a  month's  provisions ; 
and  we  have  instances  in  livy,  where  they  carried 
provisions  for  a  whole  month.  Their  utensils 
comprehended  those  proper  for  gathering  fiiel, 
dressing  their  meat,  and  even  for  fortification  or 
entrenchment;  and  what  is  more,  a  chain  for 
binding  captives.  For  arms,  the  foot  carried  a 
spear,  shield,  saw,  basket,  rutrum,  hatchet,  lorum, 
lalx,&c.  Also  stakes  or  pales,  valli,  for  the 
sudden  fortifying  a  camp;  sometimes  seven,  or 
even  twelve  of  these  pales  were  carried  by  each 
man,  though  generally,  as  PoUybius  tells  us,  only 
tbrae  or  (wt.    On  the  Trajan  column  we  see 


soldiers  represented  with  this  fkfdle  of  com, 
utensils,  pales,  &c.  gathered  into  a  bundle  and 
laid  on  their  shoulders.  Thus  inured  to  labour, 
they  grew  strong,  and  able  to  undergo  any  fatigue 
in  battle ;  the  greatest  heat  of  which  never  tired 
them,  nor  put  S\em  out  of  breath.  In  after  times, 
when  discipline  grew  slack,  this  luggage  was 
thrown  on  carriages  and  porters'  shoulders.  The 
Macedonians  were  not  less  inured  to  hardship 
than  the  Romans;  when  Philip  first  formed  an 
army,  he  forbad  all  use  of  carriages  ;  yet,  with 
all  &eir  load,  they  would  march,  in  a  summer's 
day,  twenty  miles,  m  military  rank. 

DAGGAOZf  in  modem  military  affairs,  denotes 
the  clothes,  tents,  utensils  of  divers  sorts,  provi- 
sions, and  other  necessaries  belonging  to  the 
army.  Before  a  march,  the  waggons  with  the 
baggage,  are  marshalled  according  to  the  rank 
which  the  several  regiments  bear  in  the  array ; 
being  sometimes  ordered  to  follow  the  respective 
columns  of  the  army,  sometimes  to  follow  the  ar- 
tillery^ and  sometimes  form  a  column  by  them- 
selves. The  general's  baggage  marches  fint;  and 
each  waggon  has  a  flag,  showing  the  iiegiment  to 
which  it  belongs. 

BAGLAFECHTE,  in  ornithology,  the  name 
of  Gmelin's  loxia  plolippina,  var,  j3,  in  Buibn's 
history  of  birds. 

BAGLANA,  or  Bhagelana,  a  large  district 
in  the  Mahratta  territories,  in  the  province  of 
Aurangabad,  situated  principally  betwixt  the 
20th  and  21st  degrees  of  north  latitude.  It  is 
exceedingly  mountainous,  but  contains  many 
fertile  plains;  and  its  natural  strength  is  aug- 
mentea  by  a  number  of  strong  fortresses,  erect^ 
on  the  summits  of  the  mountains.  The  rivers 
are  small,  and  the  onlv  towns  of  any  note  are 
Chandere,  Tarabad,  and  Ingauw. 

BAGLIVI  (George,  M.  D.)  an  illustrious 
physician  of  It^y,  bom  in  Apulia,  about  1668. 
He  graduated  at  Padua,  and  afterwards  went  to  * 
Rome,  where  he  was  chosen  professor  of  anatomy. 
His  works  were  printed  first  in  1710,  in  4to.  The 
Praxis  Medica,  and  De  Fibra  Matricis  are  his 
principal  pieces.  He  wrote  a  Dissertation  upon 
the  Anatomy,  Bite,  and  Effects  of  the  Tarantula, 
and  gave  a  particiUar  account  of  the  earthquake 
at  Rome  and  the  adjacent  cities  in  1703.  His 
works  are  all  in  Latin. 

BAGNA  Di  Aqua,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Tus- 
cany. It  is  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower 
towns,  the  former  of  which  is  called  Petraja,  and 
the  latter  Peria.«cir.  It  has  long  been  celebrated 
for  its  warm  baths,  and  is  fifteen  miles  east  of 
Leghorn. 

BAGNAGAR,  a  town  of  Asia,  in  the  domi- 
nions of  the  Great  Mogul,  once  the  capital  of  Gol- 
oonda.  Its  suburbs  were  three  miles  long,  and 
chiefly  remarkable  for  a  magnificent  reservoir  of 
water,  220  miles  north-west  of  Fort  St.  George, 
ind  as  many  east  of  Goa. 

BAGNAJA,  a  small  town  of  the  ecclesiastical 
states,  one  mile  south  of  Viterbo,  where  is  held 
veaily  a  great  cattle  market.  "The  Dominicans 
have  here  a  large  monastery,  with  an  elegant 
church. 

BAGNALS,  Ptjitta  De,  a  pomt  on  the  north 
coast  of  the  island  of  Barbadoes,  between  Indian 
river  and  the  bay  of  Carlisle. 


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BAGNARA,  a  town  of  Naples,  in  Calabria 
Ultra,  with  the  title  of  duchy,  and  5000  icJiabi- 
tonts.  It  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1783, 
but  has  recovered  from  the  calamity,  and  carries 
on  a  trade  in  wood,  pitchy  and  excellent  Musca- 
del  wine.    It  is  fourteen  miles  west  of  Oppido. 

BAGNAREA^  a  town  of  Italy^  in  the  sUtes  of 
the  Church  ;  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  stands  on 
a  little  hill.  Five  miles  south  of  Orvieto,.  and 
twelve  north  of  Viterbo.  Long  12°  lO'  E.,  lat. 
42''  38'  N. 

BAGNERES    de    Campin,    or   En    Bi- 
GoaiiE,  a  town  of  France,  in  Gascony ;  the  ca- 

Sital  of  an  arrondissement,  in  the  department  of 
le  Upper  Pyrenees.  It  contains  about  6000 
inhabitants,  who  are  employed  in  tillage  and 
pasturaee.  It  is  fam^  for  its  hot  springs,  of 
which  Uiere  are  no  less  than  thirty-two  ;  they 
were  known  in  the  time  of  the  Romans.  The 
accommodations  for  visitors  arerespectable.  It  is 
eleven  miles  south  of  Tarbes,  and  450  S.  S.  W. 
of  Paris. 

BAG'NIO,  n.i.  Bagno,  Ital.  balneum,  Lat. 
bath.  A  house  for  bathing,  and  other  less  inno- 
cent purposes. 

I  have  known  two  instaaoeft  of  maligaaiit  fevers 
produced  by  the  hot  air  of  a  hagmo, 

ArbuOmot  om  Ak. 

When  I  Me  a  young  profligate  squandering  his  for- 
tane  in  hagnioi,  or  at  a  gaming-table^  I  cannot  help 
looking  on  him  as  hastening  his  own  death,  and  in  a 
manner  digging  his  own  gnve.  Cotmoitem: 

Bagnios.  The  word  is  metaphorically  ap- 
Dlied  to  houses  of  bad  fame.  In  Turkey  it  is 
become  a  general  name  for  the  prison  where  the 
•laves  are  enclosed,  it  being  usual  in  those  pri- 
tons  to  have  baths. 

BAGNOLS,  a  town  of  France,  in  Languedoc, 
the  head  of  a  canton  in  the  department  of  the 
Gard,  arrondissement  of  Usez.  It  stands  on  a 
lock,  has  a  manufactory  of  various  kinds  of  silk, 
and  contains  4800  inhabitants.  An  expensive 
lead  has  been  cut  through  a  hill,  four  miles  in 
length,  leading  from  this  place  to  the  Pont  du 
Gard  and  Nismes.  The  sands  of  the  neighbour- 
ing rirerCeze  yield  gold  occasionally.  It  is 
twenty-one  miles  east  of  Nismes. 

BAGNOLENSES,  or  Bagbolians,  in  church 
history,  a  sect  of  heretics,  who  in  reality  were 
Manichees,  thou§^  the?  disguised  their  errors. 
They  rejected  the  Old  Testament  and  part  of  the 
New ;  held  the  woild  to  be  eternal ;  affirmed  that 
God  did  not  create  the  soul,  when  he  infused  it 
into  the  body;  and  denied  his  prescience. 

BAGOAS,  a  Persian  name  for  the  king^ 
eunuch,  employed  in  histoij  to  denote  Bagoas, 
an  Egyptian,  who  governed  ror  a  long  time  under 
Artaxerxes  Ochus.  He  poisoned  bis  master,  and 
then  put  to  death  Arses,  whom  he  had  set-up  as 
his  successor,  but  was  at  lengtli  killed  by  Darius, 
against  whose  life  he  conspired.  This  eunuch 
answers  to  the  Bagoas  mentioned  in  Judith. — 
IHodar.  1. 17;  Jos^.  Antiq.  1. 11.  c.  7.  2.  A 
eunuch  who  was  m  great  fevor  with  Alexander 
the  Great,  &c. 

BAGOI,  among  the  ancient  Persians,  were  the 
same  with  those  called  by  the  Latins  spadones, 
viz.  a  species  of  eunuchs. 


BAGOUNO,  a  town  of  Venice,  on  the  river 
Caferro,  which  runs  into  the  lake  of  Idro.  It  has 
many  iron-works,  and  contains  3600  inhabitants. 
Twenty-four  miles  north  of  Brescia.  ' 

BAGONES,  a  river  of  Brasil,  in  the  province 
of  Rio  Janeiro.  It  runs  S.  S.  E.,  and  enters  the 
sea  near  Cape  Frio,  in  lat.  22*  5'  S. 

BAGONGUENOU,  two  of  the  Laccadive 
islands,  in  the  Indian  ocean,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  each  other.    Long.  71'*  56'  E.,  lat.  11®  N. 

BAGOPHANES,  a  governor  of  Babylon, 
who,  when  Alexander  approached  die  dty, 
strewed  all  the  streets  and  burned  incense  on  the 
altars,  8tc.    2  Curt  5.  t. 

BAGOT  (Lewis),  an  English  prelate,  son  of 
'Sir  Walter  Bagot,  ban.  and  brother  to  the  first 
Lord  Bagot,  was  bom  in  1740.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Westminster,  and  chosen  thence  student 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  took  his  degrees  of 
A.  M.  and  L.L.D.  in  1764  and  1772 ;  was  made 
canon  of  Christ  Church  in  1771,  installed  dean 
in  1777 ;  promoted  to  the  see  of  Bristol  in  1782 ; 
translated  to  Norwich  the  year  following,  and 
thence  to  St  Asaj^h  in  1790,  where  he  died  in 
1802.  In  this  latter  diocese  he  rebuilt  the  epis- 
copal palace.  Rewrote,  1.  A  Defence  of  Sub- 
scription to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  as  it  is 
required  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  1772, 
which  was  an  anonymous  answer  to  an  anony- 
mous pamphlet,  entitled  Reflections  on  the 
Impropriety  and  Inexpediency  of  Lay  Subscrip- 
tion in  the  University  of  Oxford.  2.  Twelve 
Discourses  on  the  Prophecies,  preached  at  the 
Warburtonian  lecture  in  Lincoln's-inn  Chapel. 

BAG'PIPE,  n.  «.  )      From  bag  and  pipe.  A 

Bag^ipee,  n.  f .  5  musical  instrument,  con- 
sisting of  a  leathern  bag,  which  blows  up  like  a 
foot-ball,  by  means  of  a  port^yent  or  little  tube 
fixed  to  it,,  and  stopped  by  a  valve  and  three 

Sipesor  flutes ;  the  first  called  the  great  pipe  or 
rone,  and  the  second  the  little  one,  which  pass 
the  wind  out  only  at  the  bottom ;  the  tlurd  has  a 
reed,  and  is  played  on  by  compressing  the  bag 
under  the  arm,  when  full;  and  opening  or  stop- 
ping the  holes>  which  are  eight,  with  the  fingers. 
The  bagpipe  takes  in  the  compass  of  uree 
octaves. — Ckambert, 

Wei  eonde  he  ttelen  come  and  toUen  thriet. 
And  yet  he  had  a  thomb  of  gold  parde, 
A  white  cote  and  a  blew  hode  wered  he 
A  boj^ep^  wel  coode  he  blow  and  toone. 
And  therewithal!  be  brought  ns  oat  of  tonne. 

No  banneis  bat  shirts,  with  some  bad  bi^/p^,  in- 
stead of  drum  and  fife.  fiUMy. 
Yea,  or  the  drone  of  a  Lincolnshire  Aqgp^. 

Some  that  will  evermore  peep  thro'  their  eyee. 
And  laugh  like'parrots,  at  a  bagp^,  U, 

This  light  inspires  and  plays  upon. 
The  nose  of  saint-like  Ao^p^  drone. 
And  speaks  through  hollow  empty  sool. 
As  through  a  trunk  or  whispering  hole. 

Otdiknu. 
Bagpipe.  The  peculiarity  of  the  bamipe, 
and  'firom  which  it  takes  its  name,  is,  that  me  air 
which  blows  it,  is  collected  into  a  leathern  bag, 
from  whence  it  is  pressed  out  by  the  arm  into 
thp  pipes.    These  pipes  consist  of  a  bass  and 


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tenor,  or  rather  treble ;  and  are  diflferent  aooord- 
uig  to  the  species  of  the  pipe.  The  bass  part  is 
called  the  drone,  and  the  tenor  or  treble  part  the 
chanter.  Bagpipes  are  chiefly  used  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland.  In  all  the  species,,  the  bass  never 
Taries  from  its  uniform^  note,  and  therefore  very 
deservedly  gets  the  name  of  drone ;  and  the  eom- 
rass  of  the  chanter  is  likewise  very  limited. 
There  is  a  considerable  difference  between  the 
Highland  and  Lowland  bagpipe  of  Scotland ; 
the  former  being  blown  with  tbe  mouth,  and  the 
latter  with  a  small  pair  of  bellows :  though  this 
diffemce  is  not  essential,  every  species  of  bagpipe 
being  capable,  by  a  proper  construction  of  tne 
reeds,  or  producmg  music  either  with  the  mouth 
or  bellows. 

The  Highland  Bagpipe  consists  of  a  chanter 
and  two  short  drones,  which  sound  in  unison 
with  the  lowest  note  of  the  chanter,  except  one. 
This  is  exceedingly  loud,  and  almost  deafening, 
if  played  in  a  room;  and  is  therefore  mostly 
used  in  the  fields,  for  marches,  &c.  It  requires 
a  prodigious  blast  to  sound  it;  so  that  those 
unaccustomed  to  it  vcannot  imagine  how  High- 
land pipers  can  continue  to  play  for  hours  • 
together,  as  theyware  often  known  to  do.  For 
the  same  reason,  those  who  use  the  instrument 
are  obliged  either  to  stand  on  their  feet,  or  walk 
when  they  play.  The  instrument  has  but  nine 
notes ;  its  scale,  however,  has  not  yet  been  re- 
duced to  a  regular  standard,  by  comparing  it 
with  that  of  other  instruments.  Those  who  are 
best  acquainted  with  it,  affirm  that  it  plays  only 
the  natural  notes,  without  being  capable  of  variar 
tion  by  tiats  or  sharps. 

The  Irish  Bagpipe  is  the  softest,  and  in  some 
respects  the  most  melodious  of  any,  so  that  music 
books  have  been  published  with  directions 
how  to  play  on  it  The  chanter,  like  that  of  all  - 
the  rest,  has  eight  holes  like  the  English  flute, 
and  is  played  on  by  opening  and  diutting  the 
boles  as  occasion  requires ;  the  bass  consists  of 
two  short  drones,  and  a  long  one.  The  lotrest 
note  of  the  chanter  is  D  on  the  German  flute, 
being  the  open  note  on  the  counter  string  of  a 
violin ;  the  small  drone  (one  of  them,  commonly  > 
being  stopped  up)  is  tuned  in  unison  with  the 
note  above-  this,  and  the  large  one  to  an  octave 
below ;  so  that  great  length  is  required  in  order 
to  produce  such  a  low  note,  on  which  account 
the  drone  has  sometimes  two  or  three  turns. 
The  instramentis  tuned  by  lengthening  or  short- 
ening the  drone  till  it  sounds  the  note  desired. 

The  Soots  Lowland  Bagpipe  is  also  a  very 
loud  instrument,  though  less  so  than  the  former. 
It  is  blowu  vrith  bellows,  and  has  a  bass  like  the 
Irish  pipe.  This  species  is  difierent  from  all  the 
rest,  as  it  cannot  play  the  natural  notes,  but  has 
F  and  C  sharp.  The  lowest  note  of  a  good  bag- 
pipe of  this  iLind  is  in  unison  with  C  sharp  on 
the  tenor  of  a  violin,  tuned  concert  pit<^ ;  and 
as  it  has  but  nine  notes,  the  highest  is  D  in  alt. 
From  this  peculiar  construction,  the  Highland 
and  Lowland  bagpipes  play  two  species  of  music 
essentially  different  from  one  another,  as  each 
of  them  also  is  from  every  other  species  of  mu- 
sic in  the  world.  This  kind  of  bagpipe  was 
formerly  very  much,  used  in  Scotland  at  wed- 
dings and  other  festivals;  being  extremdy  well 


circulated  for  playing  that  peculiar  speaesof  Scots 
music  called  reels.  But  it  has  been  often  a  mat- 
ter of  surprise  how  this  was  possible,  as  the 
instrument  has  only  a  compass  of  nine  or  ten 
notes  at  the  utmost,  whidi  cannot  be  varied  as 
in  other  instruments.  In  this  respect,  however, 
it  has  a  very  great  compass,  ana  will  play  an 
inconceivable  variety  of  tunes.  Its  notes  are  natu- 
rally so  high,  there  is  scarce  any  one  tune  but 
what  is  transposed  by  it,  so  that  what  would  be 
a  flat  note  on  the  key  proper  for  the  violin,  may 
be  a  sharp  one  on  the  bagpipe ;  and  though  the 
latter  cannot  play  anv  flute  note,  it  may  in  this 
maimer  play  tunes  which  on  other  instruments 
would  be  flat. 

The  small  Bagpipe  has  the  chanter  not  ex- 
ceeding eight  inches  in  length ;  for  which  reason 
the  holes  are  so  near  each  odier,  that  it  is  with 
difficulty  they  can  be  closed.  It  has  only  eight 
notes,  the  lower  end  of  the  chanter  being  com- 
monly stopped.  The  reason  of  this  is  to  prevent 
the  slurring  of  all  tbe  qptes,  which  is  unavoid- 
able in  the  other  species ;  this,  by  having  the 
lower  hole  dosed,  dnd  also  (>y  the  peculiar  way 
in  which  the  notes  are  expressed,  plays  all  its 
tunes  in  the  way  called  by  the  Italians  staccato, 
and  cannot  slur  at  all.  It  has  no  species  of 
music  peculiar  to  itself;  and  can  play  nothing  . 
which  cannot  be  much  better  done  upon  other 
instruments ;  though  it  is  surprising  what  volu- 
bility some  performers  on  this  instrument  will 
display,  and  how  mmch  they  vrill  overcome  the 
natural  disadvantages  of  it  Some  of  this  species, 
instead  of  having  drones  l&e  the  others,  have 
their  bass  parts,  consisting  of  a  winding  ca? ity  in 
a  kind  of  short  case,  and  are  tuned  by  opening 
them  to  a  certain  degree,  by  means  of  sliding 
covers ;  from  whidi  contrivance  they  are  called 
shuttle-pipes. 

Tlie  bagpipe  appears  to  have  been  an  instru- 
ment of  great  antiquity  in  Ireland,  though  it  is 
uncertain  whence  they  derived  it  Mr.  Pennant, 
by  means  of  an  antique  found  at  Richborough, 
in  Kent,  has  determined  that  the  bagpipe  was 
introduced  at  a  ve^  early  period  into  Britain ; 
whence  it  is  probable  that  both  the  Irish  and 
Danes  might  borrow  the  instrument  from  the 
Caledonians.  But  that  writer  observes,  ^  We  must 
still  go  further,  and  deprive  even  that  ancient  race 
of  the  credit;  and  derive  its  origin  from  the 
mild  dimate  of  Italy,  perhaps  from  Greece. 
There  is  now  in  Rome  a  most  beautiful  bas  re- 
lievo, aGrecian  sculpture  of  the  highest  antiquity, 
of  a  bagpiper  playing  on  his  instrument,  exactly 
like  a  modem  Highlander.  The  Greeks  had 
their  AfficavXi|c»  or  instrument,  coinpoSed  of  a 
pipe  and  blown-up  skin;  the  Romans  in  all 
probability  borrowed  it  from  them,  and  intro- 
duced it  among  their  swains,  who  still  use  it 
under  the  names  of  piva  and  comu-musa.  That 
master  of  music,  Nero,  used  one ;  and  had  not 
the  empire  been  so  suddenly  deprived  of  that 
great  artist,  he  would  (as  he  graciously  declared 
his  intention)  have  treated  the  people  wiUi  a 
concert,  and,  among  other  curious  instruments, 
would  have  introduced  the  utricularius,  or  bag- 
pipe. Nero  perished;  but  the  figure  of  the 
instrument  is  preserved  on  one  of  his  coins, 
highly  improved  by  that  great  master:  it  has  the  • 


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bag  and  two  of  iSb»  Tulgaf  pipes ;  but  was  blown 
with  a  bellows  tike  an  organ,  and  haA  on  one 
side  a  row  of  nine  ungual  pipes,  resembling  the 
syrinx  of  the  god  Pan.  The  bagpipe,  in  the  un- 
improved state,  is  also  represented  in  an  ancient 
sculpture;  and  appears  to  have  had  two  long 
pipes  or  drones,  and  a  single  short  pipe  for  the 
fingers.  Tradition  says,  that  the  kind^layed  on 
by  the  mouth  was  introduced  by  the  Danes :  as 
theirs  was  wind  music,  we  will  admit  that  they 
have  made  improvements,  but  more  we  cannot 
allow ;  they  were  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  trum- 
pet; ^e  Highlanders  in  the  piohb,  or  bagpipe.' 

Aristides  Quintilianus  informs  us,  that  it  pre- 
vailed in  the  Highlands  in  very  early  ages;  and 
indeed  the  genius  of  the  people  seems  to  render 
the  opinion  highly  probable.  The  attachment  of 
that  people  to  their  music  called  pibrechs  is 
almost  incredible,  and  on  some  occasions  is  said 
to  have  produced  effects  little  less  marvellous 
than  those  ascribed  to  the  ancient  music.  At 
the  battle  of  Quebec,  ir60,  while  the  British 
troops  were  retreating  in  great  disorder,  the  gen- 
eral complained  to  a  field-officer  in  Frazer's 
itgiment,  of  the  bad  behaviour  of  his  corps. 
^  Sir  (said  he,  with  some  warmth),  you  did  very 
wrong  in  forbidding  the  pipers  to  play  this 
mommg:  nothing  encourages  the  Highlanders 
so  much  in  the  day  of  action.  Nay,  even  now, 
they  would  be  of  use.'—*-'  Let  them  blow  like  the 
devil,  then  (repties  the  general),  if  it  will  bring 
back  the  men.  The  pipers  were  now  Ordered 
to  play  a  fitvorite  martial  air ;  and  the  Highland- 
ers, the  moment  they  heard  the  music,  returned 
and  formed  with  alacrity  in  the  rear.  In  the 
•  late  war  in  India,  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  sensible  of  the 
attachment  of  the  Highlanders  to  their  fiivorite 
instrument,  gave  them  £50  to  buy  a  pair  of 
bagpipes. 

There  was  once  a  kind  of  college  in  the  island 
of  Sky,  where  the  Highland  bagpipe  was  taught; 
the  teachers  making  use  of  pins  stuck  into  the 
ground  instead  of  musical  notes.  This,  however, 
was  for  some  time  entirely  dissolved,  and  the  use 
of  the  Highland  pipe  became  much  less  general 
than  before.  At  last  a  society  of  gentlemen, 
thinking  it  perhaps  impolitic  to  allow  the  ancient 
martial  music  of  the  country  to  decline,  resolved 
to  revive  it  by  giving  an  annual  prize  to  the  best 
performers  on  the  instrument.  These  compe- 
titions were  held  at  Falkirk.  The  Lowland  bag- 
pipe was  reformed,  and  the  music  improved  by 
George  Mackie,  who  is  said  to  have  attended 
the  college  of  Sky  seven  years.  He  had  before 
been  the  best  performer  on  that  instrument  in 
that  part  of  the  country  where  he  lived ;  but, 
while  attending  the  college  at  Sky,  adapted  the 
graces  of  the  Highland  music  to  the  Lowkund 
pipe.  Upon  his  return,  he  was  heard  with 
astonishment  and  admiration;  but  unluckily, 
was  not  able  to  commit  his  improvements  to 
writing,  and  indeed  the  nature  of  the  instrument 
scarcely  admitb  of  it 

D  AGRE^  in  ichthyology,  a  small  bearded  fish, 
of  the  anguilliform  kind,  of  which  there  are  seve^ 
ral  species.  It  has  no  scales,  but  is  covered  over 
the  whole  body  with  a  soft  mucous  skin  of  a  sfl- 
very  whiteness,  and  the  beard,  the  head,  and 
the  fins  are  all  of  the  same  color;  the  eyes  are 


lai^,  the  mouth  small,  and  without  teeth.  It  is 
caught  in  the  American  seas,  and  is  eaten ;  but 
if  any  body  is  wounded  by  its  thorns,  it  gives 
great  pain,  and  is  difiicuU  to  cure.  In  the  Lin- 
usean  system  it  is  classed  as  a  species  of 
silurus. 

BAGRE  De  Rio^  a  name  by  which  some 
call  the  fish  more  frequently  known  by  the  name 
of  nhamdia. 

BAG-REEF,  in  maritime  afifairs,  a  fourth 
or  lower  reef,  sometimes  used  in  the  royal 
navy. 

BAGSHAW,  a  romantic  little  town  in  the 
High  Peak  of  Derbyshire. 

BAGSHOT,  or  Badshot,  a  small  town  is 
Surry,  two  miles  and  a  half  south-west  from 
Staines,  and  twenty-six  from  London.  This 
place  is  famous  for  its  excellent  mvtton,  brought 
nither  from  the  Hampshire  downs.  It  was  form- 
erly called  Holy  Hall,  and  our  kings  had  an- 
ciently a  house  and  park  here.  The  church  was 
rebuilt  in  1676,  having  been  destroyed  by  light- 
ning. Bagshot-heath,  which  surrounds  the  town, 
is  mostly  uncultivated,  but  upon  its  borders  are 
some  handsome  seats,  and  one  is  the  residence 
of  his  royal  bigness  the  duke  of  Gloucester. 

BA'GUETTE,  n.  s.  Fr.  a  term  of  architec- 
ture. A  tittle  round  moulding,  less  than  an 
astragal ;  sometimes  carved  and  enriched. 

Baguette  Devinatoiab,  the  divining-rod, 
generally  regarded  as  a  piece  of  philosophioal 
quackery.  It  is  nothing  else  than  a  forked  piece 
of  hazle,  the  two  branches  of  which  are  often  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  form  an 
angle  of  thirty  or  forty  degrees.  Tliey  are  held 
in  the  hands  in  a  certain  manner,  so  that  the 
trunk  or  middle  is  turned  towards  the  heavens. 
Some  persons,  it  is  said,  are  endowed  with  such 
a  property,  that  if  they  hold  this  rod  as*  above  de- 
scribed, it  lends  by  a  violent  effort  to  turn  its 
trunk  downwards,  when  in  the  proximity  of  a 
spring,  or  of  precious  metals  oonoealed  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  or  stolen  money,  <cc.  Nay, 
some  have  even  asserted  that  it  has  pointed  out, 
in  this  manner,  the  traces  of  criminals,  robbers, 
or  assassins.  (See  Hntton's  Translation  of  Mon- 
tttchi*s  Oianam,  vol.  iv.  p.  260).  A  lady  of  rank, 
on  reading  his  account  of  the  djvimng-iod;  wrote 
several  letters  to  Dr.  Hutton  on  the  subject,  de- 
scribing the  way  in  which  she  discovered  that 
she  possessed  the  faculty  of  finding  water  by 
such  an  'instrument ;  and  relating  thiat  she  ac- 
tually found  water,  by  means  of  the  hazle,  in  the 
duke  of  Manchester's  park,  at  Kimbolton,  Hunt- 
ingdonshire, about  thirty  years  ago.  The  same 
lady  also  exhibited  successfully  her  medK>d  of 
discovering  water,  at  Woolwich  Common,  to  Dr. 
Hutton  and  his  friends.    See  Drvivivo  Rod. 

BAGYON,  or  Booendorf,  a  market  town  of 
Transylvania,  in  the  county  of  Kolosch,  not  &r 
from  die  Marosch,  with  churches  of  the  Catholic, 
Reformed,  and  Unitarian  creeds 

BAHALATOHS,  a  small  island  in  the  eastern 
seas,  near  the  east  coast  of  Borneo.  Long.  118^ 
21'  E.,  hi.  5»  45'  N. 

BAHAMA,  or  Locatas  Islahds,  the  east 
emmost  of  tiie  Antilles  are  situated  in  tlie 
Atlantic  Ocean,  to  the  eoutfi  of  CaroUna,  be^ 
tween  21^  and  28''  N.  Ut.  and  Ti"*  mud  dl''  W. 


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long.  Hiey  extend  along  the  coast  of  Florida 
down  to  the  isle  of  Cuba ;  are  said  to  be  300,  or, 
accoiding  tq  others,  500  in  number,  some  of 
diem  only  mere  rocks;  but  twelve  or  fourteen  of 
them  are  large  and  fertile,  and  differing  but  little 
from  the  soil  of  Carolina.  Proceeding  from  the 
southern  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  chain, 
the  group  may  be  thus  enumerated : — 

1.  Turk's  islands^ 

12.  The  Caucus,  or  Caicos, 

3.  The  Heneagas, 

4.  Mayaguana, 

5.  Crooked  island  Group, 

6.  Long  island, 

7.  WaUings, 

8.  The  Exumas, 

9.  San  Salvador, 

10.  Eleuthera,  or  Habour  Island, 

11.  Providence, 

12.  Andros, 

13.  Lucayo,  or  Abaco, 

14.  Bahama. 

In  addition  to  the  islands  included  in  ftis 
group,  two  extensive  sand-banks,  called  the 
great  and  little  Bahama  banks,  occupy  a  wide 
space  of  sea,  the  boundaries  of  whicb  are  indi- 
cated by  a  vast  number  of  keys  and  islets.  The 
population  of  the  whole  cluster  is  stated  at  16,600. 
These  islands  were  the  first  fruits  of  Columbus*s 
discoveries^  and  the  feeUngs  with  which  they 
inspired  that  great  commander  are  expressed  in 
the  name  of  San  Salvador,  which  he  gave  to  the 
island  on  which  he  landed.  It  was  called  Oua^ . 
nahani  bv  the  natives,  and  was  first  seen  on  the 
1 1th  of  October,  1492,  being  the  earliest  authen^ 
ticated  discovery  of  the  western  hemisphere. 
These  islands  are  said  to  have  been  at  this  time 
inhabited  by  a  peaceable  race  of  Indians,  whom 
the  Spaniaids  transported  to  work  in  the  mines 
of  St  Domingo.  They  were  not  known  to 
the  English  till  1667,  when  captain  Seyle,  being 
driven  among  them  in  his  passage  to  Carolina, 
first  gave  his  own  name  to  one  of  them ;  but 
being  a  second  time  driven  upon  it,  he  gave  it 
the  name  of  Providence.  The  English  govern- 
ment observing  the  advantageous  situation  of 
these  islands,  as  a  check  on  the  French  and  Spa- 
niards, attempted  to  settle  in  them  in  the  reign  of 
Charies  II. ;  but  they  were  little  more  than  har- 
boun  for  the  buccaneers,  until,  in  1718,  captain 
Woodes  Rogers  was  sent  out  widi  a  fleet  to  dis- 
lodge the  pirates  And  make  a  settlement.  A  fort 
was  now  erected  and  an  independent  company 
stationed  on  the  island.  Ever  since  these  islands 
have  been  slowly  improving.  In  1781  they  were 
surrendered  to  me  Spaniards,  but  restored  to  the 
British  by  treaty  at  the  end  of  the  war.  At  this 
period,  also,  many  of  the  British  loyalists  and 
planters  repaired  to  the  Bahamas,  chiefly  from 
the  southern  states  of  North  America;  from 
which  period  the  principal  islands  have  been  re- 
gularly settled.  In  1773  the  number  of  whites 
was  2052,  and  the  blacks  about  2241 .  Previously 
to  May  1803  lands  were  granted  by  the  crown, 
in  the  whole  of  the  Bahamas,  to  the  amount  of 
265,381  acses,  for  the  purpose  of  cultivation. 
At  that  time  the  population  amounted  to  about 
14,518,  including  11,395  blacks  and  people  of 
color,  and  it  appears,  by  a  return  to  tne  Ilouse 


of  Commons  in  1805,  diat  the  number  of  slaves 
imported  for  two  years  previously  to  the  year 
1803  amounted  to  2523,  of  whom  2230  were 
exported,  leaving  only  293  for  the  use  of  the 
colony.  The  physical  characteristics  of  the  whole 
of  this  group  are  very  similar :  the  surface  of  the 
whole  IS  flat,  the  soil  fertile,  and  the  climate 
serene,  but  they  are  all  thinly  inhabited,  and  by 
persons  who  subsist  chiefly  bv  supplying  neces- 
saries to  the  crews  of  vessels  driven  on  the  coast. 
The  thermometer  generally  varies  from  80^  to  90^ 
during  summer,  and*from  60°  to  65°  in  winter; 
but  the  soudiem  isles  experience  the  influence  of 
the  trade-winds  through  the  greater  part  of  the 
year.  The  soil  in  a  few  places  is  rich :  the  chief 
cultivated  product  is  cotton,  besides  which  they 
yidd  mahogany  and  some  kinds  of  dye  woods, 
salt,  turtle,  and  several  species  of  fish.  Cattle 
and  sheep  also  thrive  well,  and  great  numbers  of 
birds  are  met  with,  generadly  of  the  same  kinds 
as  those  of  the  West  India  islands. 

New  Providence,  being  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, absorbs  nearlv  the  whole  trade  of  the 
group,  which  is  chiefly  with  England,  the  West 
Indies,  and  North  America.  Nassau  is  the  prin- 
cipal town,  and  the  seat  of  government  for  all 
the  islands.  This  is  founded  upon  that  of  the 
mother  countiy,  and  resembles  those  of  her  other 
colonies  in  preserving  the  legislative,  executive, 
aad  judicial  powers  distinct :  the  governor  is  the 
representative  of  the  crown;  and  in  him  the 
executive  power  is  vested.  He  is  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  military,  convenes  and  prorogues  the 
national  assembly,  and  has  power  to  annul  their 
proceedings,  subject  to  a  reference  to  the  king  in 
council.  By  his  judicial  character  he  presides 
in  all  the  courts.  The  council  consists  of  twelve 
persons,  appointed  by  the  king,  who  form  the 
upper  house  of  the  legislature,  and  participate 
vnm  the  governor  in  his  judicial  autbori^.  The 
heuse  of  assembly  consists  of  twenty-six  mem- 
bers, who  vte  elected  by  the  respective  districts. 
See  Edwards's  History  of  the  West  Indies ;  and 
M'Kinnen's  Account  of  the  Bahama  islands. 

Bahaha,  Great,  Island  of,  one  of  the  Ba- 
hama's, sixty-three  miles  long  and  about  nine 
broad,  situated  on  the  south  side  of  die  Little 
Bahama  bank,  and  extening  from  the  Florida 
stream  almost  to  the  island  of  Abaco.  The  soil 
is  fertile,  the  air  serene,  and  the  island  well 
watered.  It  formeily  produced  guaiacum,  sar- 
sapariUa,  and  red  wood ;  all  which  die  Spaniards 
are  said  to  have  destroyed.  This  island  is 
fiffy-seven  miles  from  the  coast  of  east  Florida. 
Long.  78''  lO'  to  80**  24'  W.,  lat.  26**  40'  to  27^ 
5'N. 

Bahama  Chahkel,  the  narrow  sea  between 
the  coast  of  America  and  die  Bahama  iskmds, 
about  forty-five  leagues  in  length,  and  sixteen  in 
breadth.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Gulf  of 
Florida.  Here  the  current  flovrs  with  that  rapi- 
dity which  renders  the  passage  extremely  dan- 
gerous, except  utkder  fiivoiable  circumstances. 

Bahama  Bahk,  GsbaTji  a  sand-bank,  ex- 
tending nearlv  from  the  ishmd  of  Cuba  to 
the  shores  of  the  Bahama  group.  It  com- 
mences about  22''  20^,  and  stretches  to  26^  15' 
of  north  latitude.  A  smaller  bank  of  the  same 
kind  and  name  occupies  a  considerable  space  on 
the  north  of  U«e  bland  of  Bahama. 


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BAHAR,  from  the  Sanscrit  Vihar,  a  Buddish 
monastery,  a'  large  and  populous  province  of 
Hindostan,  formerly  called  Magadha,  and  once 
an  independent  kingdom.  It  lies  between  the 
twenty-second  and  twenty-seventh  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  is  separated  from  the  Nepaul  do- 
minions by  an  extensive  range  of  hills,  rising 
upon  the  northern  frontier.*  On  the  east  it  has 
the  province  of  Bengal,  on  the  south  the  ancient 
Hindoo  province  of  Gundwana,  and  on  the 
west  a  part  of  the  latter,  Allahabad  and  Oude. 
It  was  anciently  separated  from  the  Benares 
territories  by  the  river  Caramnassa.  This  pro- 
vince at  mseai  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  and 
highly  cultivated  territories  of  Hindostan.  Its 
included  area  of  arable  ground  is  computed  at 
36,000  square  miles,  and  separated  north  and 
south  into  two  equal  divisions  by  the  river  Gan- 
ges, wich  flows  from  west  to  east  in  a  course  of 
300  miles. 

The  northern  division  stretches  a  distance  of 
seventy  miles  from  the  forests  of  Nepaul  and 
Morung  to  the  borders  of  the  above  river.  It  is 
separated  on  the  east  from  Pumeah  in  Bengal  by 
the  Cosa  or  C6si,  and  on  the  west  from  Gorac- 
poor  in  Oude,  by  the  Gunduck,  and  a  crooked 
line  between  that  river  and  the  Dewah,  or  Gog- 
grah.  The  whole  included  area  is  one  unbroken 
plain,  and  was  subdivided  by  the  emperor  Acber 
mto  four  districts,  namely,  Hajypoor,  Tirhoot, 
Sarun,  and  Chumparun,  or  liettiah  including 
four  pergunnahs  from  Mong^yr. 

The  central  division  extends  from  the  Ganges 
south,  as  far  as  the  Vindhyarchil  range  of  hills,  a 
dbtance  of  sixty  miles.  It  is  separated  from 
Bengal  on  the  east  by  a  branch  of  the  above 
southern  hills,  extending  to  the  Tilliaghury  pass, 
on  the  confines  of  Rajemal;  firom  Chunar,  in  Al- 
lahabad on  the  west,  by  the  river  Charamuassa. 
The  district  Bahar,  which  lies  in  the  centre  of 
this  division,  occupies  one  half  of  the  inclusive 
level  area ;  the  plains  of  Monghyr  one  sixth  more, 
and  the  rest  is  mountainous.  The  district  of 
Rotas  lies  to  the  south-west,  chiefly  between  the 
rivers  Soane  and  Caramnassa,  and  that  of  Sha- 
habad  stretches  along  the  southern  side  of  the 
Ganges.  This  central  division  is  usually  con- 
sidered the  most  important  and  fertile  of  the 
whole  province,  abounding  in  opium,  and 
yielding  nearly  two  thirds  of  the  whole  pro- 
duce. 

Independent  of  the  above  divisions  there  is  a 
straggling  hilly  country  of  8000  square  miles, 
which  is  almost  barren,  and  still  further  to  the 
south,  a  third  elevated  region  of  barren  nigg^ 
land,  to  the  extent  of  1 8,000  square  miles.  This 
lofty  territory,  including  the  modem  subdivisions 
of  Chuta  Nagpoor,  Ramghur,  and  Palamow,  is 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Soubah  of  Allahabad, 
on  the  south  by  Orissa,  and  on  the  east  by  Ben- 
gal. Amongst  geographers  it  is  termed  the 
Three  Bellads  or  Cantons,  and  is  sometimes 
described  under  the  appellation  of  Kokerah,  but 
is  more  commonly  called  Nagpoor,  from  the  sup- 
posed wealth  of  its  diamond  uiinev. 


The  extent  of  this  province  may  easily  be 
perceived  from  the  following  table  in  square 
miles : — 

Assessed  lands  of  eight  districts  .  .  26,287 
Hilly  territories  in  Khotas,  Monghyr, 

&c 7,133 

Content  of  lands  belonging  to  Pala- 

mour,  Ramgfaeir  and  Nagpoor.      .    18,553 


s 


Total  content  of  the  province.     .    51,973 

The  following  extract  from  the  celebrated  in- 
stitutes of  Acber,  compiled  by  Abul  Faiel,  A.D. 
1582,  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the  geogra- 
phical reader. 

^  The  length  of  Bahar  from  Gurher  to  Rotas 
is  120  coss,  and  the  breadth  from  Terfaoot  to 
the  northern  mountains  includes  110  coss.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Bengal,  has  Alla- 
habad, and  Oude  to  the  west ;  and  on  the  north 
and  south  are  large  mountains.  The  principal 
rivers  of  this  Soubah  are  Uie  Ganges  and  the 
Soane.  The  river  Gunduck  comes  from  the 
north,  and  empties  itself  mto  the  Ganges  near 
Hadjypoor.  The  summer  months  are  ^e  very 
hot,  but  the  winter  is  temperate.  The  rains 
continue  for  six  months.    In  the  district  of  Mon- 

lyr  is  raised  a  stone  wall  extending  from  the 

langes  to  the  mountains,  and  this  v^  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  boundary  between  Bengal  and 
Bahar.  The  Soubah  contains  seven  districts, 
viz.  Bahar,  Monghyr,  Chumparum,  Hajypoor, 
Saram,  Tirhoot,  and  Rotas.  These  are  sub- 
divided into  199  pergunnahs.  The  gross  amount 
of  the  revenue  is  55,47,985  sicca  rupees.  It 
furnishes  11,415  cavalry,  449,350  infantry,  and 
100  boate.' 

The  natural  features  of  Bahar  are  by  no  means 
uninteresting.  It  possesses  all  the  advantages  of  a 
rich  soil,  a  temperate  climate,  and  a  centrical 
geographical  situation,  shaded  by  mountains  and 
watered  by  rivers  and  small  streams.  Of  theae 
the  Ganges,  the  Soane,  the  Gunduck,  the  Dum- 
moodah,  Caramnassa,  and  the  Devrah  are  the 
most  remarkable. 

In  Bahar  and  the  contiguous  districts  a  parching 
wind  from  the  westward  prevails  during  a  portion 
of  the  hot  season,  and  blows  with  great  strength 
during  the  day,  but  at  night  it  is  succeeded  by  a 
cool  breeie  in  the  opposite  direction.  Both  oc- 
casionally cease  for  days,  and  even  weeks 
together,  giving  way  to  easterly  gales;  and 
during  the  cold  season  a  blighting  frost  fre- 
quently occura  in  both  the  provinces  of  Bahar 
and  Benares. 

Agriculture,  manu&ctures,  and  commerce  have 
always  flourished  in  this  province,  owing  pei^^ 
in  a  great  measure  to  its  natural  advantages.  The 
chief  productions  are  opium,  saltpetre,  grain,  su- 
gar, betel-leaf,  indigo,  oils,  essences,  &c.  together 
with  fine  timber  for  boat-building.  Cotton  doths, 
for  exportation,  are  manu&ctured  all  over  the 
districts,  and  the  hills  are  supposed  to  contain 
coal,  sulphur,  iron  and  other  metals.  The  nu- 
merous productions  of  Bahar,  together  with  its 


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internal,  means  of  communicatioQ  serring  as  a 
thoroughfare  for  the  commerce  of  Bengal  and 
foreign  maritime  countries  with  the  province  of 
Hindostan,  raised  this  territory  into  a  state  of 
prosperity,  soon  after  the  Patau  conquest,  and 
this  continued  under  the  Mogul  dynasty.  Opium 
may  be  considered  as  the  staple  commodity  of 
the  province,  although  saltpetre  is  a  ^reat  article 
of  exportation.  The  latter  is  produced  m  consider- 
able qtuintities,  in  the  districts  of  Hajypoor  and 
Sarun,  where  it  is  manu&ctured  for  exportation. 
The  production  of  this  article  is  always  greatest 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  hot  winds,  which 
are  perhaps  essential  to  its  formation. '  These 
winds  did  not  formerly  extend  their  influence 
beyond  the  eastern  confines  of  Bahar;  but  by 
the  change  of  seasons  which  have  been  remarked 
within  the  last  thirty  years,  they  have  reached 
to  Bengal  Proper,  where  it  is  now  said  saltpetre 
might  be  manufactured  with  nearly  the  same 
success  as  in  Bahar.  The  opium  that  is  pro- 
duced in  this  and  the  neighbouring  provinces  is 
monopolized  by  government)  and  sold  in  Cal- 
cutta by  public  sale.  The  common  produce  is 
eight  pound  of  opium  for  every  beegah,  which 
measures  about  one-third  of  aci  acre,  besides 
which  the  cultivator  reaps  about  fourteen  pounds 
of  seed.  The  preparation  of  the  raw  opium  is 
under  the  immediate  superintendance  of  the  com- 
pany's agent,  and  is  as  follows :  The  watery  par- 
ticles are  first  evaporated  by  the  sun,  and  re- 
placed by  oil  of  poppy-seed  to  prevent  the 
drying  of  the  resm;  after  which  the  opium 
is  formed  into  cakes,  covered  with  the  petals  of 
the  poppy,  and  when  sufficiently  dried  is  packed 
up  in  chests  with  the  fragments  of  the  capsules, 
from  which  the  poppy-seeds  have  been  thrashed 
out.  The  opium  is  frequently  adulterated  by 
intermixing  an  extract  obtained  from  the  stalk 
and  leaves  of  the  poppy,  and  sometimes  the  gum 
of  the  mimosa ;  but  the  adulteration  is  diflScult 
of  discovery. 

Bahar  was,  in  common  with  the  greater  part 
of  Hindostan,  anciently  supplied  with  salt  from 
the  lake  of  Sambher,  in  the  province  of  Ajmeer; 
but  its  supplies  of  that  article  are  now  brought 
from  Bengal  and  Coromandel,  and  imported 
under  the  protection  of  government. 

Althougn  an  intimate  connexion  has  always  ex- 
isted between  this  province  and  Bengal,  and  their 
histories  have  been  blended,  there  are,  in  tlie  na- 
ture of  landed  property,  several  important  distinc- 
tions; of  which  the  following  are  worthy  of  notice. 
In  Bengal  the  lemindaries  are  very  extensive, 
but  in  Bahar  they  are  comparatively  small; 
hence  the  Bengalese  zemindars  assume  a  degree 
of  power  and  influence  which  those  of  Bahar  are 
not  able  to  maintain.  Those  of  the  latter  also 
from  their  comparative  distance  having  been 
placed  under  a  provincial  administration,  have 
oeen  precluded  from  that  information  which  the 
zemindars  of  Bengal  have  derived  from  their 
access  to  the  offices  of  government.  Though  the 
lands  of  Bahar  have  been  let  to  farm,  finom  time 
immemorial,  yet  no  general  settlement  had  been 
concluded  between  government  and  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  soil  from  the  acquisition  of^the 
bewanny  until  the  final  and  perpetual  assessment 
in  1792;  from  which  circumstance  the  cultivator 


was  placed  under  great  disadvadtages.  There 
are,  at  present,  few  instances  of  jaghires  in  Ben- 
gal ;  but  in  Baiiar  they  are  common.  The  custom 
of  dividing  the  produce  of  the  land  in  certain 
proportions  between  the  cultivator  and  the 
government  vrzs  almost  universal  in  Bahar,  but 
in  Bengal  it  was  very  partial  and  limited;  so 
that  compared  with  those  of  the  latter  province, 
the  land-proprietors  of  Bahar,  generally  speak- 
ing, were  in  a  degraded  condition.  There  are 
now  in  this  province  three  principal  zemindars, 
viz.  the  rajahs  of  Tirhoot,  Shahabad,  and  Sun- 
note  Tekaroy;  and  it  has  been  observed,  that  the 
permanent  fixing  of  the  revenue  system,  which 
was  supposed  to  be  fraught  with  so  much  mis- 
chief, has  not  been  found  so  injurious  in  practice 
as  it  appeared  in  theory :  the  actual  cultivators 
of  the  earth  being  now  in  a  much  better  con- 
dition than  they  were  before  the  adoption  of  that 
measure. 

It  appears  finom  the  geographical  chapters  of  the 
Puranas,  the  only  documents  of  their  ancient 
geography  which  the  Hindoos  possess,  that 
Bahar  was  originally  the  seat  of  two  indepen- 
dent sovereignties,  viz.  that  of  Magadha  or  south 
Bahar,  and  that  of  Mithila  (Tirhoot)  or  north 
Bahar.  Different  dialects  were  anciently  used, 
and  even  now  prevail,  in  those  countries;  namely, 
that  of  Mithila,  or  Tirhoot,  which  both  in  the 
terms  and  form  of  its  character  has  considerable 
affinity  to  the  Bengali;  and  that  of  Magadha,  in 
which  the  resemblance  to  that  language  is  still 
more  characteristic  and  striking. 

Of  the  general  populatitm  of  the  province,  at 
least  one-fourth  are  Mahommedans;  Bahar  having 
-  been  conquered  by  that  people  at  an  early  period* 
and  afterwards  retained  m  subjection;  so  tnat  the 
Brahmins  have  acquired  an  unusual  degree  of  in- 
fluence. Gaj^,  the  birth-place  of  the  great  pro- 
phet and  lesrislator  Buddna,  is  a  place  of  pil- 
grimage, and  the  central  resort  of  sectaries  of 
Siat  persuasion ;  but  among  the  resident  inhabi- 
tants few  Buddhists  are  to  be  found,  owing  to 
the  intolerance  and  cruelty  of  the  Brahmins, 
together  with  the  Mahommedans'  mode  of  propa- 
gating and  confirming  tlieir  faith. 

The  chief  towns  are  Patna,  Monghyr,  Buxa, 
Rotas,  Gayah,  Dinapoor,  and  Boglipoor.  The 
revenue  is  considerable,  amounting  in  1815  to 
6,701,538  rupees,  or  nearly  £837,944  steriing. 
The  inhabitants  visibly  improve,  and  appear  to 
be  of  a  different  race  from  the  Bengalese,  whom 
they  excel  both  in  streneth  and  stature. 

The  proyince  of  Bahar  is  at  present  divided 
into  the  following  districts;  which,  with  their 
natural  features  and  local  peculiarities,  w>  shall 
subjoin  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  reader. 

1.  Boglipoor,  south-east  of  Bahar,  and  com- 
prehending a  part  of  the  Mogul  province  of  Ben- 
gal, is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tirhoot  and 
PCiriniiah,  on  the  east  by  the  latter  and  Mur- 
shid-&D&d ;  ^n  tlie  south  by  Birb'hum  and  R&m- 
gaiih,  and  on  the  west  by  mat  district  and  Bahar. 
ft  extends  133  miles  one  way,  and  eighty  the 
other,  forming  a  total  area  of  about  8225  square 
miles,  and,  according  to  Ayeen  Akberry,  ii.  25. 1 97 
was  known  anciently  by  the  name  of  the  sercar 
of  Monger.  The  hills  are  imperfectly  cultivajted. 
The  winds  shift  twice  a  year,  blowing  almost 


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hiTariably  fiom  east  to  west,  between  tbe  months 
of  June  and  February;  after  which  they  change 
6x>m  west  to  east.  The  heats  are  frequently 
oppressive,  and  the  cold  season  comparatively 
mitcL  The,  soil  is  in  many  places  ricn,  and  fit 
for  agriculture;  but  in  otherSj  rocky  and  barren. 
Hot  springs  are  frequently  found  in  this  district; 
in  some  of  which,  particularly  at  Bliinebaud, 
the  thermometer  rises  to  144®  Fahrenheit.  Th^ 
genera]  character  of  the  population  is  respectable, 
but  the  mountaineers  are  wild  and  uncivilised: 
some  of  them  have  been  lately  brought,  under 
the  guidance  of  the  Brahmins,  who  teach  them, 
to  worship  Durg^  b^ore  a  bll-tree. 

The  most  remarkable  places  in  the  district  are 
as  follow :  B*h&gal-piir,  the  capital,  situated  in 
lat.  25°13'N.,  long.  86°  58'  E.;  110  miles  north- 
west of  Murshid-abiuL  It  is  a  mean-looking 
town,  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  country ;  and 
contains  a  population  of  more  than  30,000  inha- 
bitants, chiefly  Mahommedans.  Champ&nager,  in 
lat.  25°  14'  N.,  long.  65°  5^  E.,  three  miles 
west  of  Bli^igal-ptlr,  contains,  together  with 
Lacshmi-gani,  a  population  of  9000.  A  .Mahom- 
medan  saint,  nine  cubits  high,  is  said  to  have 
been  buried  here,  whose  tomb  is  still  a  place  of 
pilgrimage.  G'hidd'hdr,  or  Ghiddhore,  lat.  24° 
52'  N.,  long.  86°  10*  S.  S.  W.  of  Monger,  is 
remarkable  for  the  ruins  of  a  castle,  said  to  have 
been  built  by  the  Afifghan  Shir  ShlOi,  A.  D.  1 544 ; 
the  massive  walls  of  wluch  are  still  remaining. 

Mong^er,  Mongfayr,  (Mudga  or  Mucti-giri),  in 
kt.  25°  23'  N.  long.  86°  26'  W.,  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Ganges.  Its  foit,  surrounded  by  a 
deep  ditch,  has  been  a  place  of  note  from  remote 
Antiqui^.  The  town  is  formed  by  the  assem- 
blage of  sixteen  distinct  hamlets,  provided  with 
only  two  regular  streets,  which  lie  near  die 
eastern  and  southern  gates  of  the  fort.  The  po- 
pulation is  about  30,000.  Its  most  remarkable 
curiosity,  the  shrine  of  P^r  Sh^  Koseln  Lohaun), 
is  most  venerated,  both  by  Mussulmans  and  Hin- 
dis. About  five  miles  distant  from  the  above 
town  is  the  celebrated  hot  spring  called  Sltfl- 
c(ind|  or  the  pool  of  Sit^ ;  in  oriental  mythology, 
the  wife  of  Biima  the  Indian  Bacchus.  Tbe 
waters  are  received  into  a  brick  cistern,  about 
eighteen  feet  square>  from  which  air-bubbles  are 
constantly  emitted,  although  the  nature  of  tbe 
gas  has  not  been  ascertain^.  The  heat  of  tKis 
spring  is  different  at  different  times,  varying 
from  92°  to  132°  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer. 

M(iti  jlianui,  or  Mootyjerna  (the  pearl  drop- 
ing  stream)  lies  about  eight  miles  inland  from 
the  Ganges ;  is  a  remarkable  cascade,  formed  by 
two  fine  waterfalls,  together  measuring  105  feet 
perpendicular.  The  waters  sweeping  over  the 
summit  of  the  rocks,  and  falling  from  that  lofty 
altitude,  are  received  into  a  basin  below,  which 
has  been  conjectured,  not  upon  slight  grounds, 
to  be  the  original  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano. 
A  view  of  this  magnificent  cascade  is  given 
in  Hodges's  Travels  it*  India.  Cohl-ging, 
(spelt  ginii,  and  pronounced  g&ni^g),  a  small 
town,  in  lat.  25°  14'  N.,  long.  87°  15'  E.,  on*  a 
peaked  hill,  ten  common  cos  south-east  of  Bog- 
lipoor.  Teliy'agar'hi,  or  Telliaghurry,  is  a  small 
town  twenty-three  miles  north-west  of  R&ji- 
mabal;  lat,  25«  15'  N.,  long.  87°  37'  E-     It  is 


remadcable  for  an  old  castlie,  built  by  the  Saltan 
Shuj^,  in  the  seventeenth  centtiry.  The  Vind- 
hya  hills  here,  come  down  close  to  the  river,  and 
form  the  line  of  boundary  between  the  provinces 
of  Bahar  and  Bengal,  in  the  Mogul  division. 

2.  Bahar  isaUixge  district  lying  in  theceotref 
the  boundaries  of  which  are  ill  defined,  but 
generally  traced  to  the  Gai^;es,  on  the  north,  to 
Ramgur  and  Monghyr  on  the  south,  to  the  lat> 
ter,  with  the  river  Soane  on  the  east,  and  the 
district  of  Rotas  on  the  west;  including  a  terri- 
tory of  6680  square  miles.    The  level  land  is 
highly  cultivated,  but  interspersed  with  naked 
and  barren  hills,  which  are  entirely  isolated. 
Some  of  these  rise  in  clusters,  exhibiting  a 
rugged  irregular  appearance,  of  which  the  most 
remarkable  are,  the  Ber&ber  pahar,  west  of  the 
Phalgii ;  the  Bajil-grlha,  or  Raj-mahal,  hills  on 
its  eastern  side ;  and  a  long  narrow  range  con- 
tiguous to  Shaikh  p&rah.     The  southern  hills 
form  a  part  of  the  Vindliyan  chain,  continued 
with  little  or  no  interruption  fi>r  a  great  extent, 
and,  in  the  opinio^  of  some,  even  to  Cape 
Comoriu.    These  hills  no  where  approach  tbe 
river,  and  the  country,  though  generally  lofiy, 
exhibits  the  immense  stretch  of  one  continued 
plain.     The  winds  commonly  blow  east  and 
west,   shifting  twice  in  the  year.    The  soil  is 
highly  fertile,  and  the  climate  warm ;  prodacing 
not  only  the  comforts,  but  even  luxuries  of  life. 
The  rivers  and  streams  which  water  the  country 
are  numerous.   The  Ganges  rolls  along  its  mag- 
nificent stream  to  the  width  of  an  English  mile. 
The  Sonar,  almost  equal  in   the  width  of  its 
channel,  is  navigable  in  the  rainy  season,  and  is 
celebrated  for  its  handsome  pebbles  nnd  fine 
fish.    The  Phalgfi,  held  in  religious  veneration 
by  the  Hindiis,  is  tremendously  deep  and  rapid, 
and  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  immense 
torrents  above  the  city  Gayii,  where  it  spreads 
to  the  breadth  of  500  yards.    Ther  Punpua, 
Muraba,  Dardlia,  Sacri,  and  Panchane,  are  all 
rivers  of  considerable  importance. '  The  popula- 
tion of  this  district  is  overflowing.    In  1811  it 
amounted  to  2,755,150  souls,  and  the  increase 
has  been  almost  incredible.    The  revenue  in 
1814  was  equal  to  1,748,006  rupees,  or  £218,500 
sterling.    In  point  of  religion,  Mabonunedanism 
is  widely  extended,  although  idolatry  is  the  most 
prevalent    There  are  six  great  Hindoo  shrines, 
visited  by  pilgrims,  and  two  belonging  to  the 
Jain  in  the  division  of  Nawada. 

The  principal  towns  of  this  district  are,  Patn^, 
(in  Sanscrit,  Padmaiati,  the  lotus-bearing)  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Bahar,  in  lat.  25°  37'  N. 
long.  85°  15'  £.,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Ganges, 
which  is  here  five  miles  wide  in'  the  rainy  season. 
Including  the  suburbs,  it  covers  an  area  of 
twenty  square  miles,  and  contains  312,000  po- 
pulation. The  public  buildings  are  paltry ,  the 
fortifications  are  in  ruins ;  and  even  the  hand- 
somest mosque  is  now  let  as  a  warehouse.  Patni 
is  a  place  ot  considerable  trade.  It  has  a  court 
of  appeal  and  circuit ;  a  iudge  and  magistrate ; 
collector,  conomercial-resident,  and  opium  agent ; 
is  garrisoned  by  a  provincial  battalion,  but  has 
few  European  houses  or  inhabitants.  Patosl  lies 
400  miles  from  Calcutta,  by  Murshed-iibiUl. 

Dandp-ptlr,  in  lat.  25°  3r  N.  long.  85°  5'  E.,teB 


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Btfles  west  of  Patn^,  is  one  of  the  principal  sta- 
tions of  the  European  troops,  and,  accordingly, 
has  magnificent  barracks,  good  roads,  elegant 
TiUas,  and  is,  in  short,  compared  with  Patn^,  a 
perfect  paradise.  Its  population  is  between 
20,000  and  30,000. 

Gayi,  in  lat.  24^*49'  N.,  long.  85°  E.,  is  ike' 
capital  of  the  district  of  Bahar,  and  consists  of 
1.  Gayh  Proper,  the  residence  of  the  Brahmins; 
and  2.  Sabibganj,  the  residence  of  the  re- 
maining inhabitants,  both  containing  a  popula- 
tion of  nearly  40,000.  This  place  is  celebrated 
by  the  Budd'hists  as  the  birth-place  of  their  great 
legislator,  and  by  the  Hindoos  as  the  scene  of 
one  of  Vishnu's  victories  over  an  unmanageable 
asur  or  giant.  Pilgrims  without  number  crowd 
from  all  parts,  and  their  amount  is  rapidly 
increasing;  since  from  31,000  who  visited  it 
in  1811,  200,000  at  present  are  said  to  arrive 
annually.  These  pious  visitants  are  taxed  by 
the  British  government  according  to  the  numb^ 
of  holy  places  they  visit  The  utmost  sum  is 
14|  rupees,  or  £l  12$.  sterling.  We  have  only 
to  add,  that  the  crimes  arising  from  so  great  an 
influx  of  strangers,  too  evidently  shows  the  de- 

?lorable  tendency  of  the  Hindoo  superstition, 
he  ruins  of  Budd'ha-gay^  and  the  number  of 
images  scattered  round  them  for  fifteen  or  twenty 
miles,  are  astonishing,  and  render  it  probable 
that  this  was  once  Uie  centre  of  Buddliism,  and 
the  residence  of  some  powerful  monarch  profess- 
ing that  faith. 

3.  The  third  district  of  the  province,  viz.  Tia- 
HOOT,  or  Tirbut,  is  on  the  nortn-west  of  the  pro- 
vince, bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Ganges,  on 
the  west  by  Saren,  or  Sarun  district,  on  the  north 
by  the  Saptari  woods  of  N^pal,  and  on  the  east  by 
Plim^yah  in  Bengal.  The  district  is  high,  healthy, 
uid  well-watered,  producing,  besides  the  com- 
modities above-mentioned,  turmeric,  ginger,  and 
several  other  valuable  articles.  Its  chid"  rivers 
are  the  Gaud'achi,  Bliagmati,  and  Gagari.  The 
whole  area  in  1784,  before  the  alteration,  was 
upwards  of  5000  square  miles ;  the  revenue,  as 
late  as  1814,  amounted  to  1,274,717  rupees,  or 
£159,339  sterling;  and  the  population  in  1801 
was  2,000,000.  It  was  anciently  a  part  of  the 
province,  or  ratner  kingdom,  of  Mit^iU,  which 
comprehended  the  greater  part  of  the  three  dis- 
tricts, TirhUt,  PCiriniga,  S^ren,  together  with 
part  of  the  Nepalese  territo^;  and  was  bounded 
oy  the  Gandac,  Cosa,  and  Ganges,  together  with 
the  mountains  of  Nepal  on  tl^  nortii.  It  was 
subdued  by  the  Moguls  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, and  became  part  of  the  British  empire  in  1 765. 
This  district  has  been  recently  selected  by  govern- 
ment for  improving  the  breed  of  horses,  the  soil 
and  climate  appearing  &vorable  to  that  purpose; 
accordingly  many  of  the  first  quality  are  reared 
in  the  Zil&t,  or  division  of  Hajl-p&r. 

The  most  remarkable  mountain  feature  is  the 
towering  peak  of  I/holiUgiri  in  the  Himalaya 
chain,  near  which  the  Gaud'achi,  or  S&lagriimi 
river,  suposed  to  be  the  Condochates  of  Arrian, 
takes  its  nse  in  lat.  29°  30'  N.,  and  long.  83''  45'  £., 
or  nearly.  The  summit  of  this  mountain  was 
calcuhUed  by  Mr.  Colebroke  to  reach  nearly 
27,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  As.  Re$. 
XII  276.    In  its  bed  axe  found  schistose  stones, 


or  salgr&ms,  contaAiing  remains  of  the  comv 
ammonis,  which  are  thence  dispersed,  are  objects 
of  adoration  all  over  India.  From  which  circum- 
stance the  mountain  is  called  S&lgi^i  in  N^pil. 
The  spiral  lines  are  supposed  to  be  traces  of 
Vishnu,  and  some  of  these  stones  sell  for  2000 
rupees,  or  £225.  sterling. 

Within  the  limits  of  Tirh&t,  or  Tirhoot,  is  the 
town  Hajypoor,  or  H&j)-p6r,  with  a  district  of 
the  same  name,  including  an  area  of  2782  square 
miles,  whence  the  company  obtain  most  of  their 
saltpetre.  The  town  lies  nearly  opposite  Patn^ 
at  me  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and  Gaud*achi 
rivere,  in  lat.  25**  41'  N.,  and  long.  85°  21'  E. 
It  is  celebrated  for  its  horse-&ir,  held  every 
November,  to  which,  in  1807,  no  fewer  than 
6000  horses  were  brought,  two  of  which  sold  for 
4000  rupees,  or  £450  each.  Durbliaugl,  in  lat. 
26°  9'  N.,  long.  86°  20*  E.,  was  a  considerable 
place  in  the  time  of  Acbar ;  and  near  SingHiU, 
east  of  the  Gaud'achi,  lat.  25°  52'  N.,  long.  85° 
15',  are  some  very  curious  ruins^ 

4.  The  fourth  district  is  Saren  (the  Asylum), 
comprehending  Bettii  or  Champ4ran,  formerly  a 
separate  district,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Macwan-pur  and  G6nac'h-pur,  on  the  south  by 
the  Ganges,  on  the  west  by  the  D^wa  or  G'hara 
river,,  and  on  the  east  by  Tirhoot,  including,  in 
1784,  an  area  of  5106  square  miles.  The  whole 
of  Saren  suffered  extremely  from  the  fiunine  in 
1770,  by  which  neariy  half  the  inhabitants 
perished ;  but  is  in  general  a  well  cultivated  and 
nighly  fertile  country,  and  greatly  improved  since 
the  decennial  settlement  by  Ix)rd  Comwallis. 
There  are  only  two  Mahomraedan  zemindars  in 
the  whole  district, -and  die  revenue,  in  1814,  was 
1,233,385  rupees,  or  £138,756.  The  popu- 
lation is  considerable,  amounting,  in  1801,  to 
1,200,000,  of  whom  one  tenth  were  Mahom- 
medans. 

Terydni,  or  Turydul  (the  country  of  boats) 
lies  at  the  foot  of  the  northern  hills  and  the  lower 
lands,  wheie  the  rivers  become  navigable.  The 
base  of  the  mountains  is  covered  with  wood,  and 
the  intervening  lands  between  it  and  the  culti- 
vated districts  are  covered  with  grass,  intersected 
by  streams  and  rivers,  which  in  the  rainy  season 
are  navigable.  The  confined  air,  stagnant  water, 
and  putrified  vetretable  matter,  in  this  district 
render  the  climate  unwholesome  in  the  wet 
months,  especially  in  the  low-lands.  The  forests 
are  inhabited  by  elephants,  bears,  tigers,  rhi- 
noceroses, vrild  boars,  jackals,  foxes,  hares,  and 
hog-deer.  The  pal^  (erythrina  monosperma) 
and  simul  (borabax  faeptaphvllum)  are  found 
on  the  Nepalese  confines.  Of  this  district  Cha- 
prah  is  the  capital,  lying  in  lat.  25°  46'  N.,  long. 
84°  46'  E.,  and  extending  nearly  a  mile  along 
the  nor&em  bank  of  the  Ganges.  The  popula- 
tion of  this  town,  in  1817,  amounted  to  43,700, 
and  is  now  greatly  increased.  The  Patnii  bearers 
of  Calcutta,  or  the  original  C'harwa  tribe,  are 
settled  near  the  borders  of  this  town,  although 
they  emigrated  originally  from  Chota  Nag-p(ir, 
lying  in  the  southern  part  of  the  province. 

5.  Shah-abad  (the  royal  residence),  is  an  ex- 
tremely fertile  and  populous  district,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Ganges,  on  the  east  and 
south  by  the  Son,  and  on  the  west  by  Chudir, 


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in  the  province  of  Allah-dUUl ;  and  including,  in 
1784,  an  area  of  1869  sqnare  miles,  since  \v^ich 
it  has  been  materially  augmented.  The  popula- 
tion is  about  2,000,000,  and  the  revenue,  in  1814, 
amounted  to  1,177,462  rupees,  or  £132,465 
sterling. 

Arrah,  the  capital  of  this  distnct,  lat.  25''  35" 
S.,  and  long.  84*^  40*,  is  extensive  and  populous. 
Bagsar,  or  fiacsar,  south  of  the  Ganges,  in  lat. 
25''  35'  N.,  long.  83^  57'  £.,  is  the  place  of  the 
celebrated  engagement  in  1764,  when  sir  Hector 
Munru,  with  6215  SipWs  and  856  Europeans, 
defeated  the  corobinea  armies  of  Shuj&fk'd  daw- 
lah  and  K&sira  All  Khan,  amounting  to  40,000 
men.  Here  also  is  a  police  station,  at  which  all 
travelleTS  are  obliged  to  exhibit  their  passports. 
Sasram,  Sesr^iing,  Sahasram^  or  Sahasriiimg,  ly« 
ing  in  lat.  24°  58'  N.,  long.  83**  58'  E.,  is  cele- 
brated for  Khe  splendid  mausoleum  of  Shir 
Rhlm  the  AfghiUi,  Wit  in  the  midst  of  a  great 
reservoir  or  tank,  upwards  of  a  mile  in  circumfer- 
ence. Rohtas  is  die  chief  town  of  the  westerly  p^- 
gauah  of  this  district,  bounded  by  the  Caramnas^ 
which  joins  the  Ganges  at  Bacsar,  and  contained, 
in  1784,  as  many  as  3680  square  miles.  The 
fortress  Roht^  garli,  on  the  level  summit  of  a 
mountain,  in  lat.  24°  38'  N.  and  long.  83°  50'  E. , 
was  thought  impregnable  till  taken  from  R&jkh 
Chint&men  in  1542,  by  Shir  Sh^  the  cele- 
brated A&failn.  After  this  it  was  again  sur- 
prised, and  in  1764,  when  K^im  Ali  evacuated 
the  province,  came  into  possession  of  die 
English. 

6.  Ram-g'har  (the  house  of  Rama),  the  sixth 
division  of  the  province,  is  a  hilly  and  moun- 
tainous district  in  the  south,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Bah^  proper,  on  the  east  by  Bardit- 
h^^ui  and  B'h&l-pur,  on  the  west  by  Bilaunja, 
Sera^a  and  Jeshpiir,  and  by  that  district,  Gang- 
gnd  Singli-b'hCim  on  the  south.  *A  great  part 
of  this  district  belonged  to  the  ancient  piovmce 
of  Gondwiina;  but  now,  in  addition  to  its  own 
peculiar  territory,  it  comprehends  Palamb^  Par 


ch6t,  and  Chfita  N&g-pQr.    The  population  Has 
been  estimated  at  hSif  a  million,  who,  though 
improving,  are  at   present  uncivilised.     The 
woods,  wild  beasts,  and  savage  inhabitants,  ren- 
der this  district  a  perilous  residence;    wfaUst 
superstition,  rapine,  and  murder,  are  to  be  leen 
in  all  directions.    The  extent  of  the  Bim-gW 
territories  in  1784  was  21,732  square  miles,  of 
which  two-thirds  was  waste  land.   Iron  is  found 
in  many  of  the  hills.     The  M&hwap  tree,  or 
Bassia  longifolia,  grows  abundantly  amon^  the 
rocks,  and  furnishes  a  farinaceous  pulp  which  is 
a  substitute  for  bread,  and  a  nutricious  infiisioa 
which  is  used  as  tea.    The  chief  rivers  are  Baii- 
car  and  Damodar;  and  the  largest  towns  ate 
Macaud-gauj,  Chitra,  and  R&mgar'h.  R^mgaili, 
on  the  D^6d'ar,  is  now  a  second-rate  town,  in 
lat.  23°  39'  N.,  long.  95°  43*  E.    Palamb,  or 
Palamau,  the  residence  of  a  powerful  rajah,  is 
a  hilly  and  woody  territory  on  the  Mahratta  fron- 
tier.   Berwa,  in  lat.  53°  20'  N.,  long.  84°  46'  E^ 
lies  contiguous  to  Naz&i)  B^,  the  head  quar- 
ters of  the  corps  stationed  in  Ramgarli.  Pachet, 
a  zemindar)  ot  uncivilised  population,  contains 
2779  square  miles.    The  town  is  in  lat  23°  36* 
N.,  and  long.  86°  50'  E.    Ch'h6ta  Nkg-pdr  is  a 
high,  woody,  and  unhealthy  zemlnd^,  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  this  province,  bordered  on 
three  sides  by  Gondw&na,  and  never  completely 
subdued  by  the  Mahonunedans.    The  Chatauri, 
Cieri,  and  Dliangar  tribes,  have  never  embraced 
the  religion  of  me  Brahmins;  but  have  a  reli- 
gion and  language  of  their  own.  The  productions 
are  similar  to  those  found  in  the  other  parts  of 
the  dbtrict.    Iron  is  commonly  met  with,  but  is 
not  manufactured,  because  that  metal  can  be  pro- 
cured at  a  smaller  expense  from  the  European 
markets. 

For  a  further  illustration  of  the  general  features 
and  economy  of  this  province  we  refer  the  reader 
to  Hamilton's  Hindostan;  Asiatic  Researches; 
Bemouilli's  Hindostan,  i.  and  ii.;  Rranell's  Me- 
moir; Ayeen  Akberry,  &c« 


Bahab,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Bahar, 
district  of  Bahar,  35  miles  S.E.  from  Patna. 
Lat.  25°  13*  N.,  long.  85°  ZT  E. 

Bahab,  or  Babre,  in  commerce,  weights 
used  in  several  places  in  the  East  Indies.  'Thev 
have  been  distinguished  as  the  great  bahar,  with 
which  they  weigh  pepper,  cloves,  nutmegs,  gin- 
ger, &c.  and  the  httle  bahar,  with  which  &ey 
weigh  quicksilver,  vermillion,  ivory,  silk,  &c. 
But  this  weight  varies  much  in  different  parts  of 
the  East  The  bahar  of  Acheen,  in  Sumatra, 
consists  of  100  cattees,  and  is  equal  to  490lbs. 
avoirdupois.  The  bahar  of  Betle&ckee,  in  Arar 
bia,  consisting  of  forty  farcels,  is  ^  815ilbs. 
avoirdupois.  The  bahar  of  Bencoolen  =  560 
lbs.  avoirdupois.  The  bahar  of  Junkseylon  of 
eight  capins  =  4851bs.  5oz.  5idr.  The  bahar 
of  Molacca,  of  three  peculs  =  405lbs.  avoirdu- 
pois. The  bahar  of  Mocha,  of  fifteen  franks  =: 
445lb8.  avoirdupois. 

BAHAREN,  or  Bahhrein,  a  cluster  of 
islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  pearl  fishery  of  the  neighbourhood.    They 


have  often  changed  masters.  ^Y^^  Ormus  they 
came  under  the  dominion  of  the  Portuguese, 
were  again  restored  to  Peisia  by  Thomas  Khouli 
Khan ;  and  after  his  death,  the  confusion  into 
which  his  empire  was  thrown,  gave  an  opporto- 
nity  to  an  enterprising  and  ambitious  Arab  of 
taking  possession  of  them.  But  he  was  soon 
compelled  to  relinquish  them  once  more  to  the 
Persians;  who  have  lately  been,  in  their  turn, 
driven  from  them  by  the  rising  sect  of  the  Wa- 
habees.  Baharen,  or  Awal  the  principal  island, 
was  famous  for  its  pearl  fishery  even  vnien  pearls 
were  found  at  Ormus,  Kareke,  Kashy,  and  other 
places  in  the  Persian  Gulf :  but  became  of  much 
greater  consequence  when  the  other  banks  were 
exhausted.  It  lies  about  fifteen  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  ninety  W.  N.  W.  of  Bushire;  and  is 
covered  with  villages  and  date  gardens.  TV 
capital,  Medina,  containing  800  or  900  houses, 
and  a  strong  fort,  which  was  some  time  ago  gar- 
risoned by  300  Persians.  The  town  is  destitute 
of  water ;  but  here  is  a  harbour  which  will  admit 
vessels  of  200  tons  burden,  and  a  strong  castk. 


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It  lies  aboat  three  mAes  from  tlie  coast.  The 
Pemans  are  said  to  resort  hither  habitually  for 
the  study  of  Arabic,  under  the  Shuats,  the  dis- 
ciples of  All.  Another  of  these  islands  is  Arad, 
divided  by  an  isthmus  into  two  parts,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  is  called  Samoki,  and  has  a  small 
town,  Mahared.  A  third  island,  sometimes  no- 
ticed in  the  Eastern  maps,  is  Gutter  Sahari, 
called  hj  the  English,  Meritan  Rock..  The 
earliest  time  of  fishing  is  in  April,  and  the  latest 
in  October.  The  pearls  taken  at  Baharen, 
though  not  so  white  as  those  of  Ceylon  or  Japan, 
are  much  larger  than  those  of  the  former  place, 
and  more,  regularly  shaped  than  those  of  the 
latter.  They  have  a  yellowish  color ;  but  have 
also  this  good  quality,  that  they  preserve  their 
golden  hue,  whereas  tne  whiter  kind  lose  much 
of  their  lustre  by  keeping^  especially  in  hot 
countries.  Those  of  deeper  color  are  genemlly 
bought  by  the  Mahmttas,  and  the  paler  are 
transported  through  Bassora  and  Bagdad  all 
over  Asia.  It  is  said  to  be  on  the  whole  the 
richest  and  most  productive  pearl  fishery  in  the 
world ;  and  to  average  a  profit  to  the  individuals 
who  &rm  it  of  £100,000  per  annum.  The 
oyster  banks,  lying  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  below 
tiie  surface,  stretch  from  about  25''  to  26^  40'  N. 
lat.,  and  the  shells  from  two  to  ten  inches  in  dia- 
meter, are  considered  valuable,  as  well  aa  the 
pearls.  It  is  a  practice  with  those  who  are  em- 
ployed in  opening  the  shells,  to  put  the  finer 
pearls  into  their  mouths,  believing  that  this  adds 
to  their  brilliancy ;  and  the  fishermen  always  an- 
ticipate success  after  copious  rains.  Latterly 
the  produce  of  the  fishery  has  in  some  measure 
declmed,  in  consequence  of  the  English  markets 
for  the  Ceylon  fishery  being  transferred  to  the 
straits  of  Manaar;  and  the  pearls  are  chiefly 
sent  to  Surat. 

BAHARY,  a  town  of  Sennaar,  fifteen  miles 
south-east  of  that  place. 

BAHAS,  a  town  of  Arabia,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Yemen,  near  the  Red  Sea,^xteeD  miles  N.N.W. 
ofLoheia.    Lat.  IS'*  SS*  N. 

BAHATJIICALLY,  a  town  of  Cochin,  with 
a  pagoda,  twenty-three  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Cochin. 

BAHBEiT,  Balbeit,  or  Bhabeit,  a  ruined 
place  in  the  Delta  of  Egypt,  where  there  are  the 
remains  of  a  magnificent  marble  temple.  Po- 
cocke  supposes  it  to  have  been  a  temple  of  Isis ; 
but  this  is  disputed  by  D'  Anville  and  Savary. 
The  figures  on  the  basso  relievo  are  beautiful, 
but  ill  drawn.  Pococke  supposes  Bahbeit  to  be 
the  ancient  Busiris.  S^en  miles  S.S.W.  of 
Mansora. 

BAHBELGONGE,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in 
the  country  of  Baglana,  situated  on  the  river 
Godavery,  sixty  miles  east  of  Nassuck,  sixty-five 
west  of  Aurungabad.  Long.  74*^  58'  E.,  lat. 
19**  43'  N. 

BAHHREIN,  or  Ar'du'l  Bahrein  (the 
I.and  of  the  two  Seas),  is  the  name  of  a  pro- 
vince of  Arabia,  between  Omkn  and  Basrah. 
It  is  called  also  Hajar  and  Lahsk,  or  £1-Ahsk. 
This  district  is  bounded  by  the  Arabian  desert 
on  the  north ;  by  Nejed  on  the  west ;  by  the  sea 
on  the  east ;  and  by  Om^n  on  the  south.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  in  a  flourishing  condition;  and  is 
governed  by  the  Arabs  of  the  tribe  of  Benl  Kh&r 
Vol.  Ill 


lid.  The  principal  towns  are  on  the  coast,  vis. 
1 .  Lahsil,  or  Hajar,  the  residence  of  the  sheik, 
or  head  of  the  tribe.  2.  Katif,  a  sea-port,  about 
twenty  miles  fix>m  the  islands  of  Al  Bahrein^ 
It  is  inhabited  by  people  employed  in  the  pearl- 
fishery.  3.  Coweit,  or  Kore'in  (Grsen),  siz^r  or 
seventy  miles  from  Zobeirch,  Old  B^rah.  It  is 
populous,  and  maintained,  like  other  places  on 
this  coast,  by  the  pearl-fishe^. 

BAHIA  DE  ToDOS  LOS  Santos,  a  province 
and  captainship  of  Brasil,  extending  to  a  consi- 
derable distance  along  the  coast ;  being  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  St.  Francisco,  which  runs 
into  the  sea  in  lat.  11^  S.,  and  on  ^e  south  by 
the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  including  the  dis- 
trict of  Ilheos,  forming  a  separate  province.  The 
climate  .'s  always  warm,  but  is  refreshed  by  the 
sea-breeze.  The  soil  is  peculiar,  and  those  parts 
between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  are  esteemed 
the  best  in  Brasil  for  the  growth  of  the  sugar- 
cane. It  is  also  well  adapted  for  tobacco  and 
cotton.  Coffee  is  grown  in  great  quantities,  but 
the  Quality  is  inferior. 

Babia,  or  St.  Salvador,  the  capital  of  the 
above  province,  is  populous  and  opulent;  and 
the  second  city  in  Brasil.  It  is  strong  by  nature 
and  well  fortified ;  and  was,  for  two  centuries, 
the  residence  of  the  govemoi^eneral  of  Brasil. 
It  is  still  an  archiepiscopal  city ;  and,  including 
its  suburbs,  is  about  four  miles  long.  The  upper 
town  is  situated  upon  an  eminence,  and  the 
lower,  which  consists  principally  of  a  single 
street,  parallel  to  the  beach,  at  its  western  base. 
Here  is  the  chief  seat  of  its  commerce,  a  dock- 
yard, and  a  marine  arsonal.  The  streets  of  the 
upper  town  are  so  steep  that  carriages  can  rarely 
be  used.  The  churches,  chapels,  and  convents, 
of  Bahia  are  splendid  structures ;  and  with  the 
archbishop*s  palace,  the  mint,  and  the  governor's 
residence,  are  the  first  and  most  conspicuous  t 
objects  that  meet  the  eye  of  a  stranger.  The 
grand  church,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Jesuits, 
is  by  £gir  the  most  supurb  structure  in  thb  city 
It  is  entirely  composea  of  European  marble,  im- 
ported at  an  immense  expense.  Tbe  wood-work 
of  the  altar  is  inlaid  witn  tortoise-shell,  and  co- 
vered with  paintings,  gilding,  and  a  profiision  of 
ornaments.  The  chief  commerce  of  Bahia  is  in 
linen,  and  other  kinds  of  cloth,  hats,  silk  and 
thread,  stockings,  grain,  rice,  flour,  biscuit,  wine, 
oil,  slaves,  butter,  cheese,  bacon,  and  household 
fiimlture ;  for  which  gold,  sugar,  tobacco,  skins, 
hides,  Brasil  wood,  balsam,  and  several  kinds  of 
drags,'  are  exported.  The  population,  including 
the  suburbs,  has  been  lately  estimated  at  100,000, 
about  30,000  of  whom  are  whites,  and  the  rest 
mulattoes  and  negroes.  It  stands  in  12*^  59^  S. 
lat,  and  longitude  37^  23'  W. 

Babia,  a  province  of  the  island  of  Luzon,  one 
of  the  Philippine  islands,  so  called  firom  a  lake 
in  the  neighbourhood,  which  is  said  to  be  ninety 
miles  in  circumference. 

Babia  de  CBETUiCEL,or  Hanover  Bay,  a  bay 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Yutucan, 
in  the  bay  of  Honduras. 

Babia,  Honda,  a  large,  well  sheltered  har^ 
hour  of  the  island  of  Cuba,  on  the  north  side, 
which  has  fifteen  and  ten  fathoms  of  water  in  the 
bay,  eight  at  the  entrance  into  the  harbour,  and 

2  C 


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anchorage  in  fout   and   ftve  fathoms, 
83°  6'  W.,  lat.  22°  58'  N. 

BAHIE,  or  Bahei,  an  island  on  the  coast  of 
Arabia,  in  the  Red  Sea.  Also  a  small  town  op- 
posite to  it  on  the  shore. 

BAHIOUDA,  an  extensive  desert  district  to 
the  north  of  Sennaar,  between  that  country  and 
Dongjola. 

BAIllR,  a  Hebrew  term,  signifying  famous  or 
illustrious,  but  particularly  applied  to  a  book  of 
the  Jews,  the  most  ancient  of  the  Rabbinical 
works,  and  which  treats  of  the  profound  mysteries 
of  the  Cabbala. 

BAHIRA,  Bahei,  or  Rif,  or  the  maritime 
province,  a  name  given  by  the  Arabian  g^eogra- 
phers  to  the  Delta  of  Egypt,  and  the  districts 
immediately  adjoining  it  east  and  west*  It  con- 
tains Alexandria,  Rosetta,  Damietta,  Menuf,  and 
Manaoura. 

Bahira,  among  the  ancient  Arabs,  a  name 
given  to  one  of  the  four  kinds  of  camels  or  sheep, 
which,  according  to  their  religion,  were  turned 
out  at  liberty  with  an  ear  mark,  no  longer  to  be 
used  for  service  like  other  cattle.  The  bahira, 
with  the  sabahi,  wasita,  and  hami,  were  abolished 
by  Mahomet. 

BAHLINGEN,  a  large  and  well  built  village 
in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  circle  of  the 
Treisam,  upper  bailiwic  of  Ilochberg.  It  con- 
tains 1620  mhabitants,  who  cultivate  the  vine  to 
a.  great  extent 

Baum,  a  town  of  the  Prussian  states,  in  Further 
Pomerania,  and  circle  of  Greifenhagen.  It  con- 
tains about  1300  inhabitants,  who  derive  their 
subsistence,  chiefly  from  jtillage,  the  neighbouring 
country  being  very  fertile ;  straw  hats  are  also' 
manufactured  here.  Twenty  miles  S.S.W.  of 
Stargard,  thirty-two  north  of  Custrin. 

Bahooan,  a  small  island  in  the  Sooloo  archi- 
n,  pclago.    Long.  120®  58^  E.,  lat.  6°  9'  N. 

BAHOUACHE,  Dian,  the  tide  of  the  sove 
reign  of  Anossi.    See  Anossi. 

BAHRABAD,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Khorassan,  ten  miles  north  of  Sebsvar. 

BAHR  Belame,  or  river  without  water,  a  deep 
valley  in  the  west  of  Egypt,  supposed  to  have 
anciently  formed  a  canal  of  communication  be- 
tween Lake  Moeris  (Faioum),  and  the  Lake 
Mareotis.    See  Ba&rai. 

BAHRDT  (Charles  Frederick),  a  German 
writer,  bom  at  Bischofswerda,  in  1741.  He 
studied  at  Leipsic,  where  his  father  was  profe^ 
sor  of  divinity,  took  the  degree  of  A.M.,  and 
was  appointed  his  ^EUher's  deputy.  In  conse- 
quence of  an  amour  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
Leipsic;  and  settled  at  Erfurt,  as  professor  of 
Biblical  antiquities.  Here  in  1769  he  published 
An  Essay  towards  a  system  of  the  Doctrines  con- 
tained in  the  Bible,  in  which  several  heterodox 
opinions  were  broached.  He  soon  after  left 
Erfurt,  and  went  to  Giessen  in  Hesse,  where  he 
published  a  number  of  theological  tracts,  abound- 
ing witli  extravagancies,  confidently  maintained. 
From  Giessen  he  removed  to  Durkheim,  in  1774, 
and  here  count  Von  Leiningen  Dacbisburg  ap^ 
pointed  him  his  preacher,  and  gave  him  a 
Ijouse  for  a  seminary  of  education,  designated 
the  Philanthropium,  which  was  opened  in  1777. 
To  obtain  piipiis,  Bahidt  travelled  to  Holland 


and  England ;  but  on  his  return,  finding  a  prose- 
cution had  been  6ommenced  against  ium  at 
Vienna,  he  fled  to  Prussia.  Some  time  after  be 
settled  at  Halle,  where  he  became  an  avowed 
deist,  and  commenced  tavern-keeper,  and  fermer. 
At  Halle  he  instituted  a  new  society  of  free- 
masons, on  account  of  which  he  lay  twelve 
months  in  prison,  but  afterwards  continued  his 
business  as  tf  landlord.    He  died  in  1792. 

Babe  El  Abiad,  or  the  White  River,  a  name 
given  to  tlie  real  Nile,  fiaar  its  first  origin ;  the 
sources  of  which  in  the  African  Alps  of  Kumri 
remain  to  be  explored. 

Ba^e  el  Azeek,  Blue  River,  or  Abyssinian 
Nile,  has  its  chief  spring  in  a  small  hillock, 
situated  in  a  marsh,  and  joins  the  fiahr  el  Abiad, 
or  true  Nile,  about  lat.  16"^  N. 

Babe  el  Accaba,  an  arm  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  Red  Sea,  penetrating  into  Arabia. 

Babe  ll  Sowda,  a  name  said  to  be  given  to 
the  lake  of  Antjoch. 

BAHRY,  a  towb  of  Hindostan,  in  the  do- 
minions of  the  rajah  of  Dhoulpore,  10  miles 
north  of  the  river  Chumbul. 

BAHURIM,  a  city  of  the  Benjamites,  about 
a  mile  or  two  north-east  of  Jerusalem.  Ahiinaz 
and  Jonathan  hid  themselves  in  a  well  in  this 
town,  when  pursued  by  Absalom's  messengers. 

BAJ  A,  or  Baije,  an  ancient  village  of  Cam- 
pania, in  Itidy,  between  the  promontory  of  Mi- 
senum  and  Puteoli,  on  the  Sinus  Baianus ;  h- 
mous  for  its  natural  hot-baths,  which  served  the 
wealthier  Romans  for  the  purposes  of  medicine 
and  pleasure.  The  variety  of  these  baths,  the 
softness  of  its  climate,  and  the  beauty  of  its 
landscape,  captivated  the  minds  of  opulent  no- 
bles, whose  passion  for  bathing  was  unbounded. 
The  wearing  of  linen*  and  the  disuse  of  ointments, 
render  the  practice  less  necessary  in  modem  life; 
but  the  ancients  performed  ik>  exercise,  and  en- 
gaged in  no  study,  without  previous  ablutiona, 
which  at  Rome  required  an  enormous  expense 
in  aqueducts,  staves,  and  atteodauts:  a  place, 
therefore,  where  waters  naturally  heated  to  eveiy 
degree  of  warmth  bubbled  spontaneously  oat  of 
the  ground,  in  the  pleasantest  of  all  situations, 
was  such  a  treasure,  as  could  not  be  overlooked. 
Raise  possessed  these  in  the  highest  perfection ; 
its  easy  communication  with  Rome  was  also  a 
point  of  great  weight  Hither  at  first  retired 
lor  a  temporary  relaxation  the  mighty  rulers  of 
the  world,  to  string  anew  their  nerves  and  revive 
their  spirits,  fatigued  with  bloody  campaigns  and 
civil  contests.  Their  habitations  were  small  and 
modest ;  but  soon  increasing  luxury  added  palace 
to  palace,  till  ground  was  wanting  for  the  vast  de- 
maind;  enterprising  architects,  supported  by  im- 
mense wealth,  now,  therefore,  carried  their  foun- 
dations into  the  sea,  and  drove  that  tslement  back 
from  its  ancient  limits.  It  has  since  taken  ample 
revenge,  and  recovered  mudi  more  than  it  ever 
lost  From  being  a  place  ei  snort  for  a  season, 
Baie  grew  up  to  a  permanent  city :  whoever 
found  himself  disqualified  by  age,  or  infirmity, 
for  sustaining  any  longer  an  active  part  on  the 
political  theatre,  or  from  an  indolent  disposition, 
sought  a  place  where  the  pleasures  of  a  town 
were  comoined  with  the  sweets  of  a  niial  life ; 
whoever  wished  to  withdraw  fiom  the  dangerous 


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neic^boudiood  p£  a  cou^  or  Uie  baaeftil  eye  of 
in&nneis,  flocked  thither,  to  enjoy  life  untainted 
with  fear  and  tioublew  The  affluence  of  wealthy 
inhidi>itanta  rendered  Bsm^  therefore,  as  much  a 
micacile  of  art  as  it  was  before  of  nature :  its 
splendor  may  be  inferred  from  its  innumerable 
ruins,  heaps  of  marbles,  mosaics,  stucco,  and 
other  precious  fragments  of  taste.  It  flourished 
in  full  glory  down  to  the  days  of  Theodoric,  the 
Goth ;  but  the  destruction  of  its  enchanted  pa- 
laces followed  quickly  upon  the  irruption  of  the 
northern  conquerora,  who  sacked  and  burnt  all 
before  them,  and  destroyed  or  dispersed  the 
whole  race  of  Roman  nobility.  Moles  and  butr 
tresses  were  now  torn  asunder  and  washed  away ; 
promontories,  with  the  proud  towers  that  once 
crowned  their  brows,  uadem^ied  and  tumbled 
headlong  into  the  deep,  where,  many  feet  below 
the  sur&ce,  pavements  of  streets,  foundations  of 
houses,  and  masses  of  walls  are  still  to  be  de- 
scried. Internal  commotions  of  the  earth  contri^ 
buted  also  largely  to  this  general  devastation: 
and  mephitic  vapors  and  stagnated  waters  have 
converted  this  avorite  seat  of  health  into  the 
abode  of  pestilence,  at  least  during  the  estival 
heats.  Yet  Bais  in  its  ruined  state,  and  stripped 
of  all  its  ornaments,  presents  many  beautiful  and 
strikii^  subjects  for  the  pencil.  It  lies  in  the 
TeiTa  di  Lavoro,  twelve  miles  west  of  Naples, 
and  two  from  Puzzuolo.  Don  Pedro,  the  vice- 
roy of  Charles  V.  erected  a  castle  on  a  neigh- 
bouring eminence  to  defend  tlie  harbour ;  and 
about  a  century  ago,  another  was  built  on  an 
island  adjacent,  ■  which  commuiiicates  to  the 
shore  by  a  bridge. 

Baja,  Baia,  Bayjah,  or  Begia,  a  town  of 
the  kingdom  of  Tunis  in  Africa,  supposed  to  be 
the  ancient  Vacca  of  Sallust,  and  Oppidum  Vag- 
genese  of  Pliny.  The  Tunisians  say  that  if  there 
was  in  the  kingdom  such  another  town  as  this  for 
plenty  of  com,  it  would  become  as  cheap  as  sand. 
It  has  a  great  annual  &ir,  to  which  the  most  dis- 
tant Arabian  tribes  resort  with  their  families  and 
flocks.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  inhabitanu 
are  very  poor,  and  great  part  of  the  land  about 
the  town  remains  uncultivated.  The  town  stands 
on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  on  the  road  to  Constan- 
tina,  about  ten  leagues  from  the  northern  coast, 
and  thirty-six  souUi*west  of  Tunis.  On  the 
highest  part  is  a  citadel  that  commands  the  place, 
but  }8  of  no  great  strength.  The  waUs  were 
raised  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Vacca,  and 
have  some  ancient  inscriptions. 

Baja,  or  Bay  A,  a  populous  market  town  of 
Hungary,  on  the  Ehmuoe,  thirty-five  miles  north- 
west of  Esseck.  It  has  a  Catholic  and  Greek 
parish  church. 

Bjua,  in  entomology,  a  specie^  of  phalaena, 
(noctua),  of  the  middle  size,  that  inhabits  Europe^ 
It  feeds  on  the  deadly  night  shade. 

Baia  de  Rama,  a  town  of  European  Turkey, 
in  Walachia,  district  of  Mehedinza,  situated  on 
the  river  of  the  same  name. 

BAIABAD,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Na- 
tolia,  twenty-eight  miles  south-east  of  Kastamoni. 

BAIAC,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Nsh 
tolia,  thir^  miles  south-east  of  Kutay^. 

BAJ  AD,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  silurus. 

BAJADOR,  Cape,  a  cape  on  the  west  coast 


of  the  island  of  Luzon,  being  its  eztremity« 
Long.  120''  40'  E.,  lat.  18°  40*  N. 

BAJADOUR,  in  old  records,  a  carrier  or 
porter* 

BAJANA,  in  conchology,  a  species  of  venus 
found  on  the  shores  of  Brasil. 

BAIANUS  Lacus,  a  lake,  or  bay,  mentioned 
by  Tacitus,  which  some  suppose  to  be  the  lake 
Lucripus,  and  others  the  bay  of  Baije. 

.Baianus  Sinus,  or  Baiarum  Poktus,  a  bay 
of  Naples,  so  called  from  Baiae,  which  was  en^ 
laiged  by  Augustus,  by  giving  entrance  to  the 
sea  into  the  Lacus  Lucrinus  and  Avemi.  He 
ordered  it  to  be  called  Portus  Julius  apud  Baias. 
The  modem  name  is  Golfo  di  Pozzuolo.    See 

FOZZUOLO. 

BAJAPOUR,  a^town  of  Baglana,  Uindostan, 
on  the  river  Godavery,  twenty  miles  east  of 
Bahbelgong. 

BAIAS,  or  Bals,  a  tovni  of  Syria,  at  the 
north*east  extremity  of  the  bay  of  Alexandretta, 
supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Issus.  On  the  hills 
fronting  it,  are  the  ruins  of  a  triumphal  arch,  or 
of  some  other  structure  of  gray  marble.  It  is 
sixteen  miles  from  Alexandretta,  and  the  fine 
gardens  round  the  town  supply  Aleppo  with 
oranges  and  lemons.  In  a  small  bay,  to  the 
north  of  the  town,  are  seen  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  port,  which  is  now  much  exposed  to  the 
south-west  winds,  which  are  very  dangerous  here. 
On  the  south  side  there  is  a  mountain  torrent, 
the  bed  of  which  is  conjectured  to  have  been  the 
boundary  between  Syria  and  Cilicia. 

BAJAZET  I.  emperor  of  the  Turks,  succeeded 
Amurath  ).,  A.  D.  1373.  He  was  a  renowned 
warrior,  but  a  tyrant.  In  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  he  was  very  successful.  In  1393  he  had 
conquered  all  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  and 
the  greater  part  of  Mysia  and  Bulgaria ;  and  in 
1396  he  brought  an  army  of  300,000  men  against 
Emanuel  II.  emperor  of  Constantinople,  whom 
he  defeated,  and  slew  20,000  of  the  Christians, 
but  not  without  considerable  loss  on  his  own 
side.  But  in  1397  Tamerlane,  or  Timour  Beg, 
the  celebrated  prince  'of  the  Tartars,  brought  an 
army  against  him  of  400,000  horse  and  600,000 
foot;  and  having  overcome  him  in  a  pitched 
battle,  wherein  200,000  Turks  were  slain,  took 
Bajazet  himself  prisoner,  and  exposed  him,  it  has 
been  said,  in  an  iron  cage,  the  &te  he  had  des- 
tined for  his  adversary,  if  he  had  been  the  victor. 
This  story,  however,  has  been  rejected  as  a  fitble 
by  many  modem  writers.  Mr.  Gibbon  has 
given  the  following  narrative  of  this  memorable 
transaction :  ^  No  sooner  was  Timour  informed  • 
that  the  captiYe  Ottoman  was  at  the  door  of  his 
tent,  than  he  graciously  stepped  forward  to  re- 
ceive him,  seated  him  by  his  side,  and  mingled 
with  just  reproaches  a  soothing  pity  for  his  rank 
and  misfortunes.  ^  Abs  1'  said  the  emperor,  ^  the 
decree  of  fate  is  now  accomplished  by  your  own 
fault:  it  is  the  web  which  you  have  woven;  the 
thorns  of  the  tree  which  yourself  have  planted. 
I  wished  to  spare,  and  even  to  assist,  the  cham- 

Sion  of  Moslems :  you  braved  our  threats,  you 
espised  our  friendship ;  you  forced  us  to  enter 
your  kingdom  with  our  invincible  armies.  Behold 
the  evem.  Had  you  vanquished,  I  am  not  igno- 
rant of  the  fate  which  you  reserved  for  myself 

2C  2 


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BAI 


and  my  troops.  But  I  disdain  to  retaliate :  your 
life  and  honor  are  secured;  and  I  shall  express 
my,gratitude  to  God  by  my  clemency  to  man.' 
The  royal  captive  showed  some  signs  of  repent- 
ance, accepted  the  humiliation  of  a  robe  of  honor, 
and  embraced  with  tears  his  son  Mousa,  who,  at 
his  request,  was  sought  and  found  among  the 
captives  of  the  field.  The  Ottoman  princes  were 
lodged  in  a  splendid  pavilion ;  and  the  respect 
of  the  guards  could  be  surpassed  only  by  their 
vigilance.  On  ^e  arrival  of  the  haram  from 
Boursa,  Timour  restored  the  queen  Despina  and 
daughter  to  their  father  and  husband;  but  he 
piously  required  that  the  Servian  princes  who 
nad  hitherto  been  indulged  in  the  profession  of 
Christianity,  should  embrace  vnthout  delay  the 
religion  of  the  prophet.  In  the  feast  of  victory, 
to  which  Bajazet  was  invited,  the  Mogul  em- 
peror placed  a  crown  on  his  head  and  a  sceptre 
m  his  hand,  with  a  solemn  assurance  of  re- 
storing him  with  an  increase  of  glory  to  the 
throne  of  his  ancestors.  But  the  effect  of  this 
promise  was  disappointed  by  the  sultan's  un- 
timely death :  he  died  of  apoplexy  at  Akshehr, 
the  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  about  nine  months  after 
hb  defeat  TTie  victor  dropped  a  tear  over  his 
grave.  His  body,  with  royal  pomp,  was  conveyed 
to  the  mausoleum  which  he  had  erected  at 
Boursa;  and  his  son  Mousa,  after  receiving  a 
rich  present  of  gold  and  jewels,  of  horses  and 
arms,  was  invested,  by  a  patent  in  red  ink,  with 
the  kingdom  of  Anatolia.  Such  (continues  the 
historian)  is  the  portrait  of  a  generous  conqueror, 
which  has  been  extracted  from  his  own  memo- 
rials, and  dedicated  to  his  son  and  grandson 
nineteen  years  after  his  decease ;  and  at  a  time 
when  the  truth  was  remembered  by  thousands  : 
a  manifest  falsehood  would  have  implied  a  sa- 
tire on  his  real  conduct.  On  the  other  hand,  of 
the  harsh  and  ignominious  treatment  of  Bajazet 
there  is  also  a  variety  of  evidence.  The  Turkish 
annals,  in  particular,  which  have  been  con- 
sulted or  transcribed  by  Leunclavius,  Pococke, 
and  Cantemir,  unanimously  deplore  the  capti- 
vity of  the  iron  cage;  and  some  credit  may  be 
allowed  to  national  historians  who  cannot  stig- 
matise the  Tartar  without  uncovering  the  shame 
of  their  king  and  country.' 

B4JAZET  II.  emperor  of  the  Turks,  the 
youngest  son  of  Mahomet  II.  who  took  Constan- 
tinople^ succeeded  his  fether,  A.  D.  1480.  Like 
him  too  he  was  a  great  conqueror.  In  1484,  he 
laid  waste  Wallachia:  in  1486,  he  subdued  the 
Gets :  in  1491,  he  took  Epidamnum  in  Scla- 
vonia:  in  1493,  he  defeated  the  Christians  in 
Croatia,  in  an  obstinate  and  bloody  battle, 
wherein  he  lost  10,000  of  his  own  troops  :  in 
1498,  he  over-ran  Russia  and  Dalmatia,  with 
70,000  men ;  and,  in  1500,  he  took  Modon,  in 
the  Morea,  from  the  Venetians.  He  died  in 
1612. 

BAICHA,  two  rivers  of  Siberia,  flowing  into 
the  Turuchan,  thirty-two  'and  fifty-six  miles 
north-west  of  Turuchansk. 

BAIDEAH,  a  valley  in  the  great  road  from 
Cairo  to  Suez,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  which 
Suez  stands. 

BAIDHA,  a  town  of  Arabia,  in  the  province 
of  Hedjas,  thirty  miles  north-west  of  Vadilkova, 


BAIDYNATH,  a  small  town  of  Hindosun, 
in  the  Kem^n  hills,  celebrated  for  an  ancient 
temple,  dedicated  to  the'  Hindoo  god  of  medi- 
cine, and  much  firequented  by  pilgrims. 

BAIEU,  in  zoology,  the  name  of  the  cervus 
Mexicanus,  or  Mexican  stag,  in  Bancroft's 
Guiana,  &c. 

BAIGNE,  V.  a.  Bagner,  Fr.  To  drench ;  to 
soak :  a  word  out  of  use. 

The  women  fonlow  not  to  haigne  them,  ualen  thf  j 
plead  their  heelt»  with  a  wone  perfame  than  Jngurth 
fonnd  in  the  dungeon.       Canw^t  Smnep  of  CormnU. 

BAJITH,  a  city  of  Moab,  mentioned  in  Isaiah 
XV.  3.  whither  the  king  went  to  bewail  the  state 
of  his  nation,  and  supplicate  aid  from  his  idols. 

BAIKAL,  a  large  lake  of  Siberia,  lying  be- 
tween 52^  and  55^  lat.  N.  It  is  reckoned  to  he 
650  versts,  or  318  German  miles  in  len^;  but 
only  about  thirty  versts  broad,  and  m'  some 
places  not  above  fifteen.  It  is  environed 
on  all  sides  by  high  mountains.  In  one  part  of 
it,  which  lies  near  the  mouth  of  the  'river  Bar- 
guzin,  it  throws  up  an  inflammable  sulphureous 
liquid  called  naptna,  which  the  people  of  the  ad- 

{'acent  country  oum  in  their  lamps.    There  are 
ikewise  several  sulphureous  spnngs  near  this 
lake.    Its  water  at  a  distance  appears  of  a  sea- 
green  color :  it  i§  fresh ;  and  so  clear  that  objects 
may  be  seen  in  it  several  fathoms  deep.  It  does  not 
begin  to  freeze  till  near  the  end  of  December,  and 
thaws  again  about  the  beginning  of  May ;  from 
which  time  till  September,  a  ship  is  seldo.n 
known  to  be  wrecked  on  it ;  but  by  the  high 
winds     vrhich    then    blow,   many   shipwrecks 
happen.    The  fishery  on  l^e   shores  begin  in 
May ;  and  the  southern  shore  is  divided  into 
districts,  and  farmed  out  by  the  govemmem. 
This  lake  is  called  by  the  Russians  Swxtoie 
More,  or  the  Holy  Lake ;  and  Dalai  Nor  by  tiie 
Tartars.    When  it  is  frozen  over,  people  travel 
upon  it  in  the  road  to  China ;  camels  have  for 
this  purpose  a  particular  kind  of  shoes,  sharp  at 
the  bottom,  and  the  oxen  have  sharp  irons  driven 
through  their  hoo£s,  without  which  it  would  be 
impossible  for  them  to  pass.    The  shores  and 
islands,  consisting  of  granite  rocks,  called  the 
Yablonian  and  Tunkinski  diain,  running  from 
east  to  south-west,  are  well  wooded,  and  form, 
by  their  frequent  projections  into  the  lake,  bays 
and  promontories,  but  with  little  good  ancho- 
rage.   The  high  road  from  Irkutsk  to  Kiackhta, 
passes  alohg  its  southern  shores.  On  die  western 
shore  copper  has  been  found.    Its  depth,  where 
greatest,  is  from  eighty  to  490  fiithoms,  but  in 
some  places  it  is  un&uiomable,  and  so  variable 
that  it  has  been  conjectured  with  great  probabi- 
lity to  have  arisen  from  a  deep  rent  in  the  moun- 
tains, occasioned  by  an  earthquake.    Under  the 
waters  of  this  lake,  grows  a  peculiar  species  of 
sponge,  called  by  the  Russians  morskayn  siiba, 
or  sea-sponge,  the  spongia  baicalensis  of  Pallas. 
It  is  used  for  giving  the  first  polish  to  metab. 
The  common  seal  (phoca  vitulina)  seldom  found 
in  fresh  water,  or  at  a  distance  horn  the  ocean, 
is  taken  here  in  April,  basking  on  the  ice,  and 
the  sale  of  their  skins  is  a  source  of  considerable 
profit.    It  yields  a  sort  of  blubber,  so  rank  that 
even  ravens  will  not  touch  its  carcase ;  yet  its 
oil  is  highly  esteemed  and  purchased  by  the  Chi- 


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ncse.  The  baikalensls,  a  species  of  callionymus 
that  inhabits  the  deep  parts  of  the  lake,  is  about 
nine  inches  long^  soft,  slender,  and  rather  com- 
pressed ;  and  lias  ventral  fins  ;  of  carp,  tench, 
sturgeon,  devil's  lampre]^s,  (salmo  oxyrrynchus),  ^ 
lenki  (salmo  salvelinus),  there  is  abundance; 
the  most  important  fish  13  the  omul,  or 
migratory  salmon,  somewhat  resembling  the 
herring.  They  are  taken  in  October,  and  being 
dried  by  the  firost,  can  be  conveyed  firesh  almost 
,  to  any  distance.  The  climate  around  this  lake 
is  extremely  severe;  in  the  midst  of  summer 
frosty  nights  being  common ;  and  snow,  as  early 
as  August,  felling  on  the  neighbouring  moun- 
tains. The  vegetable  productions  are  princip^ly 
die  pinus  cembra,  empetrum  nigrum,  and  pyrola 
uniflora,  the  silky  knotgrass  (polygonum  seri- 
ceum),  a  beautiful  plant,  and  the  tnticum  lito- 
rale,  which  the  peasants  call  dikaya  koch,  wild 
barley.  Rivers  flowing  into  the  lake  Baikal,  are, 
on  the  north  side,  in  lat.  55®  51'  the  Upper  An- 
gara, on  the  east  the  Barguzin,  in  latitude  54°. 
At  ite  mouth  is  tlie  Cape,  called  the  Holy  Pro- 
montory ;  and  on  the  west,  the  Tunga,  Selenga, 
and  Buguldeika,  the  last  of  which  discharges 
itself  by  three  mouths.  The  only  outlet  is  the 
Lower,  or  Greater,  Angara,  whicd, rushes  from 
the  lake,  in  kt.  50®  54'  N.  and  long.  105®  E.  with 
great  impetuosity,  and  ioins  the  Yenisei  near 
Ust  Tungurskoy^  in  north  lat.  58®.  The  channel 
through  which  it  quits  the  lake  is  more  than  a 
mile  broad. 

BAIKALITE,  in  mineralogy,  a  variety  of  py- 
roxene, found  near  the  lake  Baikal  in  Sibeiia. 
See  Pyroxene. 

BAIKALENSIS.    See  Baikal. 

BAIL',  n.  f .  &  1;.  a.  )      Of  this  word  the  ety- 

Ba  il'able,  adj,  S  mologists  give  many  de- 
rivations; it  seems  to  come  from  the  French 
bailler,  to  put  into  the  hand ;  to  deliver  up,  as  a 
man  delivers  himself  up  in  surety.  *  Bait  is  the 
freeing  or  setting  at  liberty  one  arrested  or  im- 
prisoned upon  action  eimer  civil  or  criminal, 
under  security  taken  for  his  appearance.  There 
iii  both  common  aiid  special  bad ;  common  bail  is 
in  actions  of  small  prejudice,  or  slight  proof, 
called  common,  because  any  sureties  in  that  case 
are  taken;  whereas,  upon  causes  of  greater 
weight,  or  apparent  speciality,  special  bail  or 
surety  must  be  taken.  There  is  a  difference  be- 
tween baU  and  mainprise ;  for  he  that  is  main- 
prised  is  at  large,  until  the  day  of  his  appear- 
ance :  but  where  a  man  is  bailed^  he  is  always 
accounted  by  the  law  to  be  in  their  ward  and 
custody  for  the  time ;  and  they  may,  if  they  will, 
keep  him  in  ward,  or  in  prison  at  diat  time,  or 
otherwise  at  their  will.' — CoweU.  A  bail  is 
tlierefore  a  surety  or  bondsman ;  one  who  gives 
surety  for  another.  Bailable  relates  to  the  less 
atrocious  offences,  where  security  for  the  appear- 
ance of  the  offender  may  be  legally  offered  and 
accepted.  To  give  or  to  admit  to  bail,  is  to  ren- 
der or  to  accept  the  security  which  the  law  pre- 
scribes in  a  baiUible  case.  In  Spenser  the  word 
is  figuratively  used  to  signify  power  or  jurisdic- 
tion. 

So  did  Diana,  and  her  maydent  all, 
t78c  filly  Faunas  now  within  their  baUe,     Speiuer. 


Let  me  be  their  bail, 

They  Bhall  be  ready  at  your  highneti'  will. 

To  answer  these  suspicions. 

Thou  shalt  not  hail  them.  Skaktpeart. 

They  are  not  haHtMe, 
They  stand  committed  without  bail  or  mainprise. 

B.  Jtmton. 
Worry'd  with  debts,  and  past  all  hopes  of  haU, 
The  unpity'd  wretch  lies  rotting  in  a  jail. 

Roicommon, 
And  bribe  with  presents,  or,  when  presents  fail. 
They  send  their  prostituted  wives  for  hail, 

Dryden, 

Bail,  is  originally  derived  from  the  Greek, 
/3<iXX£ty,  to  deliver,  and  so  called  because  by 
means  of  it,  the  party  restrained  is  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  those  that  bind  themselves  for  his 
forthcoming,  in  order  to  a  safe  keeping  or  pro- 
tection from  prison ;  and  the  end  of  the  bail  is  to 
satisfy  the  condemnation  and  costs,  or  render  the 
defendant  to  prison.  The  commitment  of  a  per- 
son being  only  for  s«'»fe  custody,  wherever  oail 
will  answer  the  same,  intention,  it  ought  to  be 
taken ;  as  in  most  of  the  inferior  crimes :  but  in 
felonies,  and  other  offences  of  a  capital  nature, 
no  bail  can  be  a  security  equivalent  to  the  actual 
custody  of  the  person.  For  what  is  there  that  a 
man  may  not  be  induced  to  forfeit,  to  save  his 
own  life  ?  or  what  satisfaction  or  indemnity  is  it 
to  the  public,  to  seize  the  effects  of  him  who 
has  bailed  a  murderer,  if  the  murderer  himself  be 
suffered  to  escape  with  impunity  ?  Upon  a  si- 
milar principle,  the  Athenian  magistrates,  when 
they  took  a  solemn  oath  never  to  keep  a  citizen  in 
bonds  that  could  give  three  sureties  of  the  same 
quality  with  himself,  did  it  with  an  exception  to 
such  as  had  embezzled  the  public  money^  or  had 
been  guilty  of  treasonable  practices. 

Bail  may  be  taken  either  in  court,  or,  in  ^me 
particular  cases,  by  the  sheriff  or  other  magis- 
trate ;  but  most  usually  by  the  justices  of  the 
peace.  To  refuse  or  delay  to  bail  any  person 
bailable,  is  an  offence  against  the  liberty  of  the 
subject,  in  any  magistrate,  by  the  common  law ; 
as  well  as  by  the  statute  Westm.  1.  3  Edward  I, 
c.  15,  and  the  habeas  corpus  act,  31.  Car.  II.  c. 
2.  And,  lest  the  intention  of  the  law  should  be 
frustrated  by  the  justices  requiring  bail  to  a 
greater  amount  than  the  nature  of  the  case  de- 
mands, it  is  expressly  decla^  by  statute  1.  W. 
and  M.  st.  3.  c.  1.  that  excessive  bail  ought  not 
to  be  required ;  though  what  bail  shall  be  called 
excessive,  must  be  left  to  the  courts,  on  consider- 
ing the  circumstances  of  the  case,  to  determine. 
And  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  magistrate  takes  in- 
sufficient bail,  he  is  liable  to  be  fined,  if  the  cri- 
minal does  not  appear. 

In  civil  cases,  every  defendant  is  bailable 
But  it  is  otherwise  in  criminal '  matters.  Regu- 
larly, all  offences  either  against  the  common  law 
or  act  of  parliament,  that  are  below  felony,  tlie 
offender  ought  to  be  admitted  to  bail,  unless  it 
be  prohibited  by  some  special  act  of  parliament. 
By  the  ancient  common  law,  before  and  since  the 
Conquest,  all  felonies  were  bailable,  till  murder 
was  excepted  by  statute ;  so  that  persons  might 
be  then  admitted  to  bail  almost  in  every  case. 
But  the  statute  W.  1.  3  Ed.  I.  c.  15.  takes  away 
the  power  of  bailing  in  treason,  and  in  divers  in- 
stances of  felony.  The  sututes  23  lien.  VI.  c.  a. 


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and  1  &  2  Ph.  &  Mar.  c.  13.  gave  fieuther  regula- 
tioDs  in  this  matter:  and  upon  the  whole  we  may 
coUecty  that  no  justices  of  the  peace  can  bail,  1. 
Upon  an  accusation  of  treason :  nor,  2.  Of  mur- 
der : '  nor,  3.  In  case  of  manslaughter,  if  the  pri- 
soner be  clearly  the  slayer,  and  not  barely  sus- 
pected to  be  so ;  or  if  anv  indictment  be  found 
against  him :  nor,  4.  Such  as,  being  committed 
for  felony,  have  broken  prison ;  because  it  not 
only  carries  a  presumption  of  guilt,  but  is  also 
superadding  one  felony  to  another :  5.  Persons 
outlawed ;  6.  Such  as  have  abjured  the  realm : 
7.  Persons  taken  with  the  mainour,  or  in  the 
act  of  felony:  8.  Persons  charged  widi  arson :  9. 
Excommunicated  persons,  taken  by  writ  de  ex- 
communicato capiendo :  all  which  are  clearly  not 
admissible  to  bail  by  the  justices.  Others  are  of 
a  dubious  nature,  as,  10.  Thieves  openly  de- 
famed and  known:  11.  Persons  charged  with 
other  felonies^  or  manifest  and  enormous  offences, 
not  being  of  good  fame :  and,  12.  Accessaries  to 
felony,  that  labor  under  the  same  want  of  repu- 
tation. These  seem  to  be  in  the  discretion  of  the 
justices*  whether  bailable  or  not.  The  last  class 
are  such  as  must  be  bailed  upon  offering  suffi- 
cient surety;  as,  13.  Persons  of  good  fame, 
chareed  with  a  bare  si^^icion  of  manslaughter, 
or  omer  infamous  homicide ;  14.  Such  persons 
being  charged  with  petit  larceny  or  any  felony, 
not  before  specified:  or,  15.  With  being  acces- 
sary to  any  felony.  Lastly,  it  is  agreed,  that  the 
oourt  of  king's  bench  (or  any  judge  thereof  in 
time  of  vacation)  may  bail  for  any  crime  whatso- 
ever, be  it  treason,  murder,  or  any  other  offence, 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  fhe  case.  And 
herein  tl^  wisdom  of  the  law  is  very  manifest.. 
To  allow  bail  to  be  taken  commonly  for  such 
enormous  crimes,  would  greatly  tend  to  elude 
the  public  justice ;  and  yet  mere  are  cases,  though 
th^  rarely  happen,  in  which  it  would  be  hard 
and  unjust  to  confine  a  man  in  pri^n,  tiiough 
accused  even  of  the  greatest  offence.  The  law 
has  therefore  provided  one  court,  and  only  one, 
which  has  a  discretionary  power  of  bailing  in  any 
case ;  excepting  only  even  to  this  high  jurisdic- 
tion, and  or  course  to  all  inferior  ones,  such  per- 
sons as  are  committed  by  either  house  of  parliar 
ment,  so  long  as  the  session  lasts;  or  such  as  are 
committed  for  contempts  by  any  of  the  king's 
superior  courts  of  justice. 

In  civil  processes,  in  which  an  actual  arrest  and 
imprisonment  is  not  now  allowed,  such  as  suits  for 
the  recovery  of  sums  of  less  amount  than  £l  5,  or  of 
damages,  the  precise  amount  of  which  cannot  be 
shown  before  the  jury  shall  have  estimated  tliem 
(as  in  actions  of  trespass,  or  for  any  injuries, 
either  personal  or  pecuniary,  but  to  an  unascer- 
tained amount),  no  arrest  can  be  made,  and, 
consequently,  no  bail  need  be  demanded.  But 
inasmuch  as  the  writ,  which  now  forms  the  com- 
mencement of  all  civil  actions,  was  formerly  a 
process  issued  against  a  defendant,  who  had  neg- 
lected to  comply  with  certain  anterior  summonses, 
and  who  was  thereby  liable  to  imprisonment,  in  or- 
der to  secure  his  appearance  in  court  on  the  day 
whereon  the  sheriff  was  to  make  his  return  of  the 
writ,  as  having  by  his  previous  contempt  of  le- 
gal authority,  shown  himself  not  to  be  trusted  at 
large ;  it  was  a  consequence  that  he  coUld  not 


avoid  imprisonment,  but  by  giving  bail.  And, 
as  by  the  tenor  of  the  writ,  and  by  fiction  of 
law,  a  defendant  in  all  cases  is  now  held  to  be 
in  the  same  circumstances,  it  is  necessuy  that  he 
should  put  in  common  bail :  which  is  a  mere 
formal  entering  of  the  names  of  two  fictitioas 
persons,  John  Doe  and  Richard  Roe,  as  his 
sureties. 

In  actions  for  a  sum  certain,  if  t!he  plaintiff 
make  affidavit  that  that  sum  is  fifteen  pounds; 
or  upwards,  the  defendant  must  give  what,  tech- 
nically, in  distinction  from  the  fictitious  bail  of 
which  we  have  just  spoken,  is  called  special  bail : 
that  is,  in  order  to  avoid  imprisonment,  he  must 
find  two  real  and  responsible  persons  to  be 
sureties  for  him.  As  soon  as  an  arrest  has  been 
effected,  these  sureties  give  a  bond  to  the  sheriff, 
for  the  defendant's  appearance  on  the  day  of  the 
return  of  the  writ,  and  this  is  called  bail  to  the 
sheriff,  or  bail  below.  On  that  day,  or  within 
four,  or  in  some  cases,  six  or  ei^t  days  after, 
they  enter  into  recognizances,  that  if  judgitnent  be 
given  against  the  defendant,  he  shall  pay  the  da- 
mages and  costs,  or  surrender  his  person.  This 
is  called  giving  bail  above,  or  bail  to  the  action. 
If  the  plaintiff  requires  it,  they  must  justify,  as  it 
is  termed,  or  peHetft  the  bail ;  that  is,  they  must 
swear  (if  in  London  or  Middlesex,  before  a 
judge ;  or,  in  the  country,  before  commissioners 
appointed  for  that  purpose),  that  they  have  the 
requisite  qualifications:  which  are,  the  beins 
housekeepers,  and  worth,  each  of  them,  the  full 
sum  for  which  they  become  bail,  after  payment 
of  all  their  debts.  Thus  securing  the  plaintiff 
the  person  or  property  of  his  defendant,  if  the 
latter  is  insilfficient  to  discharge  the  claim,  the 
bail  are  entitled  to  apprehend  him  by  wanaot, 
or  in  any  other  way,  to  surrender  his  person. 

When  a  defendant  has  failed  to  put  in  bail 
above,  and  the  sheriff  is  unable  to  produce  his 
body,  that  officer  is  answerable  to  the  plaintiff 
for  the  sum  for  which,  the  bail  below  was  given : 
and  he  has  his  own  remedy  against  the  bsul,  by 
action  upon  their  bond.  But,  as  a  simpler  plan, 
the  sheriff  usually  assigns  the  bond  to  the  plaiD- 
tiff,  and  he  proceeds  upon  it.  It  is,  however, 
optional  with  the  plaintiff  to  accept  or  refiisetbe 
assignment. 

BAiL-BoND,an  obligation  entered  into  by  one 
or  more  sureties,  upon  giving  bail,  insuring  the 
defendant's  appearance  at  the  time  appointed  by 
the  court. 

BAJLEMENT.    See  Bailment. 

BAILEY  (Nathan),  an  English  lexicographer, 
who  kept  a  school  at  Stepney,  where  he  died 
June  27,  1742.  He  published  Dictionarum 
Domesticum,  or  a  Household  Dictionary,  8vo ; 
The  Antiauities  of  London  and  Westminster, 
12mo;  ana  several  school  books :  but  his  princi- 
pal work  was  an  Etymological  English  Dictionary, 
which  first  appeared  in  octavo,  and  being  enlarged 
into  a  folio,  volume  became  the  basis  of  Vr, 
Johnson's  dictionary. 

BAILIE,  in  Scots  law,  a  judge  anciently  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  over  such  lands,  not  erected 
into  a  regality,  as  happened  to  fidl  to  the  aown 
by  forfeiture  or  otherwise :  now  abolished.  It  i» 
still  the  title  of  one  or  more  magistrates  in  royal 
boroughs,  and  of  the  judge  appointed  by  a  baroo 


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orer  lands  erected  into  a  barony.  There  are  torn 
bailies  in  the  town  eouncH  of  Edinbargh,  three  in 
those  of  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Perth,  &c.  See  Law. 

BAI'LIFF,  ».  t.  -J     Borrowed  from  the  Fr. 

Baii'iwick,  n.  «.  ybaUlie.    In  oar  'old  voca- 

Baily,  II. «.  y  bularies  written  baily,  and 
so  a  steward  is  still  called  in  many  places. 
Bailiff  is  the  person  who  sustains  die  ofB^^e; 
bailiwick  is  the  place  of  his  jnrisdictid)) ;  and 
baily  is  the  office  or  jurisdiction  itself. 

fivery  beggarly  corpomtioii  afibrds  the  state  a 
mayor  or  two  baUijIfk  yearly.  B.  Jontom. 

Bailiff,  Ballivus,  from  (he  French  word 
bailll  or  bailiff,  that  b,  praefectus  proTincia :  and 
as  the  nan^e,  so  the  office  itself  was  answerable 
to  that  of  France,  before  the  rerohition ;  where 
there  were  eight  parliaments,  which  were  high 
courts,  from  whence  there  l^iy  no  appeal ;  and 
within  the  precincts  of  the  several  parts  of  that 
kingdom,  which  belonged  to  each  parliament, 
there  were  several  provinces  to  which  justice  was 
administered  by  certain  officers  called  bailiffii.— 
In  England  there  are  several  counties  in  which 
justice  has  been  administered  to  the  inhabitants, 
by  the  officer  now  called  sheriff  or  viscount  (one 
of  which  names  descended  from  the  Saxons,  the 
other  ttom  the  Normans) ;  and  though  the  sheriff 
is  not  called  bailiff,  yet  it  is  probable  that  was 
one  of  his  titles,  because  the  county  is  often  called 
bolliva:  And  in  Masna  Charta,  cap.  28.  and 
1 4  Ed.  3.  c.  9.  the  word  bailiff  seems  to  comprise 
both  sheriffs  and  bailifi^  of  hundreds.  As  the 
realm  is  divided  into  counties,  so  every  county 
is  divided  into  hundreds ;  within  which,  hi  an- 
cient times,  the  people  had  justice  admmistered 
to  them  by  the  officers  of  every  hundred.  But 
now  the  hundred  courts,  except  certain  franchises, 
are  swallowed  in  the  county  courts ;  and  the  bai- 
liff's name  and  office  is  grown  into  contempt, 
they  being  generally  officers  to  serve  writs,  &c. 
within  their  liberties.  In  other  respects,  however, 
the  title  is  still  in  esteem :  for  the  chief  magis- 
trates in  divers  towns  are  called  bailiffs,  or  bai- 
lies ;  and  sometimes  the  persons,  to  whom  the 
king's  castles  are  committed,  are  termed  bailiffs, 
as  the  bailiff  of  Dover  Castle,  &c.  Of  the  ordi- 
nary bailifls  there  are  several  sorts. 

Bailiffs  Errant,  or  Bailiffs  Itinerant, 
are  those  whom  the  sheriff  appoints  to  go  up  and 
down  the  country  to  serve  writs  and  warrants, 
to  summon  coun^  courts,  sessions,  assizes,  &c. 
The  sheriff  being  answerable  for  the  misdemeanor 
of  these  bailiffs,  they  are  usually  bound  In  an 
obligation  for  the  due  execution  of  their  office, 
and  thence  called  bound  bailiffs,  which  is  vul- 
garly corrupted  into  a  mtich  inote  homely  appel- 
lation. 

Bailiffs  op  Borouchs,  were  magistrates  an- 
ciently in  cities  and  towns,  answering,  in  sOme 
measure,  to  what,  in  later  times  were  called 
portgrave,  mayor,  &c.  Canterbury  was  a  bailiff 
town  500  years  before  it  was  made  a  mayor  town. 
Westminster,  Southwark,  Scarborough,  &c.  are 
still  governed  by  bailiffs.  ^ 

Bailiffs  of  Forests  and  Manobs,  direct 
husbandry,  fell  trees,  gather  rents,  pay  quit- 
mnts,  &c. 

Bailiffs  of  France,  under  (he  monarchy, 
were  appointed  over  the  province  originally  be- 
longing to  the  crown. 


Bailiffs  of  Franchises,  or  Bailiffs  op 
Liberties,  in  England,  are  those  bailiffs  who 
are  appointed  by  every  lord  within  his  liberW, 
to  execute  process  and  do  such  offices  therem 
as  the  bailiff  errant  doth  at  large  in  the  county. 

Bailiffs  op  the  Empire,  we/e  anciently 
vicars  or  regents  of  the  empire ;  as  appears  from 
a  letter  of  Henry  of  Flanaers  to  pope  Innocent 
III.  wherein  he  says,  the  princes,  barons,  and 
knights  have  elected  me  balUvum  imprii. 

Bailiffs,  Provincial,  among  tne  French, 
tinder  the  old  despotism,  were  officers  appointed 
iii  certain  provinces  or  counties,  with  an  autho- 
rity somewhat  like  that  of  justices  of  assize,  in- 
stituted by  the  dukes  and  counts  in  their  several 
territories,  after  they  had  procured  the  inherit- 
ance of  them.  These  actea  in  the  name,  and  by 
the  authority,  not  of  the  king  as  justiciaries,  but 
of  the  dukes  or  counts  who  appointed  them,  and 
whose  deputies  they  were. 

Bailiffs,  Royal,  in  France,  were  appointed 
by  the  king  over  provinces  annexed  to  the 
crown. 

Bailiffs,  Sheriff's,  in  England,  or  sheriff's 
officers,  are  either;  1.  bailiffs  of  hundreds,  or 
2.  special  bailiffs,  and  appointed  over  their  res- 
pective districts,  to  collect  fines;  summon  juries; 
attend  the  judgi^  and  justices  at  the  assizes  and 
quarter  sessions ;  and  to  execute  writs  and  pro* 
cesses  in  the  several  hundreds. 

Bailiffs,  Water,  officers  appointed  in  all 
port-towns,  for  the  searohing  of  ships,  gathering 
the  toll  for  anchorage,  &c.  and  arresting  persons 
foi"  debt,  See.  on  the  water. 

BAILII  (David),  painter  of  perspective  views 
and  portraits,  the  son  of  Peter  Bailii,  an  artist 
of  some  note,  was  bom  at  Leyden  in  1584. 
Having  acquired  the  rudiments  of  the  art  under 
his  father,  he  improved  under  Verburg,  and  still . 
more  under  Vandervoort,  with  whom  he  spent 
above  six  years.  While  with  him,  he  copied  a 
perspective  view  of  the  inside  of  a  church,  by 
Stenwyck,  wiA  such  accuracy,  that  even  Sten- 
wyck  himself  could  sciarcely  determine  which  was 
the  original.  He  travelled  through  several  parts 
of  Italy  to  see  the  works  of  masters,  and  for  a  few 
years  resided  at  Rome.  The  correctness  of  his 
drawing,  and  the  delicate  finishing  of  his  pic- 
tures, have  been  much  admired.  He  died  in  1638. 
BAILIWIC,  Bailywick,  or  Bayliwick, 
balliva,  in  law,  the  jurisdiction  of  a  bailiff  over 
that  liberty  which  is  exempted  from  the  sheriff  of 
the  county.  Stat.  2rth  Eliz.,  ch.  12.  Wood's 
Just.  206. 

BAILLET  (Adrian),  a  very  learned  French 
writer  and  critic,  bom  in  1649,  at  Neuville  near 
Beauvais.  His  parents  being  poor,  he  obtained  his 
education  by  favor  of  the  bishop  of  Beauvais 
who  aflerwards  presented  him  with  a  small  vica- 
rage. In  1680  he  was  appointed  librarian  to  M. 
de  Lamoignbn,  advocate  general  to  the  parlia- 
ment of  Paris,  of  wliose  library  he  made  a  copi- 
ous index,  in  tlnrty-flve  volumes  folio.  He  died 
in  1706.  His  principal  works  are,  A  History  of 
Holland,  from  1609,  to  the  peace  of  Nimiguen 
in  1679,  4  vols.  12mo.  lives  of  the  Saints, 
3  vols,  folio,  which  he  professed  to  have  purged 
from  febles.  Jugemens  des  Savans,  9  vols.  12mo. 
and  the  life  of  Des  Cartes,  2  vols.  4to.  which  he 
also  abridged  to  1  vol.  12mo. 


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BAILLEUL,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  North,  formerly  very  strong.  It  has 
been  several  times  burnt  by  accident.  It  lies 
nine  miles  S.W.  of  Yprei. 

BAILLIAGE,  the  office  of  a  baiiiff,  or  the 
place  where  he  keeps  his  seat,  and  the  territory 
subject  to  his  jurisdiction;  which  last  is  also  de- 
nominated Bailiwic. 

Bailliage,  Water,  an  ancient  du^  received 
by  the  city  of  London,  upon  all  goods  and  mer- 
chandises  brought  in  or  carried  out  of  port 

BAILLIE  (Robert),  M.  A.  a  presbyterian 
divine  of  Scotland,  was  bom  at  Glasgow  in  1599, 
and  studied  at  that  city ;  having  received  orders 
from  Abp.  Law,  in  1622  he  was  chosen  regent 
of  philosophy  at  Glasgow,  and  some  time  after 
was  presented  to  the  church  of  Kilwinning,  by 
the  earl  of  Eglinton.  In  1033,  he  declined  the 
offer  of  a  church  at  Edinburgh,  b&t  in  1638  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  femous  assembly  at 
Glasgow,  which  was  a  prelude  to  the  civil  war, 
and  was  a  member  of  all  the  succeeding  assem- 
blies, excepting  those  which  sat  while  he  was 
at  Westminster.  In  1640  he  was  sent  to  London 
by  the  Covenanting  Lbrds,  to  draw  up  an  accu- 
sation against  Apb.  Laud.  In  1642  he  was 
appointed  joint  professor  of  Divinity  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Glasgow,  with  Mr.  Dickson ;  which  he 
preferred  to  similar  offers  from  the  oilier  three 
universities.  In  1643  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners to  the  celebrated  assembly  of  Divines 
at  Westminster,  and  returned  in  1646.  When 
after  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  his  son  was  pro- 
claimed in  Scotland,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
assembly  to  ^ait  on  Charles^!,  at  the  Hague, 
and  after  the  restoration  was  made  principal  of 
the  university  of  Glasgow.  He  died  in  1662, 
aged  sixty-three. 

Baillie  (Matthew),  M.  D.  a  celebrated  anar 
tomist.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  James 
Baillie,  professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow,  by  the 
sister  of  Dr.  William  Hunter.  He  studied  at 
Glasgow  and  Bahol  College,  Oxford,  and  after- 
wards became  the  pupil  of  his  uncle.  Being 
made  physician  to  St.  George's  hospital,  he  suc- 
ceeded Dr.  Hunter  as  lecturer  on  anatomy,  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  Cruickshank.  He  conti- 
nued a  public  lecturer  till  1799.  Dr.  Baillie 
was  one  of  the  physicians  in  ordinary  to  Geo.  III. 
and  Geo.  IV.  and  long  stood  in  me  first  rank 
among  his  medical  contemporaries.  He  published 
The  Morbid  Anatomy  of  the  most  important  parts 
of  the  Human  Body,  8vo.  1793,  sul^sequently 
enlarged  and  improved ;  a  Series  of  Engravings 
tending  to  illustrate  Morbid  Anatomy;  also  a 
Description  of  Gravid  Uterus;  and  contributed 
many  important  papers  to  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  and  medical  collections  of  his  day. 
Dr.  Baillie  formed  a  valuable  museum  of  anato- 
mical specimens  which  he  presented  to  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians.  He  died  in  1823,  in  the 
sixty-third  year  of  hii  age ;  leaving  by  his  wife, 
daughter  of  Dr.  Denman,  a  son  and  a  daughter. 

BAILLIEBOROUGH,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in 
the  county  of  Cavan,  forty-three  miles  firom « 
Dublin, 

BAILLCKNE,  in  heraldry,  a  charge  in  coats 
of  arms,  representing  a  lion  rampant,  holding 
4  Staff  in  his  mouth. 


BAILLT  (Jolm  Sj^vian),  acelebiated  philoso- 
pher and  astronomer,  bom  at  Paris  in  1763  His 
ramily  had  been  respectable  ais  painters  for  several 
generations,  and  he  had  commenced  his  studies 
in  the  same  profession  ;  but  he  was  too  much 
bent  on  the  pursuit  of  literature,  to  apply  himself 
successfully.  His  early  acquaintance  with  Ia 
Caille  the  celebrated  geometrican,  determined  the 
science  ^hich  was  in  fiiture  to  engross  his  atten- 
tion. The  calculation  of  the  comet  which  ap- 
peared in  1759,  was  his  first  labor.  In  1763 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences; 
and  in  the  course  of  the  same  year,  published  a 
reduction  of  La  Caille's  observations  bn  the 
zodiacal  stars  in  1760  and  1761.  He  was  next 
employed  m  considering  the  theory  of  Jupitei^s 
satellites ;  and  in  1766  published  the  results  of 
his  investigation,  with  the  history  of  that  part  of 
astronomy.  In  1771  he  gave  the  worid  a  very 
valuable  memoir  on  the  light  of  the  satellites, 
marking  their  eclipses  in  a  very  precise  and  accu- 
rate manner.'  The  genius  of  Bailly  was  not 
confined  to  abstract  science,  or  profound  physical 
speculations ;  it  was  equally  orilliaut  m  those 
departments  of  literature  where  the  nicest  dis- 
crimination of  character  and  the  most  powerfiil 
eloquence  is  requisite.  His  eulogies  upon 
Charles  V.  Comeille,  Leibnitz,  Moliere,  Cook,  La 
Caille,  and  Gresset,  raised  universal  admiration. 
In  1775,  he  published  at  Paris  the  first  volume 
of  the  History  of  Ancient  Astronomy ;  and  in 
1 778  the  second.  TheHistory  of  Ancient  Astro- 
nomy, firom  tlie  foundation  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  to  the  present  age,  followed  in  1779. 
He  next  published  Letters  on.  the  origin  of  the 
Sciences,  and  of  the  people  of  Asia ;  to  which 
he  added  a  series  of  Letters  on  the  Atlantis. of 
Plato  and  the  ancient  History  of  Asia;  which  he 
addressed  to  Voltaire.  He  was  also  very  inti- 
mate with  Buffon,  till  he  opposed  the  election  of 
the  Abb^  Maury  into  the  French  academy ;  to 
which  Bailly  had  been  chosen  secretary  in  1784. 
This  year  he  was  named  one  of  the  conmiission 
to  investigate  the  nature  of  the  animal  magnetism 
of  Mesmer,  practised  by  Deslon.  His  report, 
which  was  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  has  been  since  translated  into  En^b,  con- 
tains the  most  satis&ctory  and  decisive  evidence 
upon  the  subject.  It  is  highly  valuable  in 
developing  the  physical  efiects  produced  by 
moral  causes.  In  1785  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres; 
and  thus  was  at  the  same  time  a  member  of  all 
the  three  academies  of  Paris,  which  none  had 
been  since  Fontenelle.  We  must  now  leave  the 
peaceable  haunts  of  philosophy,  and  follow 
Bailly  to  the  revolutionary  stage,  on  which  he 
acted  a  principal  part  Here,  though  we  behold 
him  struggling  with  opposite  interests  in  the 
midst  of  a  lawless  mob ;  zealous  for  freedom, 
and  contending  in  its  cause  with  enthusiasm,  we 
hear  not^a  charge  of  selfish  motives,  or  want  of 
integrity,  brou^t  against  him  by  any  party ;  yet 
he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  that  violence  which  nothing 
could  control.  In  1789  he  was  appointed  de- 
puty to  the  Tiers  Etat,  and  was  soon  after 
elected  president ;  a  station  which  be  held  when 
the  national  asseiiibly  was  constituted,  and  when 
the  king  issued  his  proclamation  for  dispersiqg 


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them.  In  the  contest  between  the  popular 
assemblies  and  the  court,  Bailly  was  zealous  to 
maintain  the  rights  of  the  people ;  and  the  &- 
mous  oath  to  the  members  of  the  Tieis  Etat, 
to  resist  tyrants  and  tyranny,  and  never  to  se- 
parate till  they  should  obtain  a  free  constitu- 
tion, was  dictated  by  him.  Next  day,  the  14th 
of  July,  memorable  for  the  taking  of  the  Bastile, 
he  was  chosen  mayor  of  Paris ;  and  thou^  in 
this  high  office  he  greatly  promoted  the  different 
measures  by  which  the  popular  party  became 
yictorious  over  the  court,  yet  he  is  allowed  to 
have  dischar^  the  arduous  duties  of  it,  at  this 
trying  juncture,  with  integrity,  moderation,  and 
firmness.  The  public  mind  was  now,  however, 
become  like  the  ocean  in  a  tempest :  a  people 
ever  fond  of  novelty,  free  from  the  fetters  of  des- 
potism, with  enthusiastic  and  erroneous  ideas  of 
liberty,  were  every  day  more  eager  for  a  change, 
and  could  suffer  no  restraint.  The  disposition 
of  the  people  to  anarchy  vras  evident,  ana  Bailly, 
still  anxious  that  the  laws  should  be  .respected, 
imagined  that,  by  the  vigorous  execution  of 
thein,  tranquillity  might  be  maintained.  Depu- 
ties from  the  military  insurgents  at  Nancy  were 
arrested  by  his  oraers,  and  he  firmly  opposed 
Marat  and  Hubert  in  their  proceedings.  He 
entered  into  a  society  more  select  than  that  of 
the  Jacobins'  club;  and  used  every  argument 
that  the  king  and  the  royal  family  might  be  al- 
lowed to  go  to  St.  Cloud.  Thus  he  lost  the 
confidence  of  the  people ; .  and  being  called  by 
the  national  assembly  to  dismiss  the  tumultuous 
meeting,  demanding  the  abolition  of  monarchy, 
on  the  17th  July,  1791,  he  ordered  the  soldiers 
to  fire,  which  rendered  him  completely  obnoxious 
to  Ihem.  In  the  end  of  the  same  year,  when  the 
constituent  assembly  was  dissolved,  he  therefore 
resigned  his  office,  and  retired  to  his  philosophical 
studies.  Yet  a  bloody  proscription  reached  him ; 
as  an  enemy  to  tlie  republic  he  was  seized,  impri- 
soned,arraigned  before  a  savage  tribunal,  sunmia- 
rily  condemned,  and  executed  in  the  fifty-seventh 
year  of  his  age.  He  bore  his  sufferings  with 
irreat  magnanimity,  though  they  were  purposely 
1  jngthen^  out.  To  mark  him  as  a  conspirator, 
he  was  dressed  in  a  red  shirt,  placed  in  a  cart, 
\vith  his  hands  tied  behind  his  back ;  and  though 
the  rain  poured  incessantly  on  his  head,  the  mob 
threw  mud  at  him  while  he  passed  to  the  place 
of  execution,  and  insulted  hun  in  the  cruellest 
manner.  As  he  ascended  the  platform,  a  person 
near  him  cried  out  in  a  sneering^manner,  'Bailly 
you  tremble.'  'Yes  (answered he) but  not  with 
fear.'  His  person  was  tall,  his  countenance  se- 
date, but  striking.  Scarcely  any  philosopher  has 
appeared  more  eminent  in  the  different  branches 
of  science  and  literature.  While  he  filled  the 
magisterial  office,  he  gave  away  no  inconsiderable 
part  of  his  fortune  to  relieve  the  necessities  of 
the  poor.  He  left  a  wife  whom  he  had  married 
in  1787. 

BAIL'MENT,  n.t.  The  delivery  of  goods; 
or  their  consignment  from  one  person  to  another, 
for  the  benefit  of  a  third  party.  Sometimes  also 
to  be  delivered  back  to  the  baibrj  that  is  to  him 
that  so  delivered  them :,  sometimes  to  the  use  of 
the  baileef  that  is  of  him  to  whom  they  are  de- 
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Bailmeiit,  in  law,  is  a  delivery  of  goods  in 
trust,  upon  a  contract,  expressed  or  implied,  that 
the  trust  shall  be  fiuthfully  executed  on  the  part 
of  the  bailee.  Thus  if  cloth  be  deliyered,  or  (in 
our  legal  dialect),  bailed  to  a  taylor  to  make  a 
suit  of  clothes,  he  has  it  upon  an  implied  contract 
to  render  it  again,  when  made,  and  that  in  a 
workmanly  manner.  If  money  or  goods  be 
delivered  to  a  carrier,  to  convey  from  Oxford  to 
London,  or  from  Glasgow  to  Edinburgh,  &c.  he 
is  under  a  contract  in  law  to  pay,  or  carry  them 
to  the  person  appointed.  It  a  horse  or  other 
goods  be  delivered  to  an  inn-keeper  or  his  ser- 
yants,  he  is  bound  to  keep  them  safely,  and 
restore  them  when  his  guest  leaves  the  house. 
If  a  man  takes  in  a  horse,  or  other  cattle,  to 
graze  and  pasture  in  his  grounds,  which  the  law 
calls  agistment,  he  takes  them  upon  an  implied 
contract  to  return  them  on  demand  to  the  owner. 
If  a  pawnbroker  receiyes  plate  or  jewels,  as  a 
pledge  or  security  for  the  repayment  of  money 
lent  thereon,  at  a  certain  day,  he  has  them  upon 
an  express  condition  to  restore  them,  if  the 
pledger  performs  his  part,  by  redeeming  them  in 
due  time ;  for  the  due  execution  of  which  contract* 
many  useful  regulations  are  made  by  statute  30 
Geo.  II.  ch.  24.  If  a  landlord  distrains  goods  fi>r 
rent,  or  a  parish  officer  for  taxes,  these  for  a  time 
are  only  a  pledge  in  the  hands  of  the  distrainers ; 
and  they  are  bound  by  an  implied  contract  in 
law  to  restore  them  on  payment  of  the  debt,  duty  ^ 
and  expenses,  before  the  time  of  sale,  or  when 
sold,  to  render  back  the  overplus,  &c.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones,  in  his  learned  veork  on  the  law  of 
bailments,  distinguishes  five  species  of  this  con- 
tract. 1.  Depositum,  or  deposit,  which  b  a  bail- 
ment of  goods  to  be  kept  for  the  bailor  without 
reward.  2.  Mandatum,  or  commission;  a  bail- 
ment of  goods  to  be  carried  from  place  to  pkce, 
or  to  haye  some  act  performed  about  them,  with- 
out reward.  3.  Commodatum,  or  loan  for  use  ; 
a  bailment  of  a  thing  for  a  certain  time,  to  be 
used  by  the  borrower  vrithout  pa^g  for  it  4. 
Pignori  acceptum,  or  pavni;  a  bailment  of  goods 
by  a  debtor  to  a  creditor,  in  pledge  as  a  security 
for  the  debt  5.  Locatum,  or  letting  to  hire;  of 
which  there  are  three  subdivisions  distinct  enou^ 
to  demand  enumeration.  (1.)  Locatio  rei,  or  btul- 
ment  of  a  thing,  to  be  used  b^  the  hirer  for  a 
reward.  (2.)  Locatio  operis  fiiciendi,  or  letting 
out  of  work  and  labor  to  be  done,  or  care  and 
attention  to  be  bestowed,  by  the  bailee,  on  the 
goods  bailed  for  a  reward.  (3.)  Locatio  operis 
mercium  vehendarum,  or  letting  of  care  and  pains 
in  carrying  the  things  bailed  from  place  to  place 
for  a  rewwl. 

If  a  bailee  refuse  to  return  the  things  bailed 
upon  a  lawful  demand,  he  becomes  answerable 
for  even  the  slightest  ne^l^t.  If  a  guest  be 
robbed  by  the  servants  or  inmates  of  an  inn,  the 
inkeeper  b  responsible.  And,  if  goods  bailed  to 
a  common  carrier  be  lost  by  any  means,  except 
by  the  act  of  God,  or  of  the  kings  enemies,  the  car-^ 
ner  b  bound  to  idemnify  the  owner. 

BAILO,  6r  Balio,  a  title  formerly  given  at 
Constantinople,  to  the  ambassador  of  Venice 
residing  at  tne  Porte.  The  Venetian  consuls  at 
Aleppo,  Alexandria,  Smyrna,  and  other  parts  of 
the  Levant,  are  also  denominated  bailo. 


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BAILOQUE,  in  oommerce,  or  BALtootm,  a 
French  name  for  the  ostrich  feathers  that  are  used 
as  ornaments  mthotit  dyeing. 

BAILr-PI£C£|  the  parchment  containing  the 
recognisance  entered  into  by  those  who  give  bail 
for  the  appearance  of  another. 

BAI1£,  in  sea-language,  the  hoops  that  bear 
up  the  tilt  of  the  boat. 

Bails,  Clerk  op  thx,  is  an  officer  betotiging 
to  the  court  of  Ring's  Bench :  he  files  the  bail- 
pieces  taken  in  that  court,  and  attends  for  that 
purpose. 

BAILYBOROUGH,  a  marVet  town  of  Cavan, 
Ireland,  twenty-five  miles  from  Dublin.  Between 
this  plac«  and  King's  Court,  is  a  pool  on  the  sum- 
mit of  a  mountain,  much  frequented  for  its  anti- 
scorbutic virtues.  Many  bathe  in  the  lake,  and 
even  rub  the  affected  parts  with  the  mud,  which 
is  of  a  greasy  substance  tike  tar.  It  has  not  been 
known  to  be  frozen  even  in  the  severest  winter. 

BAIMALPOUR,  a  town  of  Bejapour,  Hin- 
dostan,  fourteen  miles  east  of  Satarali. 

BAIN,  a  town  of  Btittany,  in  France,  with 
3450  mhabitants,  and  woollen  manu&ctures;  the 
head  of  a  canton  in  the  department  of  the  Hie 
Vilaibe,  arrondissement  of  Redon,  sixteen  miles 
south  of  Rennes,  and  twenty-four  soUth-west  of 
Vitre. 

BAINA,  a  market  town  of  Hungary,  in  the 
county  of  Oran.  It  was  formerly  a  considerable 
place. 

BAINBRIDGE,  a  township  of  England,  in 
the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  distant  two 
miles  from  Askrigg,  near  the  Ure,  conjectured 
to  have  been  a  Roman  station. 

Bainbridge,  Pobt,  an  inlet  on  the  west  coast 
of  North  America,  extending  about  twenty  miles 
northwaid.  Long,  of  its  west  point,  212°  9^'  E. 
lat.  59°  55'  N. 

Bain  BRIDGE  (Dr.  John),  an  eminent  physieian 
and  astronomer,  bom  at  Ashby-de-la-^ouch,  in 
1583.  He  taught  a  grammar  school  for  some 
years,  and  practised  physic,  employing  his  leisure 
hours  in  astronomy.  At  length  he  removed  to 
London,  was  admitted  a  fellow  of  the  college  of 
physicians,  and  raised  his  character  by  his 
description  of  the  comet  in  1618.  The  next 
year  Sir  Henry  Saville  appointed  him  professor 
•f  astronomy  at  Oxford ;  and  th6  meters  and 
fellows  of  Merton  college  made  him  first  junior, 
and  then  superior  reader  of  Linacre's  lecture. 
He  died  in  1643,  leaving  valuable  MSS.  pre- 
served in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

BAIOCCO,  a  copper  coin  current  at  Rome, 
equivalent  to  a  tenth  part  of  the  julio,  or  a  hun- 
dredth part  of  the  ducat.  It  is  worth  about  nine 
deniers,  French  money. 

BAIRAM ,  or  Beiram,  a  Turkish  word  which 
signifies  a  solemn  feast.  The  Mahommedans  have 
two  Bairams,  the  great  and  the  littl6. 

Bairah,  the  Great,  is  properly  that  held 
by  the  pilgrims  at  Mecca,  commencing  on  the 
tenth  ot  Dim  Ihajie,  when  tlie  victims  are  slain, 
and  lasting  three  days.  This  is  called  by  the 
Arabs,  Id  al  adfaa,  that  is,  the  feast  of  sacrifice, 
as  being  celebrated  in  memory  of  the  satrrfice  of 
Abrahate,  whose  son,  God  redeemed  with  a  great 
victim.  By  European  writers  it  is  called  the 
Lesser  Bairam,  as  ORtng  less  taken  notiee  of  by 


the  generality  of  the  people,  who  are  not  s6iick 
with  it,  because  the  ceremohies  with  which  it  is 
observed  are  performed  at  Mecca,  the  only  scene 
of  the  solemnity.  On  this  feast,  after  tfarowitic 
httle  stones,  one  after  another,  into  the  valley  oi 
Mina,  they  usually  kill  one  or  more  sheep,  some 
a  goat,  buHock,  or  even  a  camel ;  and  after  giting 
a  part  thereof  to  the  poor,  eat  the  rest  with  their 
firiends.  After  this,  tney  shave  themselves.  The 
second  day  is  a  day  of  rest.  On  the  third,'  they 
set  out  on  their  return  home. 

Bakram,  the  Little,  is  properly  that  held 
at  the  close  of  the  fast  Ramazan,  beginning  with 
the  first  fiill  moon  in  the  following  iponth  Sha- 
wal.  This  is  called,  in  Arabic,  Idal  Fetz,  or  the 
Feast  of  breaking  the  Fast;  by  European  writers, 
the  Turkish  Easter,  because  it  succeeds  Ramazan, 
which  is  their  Lent,  more  usually  the  Great 
Bairam,  because  observed  with  great  ceremonv 
aiid  rejoicing  at  Constantinople,  and  through 
Turkey,  for  the  common  people,  to  make  amends 
for  Ae  mortification  of^  tlie  preceding  month. 
The  feast  commencing  with  tne  new  moon,  the 
Mahommedans  are  very  scrupulous  in  obserring 
the  time  when  the  new  moon  commences;  to 
Which  purpose,  observers  are  sent  to  the  tops  of 
the  highest  mountains,  who,  the  moment  they 
spy  the  appearance  of  a  new  moon,  run  to  the 
city,  and  proclaim  Muzhdaluk !  welcome  news! 
as  it  is  the  signal  for  beginning  the  festivity. 

BAIRDSTOWN,  a  post  town  of  the  United 
States,  the  capital  of  Nelson  county,  in  the  stale 
of  Kentucky.  It  is  seated  on  the  east  side  of 
Beech-Fork ;  thirty-five  miles  from  Frankfort. 

BAIR-MAN,  or  Bare  Man,  an  old  law  tcnn 
fbr  an  insolvent  debtor,  who  was  obliged  to  swear 
that  he  was  not  worth  more  than  5s.  5d. 

BAIRNS  PART  OF  GEAR,  in  the  Scots  law,  i.e. 
the  children's  share  of  effects,  is  that  portion 
which  by  the  law  falls  to  the  children  of  a  mar- 
riage, on  the  death  of  either  of  their  parents;  vii. 
two  thirds  when  the  father,  and  one  third  when 
the  mother,  dies  first. 

BAIROUT,  or  Bagreuth,  formerly  Berytus, 
a  sea-port  town  of  Syria  situated  on  a  plain  in 
the  pachalic  of  Saide,  or  Acre.  There  was  for- 
merly a  harbour  here,  which  is  now  choked  np, 
nothmg  being  seen  of  it  but  a  pier,  apparently  of 
ancient  construction,  which  will  shelter  a  few 
boats.  The  town  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  built 
by  the  famous  Djezzar  Pacha,  after  the  place 
was  bcfmbarded  by  the  Russians.  Widi  the  same 
view  he  pulled  down  and  rebuilt  a  high  tower  to 
the  north-east.  The  streets  of  Bairoat  are  nar- 
row and  irregular,  and  the  suburbs  neariy  as 
large  as  tlie  town.  The  environs  are  extremely 
agreeable,  and  they  are  laid  out  in  gardens  and 
plantations  full  of  nne  trees,  especially  mulber- 
ries. A  stream  descending  fix>m  Moimt  Lebanon 
winds  to  the  sea  through  3ie  country.  The  po- 
pulation ataounts  to  7000  or  8000.  It  is  the  re» 
sidence  of  a  Greek,  and  a  Maronite  bishop;  and 
there  is  a  monastery  of  Capuchins.  The  staple 
commodity  of  commerce  is  raw  nlk,  which  is 
carried  to  Cairo,  Aleppo,  Damascus,  and 
Europe.  Earthen  lars  and  jugs  of  a  particular 
kind  are  also  manufactured  here ;  and  are  much 
esteemed  from  the  nature  of  the  clay.  The 
cotton  cloth  is  manufactured  by  the  inlMbitants 


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of  ihe  adjaceat  mountains,  and  exported  ia  cob- 
sideiable  quantitj.     The  trade  to  Europe  ia 
diiefly  managed  by  French  and  Italian  mer- 
chants ;  but  the  place  is  the  Emporium  to  which 
the  Droses  and  Maronites  sena  their  products, 
and  in  return  receive  rice,  tobacco,  coHee,  and 
specie.    It  is,  indeed,  considered  fhe  chief  town 
of  the  I>ruses.    Agripp%,  the  grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  constructed  a  tibeatre  and  amphitheatre 
here,  as  well  as  baths,  and  no  expense  was 
spaied  in  embenishing  them.    Four  ma^ificent 
granite  columns,  of  which  three  are  within  the 
precincts  of  the  town,  with  other  ancient  buildings, 
attest  its  former  grandeur.  Bairout  long  remained 
in  the  sole  possession  of  the  Druses,  and  has 
only  of  late  been  united  to  iSbe  pachaKc  of  Acre. 
BAIT,  V.  a.  &  M.  &  n.  $,  batan.  Sax.  baitzen. 
Germ,   battre,  Fr.    peiiiaps  from  buita,  Goth. 
According  to    these   different  derivations,  the 
meaning  of  this  word  varies.    As  derived  from 
Ae  Saxon  and  German  it  means  to  put  meat 
upon  a  hook  to  tempt  fish  or  other  ammals ;  or 
to  supply  food  to  one's  self  or  horses.    Johnson 
intimates  that  in  this  latter  sense  it  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  bate,  to  abate  speed  on  a  journey.    As 
derived  from  the  French  and  Gothic  it  assumes  a 
very  different  signification,  namely  to  invite,  to 
stir  up,  to  attack  witfi  violence,  to  harass  by  the 
help  of  others,  as  we  bait  a  boar  with  mastifis, 
but  a  bull  with  bnll-dogs.    In  hawking,  the 
hawk  is  said  to  bait  when  she  flutters  or  daps 
her  wings,  as  if  preparing  to  fly. 
The  kinges  Uwe  wol  no  man  deme 
Anger  licke  withooten  answeie. 
Bat  if  any  man  theae  misqu'eme 
He  shall  be  baighM  as  a  bere» 
And  yet  wel  worse  they  wol  him  tat. 
And  in  prison  woUen  him  peade. 
In  ginea  and  in  other  gere. 
When  that  God  woU,  it  may  amende.    Chmuer, 
On  mony  a  toiymele  now  may  she  bmte. 
Alter  here  dethe  fill  often  may  ahe  waite. 
Or  that  the  wild  waves  wol  hire  drive. 
Unto  the  place  ther  as  she  shal  arive.  Id. 

lake  a  wilde  ball  that  being  at  a  bay. 
Is  bojfted  of  a  mastiffe  and  a  hoond. 
And  a  cnrre  dog  that  doe  him  sharpe  assay. 
On  every  side  amd  heat  about  him  round. 

Faeris  Queene. 
What  to  strong. 
Bat,  wanting  rest,  will  also  want  of  might ; 
1'he  sua,  that  measoves  heaven  all  day  long. 
At  night  doth  bait  faia  steeds  the  oeean  waves  among. 


The  pleasant'st  angling  is  to  see  the  fish 
Cut  with  her  golden  oars  the  silver  stream^ 
And  greedily  devour  the  treacherous  baii. 

Shahpeare. 

•  She  steals  love's  sweet  bait  from  fearful  hooks.    Id. 

Are  these  thy  bears  t  Well  bait  thy  bears  to  death. 

Id, 
All  plum'd  like«stridges,  that  wing  the  wind ; 
Baited  like  eagles  having  lately  bath'd ; 
Glittering  in  golden  coats  like  images.  Id, 

A  grove  hard  by,  sprung  up  with  this  their  change. 
His  will  who  reigns  above,  to  aggravate 
Their  penance,  laden  with  /air  fruit  like  that 
Which  grew  in  Paradise  the  bait  of  Eve, 
Us'd  by  the  tempter.  MiUom, 

Many  sorts  of  fishes  feed  upon  insects,  as  is  well 
khown  to  anglers,  who  bait  their  hooks  with  them. 

Ray, 


BAIT.    See  Awouto. 

Bait»  WnkTB,  in  ichthyology^  a  saoaU  fi4i, 
whidi  is  cangbt  in  great  plenty,  Gnom  August  1. 
to  October  1.  by  staL  90.  Geo.  IL  ch.  21,  in  the 
river  Thames,  near  Blackv?all,  and  is  esteemed 
verv  delicious.  They  are  ^e  fty  of  iK>me  fish, 
ana  have  been  attributed  to  the  shad,  the  sprat, 
the  smell,  and  die  bleak-fish.  Pennant  observes, 
that  it  belongs  to  &e  genus  of  cyfMinus,  because 
it  has  only  three  brandiioategous  ravs,  and  dine 
dorsal  fin ;  its  body  is  compressed  like  that  of 
the  beak;  ils  usual  length  is  two  inches;  the 
under  jaw  is  the  longest;  the  irides  are  silvery, 
and  the  pupil  black;  the  dorsal  fin  consists  of 
about  fourteen  ravs;  ihe  side  line  is  straight;  the 
tail  forked,  and  me  tips  black.  • 

To  Bait,  in  falconry,  the  action  of  a  hatrk 
when  die  olaps  her  wings,  or  stoops  to  catch  her 

BAITHOSUS,  a  Jew  who,  with  Sadoc  his 
Mow  disciple,  foanded  &e  sect  of  the  Saddu- 
cees,  denying  a  fiiture  state  and  resurrection. 
From  Baidiosus,  they  were  for  some  time  called 
Baithosari  as  well  as  Sadducees,  but  are  now 
only  known  by  the  httter  denominatioa. 

BAITING,  the  act  of  smaller  or  weaker  beasts 
attacking  and  hanssing  greatet  and  atrotager; 
as  the  baiting  of  bulls  or  bears  by  mastifl^  or 
ball«4dags  with  short  noses,  thai  Ihey  may  take 
the  better  hdd.  UtiKty  has  been  pleaded  m 
justification  of  bull-baiting;  the  chaffing  and 
exercise  of  die  animals  making  the  flesh  tenderer 
and  more  digestible.  But  a  spirit  of  barbarism 
has  the  greatest  share  in  supporting  the  sport: 
bulls  are  kept  on  purpose,  and  exhibited  as 
standing  spectacles  ror  tne  public  entertainment. 
It  is  a  very  popular  amusement  in  Spain.  In 
this  sport,  the  chief  aim  of  the  dog  is  to  catch  the 
bull  by  the  nose,  and  hold  hitn  down ;  to  which 
end  he  will  creep  on  his  belly:  the  bull's  aim,  on 
the  contraiy,  is,  with  equal  industry,  *  to  defend 
his  nose;  in  order  to  which  he  thrusts  it  dose 
to  the  ground,  where  bis  horns  are  also  in  readi^ 
ness  to  toss  the  dog.  BuU^bairing  was  first 
introduced  into  Engluid  as  an  amusement  in  tiie 
reign  of  king  John,  about  1209. 

BAJULUS,  an  ancient  officer  in  the  ooart  of 
the  Gred^  emperors.  There  were  several  degrees 
of  bajuli ;  as,  the  grand  bajulus,  who  was  precep- 
tor to  the  emperor ;  and  the  simple  bajuli,  who 
were  sub-preceptora.  The  word  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  verb  oajnlare,  to  carry  or  bear  a  thing 
on  the  arms  or  on  the  shoulders ;  and  the  origin 
of  the  office  is  thus  traced  by  antiquaries.  Chil- 
dren, and  especialW  tfiose  of  condition,  had 
anciently,  besides  their  nurse,  a  woman  called 
gerula,  as  appears  from  several  passages  of  Ter- 
tallian ;  vriien  weaned,  or  ready  to  be  weaned, 
they  had  men  to  carry  them  about  and  take  care 
of  them,  who  were  called  geruli  and  bajuli,  a 
gerendo  et  Bajulando.  Hence  it  is,  that  gover- 
nors of  princes  and  great  lords,  were  still  deno- 
minated bajuli,  and  Sieir  charge  or  government 
bajulatio,  even  after  their  pupils  were  grown  too 
big  to'  be  carried  about.  The  word  passed  in  the 
same  sense  into  Greece. 
-  Bajulus  is  also  used  by  Latin  writers  in  the 
several  senses  wjierein  we  use  bailiif. 

Ba/ulus  was  likewise  the  title  of  a  conventual 


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BAKING, 


officer  in  the  ancient  momurteriesy  to  whom 
belonged  the  charge  of  gathering  and  distributing 
the  money  and  legacies  left  for  masses  and  obits ; 
whence  he  was  also  denominated  bajulus  obitunm 
novoTum. 

Bajulus,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  cerambyx 
(callidium)  that  is  found  in  the  trunks  of  trees  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe.  The  thorax  is 
villous,  with  two  tubercles ;  body  brown.  Fabri- 
cius.  This  is  the  cerambyx  caudatus  of  Degeer ; 
and  leptura  bajula  of  Scopoli. — Gmelin.  Obs. 
a  variety  of  this  species  (fi)  is  described  by  Lin- 
neus;  the  color  of  which  is  testaceous:  thorax 
cinereous,  and  villous,  with  two  little  glabrous 
lines ;  in  the  Fabrician  mantissa.  Another  variety 
(y)  is  noticed,  a  native  of  Saxony,  and  only  half 
the  size  of  the  former. 

BAIZE',  n.s,  'A  kind  of  coarse  open  cloth 
stuff,  having  a  long  nap ;  sometimes  frizzed  on 
one  side,  and  sometimes  not  frizzed.  This  stuff 
is  witliout  wale,  being  wrought  on  a  loom  with 
two,treddles,  like  flannel.' — Chambert, 

BAKE',  v.  a.  &  n."\  Baecan,  Sax.  becken, 
Ba'ken,  part,  I  Ger.  supposed  by  Wach- 
Ba'k  ED,  a</;ec.  >ter  to  come  from  bee, 
Ba'ker,  n.s.  I  which,  in  the  Phrygian 
Bake'house,  n.  f •  J  language,  signified  bread. 
Bread,  and  the  process  of  preparing  it,  are  very 
naturally  identified,  as  the  one  always  suggests 
the  other.  It  signifies  to  heat  or  to  harden  by 
fire,  and  is  of  a  more  general  application  than  to 
the  staff  of  life ;  though  the  substantives  have  no 
other  reference,  unless  they  have  an  affix,  sugar- 
baker,  &c.  To  bake,  is  then  to  heat  or  to  har- 
den any  thing  in  the  fire,  in  a  fiimace,  an  oven, 
or  in  the  sun ;  or  to  do  the  work  of  baking. 
Baking  denotes  the  progress  towards  the  com- 
pletion of  this  work.  Baker  is  the  agem  by 
whom  it  is  accomplished.  Baked  describes  the 
quality  of  these  substances  which  have  gone 
through  the  entire  process,  as  baked  meats,  con- 
tra-distinguished from  viands  of  a  different  de- 
scription ;  and  bakehouse  is  a  place  appropriated 
to  the  business  of  baking. 

He  will  take  thereof,  and  warm  himaelf ;  yea,  he 

kindleth  it,  and  bateth  bread.  Jtaiah, 

There  was  a  cake  bakem  on  the  coals,  and  a  cruse 

of  water,  at  his  head.  2  Kingt, 

He  could  roste  and  scthe,  and  brolle  and  frie, 
Maken  mortrcwca  and  wel  bake  a  pie. 
But  gret  harm  was  it  as  it  thoughte  me. 
That  on  his  shinnc  a  mormal  hadde  he.  Chaveer, 

His  brede,  hit  ale,  was  alway  after  on, 
A  better  envy'd  man  was  no  where  non  ; 
Withouten  baken  mete  never  was  his  house. 
Of  fish  and  flesh,  and  that  so  plenteous 
It  snewed  in  his  hous  of  mete  and  drinke. 
Of  all  the  deinties  that  men  coud  of  thinke.  Id, 

Loke  of  Egipt  the  king  Dan  Pharao^ 
His  baker  and  his  hoteler  also, — 
Wheder  they  no  feltcn  non  effect  in  dremes.        Id^ 
I  keep  his  house,  and  I  wash,  wring,  brew,  bake, 
scour,  dress  meat,  and  make  the  beds,  and  do  all  my- 
self. Shalupeare, 

The  sun  with  flaming  arrows  piercM  the  flood. 
And,  darting  to  the  bottom,  bak'd  the  mud,     Dryden, 

The  work  of  the  fire  is  a  kind  of  baking  ;  and  what- 
soever the  fire  baketh,  time  doth,  in  some  degree,  dis- 
ao.ve. 


There  be  some  houses  wherein  sweetmeats  will  re* 
lent,  and  baked  meats  will  mould,  more  than  othen. 

Id 
With  vehement  sons 
When  dusty  summer  baket  the  crumbling  dods. 
How  pleasant  is  't,  beneath  the  twisted  arch. 
To  ply  the  sweet  carouse  \  PhXpi, 

In  life  and  health,  ereir  man  must  proceed  upoa 
trust,  there  being  no  knowing  the  intention  of  the 
cook  or  baker. 


Baking,  as  a  term  of  art,  though  applicable 
to  the  drying ,  of  any  moist  substance  by  heat, 
has  been  used  more  particulariv  to  describe  the 
art  of  preparing  bread,  or  of  reducing  meal 
of  any  kina,  whether  simple  or  compound,  into 
bread.  We  read,  indeed,  as>in  Chaucer,  (Pro- 
logue V.  436)  of  <  bake  mete,  of  fish,  and  flesh;* 
and  some  of  our  modem  inventions  in  the  way  of 
cooking  apparatus  seem  destined  to  extend  the 
triumphs  ot  this  art,  and  to  bake  a  whole  Lord 
Mayor*s  dinner  in  less  time  than  even  his  wor- 
shipful guests  consume  in  eating  it.  But  the 
'  baker,'  hist6rically  and  legally,  has  been  the 
baker  of  bread.  In  an  Anglo-Saxon  colloquy, 
preserved  in  the  Cotton  Library  (MS.  Tib.  A.  3.) 
and  presenting  a  lively  picture  of  the  manners  of 
our  ancestors,  a  sort  of  dialogue  occurs  with  the 
baker  (baecere): — *  Of  what  use  is  your  axt? 
We  can  live  long  without  you.'  He  replies, 
*  You  may  live  through  some  space  without  my 
art,  but  not  long,  nor  well.  Without  my  cratt 
every  table  would  seem  empty;  and  without 
bread  (hlafe)  all  meat  would  seem  nauseous.* 

We  have  therefore  only  here  to  remark,  gene- 
rally, that  the  art  of  baking,  of  the  highest  anti- 
quity, is,  in  regard  to  its  origin,  involved  in  en- 
tire obscurity :  traces  of  it  being  found  in  the 
history  of  all  ancient  nations.  Abraham  and 
Lot,  in  the  patriarchal  ages,  evinced  their  hospi- 
tali^  by  providing  bak^  cakes  or  unleavened 
bread  for  their  guests ;  and  shortly  after  (Exod. 
xii.  15.)  the  prohibition  of  leavened  bread  to  die 
Israelites  proves  that  the  art  of  making  it  was 
well  knowi^  and  ordinarily  practised.  In  Egypt 
it  is  highly  probable  the  Jews  became  acquainted 
with  this  art :  though  the  Chaldeans  are  said  to 
have  practised  it  as  early  as  any  people.  The 
Greeks  ascribe  the  invention  of  it  to  Pan,  who 
Diodorus  informs  us,  was  originally  an  Egyptian 
deity,  and  that  Thebes  was  built  to  his  honor, 
(lib.  i.)  The  Romans  were  long  reproached  as  a 
pulse-eatinff  people.  Until  580  years  after  (he 
founding  of  tneir  metropolis  it  contained  no  pro- 
fessed bakers.  They  first  settled  in  it,  we  are  told 
by  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.  xviii.  11),  durins  the  war 
with  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon :  we  find,  how- 
ever, before  this  time  fieuniUes  baking  their  own 
bread. 

Bakers,  as  we  have  seen,  were  esteemed  im- 
portant members  of  society  by  our  ancestors 
llie  incorporation  of  a  London  company  with 
this  title  took  place  in  the  early  part  of  tL 
fourteenth  century  (1307),  and  by  a  stttute 
22  Hen.  VIII.  cap.  IS.,  their  trade  vras  ex 
empted  from  being  reckoned  as  handicraft.  Unu 
a  late  act  of  parliament  abolished  their  controi 
of  the  price,  called  the  assize  of  bread,  this  con- 
stitutea  an  important  portion  of  the  duties  oc 
the  London  magistracy. 


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Under  Uie  word  Bread,  we  propose  to  treat  of 
the  entire  manufacture  of  that  important  article : 
under  Cooeery  and  Dressing  ot  Meats,  of  the 
late  inventions  above  alluded  to;  and  udder 
dvsii,  of  those  which  may  be  thus  specifically 
clasMd. 

Baker  (David  Erskine),  son  of  Henry 
Baker,  was  a  youngs  man  of  genius  and  learning. 
Having  been  adopted  by  an  uncle,  who  was  a 
silk  throwster  in  Spitalfields,  he  succeeded  hira 
in  the  business ;  but  wanted  the  prudence  and 
attention  necessary  to  secure  prosperity  in  trade. 
Like  his  father,  he  was  both  a  philosopher  and  a 
poet ;  and  wrote  several  occasional  poems,  sorae 
<»f  which  were  much  admired  at  the  time.  His 
principal  publication  was.  The  Companion  to  tlie 
Play-house,  in  two  volumes,  1764,  12mo;  a 
work,  which  though  imperfect,  has  considerable 
merit. 

Baker  (Henry),  an  ingenious  and  diligent 
naturalist,  was  bom  in  Fleet-street,  London,  about 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth,  or  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century.    He  was  brought  up  under 
an  eminent  bookseller,  who  preceded  the  elder 
Dodsley,  but  being  of  a  philosophical  turn,  and 
having  studied  the  methods  practicable  in  the 
cure  of  deaf  and  dumb  persons,  he  made  this  the 
employment  of  his  life.  In  the  prosecution  of  so 
valuable  and  difficult  an  undertaking  he  was  very 
successful.  He  married  Sophia,  youngest  daugli- 
ter  of  the  femous  Daniel  Defoe,  who  brough.t 
him  two  sons,  both  of  whom  he  survived*    In 
January,  1740,  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries ;  and,  on  the  twelfth  of 
March  following,  the  same  honor  was  conferred 
upon  him  by  the  Royal  Society.     In  1744  Sir 
Godfirey  Copley's  gold  medal  was  bestowed  upon 
him,  for ;  discoveries  in  the  chrystallisation  and 
configurations  of  saline  particles.    Having  led  a 
very  useful  and  honorable  life,  he  died  in  the 
Strand  in  1774,  aged  above  seventy.    Mr.  Baker 
was  a  very  constant  and  useful  attendant  at  the , 
meetings  of  the  Royal  and  Antiquarian  Societies, 
and  in  both  was  frequently  chosen  of  the  council. 
Several  of  his  communications  are  printed  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions;    and  he  was   the 
means,  by  his  extensive  correspondence,  of  con- 
veying to  the  Society  the  intelligence  and  obser- 
vations of  many  other  inquisitive  and  philosophi- 
cal men,  at  home  and  abroad.    The  society  for 
the  encouragement  of  arts,  manu&ctures,  and 
commerce,  is  under  singular  obligations  to  him. 
Being  one  of  its  earliest  members,  he  contributed 
greatly  to  its  rise  and  establishment,  and  at  its 
first  institution  officiated  for  some  time  gratis  as 
secretary.     He'  drew  up  a  short  account  of  its 
origin,  which  was  read  before  the  society  of  anti- 
quaries.   Mr.  Baker  was  a  poetical  writer  in  the 
early  part  of  his  life.    His  Invocation  of  Health 
was  printed  without  his  knowledge;    but  re- 
printed by  himself  in  his  Original  Poems,  serious 
and  humorous,  part  I.  8vo.  1725.  Part  II.  came 
Out  in  1726.     Among  these  poems  are  some 
tales  as  witty,  and  as  loose  as  Prior*s.    He  was 
the   author  likewise  of  the  Universe,  a  poem, 
which  has  been  several  times  reprinted.    His 
account  of  the  water  polype,  originally  published 
in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  was  ulerwards 
enlarged  iatosa  separate  treatise,  and  has  gone 


through  severaF  editions.  But  his  principal  pub- 
lications are,  The  Microscope  made  Easy,  and 
Employment  for  the  Microscope. 

Baker  (Sir  Richard),  autlior  of  the  Chronicle 
of  the  Kings  of  England,  was  bom  at  Sissing- 
herst,  in  Kent,  about  the  year  1568.  After 
completing  his  studies  at  Oxford,  he  travelled, 
and  upon  his  return  vras  created  A.  M.  In  1603 
he  was  knighted  by  king  James  I.  and  in  1620, 
high  sheriff  of  Oxfordshire ;  but  engaging  to  pay 
some  of  the  debts  of  his  wife's  fkmily,  he  was 
reduced  to  poverty,  and  obliged  to  retire  for 
shelter  to  the  Fleet  prison.  His  works  are,  1. 
Meditations  and  Disquisitions  on  the  Lord's 
Prayer.  2.  Meditations,  &c.  on  several  Psalms. 
3.  Meditations  and  Prayers  upon  the  Seven  Days 
of  the  Week,  4.  Cato  Variegatus,  or  Cato's 
Moral  Distiches  varied,  &c. — Mr.  Granger  ob- 
serves. '  That  his  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  Eng- 
land was  more  esteemed  by  readers  of  the  lower 
class,  than  by  such  as  had  a  critical  knowledge 
of  history.  The  language  of  it  was  called  polite : 
and  it  long  maintained  its  reputation,  especially 
among  country  gentlemen.  The  author  seems 
to  have  been  sometimes  more  studious  to  please 
than  to  inform,  and  with  that  view  to  have  sacri- 
ficed even  chronology  itself  to  method.'  In 
1658  Edward  Philip,  nephew  to  Milton,  pub- 
lished a  third  edition  of  this  work,  with  the 
addition  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  It  has  been 
several  times  reprinted,  and  is  now  cairied  as 
low  as  the  reign  of  George  L  Sir  Richard  also 
translated  several  works  from  the  French  and 
Italian.  He  died  in  the  Fleet,  very  poor,  in  1645. 

Baker  (Thomas),  an  eminent  mathematician, 
was  bom  at  Ilton,  in  Somersetshire,  about  1625, 
and  entered  at  Wadham  College,  Oxon,  1640; 
after  which  he  was  vicar  of  Bishop's  Nymmet,  in 
Devonshire,  where  he  wrote  The  Geometrical 
Key,  or  the  Gate  of  Equations  unlocked,  by 
which  he  gained  a  considerable  reputation.'  A 
little  before  his  death,  the  members  of  the  Royal 
Society  sent  him  some  mathematical  queries,  to 
which  he  returned  such  satisfactory  answers,  that 
they  presented  him  a  medal.  He  died  at  Bishop's 
Nymmet,  in  1690. 

Baker  (Thomas),  a  very  ingenious  and  learned 
antiquary,  descended  from  an  ancient  family, 
was  bom  at  Crook,  in  1656 ;  educated  at  the  free 
school  at  Durham,  and  thence  removed  to  Cam* 
bridge  in  1674.  He  proceeded  B.A.  in  1677; 
M.  A.  1681 ;  was  elected  fellow,  March,  167&-80: 
ordained  deacon  by  Bishop  Compton,  Dec.  20th, 
1665,  and  priest  by  Bishop  Barlow,  Dec.  19th, 
1686.  Being  chaplain  to  Lord  Crew,  bishop  of 
Durham,  his  Lordship  collated  him  to  the  rec- 
tory of  Long-Newton,  June,  1687 ;  and  intended 
to  have  given  him  that  of  Sedgefield,  worth  about 
£700  a  year,  with  a  golden  prebend,  had  he  not 
incurred  his  displeasure  for  refusing  to  read  King 
James  II.'s  decuiradon  for  liberty  of  conscience. 
Mr.  Baker  resigned  Long-Newton,  August  1st. 
1690,  refusing  to  take  the  oaths ;  and  retired  to 
his  fellowship  at  St.  John's,  in  which  he  was 
protected  till  Jan.  20th,  1716-17,  when  he  was 
dispossessed  of  it,  in  consequence  of  scrupling 
to  take  the  oaths  required  on  the  accession  of 
George  I.  but  he  retained  his  chambovat  St  John's 
college,  where  ha  was  h^y  esteemed,  and  Mr. 


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BAK 

Prior,  the  celebrated  poet,  gav^  tlie  profits  ol  hm 
own  fellowship  to  Baker,  in  order  to  supply  the 
loss  of  income  which  he  had  suffered.  Hfi  is  said 
to  have  retained  a  lively  resentment  of  his  depri* 
rations ;  and  designated  himself  in  bis  books,  as 
well  as  in  those  which  he  gave  to, the  college 
library,  socius  ejectus,  and  in  some,  ejectus  reo- 
tor.  He  continued  to  reside  in  the  college  as 
commoner  master  till  his  dealb,  Jnly  2d,  1740. 
Mr.  Baker's  correspondence  with  men  of  Icavn- 
ing  was  extensive;  and  he  waslibend  in  his 
literary  communications  to  those  who  solicited 
information;  particularly  to  bishop  Burnet, 
who  was  indebted  to  him  for  sercial  remarks  and 
corrections  relating  to  his  History  of  the  Refor- 
mation. Of  bis  extensive  coHections,  he  left 
twenty-three  volumes  in  foUo,  written  by  bis  own 
hand,  to  Lord  Oxford,  and  they  now  compose 
part  of  the  Harleian  collection  in  the  British 
museum.  He  also  beoueathed  fifteen  volumes 
folio,  of  a  like  kind,  to  uie  public  library  at  Cam- 
bridge, together  vrith  other  MSS.  and  printed 
books.  Bu>g.  Brit.  *  Mr.  Baker/  says  tne  Eaii 
of  Orford,  was  *  perhaps  the  sole  inktance  of  a  man 
who  bequeathed  his  worldly  goods  to  a  societr 
that  ejected  him,  and  to  the  ministers  of  a  church 
in  which  he  bad  lost  preferment'  The  only 
works  he  printed  were,  1 .  Reflections  on  LeaniF- 
ing,  showing  the  insufficiency  thereof  in  its 
several  particulars,  in  order  to  evince  the  useful- 
ness and  necessity  of  Revelation,  Lond.  1 709-1 0 ; 
and  2.  The  Preface  to  bishop.  Fisher's  foneral 
sermon  for  Margaret,  Countess  of  Richmond  and 
Derby,  1708;  both  without  his  name.  Do. 
Knight  styles  him  <  the  greatest  master  of  the  an- 
tiquities of  this  our  university;'  and  Heame 
pays  him  a  similar  compliment ;  expressing  his 
wish  that  his  collections  were  published.  Mn 
Baker  intended  something  like  an  Athene  Can- 
tabrigienses,  on  t}ie  plan  of  the  Athens  Oxoni- 
enses 

Bakbr  (Sir  George),  M.  D.  was  Ae  son  of  a 
Devonshire  clergyman,  bom  in  1723,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Can^mdge.  He  commenced 
practice  al  Stamford^  whence  he  soon  removed 
to  London,  and  soon  attained  considerable  repu- 
tation, being  appointed  physioian  in  ordinary  to 
the  king,  and  physioian  to  the  queen :  he  was 
also  chosen  fellow  of  the  Royal  and  Antiquarian 
Societies.  In  1776  he  was  created  a  baronet,  and 
in  1797  was  placed  at  the  head  of  his  profonion, 
|)eittg  elected  president  of  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians. He  died  June  15th,  1809.  Sir  George 
Baker  had  the  reputation  of  being  an  elegant 
classical  scholar  and  critio.  His  published  works 
are,  An  Essay  on  the  Cause  of  the  Endemical 
CoUo  of  Devonshire,  (about  1767),  which  gave 
rise  to  a  oontroversy  relative  to  the  origin  of  that 
malady,  which  he  attributed  to  the  use  of  cyder, 
much  impregnated  wttii  lead.  Preface  to  a  late 
edition  ot  the  Pharmacopceia  of  the  Medical  Col- 
lege, with  numerous  Essays  in  the- Medical  and 
Philosophicsl  Journals  of  his  time. 

BAKERS'  Company;  there  are  two  oom- 
panies  of  this  name,  the  White  and  the  Brown 
Bakers.  The  White  Bakers  are  of  great  anti- 
quity, having  been  a  company  as  early  as  Extwacd 
n.  Their  arms  are  (fig.  1.)  *■  guks^  three  gaibs^ 
or  on  a  chief;  an  arm  issniag  oul  of  a  doud, 


BAK 

proper,  holding  a  pair  of  scales^  or,  betveen 
three  gariis  of  &e  flist' 


F^.l. 


Fig.  2. 


The  Brown  Bskeis  were  incofporated  the  19tii 
of  James  I.  Their  arms  (fig.  3)  are  *guln,  a 
hand  issuing  out  of  the  clouds,  proper,  lioldiiig 
a  pair  of  seales ;  an  anchor  in  a  diief,  bany 
wavy,  or  and  oftins,  on  a  chevron,  gnlet  between 
three  gailws. 

BAKEWELL  (Robert),  a  fiunous  grazier, 
bom  in  1736,  on  his  Other's  estate  of  Dishley,  io 
Leioestemhire.  For  some  years  before  bh 
iather^s  death,  he  had  the  management  of  the 
farm,  and  his  attention  was  much  t^en  op  in  im- 
proving the  breed  of  his  cattle.  In  nnrsuit  of 
this  object,  he  travelled  over  Enghma  into  lie- 
land  and  Holland ;  and  such  was  his  success, 
that  in  a  short  time  the  Dishley  sheep  were 
prised  so  much  above  others,  that  he  could  let 
oner  of  his  rams  f6r  no  less  than  400  guineas! 
and  for  one  in  particular,  he  drew  the  enormous 
sum  of  800  guineas,  besides  the  ewes  from  his 
own  stock,  which,  by  the  same  calculatiooi  makes 
a  total'  of  1300  guineas  1  Dishley  sheep  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  fineness  of  their  bone  and 
fle^  the  lightness  of  the  ofial,  aod  quiet  dispo- 
sition, whidi  makes  Uiem  iktten  with  less  food 
than  other  ^eep  equally  heavy.  Mr.  Bakewell 
also  greatly  improved  his  black  oatde;  simI 
eould  let  his  bulls  at  fifty  guineas  a  season  each. 
He  died  in  1795.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has 
been  stated  that  he  failed  in  business  more  than 
once ;  and,  with  regard  to  the  effect  of  his  im- 

Srovements,  it  has  been  sarcastically  remarked, 
lat  they  enabled  him  to  mako  meat  too  iat 
for  any  body  to  eat,  and  too  dear  fi>r  any  body 
to  purchase. 

Bakewell,  a  market  town  and  parish  in  thtt 
hundred  of  Higb-Peak,  Derby,  eleven  miles  w(>< 
firom  Chesterfield,  and  152  north  from  London. 
It  is  seated  on  the  rvrer  Wye,  and  contains  1700 
inhabitants.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Ro- 
man town.  The  place  is  much  resorted  to  by 
anglers;  the  Wye  producing  plenty  of  trout, 
grayling,  &c.  There  are  several  good  quarries 
of  stone,  and  lead  and  zinc  mines,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood ;  here  is  also  a  large  cotton  maou^c- 
tory.  Three  miles  distant  is  Chatswoith,  a  va%- 
nifioent  seat  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire.  This 
celebrated  mansion  was  erected  by  William  the 
first  d\ike  of  Devonshire,  in  the  year  1702.  The 
unfortunate  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  was  doomed 
to  thirteen  years''  captivity  in  die  old  mansioo 
at  this  place.  On  the  east  side,  not  fiir  distant 
firom  the  town,  is  a  high  monntBin,on  the  top  of 
which  millstones  are  dug.  The  living  of  Bakewell 
is  in  the  gift  of  the  dean  and  diapter  of  Litdi- 
field ;  and  the  parish  is  exempt  uom  episcopal 
jurisdiction.  Market  on  Monday.  Its  ^rs  are 
on  Easter  Mendayy  Whit  Monday,  the  Maoday 


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399 


BAL 


after  October  10th,  and  the  Monday  alter  No- 
vember 22d.  At  a  short  distance  from  Bakeweli 
is  Ashford,  where  are  some  marble  works  that 
were  the  first  of  the  kind  established  in  Eng- 
land. '  Great  ouantities  of  black  and  gray  marble 
are  sawed  ana  polished  by  means  of  machinery 
kept  in  motion  by  water.  About  two  mihk 
south  of  Bakeweli  is  Haddon  Hall,  a  truly 
venerable  mansion,  belonging  to  his  frace 
the  duke  of  Rutland.  The  high  turrets  and  em- 
battlements  of  this  house,  when  beheld  at  some 
distance,  give  it  the  appearance  of  an  ancient 
fortified  castle.  It  presents,  perhaps,  a  more 
complete  specimen  of  the  ancient  English  bar 
ronial  mansion  than  is  to  be  found  in  anv  other 
house  in  the  kingdom.  For  a  particular  de- 
scription of  it  see  the  Beauties  of  England  and 
Wales  vol.  iii.  p,  494. 

BAKUISHISARAI,  or  simply  Bacca-Serai, 
'  the  summer-house,'  a  large  town  of  European 
'         Russia,  in  the  Crimea,  government  of  Taurida, 
'         formerly  the  residence  of  the  khans,  situated  be- 
tween two  hills,  and  containing  from  10,000  to 
-         12,000  inhabitants.    Here  are  manufactures  of 
'         Turkey  leather,  saddles,  silk  stufis,  and  cutlery. 
Fifty  miles  north  of  Cafia.    Long.  33°  52'  £., 
^         lat  45°  10'  N. 

>  BAKOONGAR,  one  of  the  Sooloo  islands. 
It  is  high  and  rocky,  and  has  some  inhabitants. 

>  BAKOS,  a  river  of  Great  Bukharia,  (lom 
which  and  others  the  Hanat  is  ^ormed. 

BAKOU,  or  Baku,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the 
'  province  of  Shirvan,  situated  at  the  extremity  of 
•'         the  Gulf  of  Ghilan,  occupying  the  peninsula  of 

>  Abasharon,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Caspian.  It 
(         is  esteemed  the  most  commodious  haven  ip  tliat 

sea,  as  vessels  may  ride  securely  at  anchor  in 
seven  faithoms  of  water,  within  eighty  yards  of 
(         the  shore;  but  the  number  of  shoals,  islands, 
(         and  sand  banks,  render  the  entrance,  in  some 
k        places,  difficult  and  dangerous.  The  town  is  of  an 
obtuse  triangular  form ;  it  occupies  a  strong  and 
fine  situation,  and  is  defended  by  a  strong  wall 
and  deep  ditch.     Good  cotton  is  yielded  in  the 
I        neighbourhood,  together  with  opium,  rice,  silk, 
i         wine,  salt,  and  naptha.     In  the  latter  article  is 
the  principal  trade  of  Bakou,   1000  or   1500 
f         pounds  of  it  being  yielded  by  the  wells  in  this 
district  daily.     The  country  around  is  highly 
volcanic,    funding  with  inflammable  gases, 
which,  Dein^  collected  in  leather  flasks,  will 
i         ignite  at  a  distance.    Hence,  the  town  atid  its 
environs  abound  in  monuments  of  the  supersti- 
tion of  the  Guebrea,  Parsees,  and  other  fire  wor- 
shippers, some  of  whom  yet  ft«quent  a  spot  call^ 
Ateschjah.     Various  temples  built  of  stone  ap- 
pear; in  one  of  which  a.  blue  lambent  flame 
,        isssued  from  a  large  hoUow  cane  near  the  altar. 
The  jurisdiction  of  Baku  extends  over  thirty-two 
villages.    It  was  ceded  to  Russia  in  the  year 
1723,  and  restored  to  Persia  in  1735;  but  re- 
taken by  the  Russians  in  1801,  who  have  ever 
since  kept  possession  of  it. 

BAKTEGAN,  or  Baeteghun,  a  salt  lake  in 
the  province  of  Fars,  Persia,  about  seventy-five 
miles  in  circuit  It  is  nearly  dry  in  summer, 
when  a  quantity  of  fine  salt,  left  by  evaporation, 
is  collected  from  the  bottom.  Distant  ten  miles 
south-east  of  Shiras. 


BARTSCHISARI,  an  open  town  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Crimea,  near  the  sea,  seated  between 
two  mountains.  It  is  one  of  the  places  of  resi- 
dence of  the  cham  of  Tartary. 

BAKU.    See  Bakou. 

BAL,  a  Gaelic  word,  used  in  the  composition 
of  the  names  of  mai^  places,  particularly  m  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  and  siguifymg  a  town,  village, 
or  place  of  residence. 

BALA,  a  market  town  of  Merionethshire,  in 
North  Wales,  and  a  borough  by  prescription,  but 
sending  no  member  to  parliament.  It  is  202  miles 
north-west  of  London,  and  26  from  Welshpool. 
Population  1163.  The  assizes  for  the  county  are 
held  here  alternately  with  Dolgelly.  There  are 
vestiges  of  three  Rotnan  camps  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  adiacent  to  the  town  is  aUirge  artificial 
mount,  called  Tommen  y  Bala,  supposed  to  be 
of  Roman  origin.  Its  manufactures  are  woollen 
gloves,  stockings,  and  the  cans  called  Welsh  wigs. 

Pemble  Mere,  Ilyn  Tegid,  or  Bala  lake,  lies  a 
few  miles  to  the  south  of  the  town,  and  is  the 
largest  sheet  of  water  in  Wales,  being  four  miles 
in  lenffth,  and  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in 
breadu.  Its  depth  of  water  is  about  forty  feet; 
but  it  sometimes  rises  above  its  usual  level,  over- 
flowing the  beautiful  vale  of  Eidemion.  It 
abounds  in  fish,  and  the  tradition  of  the  country 
states  that  the  rive  Dee,  like  the  Rhone  at  Ge- 
neva,  passes  through  without  mixing  its  waters 
with  those  of  the  l^e. 

BALAAM;  from  *^a,  without,  and  Oir» 
people ;  the  son  of  Beor,  a  prophet  and  diviner 
of  Pethor,  upon  the  Euphrates,  whose  practices 
with  Balak,  kii^  of  the  Moabites,  are  recorded 
in  Nnmbers  zxii. — ^xxiv.  as  well  as  his  involuntary 
prophecies  of  the  prosperity  of  Israel.  Jewish 
writers  are  generally  ot  opinion  that  he  was  a 
pretending  astrologer,  who  observing  when  men 
were  under  a  bad  aspect  of  the  stars,  pronounced 
a  c.urse  upon  them ;  which  sometimes  coming 
to  pass,  gained  him  reputation.  Several  ancient 
fathers  suppose  him  to  have  been  a  common 
soothsayer,  who  undertook  to  tell  future  events^ 
and  discover  secrets,  by  no  very  justifiable  arts. 
Ori^  will  have  it,  that  he  was  one  of  the 
devil's  sorcerers,  and  that  of  him  he  went  to  en- 
quire; but  that  God  prevented  him,  and  put 
what  answers  he  pleased  into  his  mouth.  It 
cannot  be  denied,  luowever,  that  the  Scriptures 
expressly  call  him  a  prophet,  2  Pet.  ii.  16,  and 
therefore  some  later  writers  hav^  imagined  that 
he  had  once  been  a  good  man,  till  loving  the 
wi^^  of  iniquity,  and  prostituting  the  honour 
of  his  office  to  covetousness,  he  apostatised  from 
God,  and  devoted  himself  to  idolatrous  prac- 
tices. Philo,  in  his  Life  of  Moses»  passes  over 
the  miracle  of  his  asa  speaking  to  the  prophet  in 
silence;  and  Miadmonide^  pcetends  tMt  U  hap- 
pened to  Balaam  in  a  prophetic  vision  only. 
St.  Peter,  however,  assuredlv  spei^  of  the  wt 
as  literal  and  certain*  We  must  own,  says 
Calmet,  that  this,  is  a  miraculous  &ct  velatad  by 
an  in^Mxed  writer,  whoee  autboiity  we  ought  noit 
to  Gtjjl  in  question  in  the  least  particular ;  but 
we  should  study  such  ways  oC  explaining  it  as 
are  most  QOiift>imable  to  reason,  and  most  proper 
to  solve  the  difficulties  of  it*  without  attacking 
.the  truth  of  the  hiHinKy^    The  nuracle,  layi 


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bishop  Newton,  was  not  unnecessary.  *  It  eri- 
denced,  that  ^e  same  divine  power,  which 
caused  the  ass  to  speak,  compelled  Badaam  to 
utter  blessings  contrary  to  his  inclination.  And 
accordingly  he  was  overruled  to  bless  the  people, 
though  he  came  prepared  and  disposed  to  curse 
Uiem;  which,  according  to  Bocnart,  was  the 
greater  miracle  of  the  two,  for  the  ass  was  merely 
passive,  but  Balaam  resisted  the  good  motions 
of  God/ 

BALAAMITES,  a  sect  in  the  first  ages  of 
Christianity,  of  the  same  impon  in  the  Hebrew 
language  with  Nicolaitans  in  the  Greek. 

BALABAC,  an  island  of  the  eastern  seas,  off 
the  south  extremity  of  Palawan.  Long.  117^  lO' 
E.,  lat  8»  N. 

BALABEA,  an  island  of  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean,  off  New  Caledonia.  Long.  164*'  22'  E., 
lat.  20*^  r  S. 

BALABOLA,  one  of  the  Society  Islands  in  the 
South  Sea,  visited  by  Captain  Cook.  It  is  only 
eight  leagues  in  circumference,  but  has  a  very 
camu^ious  harbour  on  the  west  side. 

BALACHNA,  or  Balakhan,  a  town  of  Eu- 
ropean Russia,  in  the  government  of  Nishnei- 
Novgorod,  on  the  right  bank  ofihe  Wolga.  The 
salt  springs  here  were  closed  in  1755.  The  in- 
habitants, engaged  partly  in  agriculture  and 
partly  in  trade,  amount  to  5000.  It  is  eighteen 
miles  W.N.W.of  Nishnei-Novgorod,  and  120 
E.S.E.  of  Petersburg. 

BALADAN,*ihe  scripture  name  for  a  king  of 
Babylon,  Isa.  x^ix.  1.  2  Kings  xx.  12,  called 
by  pro&ne  authors  Belesus  or  Belesis,  Nabonassar 
or  Nanybrus.  *  Qe  at  first  was  no  more  than 
governor  of  Babylon;  but  entering  into  a  confe- 
deracy with  Arbaces,  governor  of  Media,  and  re- 
belling against  Sardanapalus,  king  of  Assy  ria^these 
two  generals  marched  against  him  with  an  army 
of  400,000  men,  and  were  beat  in  three  different 
battles.  But  the  Bacirians  deserting  the  kmg, 
and  coming  over  to  Baladan  and  Arbaces,  th<  re- 
bels attacked  the  enemy  in  the  night,  and  made 
themselves  masters  of  his  camp.  After  this  mis- 
fortune, Sardanapalus  retreated  to  Nineveh,  and 
left  the  command  of  his  army  to  his  brother-in- 
law  Salamenes.  The  conspirators  attacked  Sala- 
menes,  and  defeated  him  in  two  great  battles ; 
after  which  they  laid  siege  to  Nineveh.  Sardana- 
palus sustained  the  siege  for  three  years ;  but  the 
Tigris,  in  the  third  year,  overflowing  its  banks, 
beat  down  twenty  fiirlongs  of  the  wtdls :  where- 
upon the  conspirators  entered  the  city  and  took 
possession  of  it,  after  Sardanapalus  had  burnt 
nimself  and  all  his  most  valuable  effects  upon  a 
funeral  pile,  erected  for  that  purpose  in  his  palace. 
Baladan  was  thereupon  acknowledged  king  of 
Babylon,  as  Arbaces  was  of  Media.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  supposes  Baladan  to  have  been  the  son 
of  Pul,  king  of  Assyria,  and  to  have  had  Babylon 
for  his  portion. 

BAL^NA,  the  whale,  in  zoology,  from 
jSoXXw,  to  cast  up,  because  it  throws  up  water, 
a  genus  of  the  mammalia  class,  belonging  to  the 
order  of  cete.  The  characters  of  this  genus  are, 
the  balttna,  in  place  of  teeth,  has  a  homy  plate 
on  the  upper  jaw,  and  a  double  fistula  or  pipe 
for  throwing  out  water.  There  are  five  principal 
species;   vii.    1.  B.  b<H>psy  the  pike-headed 


whale,  has  a  double  pipe  in  its  snout,  three  fins 
and  a  hard  homy  ridge  on  its  back.    The  belly 
is  fiill  of  longitudind  folds  or  mgae.     It  fr^- 
quents  the  northern  ocean.    The  length  of  that 
taken  on  the  coast  of  Scotland,  «as  remarked  hy 
Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  was  forty-six  feet,  and  its 
greatest  circumference  twenty.  This  species  takes 
its  name  firom  the  shape  of  its  nose,  which  is 
narrower  and  sharper  pointed  than  that  of  other 
whales.    2.  B.  Muscmus,  has  a  double  pipe  in 
its  fiont,  and  three  fins ;  ihe  under  jaw  is  much 
wider  than  the  upper  one.    It  frequents  the 
Scotch  coast,  and  feeds  upon  herrings.    3.  B. 
mysticetus,  the  common  whale,  which  has  many 
tumings  and  windings  in  its  nostrils,  and  no  fin 
on  the  back.    This  is  the  largest  of  all  animals; 
it  is  commonly  found  of  fiom  fifty  to  sixty  feet; 
but  some  have  been  taken  in  modem  times,  in  the 
northern  seas  ninety  feet  in  length.    But  as  Mr. 
Scoresby  observes,  *  there  is  every  probability  of 
an  error  having  been  committed  two  or  three  cen- 
turies back  (firom  which  period  some  of  our  di- 
mensions have  been  derived),  when  we  know 
that  whales  were  usually  viewed  with  super- 
stitious dread,  and  their  magnitude  and  powen 
in  consequence  highly  exaggerated.     Of  322 
individuals,  in  the  capture  of  which  I  have  been 
personally  concerned,  no  one,  I  believe,  exceeded 
tixty  feet  in  length,  and  the  largest  I  ever  mea- 
sured was  fifty-eight  feet  from  one  extremity  to 
the  other,  being  one  of  the  longest  to  appearance 
I  ever  saw.    From  fifty  to  sixty  feet  therefore 
may  be  considered  the  average  length  of  the 
Greenland  whale/     The  head  is   very  much 
disproportioned  to  the  size  of  the  body,  being 
one  third  of  the  size  of  the  fish,  and  the  under 
lip    is  much   broader  than  the   upper.     The 
tongue  is  composed  of  a  very  soft  spongy  fiit,  ca- 
pable of  yieldmg  five  or  six  barrels  of  oil.    The 
gullet  is  very  small,  not  exceeding  four  inches 
in  width.    In  the  middle  of  the  head  are  two 
orifices  through  which  it  spouts  water  to  a  vast 
height,  and  with  a  great  noise,  especially  when 
disturbed  or  wound^.    The  eyes  are  not  larger 
than  those  of  an  ox,  and  when  the  chrystalUne 
humor  is  dried,  it  does  not  appear  larger  than 
a  pea.    They  are  placed  towards  the  back  of 
the  head,  being  the  most  convenient  situation  for 
enabling  them  to  see  both  before  and  behind ;  as 
also  to  see  over  them,  where  their  food  is  prin- 
cipally found.    They  are  guarded  by  eve-lids 
and  eye-lashes,  as  in  qusulmpeds ;  and  they 
seem  to  be  very  sharp  sightea.    Nor  is  their 
sense  of  hearing  in  less  perfection ;  for  they  are 
warned  at  a  great  distance  of  any  danger  pre- 
paring against  them.    It  would  seem  as  u  nature 
had  designedly  given  them  ^ese  advantages,  as 
they  mviltiply  little,  'in  order  to  continue  their 
kind.    It  is  trae,  indeed,  that  the  external  organ 
of  hearing  is  scarcely  perceptible,  for  this  might 
only  embarrass  them  in  their  natural  element ; 
but  as  6000  as  the  thin  scarf-skin  after  mentioned 
is  removed,  a  black  spot  is  discovered  behind  the 
eye,  and  utider  that  is  the  auditory  canal,  that 
leads  to  a  regular  apparatus  for  hearing.    In 
short,  the  animal  hears  the  smallest  sounds  at 
very  great  ^stances,  and  at  all  times,  except 
when  it  is  spouting  water ;  which  ia  die  time 
that  the  fishers  approach  to  strike  it. '  *• 


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Wbat  is  known  by  the  name  of  whalebone, 
adheres  to  the  upper  jaw  of  the  whale ;  and  is 
formed  of  thin  parallel  laminx,  some  of  the 
longest  four  yarcb  in  length ;  of  these  there  are 
commonly  350  on  each  side,  but  in  very  old  fish 
more ;  about  500  of  them  are  of  a  length  fit  for 
use,  the  others  being  too  short.  They  are  sur- 
rounded with  long  strong  hair,  not  only  that  they 
may  not  hurt  the  tongue,  but  as  strainers  to  pre- 
vent the  return  of  their  food  when  they  dis- 
iharge  the  water  out  of  their  mouths.  The  real 
tones  of  the  whale  are  hard,  porous,  and  full  of 
narrow.  Two  great  strong  bones  sustain  the 
upper  lip,  lying  against  each  other  in  the  shape 
u  an  half  moon.  The  tail  is  broad  and  semi- 
lunar ;  and  when  the  fish  lies  on  one  side,  its 
blow  is  tremendous.  The  tail  alone  it  makes 
use  of,  to  advance  itself  forward  in  the  water; 
and  it  is  surprising  to  see  with  what  force  and 
celerity  its  enormous  bulk  cuts  through  the 
ocean.  The  tail  occupies  a  surface  of  eighty  or 
100  square  feet,  it  is  only  five  or  six  feet  long,  but 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  or  twenty-six  feet 
in  breadth,  and  is  placed  horizontally :  its 
motions  are  rapid  ana  universal.  The  fins  are 
only  made  use  of  for  turning  in  the  water,  and 
giving  a  direction  to  the  velocity  impressed  by 
the  tail :  they  are  from  seven  to  nine  feet  long, 
and  four  to  five  broad,  beiug  capable  of  motion 
in  any  direction ;  but  they  are  prevented  from 
being  raised  above' the  horizontal  position  by 
the  tension  of  the  skin  and  flesh  below ;  the  ac- 
count therefore  of  whales  supporting  their  young 
on  their  back  by  means  of  their  fins,  roust  be 
fabulous.  The  whale  varies  in  color;  the  back 
of  some  being  red,  the  belly  generally  white. 
Others  are  black,  some  mottled,  others  quite 
white.  Their  colors  in  the  water  are  extremely 
beautiful,  and  their  skin  is  very  smooth  and 
vlippeiy.  The  outward  or  scarf  skin  of  the 
whale  is  no  thicker  than  parchment;  but  this 
removed,  the  real  skin  appears,  of  about  an  inch 
thick,  and  covering  the  tat  or  blubber  that  lies 
beneath :  this  is  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  in 
thickness ;  and  is,  when  the  fish  is  in  health,  of 
a  beautiful  yellow.  The  muscles  lie  beneath; 
and  these,  like  the  flesh  of  quadrupeds,  are  very 
red  and  tough.  The  teats  in  the  female  are  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  belly.  The  fidelity  of  the 
mate  and  female  to  each  other  exceeds  whatever 
we  are  told  even  of  the  constancy  of  birds. 
Some  fishers,  Anderson  informs  us,  having  struck 
one  of  two  whales,  a  male  and  a  female,  that 
were  in  company  together,  the  wounded  fish 
made  a  long  and  terrible  resistance :  it  struck 
down  a  boat  with  three  men  in  it,  with  a  single 
blow  of  its  tail,  by  which  all  went  to  the  bottom. 
'I  he  other  still  attended  its  companion,  and  lent 
it  every  assistance;  till,  at  last,  the  fish  that  was 
.struck,  sunk  under  the  number  of  its  wounds; 
while  its  faithful  associate,  disdaining  to  survive 
ll  e  loss,  with  great  bellowing,  stretched  itself 
uuon  the  dead  fish,  and  shared  his  fate.  The 
\N hale  goes  with  young  nine  or  ten  months,  and 
j.enerally  produces  one  young  one,  and  never 
ai  ove  two.  When  she  suckles  her  young,  she 
throws  herself  on  one  side  on  the  surface  of  the 
sea,  and  the  young  one  attaches  itself  to  the  teat. 
Nothing  can  exce&d  the  tenderness  of  thj  female 

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for  her  offspring ;  she  carries  it  with  her  where 
ever  she  goes,  and  when  hardest  pursued,  even 
when  wounded,  she  still  clasps  her  young  one ; 
and  when  she  plunges  to  avoid  danger,  ukes  it 
to  the  bottom ;  but  rises  sooner  than  usual,  to 
give  it  breath  again.  In  June  1811,  says  Mr. 
Scoresby,  one  of  my  harpooners  struck  a  sucker, 
with  the  hope  that  it  would  lead  to  the  capture 
of  the  mother.  Presently  she  arose  close  by  the 
'  fast  boat,'  and  seizing  the  young  one,  dragged 
about  a  hundred  fathoms  of  line  out  of  the  boat 
with  remarkable  force  and  velocity.  Again  she 
arose  to  the  surface ;  darted  furiously  to  and  fro ; 
frequently  stopped  short,  or  suddenly  changed 
her  direction,  and  gave  every  possible  intimation 
of  extreme  agony.  For  a  length  of  time  she 
continued  thus  to  act,  though  closely  pursued  by 
the  boats;  and,  inspired  with  courage  and  resolu« 
tion  by  her  concern  for  her  ofi*spring,  seemed  re- 
gardless of  the  danger  which  surrounded  her. 
At  length,  one  of  the  boats  approached  so  near, 
that  a  harpoon  was  hove  at  her.  It  hit,  but  did 
not  attach  itself.  A  second  harpoon  was  struck; 
this  also  failed  to  penetrate;  but  a  third  was 
more  efiectual,  and  held.  Still  she  did  not  at- 
tempt to  escape,  but  allowed  other  boats  to  ap- 
proach; so  that  in  a  few  minutes  three  more 
narpoons  were  fastened ;  and  in  the  course  of  an 
hour  afterwards  she  was  killed.  The  young 
ones  continue'  at  the  breast  for  a  year ;  during 
which  time,  they  are  called  by  the  sailors,  short- 
heads.  They  are  then  extremely  fat,  and  yield 
above  fifly  barrels  of  blubber.  The  mother  at 
the  same  time  is  equally  lean  and  emaciated.  At 
the  age  of  two  years  they  are  called  stunts,  as 
they  do  not  thrive  much  immediately  upon  quit- 
ting the  breast :  they  then  yield  scarcely  above 
twenty  or  twenty-ibur  barrels  of  blubber :  after 
this  they  are  called  skull-fish,  and  their  age  is 
wholly  unknown.  4.  B.  physalus,  or  fin-fish,  is 
distinguished  from  the  common  whale  by  a  fin 
oh  the  back,  placed  very  low  and  near  the  taiL 
The  length  is  greater  than  that  of  th^  common 
kind,  being  often  100  feet;  but  much  more 
slender.  It  is  furnished  with  whalebone  in  the 
upper  jaw,  mixed  with  hairs,  but  short  and 
knotty,  and  of  little  value.  The  blubber  also  on 
the  body  of  this  kind  is  very  inconsiderable. 
These  circumstances,  added  to  its  extreme  fierce- 
ness and  agility,  which  ^nder  the  capture  very 
dangerous,  cause  the  fishers  to  neglect  it.  The 
natives  of  Greenland,  however,  hold  it  in  great 
esteem,  as  it  afibrds  a  great  quantity  of  flesh, 
which  to  their  palate  is  very  agreeable.  The 
lips  are  brown,  and  like  a  twisted  rope:  the 
spout  hole  is  as  it  were  split  in  the  top  of  its 
head,  through  which  it  blows  water  wito  much 
more  violence,  and  to  a  greater  height,  than  the 
common  whale.  The  fishers  are  not  veiy  fond 
of  seeing  it,  for  on  its  appearance  the  others 
retire  out  of  those  seas.  Some  writers  conjecture 
this  species  to  have  been  the  dvffoXoc,  and  phy- 
seter,  or  blowing  whale  of  Oppian,  y£lian,  and 
Pliny  :  but,  since  those  writers  have  not  left  the 
least  description  of  it,  it  is  impossible  to  judge 
which  kind  they  meant;  for  in  respect  to  the 
faculty  of  spoutmg  out  water,  or  blowing,  it  is 
not  peculiar  to  any  one  species,  but  common  to 
all  the  whale  kind.    The  physalus  inhabits  the 

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fiuropean  aDd  Ameiicui  Ooeant :  it  feeds  upon 
herringt  and  other  fish.  5.  B.  roetrata,  beaked 
whale:  loetrafta  mysticete.  The  nose  of  this 
species  is  elongated  to  a  beak,  and  the  donal  fin 
fat.  It  inhabits  the  Norway  seas,  is  rarely  seen 
Bear  England,  is  very  black,  much  resembling 
the  boops,  swims  rapidly,  and  is  about  twenty- 
five  feet  long. 

Each  species  of  whale  propagates  only  its 
own  kind,  and  does  not  at  all  niingU  with  the 
rest :  however,  they  are  generally  seen  in  shoals, 
of  different  kinds  togeilwr,  and  make  their  mi- 
giations  in  large  companies.  They  are  grega^ 
rioua  animals;  which  implies  their  want  of 
mutual  defence  against  the  invasions  of  smaller 
but  more  powerfiil  fishes.  It  seems  astonishing, 
therefore,  now  a  shoal  of  these  enormous  ani- 
mals find  subsistence  together.  To  increase  our 
wonder,  we  not  only  see  them  herding  together, 
but  usually  find  them  fetter  than  any  other  ani- 
mals of  whatsoever  element.  We  likewise  know 
that  they  cannot  8walk>w  large  fishes,  as  their 
throats  are  so  narrow  that  an  animal  larger  than 
a  herring  could  not  enter.  How  then  do  they 
subsist,  and  gprow  so  fet?  A  certain  sort  of  small 
snail,  or,  as  Linnaeus  tells  us,  the  medusa,  or  sea- 
blubber,  is  sufficient  for  this  supply.  (See  Me- 
dusa.) They  float  in  vast  abundance  in  the  north- 
ern seas.  Content  with  this  simple  food,  it  pur- 
sues no  other  animal,  leads  an  inoffensive  lite  in 
4ts  element,  and  is  harmless  in  proportion  to  its 
strength  to  do  mischief.  But  Martens  says  he  hAs 
ibund  a  barrel  or  more  of  herrings  at  a  time  in 
the  belly  of  the  whale.  Inoffensive  in  itself,  how- 
«ver,  it  has  many  enemies  ready  to  take  advan- 
tage of  its  disposition,  and  of  its  unfitness  for  com- 
bat. There  is  a  small  animal  of  the  shell-fish  kind, 
called  the  whale-louse,  that  sticks  to  its  body  as 
we  see  shells  sticking  to  the  foul  bottom  of  a  ship. 
This  insinuates  itself  chiefly  under  the  fins;  and 
whatever  effbrts  the  great  animal  makes,  it  still 
%eeps  its  hold,  and  lives  upon  the  fet,  which  it  is 
provided  with  instruments  to  arrive  at.  The 
sword-fish,  however,  is  the  whale's  most  terrible 
enemy.  See  Xiphias.  <  At  die  sight  of  this  little 
animal,'  says  Anderson,  ^  the  whale  seems  agi- 
tated in  an  extraordinary  manner;  leaping  from 
the  water  as  if  with  affright :  wherever  it  appears, 
the  whale  perceives  it  at  a  distance,  and  flees  from 
it  in  the  opposite  direction.  I  have  been  myself,^ 
^eontiiiues  he,  ^  a  spectator  of  their  terrible  en- 
counter. The  whale  has  no  instrument  of  defence 
except  tiie  tail ;  with  that  it  endeavours  to  strike 
&e  enemy ;  and  a  single  blow  taking  place  would 
effectually  destroy  its  adversary ;  but  the  sword- 
fish  is  as  active  as  the  other  is  strong,  and  easily 
avoids  the  stroke ;  then  bounding  into  the  air,  it 
falls  upon  its  great  subjacent  enemy,  and  en- 
deavours, not  to  pierce  it  with  its  pointed  beak, 
but  to  cut  it  with  its  toothed  edges.  The  sea  all 
about  is  seen  dyed  with  blood,  proceeding  from 
the  wounds  of  the  whale ;  while  the  enormous 
animal  vainly  endeavours  to  reach  its  invader,  and 
strikes  with  its  tail  against  the  suriiaice  of  the  water, 
making  a  report  at  each  blow  louder  than  the 
noise  of  a  cannon.'  In  calm  weather,  the  fisher- 
meo  lie  upon  their  oars  as  spectators  of  this  scene, 
until  they  perceive  the  whale  at  an  extremity : 
then  they  raw  towards  hhn;  and  his  enemy  re- 


turing  at  their  approach,  they  enjoy  the  fruits  of 
the  victory.  Seamen  report,  that  a  fish  called 
the  thresher,  a  species  of  squalus,  is  in  league 
with  the  sword-fish  ;  and  that  the  former  keeps 
on  the  back  of  the  whale,  while  the  latter  wounds 
it  underneath  in  the  belly.  The  grampus,  and 
other  large  fishes  of  the  cetaceous  order,  are  at- 
tacked and  destroyed  hv  the  same  enemies  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  whale  has  other  despente 
enemies  in  sharks  of  different  sizes,  from  one  to 
three  fathoms ;  and  it  generally  avoids  the  seas 
where  sharks  abound.  But  among  all  the  ene- 
mies of  this  harmless  animal,  man  may  be  ranked 
as  the  greatest. 

Viewing  the  whale  in  a  commercial  light,  we 
must  observe,  that  the  English  were  late  before 
they  engaged  in  this  fisfiery.  It  appears  by  a  set 
of  queries,  proposed  by  a  merchant,  in  1575,  in 
order  to  get  intbrmation  in  the  business,  that  we 
were  at  that  time  totally  ignorant  of  it,  being 
obliged  to  send  to  *  Biskaie  fer  men  skilful  in  the 
catching  of  the  whale  and  ordering  of  the  oil, 
and  one  cooper  skilful  to  set  up  the  staved  cask.' 
This  seems  strange :  for  by  the  account  Octher 
gives  of  his  travels,  to  king  Alfred,  near  700  years 
before  that  period,  it  is  evident  that  he  made 
that  monarch  acquainted  with  the  Norwegians 
practising  the  whale  fisheiy ;  it  seems  therefore 
that  all  memory  of  that  gainful  employment,  as 
well  as  of  the  able  voyager  Octher  and  his  im- 
portant discoveries,  was  lost  for  nearly  seven  cen- 
turies. The  earliest  notice  we  find  of  this  article 
in  our  commerce  is  by  Hackluyt,  who  says  it 
was  brought  from  the  Bay  of  St.  Laurence  by  an 
English  ship  that  *  went  there  for  the  barbes  and 
fynnes  of  whales  and  train  oil,  A.  D.  1594,  and 
found  there  700  or  800  whale  fynnes.  part  of  the 
cargo  of  two  great  Biskaine  ships,  that  had  been 
wrecked  tliree  years  before.'  About  1598,  the 
town  of  Hull  had  the  honor  of  first  seriously  at- 
tempting this  profitable  branch  of  trade ;  which 
has  largely  contributed  to  its  aggrandizement. 

We  will  resume  die  history  and  description  of  it, 
however,  under  Fish  bri £S,  which  see.  linnaens 
makes  the  physeter  and  delphinus,  which  are 
ranked  among  the  whales  by  some  vrriters,  two 
distinct  genera.  See  Physeteb  and  Delphinus. 
BALAGHAR,  a  district  of  Persia,  in  the 
principality  of  Baku,  including  some  villages, 
near  which  are  twenty-five  wells  of  black  naphtha. 
There  is  also  one  of  a  veiy  inflammable  white 
naphtha :  this  remains  lighted  on  the  surfece  nf 
water;  whence  it  is  a  common  amusement 
among  the  inhabitants  to  throw  pieces  of  it,  du- 
ring calms,  into  the  sea.   It  is  subject  to  Russia. 

BALAGHAUT,  or  Balagate,  the  upper  passes 
of  a  chain  of  mountains  which  divides  the  coast 
of  Malabar  from  tliat  of  Coromandel,  running 
almost  the  whole  length  of  the  peninsula  on 
this  side  the  Ganges.  Some  parts  of  them  are 
covered  with  fine  red  earth,  which  is  blown  b> 
the  strong  west  winds  as  far  as  Ceylon ;  and 
when  the  rays  of  tlie  sun  are  reflected  from  these 
mountains,  they  seem  to  be  on  fire.  They  make 
surprising  alterations  in  the  seasons ;  for  on  the 
north  side  of  tlie  cape  Comorin,  it  is  winter  in 
May,  June,  July,  August,  and  September,  in 
which  months  it  is  summer  on  the  south  side : 
on  one  side  there  axe  Mntinual  tempests,  Sunder 


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«ad  tigfatningy  yrhWe  tbe  other  enjoys  a  constant 
serenity.  When  black  clouds  are  gathered  about 
the  mountains,  they  are  followed  by  sudden  rain^ 
which  causes  the  overflowing  of  the  rivers,  and 
chokes  them  up  vntb  sand,  insomuch  that  they 
are  unnavigable  for  some  time  afterwards.  The 
buildings  and  clothes  of  tlie  inhabitants  of  this 
region  are  scarcely  sufficient  to  defend  them 
from  the  weather.  They  live  upon  rice,  milk, 
roots,  and  herbs,  with  very  little  meat;  they  have 
likewise  a  sort  of  small  arrac,  but  they  are  not 
given  to  drunkenness.  These  mountains  are  also 
called  the  Ghauts. 

BALAGU£R,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Catalonia, 
situated  on  the  Segre,  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  hill, 
in  a  trad  of  uocommou  fertility.  It  contains 
four  convents,  a  castl^  and  3700  inhabitants. 
The  neighbourhood  is  very  feiiile.  In  1709  Ba- 
laguer  was  taken  by  Stahremberg,  for  Charles 
III.  and  in  1710  l^  the  duke  de  Vendome,  £or 
Philip  V.  It  b  the  capital  of  a  district,  and  lies 
sixtyAhree  miles  north*west  of  Barcelona,  and 
219  north-east  of  Madrid.  Long.  0^  40'  £.,  lat. 
41°65'N. 

BALAK;  p^S,  Heb.  i.  e.  a  destroyer;  the 
son  of  Zippor,  a  king  of  the  Moabites,  who, 
alarmed  at  the  success  of  tbe  IsrasUtes,  and 
jealous  of  tbeir  prosperity,  sent  for  Balaam,  and 
bribed  him  to  curse  them.  Num.  zxiii.  and  zxiv. 
The  divinations  of  Balaam,  hovrever,  and  the 
•till  more  powerful  enchantments  of  the  hit 
Moabitesses,  appear  to  hacve  been  the  only 
weapons  empbyed  by  Balak  against  the  pros- 
perity of  Israel ;  for  we  find  Jephthah  uiges  it  as 
an  argument,  in  hit  raanifeste  against  thekii^of 
the  Ammonites  (Judges  xL  25.),  that  Bdak 
never  aetnally  fought  against  them. 

BALAKLMA,  or  Bj^lacuka^  a  town  of  Rus- 
sia, in  the  province  of  Nizney  Novgorod,  on  the 
Volga,  twenty  miles  nettii  of  the  city  of  Nizney 
Novgorod.    Long.  44*»  a  E^  lat.  56*30' N. 

BALALUAN,  a.  volcano  in  the  island  of  Su- 
matra, sitnatedin  thenonbeni  partof  the  island, 
near  Acheen. 

BALAMATTA^  a  town  ob  the  east  eoast  of 
the  island  of  Bouro.  Long.  126°  ir  E,,  lat.  3** 
12*  S.  *  ' 

EALAMBANGAN,  a  fertile  island  in  the 
Eastern  seas,  between  Borneo  and  Magindanao. 
It  is  about  fourteen  miles  in  length  firom  south- 
east to  north-west,  and  three  to  six  in  breadth, 
and  has  two  harbours.  Being  ceded  by  the  king 
of  Sooloo  to  the  English  East  India  Company,  a 
settlement  was  established  upon  it  in  1773 ;  but 
the  Sooloo  surprised  it  in  1775,  and  seized  the 
effects  of  the  company,  to  the  value  of  above 
£200,000  sterling.  A  new  establishment  vras 
formed  in  1803,  whioh  proving  expensive,  was 
withdrawn.  Previous  to  1 7^4  it  was  nearly  un- 
inhabited. Distant  fifteen  miles  from  the  north- 
em  extremity  of  Borneo.  Long  117**  V  E.,  lat 
r'lS'N. 

BALAMBUAN,  or  Ballanbouasg,  or  Pa- 
LAMBUAN,  a  district  and  town  in  the  south-east 
of  the  island  of  Java,  along  the  shore  of  the 
straits  of  Bally;  formerly  governed  by  an  inde- 
pendent sovereign.  A  range  of  mountains,  in- 
tersecting the  island  longitudinally,  commences 
hen.    Considerable  trade  in  pepper  wiis  once 


carried  on  here;  but  the  Europofin  resident 
having  removed  to  Bagnouangay,  it  has  been 
transferred  thither.  The  town  stands  on  a  river 
of  the  same  name,  and  is  protected  by  a  fort. 

Balambvan,  or  Pa  lam  bu  a  v,  a  strong  trading 
town  of  Asia,  in  the  East  Indies,  on  the  east  end 
of  the  island  of  Java,  and  capital  of  a  territory 
of  the  same  name. 

BALAMIO  (Ferdinand),  of  Sicily,  was  phy* 
sician  to  pope  Leo  X.  who  greatly  regarded 
him.  He  was  no  less  skilled  in  the  belles 
lettres  than  in  medicine;  and  he  cultivated 
poetry  and  the  Greek  learning  with  much  suc- 
cess. He  translated  from  the  Greek  into  Latin 
several  pieces  of  Galen,  which  were  first  printed 
separately,  and  afterwards  inserted  in  the  works 
or  that  ancient  physician,  published  at  Venice, 
1586,  in  folio.  He  flourished  at  Rome  about  the 
year  1555. 

BALAM-PULLI,  in'botany,  a  name  used  by 
some  authors  for  the  tree  whose  fruit  is  the  tama- 
rind of  the  shops. 

BAL'ANCE, «, «.  V.  a,&,n.^        Fr.  balance  ; 

Bal'akcing,  i  Lat.  6tf  lanx.  One 

Bal'ancek.  3  of  the  six  simple 

powers  in  mechanics,  used  principally  for  de- 
termining the  difference  of  weight  in  heavy  bo- 
dies ;  and  consequently  their  masses  or  quantitiea 
of  matter.  For  rarther  definition  and  description, 
see  CLOCK-irAUVG  and  MecBANics.  The  me- 
taphorical applications  of  the  difiereut  parts  of 
this  word  are  various.  To  balance  in  the  mind 
is  to  compare  one  thing  with  another.  The  act 
of  comfMuring  two  things  together  is  called  a  ba- 
lance ;  it  also  is  used  to  signify  fluctuation  be- 
tween equal  motives :  as  applied  to  accounts,  it 
noeans  that  which  is  wanting  to  make  two  parts 
even,  and  the  payment  of  what  b  deficient,  to 
produce  equality  in  the  debtor  and  creditor  state- 
ments. In  general  to  keep  in  a  state  of  just  pio- 
portion,  in  equilibrio.  Balance  of  trade  is  the 
equal  importing  of  foreign  commodities  with  the 
exporting  of  the  native.  Balance  of  power  is 
the  exact  equipoise  of  atrenffth  and  resourees 
between  rival  nations,  formed  by  alUaiiees  and 
treaties  with  neighbouring  sUtes,  in  order  to  keep 
each  other  in  check,  to  preserve  peace,  and  to 
promote  the  advanuge  of  all.  in  astronomy, 
the  balances  are  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
lodiao,  commonly  called  Libra. 

Ten  tkotuend  mark  and  mo,  that  noir  er  in  balance. 
And  I  betraised  of  alle,  bi  God,  that  all  may  auaace^ 
1  aalle  bring  him  to  stalle,  but  he  make  acquitance. 
H,  Brmne,  p,  15€L 

If  the  haUrnea  of  oar  lives  had  not  one  seale  of 
reason  to  poise  another  of  sensuality,  the  blood  and 
baseness  of  our  nature  would  conduct  us  to  most  pre- 
posterous conclusions.  ^*   ~ 


I  have  in  equal  balanae  justly  weigh'd 
What  wrong  our  anus  may  do«  what  wrongs  we  suffer : 
Griefs  heavier  than  our  offences.  /d.  Henry  VL 

Comfort  arises  not  from  others  being  miserable^ 
but  from  this  inference  upon  the  bakmce,  that  we 
suffer  only  the  lot  of  nature.  L'Etinu^e, 

Upon  a  fair  balance  of  the  advantages  on  either 
side,  it  will  appeav,  that  the  rules  of  the  gospel  axe 
more  powerful  means  of  convioSioa  than  sueh  message. 

AtterbmjiL 
2  D2 


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404 


BALANCE. 


.  Since  there  is  nothing  that  can  ofiend,  I  Me   not 
why  you  should  balanoe  a  moment  about  printing  it, 

Id,  to  Pope. 

Little  that  it  truly  noble  can  be  expected  from  one 

who  is  ever  poring  on  his  cash  book^  or  haUtnang  his 

accounts. 


Though  I  am  very  well  satisfied,  that  it  is  not  in 
my  power  to  fttriance  accounts  with  my  Maker,  I  am 
resolved,  however,  to  turn  all  my  endeavours  that 
way.  Addiaon,  Id, 

They  pass  the  planets. sev'n,  and  pass  the  fix'd 
And  that  crystalline  sphere  whose  baiance  weighs 
The  trepidation  talk'd,  and  that  first  mov'd.     MUton, 

Were  the  satisfaction  of  lust,  and  the  joys  of  hea-- 
ven,  offered  to  any  one's  present  possession,  he  would 
not  bahnct,  or  err,  in  the  determination  of  his  choice. 

Xodto. 

•Judging  is  baianemg  an  account,  and  determining 
«n  which  side  the  odds  lie.  Id* 

Care  being  taken,  that  tke  exportation  exceed  in 
value  the  importation  ;  and  then  the  balance  of  trade 
must  of  necessi^  be  returned  in  coin  or  bullion. 

.  Baem*i  Advice  to  VUUen, 

Heav'n  that  hath  plac'd  this  island  to  give  law. 
To  balance  Europe,  and  her  sUtes  to  awe.        Waller 

A  balance  of  power,  either  without  or  within  a  state, 
is  best  conceived  by  considering  what  the  nature  of  a 
balance  is.  It  supposes  three  things ;  first,  the  part 
which  is  held,  together  with  the  hand  that  holds  it ; 
and  then  the  two  scales^  with  whatever  is  weighed 
therein.  Sunft, 

Give  him  leave 
To  balance  the  account  of  Blenheim's  day.         Prior, 

Balance,  the  ancient  oi  Rohan,  called 
also  the  Statera  Romana,  or  steel-yard,  consists, 
as  is  well  known,  of  a  lever  or  beam,  move- 
able on  a  centre,  and  suspended  near  one  of  its 
extremities :  the  bodies  to  be  weighed  are  applied 
on  one  side  of  the  centre;  and  their  weight  is 
shown  by  the  division  marked  on  the  beam,  where 
the  weight,  which  is  moveable  along  the  lever, 
keeps  the  steel-yard  in  equilibrio.  This  balance 
is  still- often  used  in  weighing  heavy  bodies. 

Balance,  Deceitful,  or  that  which  cheats 
by  the  inequality  of  its  brachia,  is  founded  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  steel-yard.  Let  there  be, 
for  example,  a  balance  so  constructed,  that  both 
the  brachia  with  their  scales  shall  equiponderate, 
but  that  the  length  of  the  one  arm  shall  be  to  that 
of  the  other  as  ten  to  nine.  In  this  case  a  weight 
of  nine  pounds  put  into  the  scale  of  the  longest 
arm,  will  counterpoise  one  of  ten  pounds  put  into 
that  of  the  shorter  one :  but  the  cneat  is  immedi- 
ately discovered  by  shifting  the  weight  from  one 
scale  to  the  other :  in  which  case,  the  balance  will 
no  longer  remain  in  equilibrio.  The  true  weight 
M  a  geometrical  mean  proportion  between  the  two 
false  weights. 

Balance,  Assay,  is  a  very  nice  balance  used 
in  decimasttcal  operations,  to  determine  exactly 
the  weight  of  minute  bodies;  see  plate  Balance, 
fig.  1 .  This  should  be  made  of  the  best  steel,  and 
of  the  hardest  kmd;  because  that  metal  is  not  so 
easily  spoiled  with  rust  as  iron ;  and  it  is  more 
apt  than  any  other  to  take  a  perfect  pNDlish,  which 
at  the  same  time  prevents  the  rust.  The  structure 
of  the  assayer's  scale  is  little  different  from  that 
of  conunon  scales,  excepting  in  nicety  and  smaU- 
The  longer  the  beam  of  it  is,  tlie  mere 


exactly  may  the  weight  of  a  body  be  found ;  how- 
ever, ten  or  twelve  inches  are  a  sufficient 
length.  Let  the  thickness  of  it  be  so  little,  that 
two  drams  may  hardly  be  hung  at  either  of  its 
extremities  without  its  bending;  for  the  largest 
weight  put  upon  it  seldom  exceeds  one  dram. 
The  whole  surface  of  this  beam  must  be  altogether 
without  ornaments,  which  only  increase  the 
weight  and  gather  dust,  &c.  We  give  in  the 
plate,  one  made  by  Fontin  of  Paris,  so  delicate, 
that  when  charged  with  a  weight  of  a  thousand 
grammes  in  eSch  scale,  it  will  turn  with  the 
addition  of  one  gramme.  LL'  is  the  beam  of  the 
balance,  made  of  the  finest  steel,  and  of  sufficient 
dimensions  to  prevent  any  sensible  deflection  in 
it,  with  the  greatest  weights  it  is  proposed  to 
charge  it  with;  the  arms  are  of  course  of  equal 
length  and  figure,  and  the  whole  is  balanced  on 
a  knife-edge  suspension  at  C,  the  plate  G  being 
also  of  polished  steel,  and  rendered  as  hard  as 
possible,  to  prevent  the  action  of  the  knife-edge 
upon  it.  In  order  to  relieve  the  suspension  of 
the  balance  when  the  instrument  is  not  in  use, 
the  two  crotches  F  F  are  brouglit  up  by  the  screws 
shown  in  the  figure,  so  as  just  to  takeoff  the 
pressure  horn  the  point  of  support.  When  the 
equilibrium  is  lucely  supported,  the  needle,  or 
index,  CS,  corresponds  very  accurately  with 
zero  on  the  graduated  arc  attached  to  the.  top  or 
bottom  of  the  principal  stem,  and  which  former, 
being  fixed  to  the  beam,  will  be  displaced  by, 
and  indicate  aAy  want  of  due  equipoise.  The 
whole  apparatus  b,  when  dsed  for  nice  experi- 
ments, Enclosed  in  a  case  or  frame,  with  glass 
faces,  and  which  are  only  opened  sufficiently  to 
introduce  tlie  weights  and  body  to  be  weighed. 
An  instrument  in  its  case,  with  the  index 
pointing  downwards,  to  save  room,  is  shown  in 
the  figure. 

The  method  of  weighing  a  body  is  this: — 
Place  the  body,  which  we  may  denote  B,  in  one 
of  the  scales  of  the  balance;  as, , for  example,  in 
the  scale  A,  to  be  put  in  equilibrio,  by  placing 
in  the  other  scale  A',  bodies  of  any  weight,  such 
as  grains  of  lead,  small  pieces  of  copper,  or  the 
like;  and  lastly,  small  pieces  of  leaf  copper,  or 
paper,  till  the  needle,  or  index,  points  exactly 
to  zero  on  the  graduated  arc ;  the  beam  is  then  in 
equilibrio,  and  the  weight  in  the  two  scales 
equal,  or  veiy  nearly  so. '  Take  out  now  the 
body  B,  ancl  replace  it  by  different  known 
weights,  till  the*  equilibrium  is  again  obtained; 
and  tliese  weights  together,  will  express  the  pre- 
cise weight  of  the  body.  This  method,  it  is 
obvious,  is  independent  of  the  length  of  the  arms, 
and  even  of  the  quantity  of  friction  on  the  axis, 
because  the  body  B,  and  itt  equal  weights,  are 
placed  precisely  in  like  circumstances,  which  is 
not  the  case  in  the  common  method  of  weighing. 
One  thin^,  however,  is  here  very  essential,  and 
must  be  attended  to ;  viz.  not  to  shake  or  disturb 
the  apparatus  in  removing  the  body  ^m  the 
scale,  as  this  may  change  a  little  the  point  of 
support,  and  alter  the  degree  of  friction.  To 
prevent  this,  the  crotches  F,  F',  are  brought  up 
to  the  beam,  without  removing  it  fiom  its  sup- 
port ;  then  before  the  body  B  is  removed,  another 
body,  of  about  half  its  weight,  is  added.  The 
former  hodv  B  is  now  taken  out,  and  weights,  as 


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neatly  aa  can  be  judged  equal  to  it,  are  put  in 
the  scale ;  the  other  body  is  then  remoyed,  the 
crotches  let  down,  and  the  balance  left  on  its 
point  of  support  as  at  first;  and  successive  small 
'weisfhts  added,  till  the  equipoise  is  perfect. 

Balancb,  the  Bent  Lever,  is  represented 
in  fig.  7.  Here  ABC  is  a  bent  lever  sup]x>rted 
on  its  axis  B  in  the  pillar  IH.  At  A  is  sus- 
pended the  scale  £,  and  at  C  is  affixed  a 
weight  or  a  heavy  knob.  Draw  the  horizontal 
line  K  B  G  through  B,  the  centre  of  motion,  on 
which  from  A  and  C  let  fall  the  perpendiculars 
AK,  CD;  then  if  BK  and  BD  are  reciprocally 
in  proportion  to  the  weights  at  A  and  C,  they 
will  be  in  equilibrio;  but  if  not,  the  weight  C 
will  move  one  v^ay  or  other  along  the  arc  F  G, 
till  that  ratio  be  obtained.  If  the  lever  be  so 
bent  that  when  A  coincides  with  the  line  G  K, 
C  coincides  with  the  vertical  line  BH,  then  as  C 
moves  along  from  F  to  G,  its  momentum  will 
increase ;  whilst  that  of  a  weight  in  the  scale  £ 
will  decrease;  hence,  the  weights  in  £  corres- 
ponding to  different  positions  of  the  balance, 
may  be  expressed-  on  the  graduated  arc  of  the 
plate  F  G,  the  whole  being  used  in  the  manner 
of  the  steel-yard. 

Balance,  the  Chinese,  is  a  steel-yard  some- 
what different  in  its  form  and  application :  it  is 
much  used  by  the  eastern  merchants  in  weighing 
gems  and  precious  metals.  T*he  beam  is  a  small 
xx>d  of  wood  or  ivory,  about  a  foot  in  length : 
upon  this  are  three  lines  of  measure  made  of 
fine  silver  studded  work,  beginning  from  the 
end  of  the  beam,  whence  the  first  is  extended 
eight  inches,  the  second  six  and  a  half,  and  the 
third  eight  and  a  half.  The  first  is  European 
weight,  the  other  two  Chinese.  At  the  other  end 
of  the  beam  hangs  a  round  scale;  and  at  tliree 
several  distances  from  this  end  are  fastened  so 
many  fine  strings  at  different  points  of  suspen- 
sion. The  first  distance  makes  1}  or  f  of  an  inch ; 
the  second  ^  or  double  the  former;  and  the 
third,  4|,  or  triple  the  same.  When  the  instru- 
ment is  used,  it  is  held  up  by  some  one  of  the' 
strings,  and  a  sealed  weight,  of  about  an  ounce 
and  a  quarter,  troy,  is  hung  upon  some  one  of  the 
divisions  of  the  rule,  so  as  to  produce  an  equi- 
librium, the  weight  of  the  body  being  indicated 
by  the  graduated  scale  above  referred  to. 

Balance,  the  Danish,  is  a  kind  of  balance 
or  steel-yard,  in  common  use  upon  various  parts 
of  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  consists.of  a  bat- 
ten of  hard  wood,  having  a  heavy  lump  or  knob 
at  one  end,  and  a  swivel  hook  at  the  other.  The 
goods  to  be  weighed  are  suspended  on  the  hook, 
and  the  whole  is  carried  in  a  loop  of  whip-cord, 
in  which  it  is  slidden  to  and  firo  (when  placed 
horizontally),  till  the  goods  suspended  from  the 
hook  at  one  end  are  luilanced  by  the  knob  at  the 
otlier.  The  weight  of  the  goods  is  estimated  by 
the  contact  of  the  loop  with  a  scale  of  divisions 
in  harmonic  progression. 

Balance,  Brady's,  or  Weighing  Appabatvs. 
One  of  the  best  modem  inventions  of  the  kind  is 
represented  in  fig.  6.  It  unites  the  properties  of 
the  bent  lever  bsilance  and  the  steel-yard.  ABC 
is  a  frame  of  cast  iron,  having  a  great  part  of  its 
weight  towards  A,  where  it  is  thicker  than  in  its 
other  parts:  F  is  a  fixed  fulcrum,  and  £  a  move- 


able suspender,  having  a  scale  and  hook  at  its 
lower  extremity;  K,  £,  G,  are  three  distinct 
places  to  which  the  suspender  £H  may  be 
applied ;  and  to  which  belong  respectively,  tlie 
three  graduated  scales  of  division,  or  weights, 

fC,  cd,  ab.  When  the  scale  and  suspender 
are  applied  at  G,  the  apparatus  is  in  equilibrio, 
with  the  edge  A  B  horizontal,  and  the  suspender 
cuts  the  zero  on  the  scale  ab ;  now  a  weight 
being  applied,  the  whole  apparatus  turns  about 
F,  and  the  part  towards  B  descends,  till  the  equi- 
librium is  again  established ;  when  the  weight  of 
the  body  is  read  off  from  the  scale  ab,  which 
registers  to  ounces,  and  extends  to  two  pounds. 
If  the  weight  of  the  body  exceeds  two  pounds, 
and  be  less  than  eleven  pounds,  the  suspender  is 
placed  at  £,  and  when  the  upper  edge  of  the 
oalance  is  horizontal,  the  weight  or  number  2,  is 
found  a  little  to  tlie  right  of  the  index  of  the  sus- 
pender; if  now  weights  exceeding  two  pounds  be 
placed  in  the  scale,  the  whole  again  turns  about 
r,  and  the  weight  of  the  body  is  shown  on  the 
graduated  arc  cd,  which  extends  to  eleven  pounds, 
and  registers  to  every  two  ounces. 

If  the  weight  of  the  body  exceeds  eleven  pounds^ 
the  suspender  is  hung  on  at  K,  and  the  weights 
are  ascertained  in  the  same  manner  on  the  scale 

yC  to  thirty  pounds,  the  subdivisions  being  on 
this  scale  quarters  of  pounds.  The  same  princi- 
ples would  obviously  apply  to  weights  greater 
or  less  than  the  above.  To- prevent  mistake,  the 
three  points  of  support,  jG,  £,  K,  are  numbered 
1,  2,  3;  and  the  corresponding  arcs  are  respec- 
tively numbered  in  the  same  manner.  When  the 
hook  is  used  instead  of  the  scale,  the  latter  is  turned 
upwards,  there  being  a  joint  at  m  for  that  purpose. 
Balance,  Hydrostatic,  an  instrument  con- 
trived to  determine  accurately  the  specific  gravity 
of  both  solid  and  fluid  bodies.    It  is  constructed 

'  in  various  forms.  We  shall  describe  that  which 
appears  to  be  the  most  accurate. — V  C  G,  fig.  2, 
is  the  stand  or  pillar  of  this  hydrostatic  balance,, 
which  is  to  be  nxed  in  a  table.  From  the  top  A, 
hangs,  by  two  silk  strings,  the  horizontal  bar 
B.B,  from  which  is  suspended  by  a  ring  t,  the 
fine  beam  of  a  balance  b;  which  is  prevented 
from  descending  too  low  on  either  side,  by  the 
gently  springing  piece  t  x  y  2,  fixed  on  the  sup- 

Sort  M.  The  harness  is  annulated  at  o,  to  show 
istinctly  the  perpendicular  position  of  the  exa- 
men,  by  the  small  pointed  index  fixed  above  it. 
The  strings  by  which  the  balance  is  suspended, 
passing  over  two  pullies,  one  on  each  side  the 
piece  at  A,  go  down  to  the  bottom  on  the  other 
side,  and  are  hung  over  the  hook  at  v ;  which 
hook,  by  means  of  a  screw  P,  is  moveable  about 
one  inch  and  a  quarter  backward  and  forward, 
and  therefore  the  balance^  may  be  raised  or  de- 

Sressed  so  much.  But  if  a  greater  elevation  or 
epression  be  required,  the  sliding  piece  S,  which 
carries  the  screw  P,  is  readily  moved  to  any  part 
of  the  square  brass  rod  V  K,  and  fixed  by  means 
of  a  screw.  The  motion  of  the  balance  being 
thus  adjusted,  the  rest  of  the  apparatus  is  as  fol- 
lows : — H  H  is  a  small  board,  fixed  upon  the 
piece  D,  under  the  scales  d  and  e,  and  is  move- 
able up  and  do?m  in  a  low  slit  in  the  pillar 
above  C,  and  fiistened  at  any  part  by  a  screw 
behind.     From  the  point  in  the  middle  of  the 


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BALANCE. 


1!K>tton  of  each  msaXe  bangs,  by  a  fine  hook»  a 
brass  wire  a  d  and  a  e.  These  pass  through  two 
holes  m  m  in  the  table.  To  the  wire  ad  is  sus- 
pended a  curious  cylindric  wire,  r  s,  perforated 
at  each  end  for  that  purpose :  tliis  wire  r  t  is 
covered  with  paper,  graduated  by  equal  divisions, 
and  is  above  five  inches  long.  In  the  comer  of 
the  board  at  £,  is  fixed  a  brass  .tube,  on  which 
a  round  wire  A  /  is  so  adapted  as  to  move  neither 
too  tight  nor  too  free,  by  its  flat  head  I.  Upon 
the  lower  part  of  this  moves  another  tube  Q, 
which  has  sufficient  friction  to  make  it  remain  in 
any  position  required :  to  this  is  fixed  an  index 
T,  moving  horizontally  when  the  wire  A  /  is 
turned  about,  and  therefore  may  be  easily  set  to 
the  graduated  wire  r  s.  To  the  lower  end  of  the 
wire  r  s  hangs  a  weight  L ;  and  to  that  a  wire  p  n, 
with  a  small  brass  ball  g,  about  one^ibartn  of 
an  inch  in  diair  eter.  On  the  other  side,  to  the 
wire  a  c,  hangs  a  large  glass  bubble  R,  by  a 
horse-hair,  jlet  us  fint  suppose  the  weight  L 
taken  away,  and  the  wire  p  n  suspended  from 
S :  and,  on  the  other  side,  let  the  bubble  R  be 
taken  away,  and  the  wire  F  suspended  at  c«  in 
its  room.  This  weight  F  we  suppose  to  be  suf- 
ficient to  keep  the  several  parts  nangiog  to  the 
other  scale  in  equilibrium ;  at  the  same  time  that 
the  middle  point  of  the  wire  p  n  is  at  die  surface 
of  the  water  in  the  vessel  O.  The  wire  p  n  is  to 
be  of  such  a  size,  that  the  length  of  one  inch 
shall  weigh  four  grains.  Now  it  is  evident,  since 
brass  is  eight  times  heavier  tlian  water,  that  for 
every  inch  the  wire  sinks  in  the  water,  it  will 
become  half  a  grain  lighter,  and  half  a  grain 
heavier  for  every  inch  it  rises  out -of  the  water : 
consequently,  by  sinking  two  inches  below  the 
middle  point,  or  rising  two  inches  above  it,  the 
wire  will  become  one  grain  lighter  or  heavier. 
Therefore,  if,  when  the  middle  point  i^  at  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  equilibrium,  the  index  T 
be  set  to  the  middle  point  a  of  the  graduated 
wire  r  (,  and  the  distance  on  each  side  a  r  and  a  s 
contains  100  equal  parts;  then,  if  in  weighing 
bodies  the  weight  is  required  to  the  100th  part 
of  a  grain,  it  may  be  easily  had  by  proceeding  in 
the  following  manner:  Let  the  body  to  be 
weighed  be  placed  in  the  scale  d.  Put  a  weight 
in  the  scale  e,  and  let  this  be  so  determined  tnat 
one  grain  more  sliall  be  too  much,  and  one  grain 
less  too  little.  Then  the  balance  being  moved 
gently  up  or  down,  bv  the  screw  P,  the  equili- 
brium will  be  nicely  shown  at  a ;  if  the  index  T 
be  at  the  middle  point  a  of  the  wire  r  i,  it  shows 
that  the  weights  put  into  the  scale  e  are  just  equal 
to  the  weight  of  die  body.  By  this  method  we 
find  the  absolute  weight  of  the  body :  the  rela- 
tive weight  is  found  by  weighing  it  hydrostatic 
cally  in  water,  as  follows :  Instei^  of  putting  the 
body  into  the  scale  e,  as  before,  let  it  hang  vrith 
the  weight  F,  at  the  hook  c,  bv  a  horse  hair^  as 
at  R,  supposing  the  vessel  O  of  water  were 
away.  The  equilibrium  being  then  made,  the 
index  T  standing  between  a  and  r,  at  the  thirty- 
sixth  division*  shows  the  weif^ht  of  the  body  pot 
in  to  be  1Q9,536  grains.  As'  it  thus  hangs,  le«  it 
be  immersed  in  the  water  of  the  vessel  O,  and  it 
will  become  much  lighter ;  the  scale  c  will  de- 
scend till  the  beam  o?  the  balance  rests  on  the 
support  1.    Then  suppose  100  grains  put  into 


die  scale  d  restore  the  equilibrium  preeiscSy,  so 
that  the  index  T  stands  at  the  thirty-^sixth  diTision 
above  a ;  it  is  evident  that  the  weight  of  an  equal 
bulk  of  water  would,  in  this  case,  be  exactly  100 
grains.  In  a  similar  manner  this  balance  may 
be  applied  to  find  the  specific  gravity  of  liquid^ 
as  IS  easy  to  conceive. 

LuxiN*s  Hydrostatic  Balavcs,  an  Ame- 
rican invention,  has  the  recommendation  of 
simplicity,  and  is  said  in  the  Report  of  the 
Committee  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Phi- 
ladelphia, to  be  a  very  accurate  instrument.  It 
acts  on  the  principle  of  the  steel-vard ;  the 
arms  being  at  equipoise,  when  unloaded ;  see  fig. 
III.  C  is  the  Dody  whose  specific  gravity  is  to 
be  weighed,  and  it  is  suspended  to  the  short 
arm  of  die  instrument.  On  the  longer  arm  A, 
the  movable  weight  D  indicates  its  weight  in 
air  or  water.  When  greater  accuracy  is  required, 
a  second  weight  may  be  added  on  the  lon^  aim, 
which  ought  to  be  some  determinate  portion  <^ 
J>,  Then,  the  division  marked  by  the  larger 
weight,  will  be  units,  and  that  of  the  smaller 
tenths,  or  lOOths  as  it  may  be  contrived. 

CoATss's  HrnBOSTATic  BALAifCE  is  also  an 
instrument  of  American  invention,  upon  the  same 
principles,  but  differing  in  the  mode  of  gradu- 
ation :  this  being  adapted  to  the  purposes  cf  find- 
ing the  specific  gravi^  of  minerals ;  and  therefore, 
instead  of  pointing  out  the  actual  and  relative 
weights,  it  shows  at  once  their  specific  gravity. 
The  instrument  b  accurately  balanced  when  un- 
loaded, by  making  the  shorter  arm  much  laiger 
than  the  longer  one;  and  the  latter  is  ^graduated 
and  marked  with  numbers,  which  everywhere 
show  the  quotient  of  the  entire  length  of  the 
longer  arm,  divided  by  the  distance  of  the  roaik 
from  die  end :  thus,  at  half  the  length,  is  marked 
the  number  2 ;  lit  one-third  the  number  3,  and 
so  on ;  which  numbers  extend  on  the  scale  to 
rather  more  than  tweuty,  in  order  to  extend  the 
use  of  the  instrument  to  heavy  minerals. 

In  using  it,  a  weight  is  suspended  by  a  hook 
at  A,  and  the  body  under  examination  is  to  be 
hung  by  a  horse-hair  on  the  shorter  arm,  and  slid 
along,  as  on  the  steel-yard,  till  an  equipoise  is  ob- 
tainni,  say  at  D.  Then,  without  sitering  its 
situation  on  the  beam,  the  body  is  to  be  immersed 
in  water,  and  balanced  a  second  time,  by  sliding 
the  weight  C  along  the  graduated  arm,  till  the 
instrument  b  found  again  in  equtlibrio.  Hie 
hook  of  this  latter  vrill  then  at  once  indicate,  by 
its  situation  on  the  scale,  the  actual  specific  gra- 
vity of  the  body,  water  being  considered  as  anity. 
The  instrument  being  supposed  in  equilibrio,. 
and  BD  and  the  weight  of  the  counteipoise 
being  constant,  the  weight  of  die  body  vanes  as 
the  distance  of  the  counterpoise  from  B,  by  the 
common  principle  of  the  lever. 

TU  Balance  op  Torsion,  fig.  V.  was  in- 
vented by  M.  Coulomb,  to '  estimate  minute 
attracting  and  repelling  forces  in  electricity,  mag^ 
netism,  &c.  It  consbts  of  a  vertical  metallic 
thread,  the  upper  end  of  which  b  attached  to  a 
point  A,  its  lower  end  carrying  a  small  weight  tr, 
and  a  little  above  it  a  light  horizontal  needle, 
n.  It.  To  ascertain  very  small  forces  they  are 
made  to  act  on  the  extremitv  of  thb  needle,  ard 
their  intensity  b  appreciated  by  the  angle  of  de- 


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viation  which  they  cause  in  it,  so  that  the  forces 
are  balanced  by  the  torsioa  of  the  wire,  and  hence 
the  denomination.     The  needle  b  enclosed  in  a 
glass  cylinder,  to  protect  it  from  the  action  of  the 
air,  and  the  thread  is  enclosed  in  a  smaller  cylin- 
der fixed  into  the  brass  cover  thereof.    On  the 
upper  part  of  the  small  cylinder  is  placed  a  di- 
vided dial-plate,  which,  with  very  little  friction, 
turns  about  the  cylinder.  The  lever  which  carries 
the  thread  that  suspends  the  horizontal  needle, 
traverses  this  dial,  and  serves  as  an  indicator, 
when  it  is  requisite  to  have  the  torsion  equal  to 
a  certain  number  of  degrees.  A  circular  division 
applied   horizontally  about  the  glass  cylinder, 
opposite  to  the  needle,  measures  the  deviations 
or  the  latter  when  under  excitation.   Mr.  Caven- 
dish determined  the  mean  density  of  the  earth 
by  estimating  vrith  this  instrument  the  action  of 
two  leaden  balls  of  known  dimensions  and  spe- 
cific gravity ;  and  comparing  the  effect  with  that 
of  terrestrial  gravity.  SeePAU.  !ZVaiu.anno.  1798. 
The  Balance,  Common,  or  Modern,  gene- 
rally used,  consists  of  a  lever  or  beam  suspended 
exactly  in  the  middle,  having  scales  or  basins 
hung  to  each  extremity.    The  lever  is  called  the 
jugum  or  beam ;  and  the  two  moieties  thereof, 
on  each  side  the  axis,  the  brachia  or  arms.    The 
line  on  which  the  beam  turns,  or  which  divides 
its  brachia,  is  called  the  axis ;  and,  when  consi- 
dered with  regaid  to  the  length  of  the  brachia,  is 
esteemed  a  point  only,  and  called  the  centre  of 
the  balance:  the  handle  whereby  it  is  held,  or  by 
which  the  whole  apparatus  is  suspended,  is  called 
trutina;  and  the 
slender  part  pet^ 
pendicutar  to  the 
Deam,    whereby 
either  the  equili- 
brium or  prepon- 
derancy  of  bodies 
is    indicated,    is 

called  the  tongue  ^ ^ 

of  the  balance. —  ^^"  •■■i*^fci*«i""^^^^ 
Thus,  in  the  dia- 
gram annexed,  ab  is  the  beam,  divided  into 
two  .equal  brachia,  or  arms,  by  the  white  spot 
in  the  centre,  which  is  the  axis  or  centre  of 
the  balance,  and  c  is  the  tongue.  The  tru- 
tina, on  which  the  axis  is  suspended,  is  not  re- 
presented in  this  figure,  in  order  to  render  the 
other  parts  more  conspicuous.  It  follows  from 
what  has  been  observed,  tiiat  in  the  Roman  ba- 
lance, or  steel-yard,  the  weight  used  for  a  couiv- 
terpoise  is  the  same,  but  the  point  of  application 
varies ;  in  the  common  balance  the  counterpoise 
is  various,  and  the  point  of  application  the  same. 
The  principle  on  wnich  each  is  founded,  maj»  be 
very  easily  understood  from  the  general  proper- 
ties of  the  lever.  See  Lever.  The  beam  is  a 
lever  of  the  first  kind;  but  instead  of  resting  on 
«  fulcrum,  is  suspended  by  something  fastened 
to  its  centre  of  motion :  consequently  the  me- 
chanism of  the  balance  depends  on  the  same  theo- 
reoDs  as  the  lever.  Hence  as  the  quantity  of 
natter  in  known  weight  is  to  its  distance  from 
the  centre  of  motion,  so  is  the  distance  of  the  un- 
known weight  to  its  quantity  of  matter.  The 
common  balance  is  properly  a  lever,  whose  axis 
of  motion  is  formed  with  an  ed^^  like  that  of  a 


knife,  and  the  other  two  dishes,  or  scales,  at  its 
extremities/are  hung  upon  edges  of  the  same  kind, 
which  are  tint  made  sharp,  and  then  rounded 
with  a  fine  bone,  or  a  piece  of  buff  leather.  Or. 
the  regular  formation  of  this  part,  the  excellence 
of  tile  instrument  essentially  aepends.  When  the 
lever,  or  beam  of  the  balance,  is  considered  as  a 
mere  line,  the  two  outer  edges  are  called  points 
of  suspension,  and  the  inner  the  fulcrum.    The 

Soints  of  suspension  are  supposed  to  be  at  equal 
istances  from  the  fulcrum,  and  to  be  pressed 
with  equal  weights  when  loaded. 

And  now,  observe,  1.  If  the  fulcrum  be  placed 
in  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam,  and  the 
three  edges  be  all  in  the  same  right  line,  the  beam 
of  the  balance  will  have  no  tendency  to  one  po- 
sition more  than  another,  but  will  rest  in  any 
position  in  which  it  may  be  placed,  whether  the 
scales  be  on  or  off,  empty  or  loaded.    2.  If  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam,  when  level,  be 
immediately  above  the  fulcrum,  it  will  overset 
by  the  smallest  action  ;  that  is,  tiie  end  which  is 
lowest  will  descend ;  and  it  will  do  this  with  the 
greater  velocity,  in  proportion  as  the  centre  of 
gravity  is  higher,  and  toe  points  of  suspension 
are  less  load^.    3.  But  if  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  beam  be  immediately  below  the  fulcrum, 
the  beam  will  not  rest  in  any  position  but  when 
level ;  and,  if  disturbed  from  that  position,  and 
then  lefl  at  liberty,  it  will  vibrate^  and  at  last 
come  to  rest  in  an  horizontal  position.    Its  vi- 
brations will  be  quicker,  and  its  horizontal  ten- 
dency stronger,  the  lower  the  centre  of  gravity, 
and  the  less  the  weight  upon  the  points  of  sus- 
pension.   4.  If  the  fulcrum  be  below  the  line 
joining  the  points  of  suspension,  and  Uiese  be 
loaded,  the  beam  will  overset,  unless  prevented 
by  the  weight  of  the  beam  tending  to  produce 
an  horizontal  position,  as  in  the  third  case.    In 
this  case  small  weights  will  equilibrate,  as  in 
the  former ;  a  certain  exact  weight  vrill  rest  in 
any  position  of  the  beam,  as  in  the  first  case ;  and 
all  greater  weights  will  cause  the  beam  to  over- 
set, as  in  the  second.    Money  scales  are  often 
made  this  way,  and  will  overset  with  any  con- 
siderable load.     5.   If  the   fulcrum  be  above 
the  line  joining  the  points  of  suspension,  the  beam 
will  come  to  the  horizontal  position,  unless  pre- 
vented by  its  own  weight,  as  in  the  second  case. 
If  the  centre  of  gravity  be  nearly  in  the  fulcrum, 
all  the  vibrations  of  the  Icttded  beam  will  be 
made  in  times  nearly  equal,  unless  the  weights 
be  very  small,  when  they  will  be  slower.    The 
vibrations   of  balances  are  quicker,    and   the 
horizontal  tendency  stronger,  the  higher  the  ful- 
crum.   Finally,  in  the  proper  construction  of  the 
common  balance,  observe,  that  the  points  of  sus- 
pension must  be  exactly  in  the  same  line  as  the 
centre  of  the  balance ;  that  they  jnust  be  pre- 
cisely equidistant  from  that  centre  on  either  side ; 
and  that  the  brachia  must  be  as  long  as  conve- 
niently they  may,  in  relation  to  their  thickness, 
and  the  weight  which  they  are  intended  to  sup- 
port; that  there  must  be  as  little  fiiction.as  pos- 
sible in  the  motion  of  the  beam  and  scales ;  and, 
lastly,  tiiat  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  must 
be^laoed  a  little  below  die  centre  of  motion. 

The  equality  of  the  arms  of  a  balance  is  of  use, 
in  scientific  pursuits,  says  Dr.  Ure,  chiefly  it^ 


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BALANCE. 


making  weights  by  bisection.  A  balance  with 
unequal  arms  will  weigh  as  accurately  as  another 
of  the  same  workmanship  with  equal  arms,  pro- 
vided the  standard  weight  itself  be  tint  counter- 
poised, then  taken  out  of  the  scale,  and  the  thing 
to  be  weighed  be  put  into  the  scale  and  adjusted 
against  the  counterpoise ;  or  when  proportional 
quantities  only  are  considered,  as  m  chemical 
and  in  other  philosophical  experiments,  the  bo- 
dies and  products- under  examination  may  be 
weighed  against  the  weiglits,  taking  care  always 
to  put  the  weights  into  the  same  scale.  For  then, 
though  the  belies  may  not  be  really  equal  to  the 
weights,  yet  their  proportions  among  each  other 
may  be' the  same  as  if  they  had  been  accurately 
so.  But  though  the  equality  of  the  arms  may  be 
well  dispensed  with,  yet  it  is  indispensably  ne- 
cessary tnat  their  •relative  lengths,  wnatever  they 
may  be,  should  continue  invariable.  For  this 
purpose,  it  is  necessary,  either  that  the  three 
edges  be  all  truly  parallel,  or  that  the  points  of 
suspension  and  support  should  be  always  in  the 
same  part  of  the  cage.  This  last  requisite  is  the 
most  easily  obtained.  The  balances  made  in 
London  are  usually  constructed  in  such  a  man- 
ner, that  the  bearing  parts  form  notches  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  edges ;  so  that  the  scales  being 
set  to  vibrate,  all  the  parts  naturally  fall  into  the 
same  bearing.  The  balances  made  in  the  coun- 
try have  the  fulcrum  end  straight,  and  confined 
to  one  constant  bearing  by  two  side  plates.  But 
the  points  of  suspension  are  referred  to  notches 
in  the  edges,  like  the  London  balances. 

Very  delicate  balances  (continues  this  able 
writer)  are  not  only  useful  in  nice  experiments, 
but  are  likewise  much  more  expeditious  than 
otliers  in  common  weighing.  If  a  pair  of  scales 
with  a  certain  load  be  barely  sensible  to  one-tenth 
of  a  grain,  it  will  require  a  considerable  time  to 
ascertain  the  weight  to  that  degree  of  accuracy, 
because  the  turn  must  be  observed  several  times 
over,  and  is  very  small.  But  if  no  greater  accu- 
racy were  required,  and  scales  were  used  which 
would  turn  with  the  hundredth  of  a  grain,  a  tenth 
of  a  grain,  more  or  less,  would  make  so  great  a 
difference  in  the  turn,  that  it  would  be  seen  im- 
mediately. 

If  a  balance  be  found  to  turn  with  a  certain 
addition,  and  is  not  moved  by  any  smaller  weight, 
a  greater  sensibility  may  be  given  to  that  balance, 
by  producing  a  tremulous  motion  in  its  parts. 
Ihus,  if  the  edge  of  a  blunt  saw,  a  file,  or  other 
similar  instrument,  be  drawn  along  any  part  of 
the  case  or  support  of  a  balance,  it  will  produce 
a  jarring,  which  will  diminish  the  friction  on  the 
moving  parts  so  much,  that  the  turn  will  be  evi- 
dent with  one-third  or  one-fourth  of  the  addition 
that  would  else  have  been  required.  In  this  way, 
a  beam  which  would  barely  turn  by  the  addition 
of  one-tenth  of  a  grain,  will  turn  with  one-thirtieth 
or  fortieth  of  a  grain. 

Muschenbroek,  in  his  Cours  de  Physique, 
(French  translation,  Paris,  1769)  tom.  ii.  p.  247, 
says,  he  used  an  ocular  balance  of  great  accuracy, 
which  turned  (trebuchoit)  vnth.  l-40th  of  a  grain. 
The  substances  he  weighed  were  between  200 
and  300  grains.    His  balance,  therefore,  weighed 

^o  ^^  12000  P*^  °^  **   "^^^^^  '*  *°^  ^^^^ 


ascertain  such  weighu  truly  to  four  placet  of 
^figures.  . 

In  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  toI.  Ixvi. 
p.  509,  mention  is  made  of  two  accurate  balances 
of  Mr.  Bolton;  and  it  is  said  that  one  would 
weigh  a  pound,  and  turn  with  one-tenth  of  a 
grain.    This,  if  the  pound  be  avoirdupois,  is 

of  the  weight:  and  shows  that  the  ba- 

70000  ° 

lance  could  be  well  depended  on  to  four  places 
of  figures,  and   probably  to  five.    The  other 

weighed  half  an  oimce,  and  turned  with  -—  of 


a  grain.    This  is 


1 


24000 


of  the  weight 


lu  the  same  volume,  p.  511,  a  balance  of  Mr. 
Read's  is  mentioned,  wnich  readily  turned  with 
less  than  one  pennyweight  when  loaded  with 
fifty-five  pounds,  before  the  Royal  Society ;  but 
very  distinctly  turned  with  four  grains,  when 

tried  more  patientiy.     This  is  about  -5™^ 

part  of  the  weight;  and  therefore  this  baUtnce 
may  be  depended  on  to  five  places  of  figures. 

Abo,  page  576,  a  balance  of  Mr.  Whitehurst's 
weighs  one  pennyweight,  and  is  sensibly  affected 

the  weight. 

A  balance  belonging  to  Mr.  Alchome  of  the 
Mint  in  London,  is  mentioned,  vol.  Ixxvii.  p. 
205  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  It  u 
true  to  three  grains  with  15lb.  an  end.  If  these 
were  avoirdupois  pounds,  the  weight  is  known  to 

-^-r— part,  or  to  four  places  of  figures,  or 

ouOOO 

barely  five. 

A  balance  (made  by  Ramsden,  and  turning 
on  points  inst^  of  edges,)  in  the  possession  of 
Dr.  George  Fordyce,  is  mentioned  in  the  seventy- 
fiftii  volume  of  the  Philosophical  Transactions. 
With  a  load  of  four  or  five  ounces,  a  difference 

of  one  division  in  the  index  was  made  by 

iow> 

of  a  grain.    This  is .  part  of  the  weight, 

and  consequently  this  beam  will  ascertain  such 
weights  to  five  places  of  figures,  beside  an  esti- 
mate figure. 

The  Royal  Society's  balance,  which  was  lately 
made  by  Ramsden,  turns  on  steel  edges,  upon 

? lanes  of  polished  crystal.  '  I  was  assured,'  says 
)r.  Ure,  'that  it  ascertained  a  weight  to  the 
seven-millionth  part.  I  was  not  present  at  this 
trial,  which  must  have  required  great  care  and 
patience,  as  the  point  of  suspension  could  not 
nave  moved  over  much  more  tnan  the  2-lOOth  of 
an  inch  in  the  first  half  minute ;  but,  (rem  some 
trials  which  I  saw,  I  think  it  probable  that  it 
may  be  used  in  general  practice  to  determine 
weights  to  five  places  and  better. 

BALANCE,  in  ichthyology,  or  the  balance  fish. 
See  Squalus. 

Balance,  in  the  woollen  manufacture,  is  a 
machine  invented  by  the  Rev.  W.  Ludlam.  The 
thread  is  made  into  skeins  of  iStte  same  lengdi  ^ 
and  the  fineness  of  it  is  denominaled  from  tht 


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number  of  skeins  which  go  to  a  pound;  the 
coarsest  being  about  twelve  to  the  pound,  and 
the  finest  nearly  sixty.  This  machine  is  designed 
for  weighing  skeins,  in  order  to  determine  their 
respective  fineness.  It  resembles  the  bc&m  of  a 
common  pair  of  scales ;  at  one  end  of  it  is  fixed 
a  weight,  called  the  counterpoise,  and  at  the  other 
end  a  hook ;  in  sorting,  the  skein  to  be  examined 
is  put  upon  the  hook,  and  sinks  down  more  or 
less,  according  to  its  weight,  till  the  counterpoise, 
by  rising,  balances  it:  and  then  the  index  or 
cock  of  the  beam,  points  out  on  a  gradual  arch, 
the  number  of  skeins  of  that  sort  which  go  to 
thepound. 

The  Balance  of  a  Clock  or  Watch,  is  that 
part  which  regulates  the  beats.  The  circi^lar  part 
of  the  balance  is  called  the  rim,  and  its  spindle 
the  verge ;  there  belong  to  it  also  two  pallets  or 
nuts,  that  play  in  the  fangs  of  the  crown-wheel : 
in  pocket  watches,  that  strong  stud  in  which  the 
lower  pivot  of  the  verge  plays,  and  in  the  middle 
of  which  one  pivot  of  the  crown-wheel  runs,  is 
called  the  potence :  the  wrought  piece  which 
covers  the  balance,  and  in  which  the  upper  pivot 
of  the  balance  plays,  is  the  cock;  and  the  small 
spring  in  the  new  pocket  watches  is  called  the 
regrulator.  The  motion  of  a  balance,  as  well  as 
that  of  a  pendulum,  being  alternate,  while  the 
pressure  of  the  wheels  is  constantly  in  one  di- 
rection, it  is  obvious  that  some  art  must  be  used 
to  accommodate  the  one  to  the  other.  When  the 
tooth  of  the  wheel  has  given  the  balance  a  motion 
in  one  direction,  it  must  ^uit  it,  that  it  may  get 
an  impulsion  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  ba- 
lance or  pendulum  thus  escaping  from  the  tooth 
of  the  wheel,  or  the  tooth  escaping  from  the  ba- 
lance, has  given  to  the  general  construction 
the  name  of  scapement. 

Before  the  invention  of  the  pendulum,  clocks 
were  regulated  by  an  horizontal  balance,  having 
a  vertical  axis,  that  passed  through  two  holes, 
with  liberty  to  play  up  and  down ;  and  that  sus- 
pended by  means  of  a  string  passed  through  a 
nole  in  the  axis  and  fastened  at  both  ends,  so  as 
to  form  equal  angles  with  the  axis  itself.  Con- 
sequently, when  Uie  balance  revolved  in  one  di- 
rection, the  string  was  wound  upon  the  verge, 
and  bemg  thus  shortened,  raised  it  up  until  die 
weight  of  the  balance  had  overcome  tne  force  of 
rotation :  after  which  it  revolved  the  contrary 
way,  and  descended  to  perform  a  similar  ascent 
by  winding  the  string  the  opposite  way. 

A  supposed  Balance  of  Fower,  in  the  poli- 
tical system,  originates  from,  and  is  maintamed 
by,  the  alliances  of  different  nations,  as  their  cir- 
cumstances and  interest  may  require.  The  pre- 
servation of  the  balance  of  power  has  generally 
implied  the  maintaining  of  such  a  degree  of  equa- 
lity among  the  powers  of  Europe,  in  general,  as 
may  prevent  any  enormous  accumulation  of 
power,  or  any  attempt  at  universal  monarchy, 
on  the  part  of  any  one  of  them.  To  preserve  this 
balance,  much  blood  has  been  shed,  and  money 
spent,  since  the  revolution  of  1688;  but  the  re- 
volution of  France,  and  the  wars  arising  out  of 
it,  have  hopelessly  deranged  all  former  theorems 
and  calculations  upon  this  subject.  Robertson 
and  other  historians  have  said,  that  the  principle 
of  the  balance  of  power  was  a  discovery  of  the 


fifteenth  centoiy,  made  by  the  Italian  politicians 
on  the  invasion  of  Charles  VIII.  Against  such 
statements  we  might  adduce  the  arguments  of 
Hume  and  others,  who  have  traced  in  ancient 
times  vastly  more  refined  notions  of  policy  than 
any  that  dictated  the  Italian  defensive  league. 
It  was  not,  in  truth,  to  any  such  single  event  that 
the  balancing  system  owed  either  its  origin,  or 
.•  its  refinement ;  but  to  the  progress  of  society, 
^  which  placed  the  whole  states  of  Europe  in  the 
same  relative  situation  in  which  the  states  of 
Italy  were  at  that  period ;  and  taught  them  not 
to  wait  for  an  actual  invasion,  but  to  see  a 
Charles  at  all  times  in  eveiy  prince  or  common- 
wealth that  should  manifest  the  least  desire  of 
change.    See  Edinburgh  Review,  vol.  I.  p.  354. 

Balance  of  Trade.  That  which  is  com- 
monly meant  by  the  balance  of  trade,  is  the  re- 
lative quantity  of  foreign  commodities  compared 
with  the  exportation  of  home  productions  or 
manu^tures.  And  it  has  been  reckoned  that 
the  nation  which  exports  most  of  its  own  com- 
modities, has  the  advantage  *of  the  balance  of 
trade.  The  reason  is,  that,  if  its  own  commodi- 
ties be  of  a  greater  value  than  are  imported,  the 
balance  of  that  account  must  be  made  up  in  bul- 
lion or  money;  and  the  nation  grows  so  much 
richer,  as  the  balance  of  that  account  amounts  to. 
But  this  reasoning  admits  of  many  qualifications. 
See  Commerce  and  Economy,  Political. 

BALANC ERS,  or  Poizers,  in  entomology,  (in  ' 
Frencb,balanciers,and  the  halteres  of  Linneus^^ 
denoting  those  little  filamentous  bodies  whicn 
terminate  in  a  round,  truncated,  or  oval  capitu- 
him,  or  knob ;  and  of  which  one  is  placed  on 
each  side  of  all  the  dipterous  or  two-winged  in- 
sects, under  a  small  scale  below  the  wing.  In 
different  genera  these  vary  a  little  in  respect  of 
situation,  and  are  also  of  larger  or  smaller  size, 
in  proportion  to  the  other  parts  of  the  insect,  in 
different  kinds. 

BAIANCIER,  a  machine  used  in  the  striking 
of  coins,  medals,  counters,  and  the  like.  See 
Coinage. 

BALANCING,  among  seamen,  the  contract- 
ing a  sail  into  a  narrower  compass,  in  a  storm,  by 
retrenching  or  folding  up  a  part  of  it  at  one  cor- 
ner :  this  method  is  used  in  contradistinction  to 
reefing,  which  is  common  to  all  the  principal 
sails ;  whereas  balancing  is  peculiar  to  tew,  such 
as  the  mizen  of  a  ship,  and  the  main-sail  of  those 
vessels  wherein  it  is  extended  by  a  boom.  See 
Boom  and  Reef.  The  balance  of  the  mizen  is 
thus  performed:  the  mizen  yard  is  lowered  a 
little,  then  a  small  portion  of  sail  is  rolled  up  at 
the  peek  or  upper  comer,  and  fastened  to  the 
yard  about  one-fifth  inward  from  the  outer  end  or 
yard-arm,  toward  the  mast.  See  Mizen.  A  boom 
'main-sail  is  balanced,  after  all  its  reefs  are  taken 
in,  by  rolling  up  a  similar  portion  of  the  hind- 
most or  afbnost  lower  corner,  called  the  clue,  and 
fastening  it  strongly  to  the  boom,  having  previ- 
ously wrapped  a  piece  of  old  canvass  round  the 
part  (whicn  is  done  in  both  cases)  to  prevent  the 
sail  from  being  fretted  by  the  cord  which  ftistens  it. 

BALANITES,  in  natural  history,  a  name  given 
by  the  ancients  to  a  stone,  seeming  to  have  been 
of  the  semipellucid  gems.  They  describe  two 
species  of  it;  the  one  yellow,  and  the  other 


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green,  b\it  eacti  naving  vtiw  oF  a  flaikife  cotor. 
their  descriptions  are  too  short  for  tii  to  ascertain 
what  stone,  among  those  known  at  this  time, 
they  meant.  Some  suppose  it  to  have  been  the 
lapis  judaicus,  on  account  of  its  acom-like  figure 
and  size. 

BALANOIDES,  in  conchology,  a  species  of 
lepas,  with  a  conic  truncated  smooth  shell,  and 
obtuse  operculum.  Linn.  Fn.  Suec.  I)onoir. 
tec.  This  is  balanus  parvus  vulgaris  of  Petiver ; 
and  a  variety  of  it  with  a  long  tubular  stalk  is 
described  by  Da  Costa.  Pennant,  and  Donov. 
Brit.  Shells,  Dr.  Leach  includes  the  whole  of  this 
species,  w^th  additipnal  ones,  in  his  class  corthi- 
pedes. 

BALANDS,  pa\a9fO£,  in  anatomy,  is  used  for 
the  glans  penis,  and  sometimes  for  the  clitoris. 

Balanus  Myrepsica,  in  the  matetia  medica, 
the  oily  acorn.  The  whole  nut  is  of  a  purging 
Quality  ;  and  the  dry  pressing  or  powder,  after 
trie  oil  is  taken.out  is  of  a  cleansing  and  drytno^ 
nature.  • 

BALAO,  a  river  of  the  province  of  Oaayaquil, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Quito»  which  runs  into  the 
sea,  in  the  gulf  of  that  name. 

BALASFALVA,  or  Blasekbcrg.  a  tomm  of 
Transylvania,  in  the  county  of  Kockelburg,  at 
the  conflux  of  the  Great  ana  Little  Kockel,  hair- 
ing a  castle,  and  being  the  residence  of  a  bishop 
of  the  united  Greek  church  of  Wallachians. 

BALASORE,  a  sea-port  of  Asia,  on  the  nortb- 
west  of  the  bay  of  Bengal,  four  miles  from  the 
sea  by  land,  but  twenty  by  the  windings  of  its 
river,  the  Booree  Bellaun,  which  produces  plenty 
of  fish.  It  is  navisraible  for  vessels  of  100  tons. 
Here  the  pilot  of  Calcutta  waits  the  arrival  of 
vessels :  and  the  English,  Dutch,  and  Portuguese 
all  had  factories  here  in  die  seventeenth  century ; 
it  was  ceded  to  the  Mahrattas  in  1751,  but  in 
f  803  given  up  by  the  Nagpore  Rajah  to  the 
English.  Balasore  is  in  the  province  of  Orissa, 
110  miles  south-west  from  Calcutta. 

BALATITI,  in  natural  history,  a  name  given 
by  the  people  of  the  Philippine  islands  to  a  spe- 
cies of  birds,  by  the  flight  of  which  they  divine 
the  event  of  things. 

BALATON,  a  lake  of  Hungary,  between  the 
counties  of  Szalad,  Wesprim,  and  Schumeg,  five 
miles  south  of  Stuhl-Weissenburg.  It  is  nearly 
40  miles  long,  and  from  one  to  four  broad,  formed 
originally  hv  the  river  Szala,  and  augmented  by 
a  number  of  other  streams.  The  water,  it  is  said, 
may  be  preserved  for  nearly  two  years  without 
putrefaction.  It  contains  some  fish  as  well  as 
birds  of  rare  occurrence,  whicli  are  bought  up 
for  exportation.  The  Austrian  government  have 
lately  projected  an  union  between  Uiis  lake  and 
the  Danube,  by  a  canal,  but  the  works  proceed 
slowly. 

BALATOV,  or  Balaschev,  the  capiul  of 
a  circle  in  the  government  of  Saratov,  in  Eu- 
ropean Russia.  To  the  north  are  extensive  fo- 
rests, and  to  the  south  almost  interminable  heaths, 
or  steppes.  It  is  situated  on  the  Khoper,  which 
fAlls  into  the  Don.  Nine^  miles  west  of  Saratov, 
and  634  south-east  of  St.  Petersburgh. 

BALAUSTIA,  orBALAUSTiNEs;  from/3aX«tH 
T«wy,  in,  pharmacy,  the  flowers  of  the  wild  pome- 
.gianate,  which  are  veryrouph  to  the  tongue  and 


palate,  and  vefy  ■stringent ;  on  that  account  they 
are  firequently  used  in  diarrhcBas,  hernias,  &c. 

Balaustines  in  botany*    See  Punica. 

BALAYAN,  a  province  of  Manilla,  next  to  Ihe 
city  of  Manilla,  and  extending  along  ttie  coast  on 
die  east  side  of  the  island,  a  little  beyond  the 
bay  of  Batangas.  There  were  formerly  gold 
mines  in  it,  but  they  have  been  long  since  aban- 
doned. 

BALBASTRO,  a  town  of  Arragon,  in  Spain, 
near  the  junction  of  the  Vero  and  Cinca,  having 
a  population  of  5000,  and  a  dependent  jurisdic- 
tion of  ITOparishes.  Tanning  is  the  chief  pur- 
suit here.  Tnirty  miles  £.  N.E.  of  Saragosn,  and 
4T  north-west  of  Barcelona. 

BALBEC,  or  Baalbsck,  a  city  of  Asia^  in 
Syria,,  anciently  Heliopolis,  and  called  by  the 
Arabians,  The  Wonder  of  Syria.  It  is  situated 
at  the  foot  of  Anti-^Libanus,  on  tiie  ground 
where  th^  mountain  terminates  in  the  plain, 
thirty-seven  miles  north  of  Damascus.  In  tra- 
velling io  it  from  the  south,  it  is  seen  only  at  the 
distance  of  a  lea^e  and  a  hal^  behind  a  hedge 
of  wahiui'^rees,  over  the  verdant  lops  of  which 
appears  a  white  edging  of  domes  and  minarets. 
It  hae  a  ruined  wall,  flanked  with  square  towers^ 
which  ascends  the  declivity  to  the  tight.  This 
low  wall  permito  a  vtew  of  those  void  spaces 
and  heaps  of  ruins  which  ale  the  invariable  ap* 
pendages  of  every  Turkish  city ;  bnt  what  prio- 
cipaHy  attracts  attention  it  a  large  edifice  on  tlie 
left,  vniose  lofty  walls  and  rich  columns  designate 
it  as  having  been  amongst  the  most  splendSd  of 
ancient  temples.  The  apparent  length  of  ihiv 
edifice  was  about  900  feet,  and  iu  width  450. 
TYie  entrance  to  the  pronaos,  or  portico,  was  by 
a  row  of  twelve  coHumns,  flanked  by  wings  or- 
namented with  pilasters.  It  wis  approached  by 
a  magnificent  flight  of  steps,  of  which  there  are 
but  Kw  remains.  The  interior  of  the  portico  is 
choked  up  widi  heaps  of  ruins>  but  these,  when 
surmounted,  lead  to  an  heiagonal  court  of  180 
feet  diameter,  strewed  with  broken  shafb  of  co- 
lumns, mutilated  capitals,  wrecks  of  pilasters, 
bases,  and  other  architectural  and  sculptuial 
fhigments.  The  buildings  in  this  and  the  ad- 
joining court  appear  to  have  been  appropriated 
for  academies  and  Jodgings  for  the  priests. 
Through  an  opening  at  the  end  of  this  court  is  a 
vast  perspective  of  ruins,  which  are  best  viewed 
from  the  top  of  a  slope  that  was  formeriy  a  stair- 
case, whicQ  communicates  with  a  rectangular 
court,  350  feet  long  and  346  wide.  At  the  end 
of  the  court  are  six  enormous  columns;  and  to 
^e  left  is  anodier  row  of  columns  which  formea 
flie  peristyle  to  the  bodv  of  the  temple.  The 
buildings  to  the  right  and  left  form  a  sort  of  gal- 
lery, which  is  divided  into  seven  parts,  to  each 
of  the  great  vrings  or  lateral  buildings.  At  the 
extremity  of  this  court  is  the  cell  or  body  of  the 
temple  itself,  where  are  the  before-ineiitioned  six 
colossal  columns.  Their  riiafts  measure  twenty- 
two  feet  in  circumference,  and  fifty-eight  in 
height;  and  the  whole  height  of  the  order  (the 
Corinthian)  neariy  seventy-two  feet  On  ex- 
amining the  circumjacent  site,  a  row  of  bases 
was  discovered,  arranged  in  a  patallelograin- 
matic  form  of  270  feet  in  length,  and  150  in 
width.    This  belt  of  columns  encompassed  the 


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cell  or  body  of  the  temple,- which  was  decaetyle 
(ten  oolumoed)  in  front,  with  nineteen  columns 
in  flank,  and  of  the  ibaith  or  peripteral  order  of 
temples ;  but  its  intercolumniations  do  not  ao- 
cora  wifli  any  of  the  five  species  described  in 
the  system  of  Vitnivius.  These  building  are  all 
of  the  Corinthian  order,  with  the  exception  of 
some  pilastral  elevations,  which  are  of  the  Com- 
posite. A  sepond  temple  is  situated  near  the 
southmost  part  of  the  city,  upon  an  irregular 
site.  It  is  pseudodipteral,  and  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  surrounded  by  a  peristyle  and  court 
like  the  former.  It  is,  however,  in  a  better  state  of 
preservation,  having  very  lately  eight  columns  in 
front,  and  thirteen  in  flank,  of  me  Corinthian 
order.  Their  shafts  are  about  sixteen  feet  in^- 
cumference,  and  forty-four  in  height. 

Balbec  also  possesses,  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  city,  a  circular  temple,  difllering  in  every  re- 
spect from  the  precepts  of  Vitnivius:  its  lower 
story  is  used  for  a  ureek  church.  Its  plan  is 
extremely  whimsical,  and  all  its  details  present  a 
mass  of  architectural  anomalies. 

Few  architectural  remains  of  the  ancient 
world  are  more  rich  in  decoration  than  those  of 
Balbec.  The  soffites  and  ceilings  of  the  pe- 
ristyle are  panelled  in  lozense  forms,  with  repre- 
sentations of  Jupiter  and  his  eagle,  Leda  and 
the  swan,  Diana  with  her  bow  and  crescent,  and 
various  busts  in  the  costume  of  emperors  and 
empresses.  All  the  members  of  the  interior  en- 
tablatures are  loaded  with  a  profusion  of  orna- 
ments. The  archivolts,  the  heads  of  the  niches, 
the  frieze  of  the  principal  order,  are  covered 
with  the  most  sumptuous  embellishments  of 
sculpture.  The  interior  columns  are  all  tiuted, 
and  those  of  the  exterior  plain.  Dr.  Pococke 
conceives  that  nothing  can  be  finer  than  the  ei^ 
trance  to  tlie  great  temple.  Almost  all  the  mem- 
bers are  enriched  with  sculptural  representations 
of  flowers  and  fruit,  and  the  frieze  with  ears  of 
com^  of  admirable  execution.  According  to 
Volney,  the  walls  of  the  smaller  temple  sufiered 
much  from  the  earthquake  of  1759;  which  is 
confirmed  by  our  countryman,  who,  in  1 784, 
found  but  six  columns  of  the  great  temple  stand- 
ing out  of  the  nine,  which  were  erect  in  1751 ; 
and  twenty  only  out  of  twenty-nine  belonging  to 
the  smaller  temple.  The  rapacity  of  the  Turks 
has  also  contributed  to  their  destruction,  from 
their  desire  of  possessing  the  iron  pins  and 
cramps  with  which  the  huge  blocks  of  masonry  . 
are  joined. 

Ihe  massiveness,  indeed,  of  the  stones  and 
blocks  of  marble  is  not  the  least  remarkable  fea- 
ture of  these  ruins.  No  modem  mechanical 
oontrivance,  it  is  said,  could  convey  such  masses 
iit>m  any  distance  into  their  present  positions. 
Stones,  from  tweniy-eight  to  thirty-five  feet  long, 
and  nine  in  depth,  form  the  second  layer  of  the 
great  temple.  One  is  even  fifty-nine  feet  long 
and  twelve  deep. 

The  period  of  the  erection  of  these  edifices 
seems  to  be  a  question  lost  in  entire  obscurit;|r. 
The  age  of  Aurelian,  from  the  similarity  of  their 
style  with  that  of  the  Palmyra  edifices,  would 
seem  to  be  the  most  probable.  Here  is  the  same 
compound  of  Grecian  forms  with  Asiatic  adorn- 
ment and  luxuriant  display,  the  same  fantas- 


tical ornaments,  united  with  ofcaaional  gcaadMr 
of  design  and  boldness  of  execution. 

The  town  now  inhabited  is  small  and  mean, 
but  about  four  miles  in  circuit  The  populatioc 
has  been  for  a  long  period  gradusdly  cucreasing: 
the  town  was  computed,  in  1751,  to  contain  5000, 
and  in  1784,  to  contain  only  1200  poor  and  in- 
dolent inhabitants,  cultivating  a  little  cotton, 
maize,  and  water-melons,  for  their  subsistence. 
History  has  preserved  but  few  traces  of  this 
place.  Aboilt  140  years  before  the  time  of  An- 
toninus PiuSy  it  was  garrisoned  by  Roman  troops. 
Some  writers  state  Uiat  he  erected  the  principal 
part  of  the  present  edifice  on  the  site  of  one  more 
ancient  Under  Constantino  it  was  neglected,  and 
the  great  temple  soon  after  converted  into  a  church: 
thus  it  vras  appropriated  until  the  irruption  of  the 
Arabs,  when  it  tell  rapidly  into  decay.  After  a 
vigorous  defence,  the  town  was  taken  by  that 
nation,  under  Abu  Obeidah,  a  commander  of  the 
caliph  Omar.  In  1401  it  was  taken  by  Tamer^ 
lane.  An  earthquake,  in  1759,  nearly  com- 
pleted its  destruction.  Distant  forty  miles 
N.N.  W.  of  Damascus,  and  110  S.  of  Aleppo. 

BALBINUS,  Decifflus  Coelius,  emperor  of 
Rome,  was  elected  by  the  senate,  A.D.  237,  but 
massacred,  along  with  his  colleague,  Maximus, 
soldiers. 

BALBO  (Vasco  Nunes  de),  a  Castilian;  a 
celebrated  navigator,  and  one  of  the  first  disco- 
verers of  South  America.  He  was  beheaded  by 
the  Spanish  govenor  of  St  lAary,  through  jodonsy 
of  his  growing  reputation,  in  1517,  aged  forty- 
two. 

BALBU'CIN ATE,  17.11.  Vtom  UL  bMuHo, 
to  stammer  in  speaking.  Diet. 

BALBUL,  in  ornithology^  a  species  of  Anas, 
or  duck  having  a  black  beak,  and  spot  on  the  vfing, 
above  obliquely  green,  beneath  obliquely  black. 
Forsk.  Fn.  Arab. 

BALBUS  (Lucius  Cornelius  Theophanes), 
was  bom  at  Cadiz,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
tis  valor  in  the  war  carried  on  by  the  Romans  in 
Spain  against  Sertorius  and  the  Lusitanians,  on 
which  account  Pompey  gave  him  the  privileges 
of  a  Roman  citizen.  He  was  consul  in  the  714th 
year  of  Rome,  and  was  the  first  foreigner  on 
whom  that  dignity  was  conferred.  He  was  the 
friend  of  Pompey,  Caesar,  Crassus,  and  Cicero. 

BALBUSARDUS,  in  ornithology,  the  name 
used  by  authors,  for  the  bird  called  in  English 
,  the  bald  buzzaitl.  It  is  of  the  long-winged 
hawk  kind,  and  has  been  described  by  AJdrovan- 
dus  and  some  other  authors,  under  the  name 
of  the  Htdisetus  and  Morphnus,  two  species  of 
the  eagle.  It  frequents  the  shores  of  ponds  and 
rivers,  and  sometimes  of  the  sea,  where  it  preys 
on  fish.  It  builds  on  the  ground  among  reeds, 
and  lays  three  or  four  large  white  eggs,  nearly 
as  big  as  bens'  ms. 

BALBUTIATEyV.n.  The  same  with  6a/6ti^ 
ctiuzte. 

BALCAIRN,  a  place  in  Perthshire,  in  the 
parish  of  Clunie,  which  some  antiquarians  sup- 
pose to  bave  been  the  scene  of  the  decisive  battle 
between  Agricola  and  Galgacus. 

BALCANQUAL  (Walter),  an  eminent  Scot- 
tish divine,  who  attended  James  I.  to  England, 
and  at  Oxford  took  the  degree  of  D.D.     He 


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)  bis  majesty's  chaplain,  master  of  the  Sa- 
roy,  and  representative  of  the  church  of  Scotland, 
at  the  synod  of  Dort.  He  was  appointed  dean  of 
Rochester  in  1625,  and  of  Durham  in  1639. 
During  the  rebellion  he  underwent  many  liard- 
ships,  being  obliged  to  fly  from  place  to  place. 
He  died  on  Christmas  day,  1645,  at  Chirk  castle 
in  Denbighshire ;  he  wrote,  Epistles  concerning  the 
Synod  of  Dort,  and  the  Declaration  of  King 
Charles  I.  concerning  the  late  tumults  in  Scotland, 
folio,  1630. 

BALCARRA,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Mayo,  115  miles  from  Dublin. 

BALCARRY,  a  free  port  on  the  west  coast  of 
Scotland,  in  the  Stewartry  of  Galloway,  and 
parish  of  Rerwick.  It  is  naturally  a  safe  and 
commodious  harbour. 

BALCHRISTIE;  Gael.  i.  e.  the  town  of 
Christian ;  a  village  of  Fifeshire,  in  the  parish  of 
Newbum,  anciently  given  to  the  Culdees,  by  king 
Malcolm  III.  and  his  queen  St.  Margaret.  Tra- 
dition reports  that  the  first  Christian  church  in 
Scotland  was  built  in  this  village. 

BALCK,  a  town  of  Usbeck  Tartary,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Persia,  200  miles  south  of  Bokhara. 

BALCLUITHA,  a  settlement  in  the  south 
part  of  Kentucky,  on  the  west  side  of  Big  Sandy 
fiver. 

BALCCXNY,  n.  s.  Fr.  halcon;  Ital.  bokone, 
a  frame  of  iron,  wood,  or  stone,  before  the  win- 
dow of  a  room. 

Then  pleasure  came»  who,  liking  not  the  ftishion. 
Began  to  make  bakoniei,  temces. 
Till  she  had  weaken'd  all  by  alteration.         Herbtrt, 
When  dirty  waters  from  balconim  drop. 

And  dext'rous  damteli  twirl  the  sprinkling  mop. 

Balcony  in  a  ship,  denotes  a  gallery  either 
covered  or  open,  msbde  abaft,  either  for  orna- 
ment or  convenience  of  the  captain's  cabin. 

BALD',  adj.       ^     Welch  6a/,  wanting  hair. 

Bald'ly,  adv.     >A  bare   surface   which    ii 

Bald'ness,  n.  s.  j  usually  covered,  or  fledged 
by  nature.  In  the  human  species  this  is  usually 
the  effect  of  time,  vexation,  fever,  or  cutaneous 
disease  of  the  parts,  or,  as  some  say,  the  dryness 
of  the  brain.  It  is  figuratively  employed  to  de- 
note whatever  is  inelegant  and  meagre  of  thought, 
in  literary  composition  or  verbal  discourse ;  what- 
ever is  mean,  undignified  and  valueless,  in  cha- 
racter and  disposition. 

Come  hither  goodman  bald  pate.     Do  you  know  me? 

Shaktpeare, 

Why  yon  hold  pated  lying,  rascal,  yon  must  be 
hooded  must  yoa !  Id, 

Under  an  oak,  whose  boughs  were  moss'd  with  age» 
And  high  top  hold  with  diy  antiquity.  Id, 

This  ftoii  unjointed  chat  of  his,  my  lord, 

I  answered  indirectly.  Id, 

What  should  the  people  do  with  these  htdd  tribunes  ? 
On  whom  depending,  their  obedience  foils 
To  th'  greater  bench.  Id. 

He  should  imitate  C«sar,  who,  because  his  head 
was  haUL,  covered  that  defect  with  laurels.       Addiaon^ 

Hobbes,  in  the  preface  to  his  own  hold  translation, 
begins  the  praise  of  Homer  where  he  should  have 
ended  it.  Dryden'a  Fahlet,  Preface, 

And  that,  though  labour'd,  line,  must  hold  appear. 
That  brings  uagratefol  musick  to  the  ear.         Creech. 


Baldness  occurs  chiefly  on  the  lincipfat  It 
differs  from  alopecia,  acea,  ophiasis,  and  tinea, 
as  these  all  arise  from  some  vices  in  the  nutritious 
humor ;  baldness,  from  the  defect  of  it.  When 
the  eye-lids  shed  their  hair,  it  is  called  a  ptilosis. 
Among  the  causes  of  baldness,  immoderate  veneiy 
is  reputed  one  of  the  chief:  old  age  usually  brings 
it  on  of  course ;  and  it  frequently  results  from 
violent  fevers.  Eunuchs  and  women  are  almost 
always  free  from  it,  and  Aristotle  says  that  it 
never  can  precede  the  age  of  puberty.  Herodotus, 
iii.  12,  says  the  Egyptians  seldom  went  bald, 
because  they  shaved  their  heads  from  childhood, 
and  thus  hardened  them  in  the  sun!  Calvus 
(bald),  among  the  Romans,  was  a  term  of  re- 
proach. Thus  Juvenal  calls  Domitian,  calvus 
Nero.  The  later  Romans,  however,  seem  to 
have  been  reconciled  to  baldness ;  for  we  find 
among  them  a  kind  of  officers,  or  servants,  called 
glabratores  or  glabrari,  whose  business  vras  to 
take  off*  the  hair  from  all  parts,  even  from  the 
head.  In  an  ancient  inscription  there  is  mention 
made  of  one  Diophantus,  TI.  CiESARIS  oa- 
NATOR  GLABR.  that  is,  Omator  Glabrarius.  We 
have  seen  it  somewhere  observed  that  the  ma- 
jority of  Englishmen,  above  forty,  are  more  or 
less  bald.  Buflbn  observes  that  the  crown  of  the 
head,  and  the  space  immediately  above  the  tem- 
ples, are  the  parts  which  first  becopae  bald  ;  but 
that  the  hair  below  the  temples,  and  on  the  in- 
ferior part  of  the  back  of  the  h^,  seldom  &lls 
off.  He  also  adds,  diat  baldness  is  peculiar  to 
men.  In  its  early  stages  nutritives,  particulariy 
a  tea  made  of  abrotonum,  southernwood,  have 
been  advised  to  be  applied  to  the  roots  of  the 
hair. 

BALDACANIF£R,or  Balcakifer,  a  stand- 
ard-bearer ;  chiefly  in  the  ancient  order  of  knights 
Templars. 

BAL'DACHIN,  n.  s.  Ital.  haldachino,  a  piece 
of  architecture,  in  form  of  a  canopy,  supported 
with  columns,  and  serving  as  a  covering  to  an 
altar.  It  properly  signifies  a  rich  silk,  Du  Cangt^ 
and  was  a  canopy  carried  Over  the  host 

Baldachin,  Paldakin,  Baldekiw,  or 
Bauldekin,  in  middle-age  writers,  a  rich  kind 
of  cloth  made  of  gold  warp  and  silk  woof,  vari- 
ously figured.  It  took  the  denomination  from  its 
being  formerly  brought  into  these  countries  from 
Baldacio,  or  babylon. 

Bald-Buzzard,  in  ornithology,  the  name 
given  by  Willoughby  and  others  to  the  Falco 
Haliaetos,  or  Osprey.  It  is  the  balbuzsaid  of 
Buffbn.    See  Balbusardus. 

Bald  Eagle,  or  Sinking-Spring  Valley,  lies 
upon  the  frontiers  of  Bedford  county,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, about  200  miles  west  of  Philadelphia. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  a  chain  of  high 
nigged  mountains,  called  the  Canoe  ridge ;  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Bald  Eagle,  or  Warrior 
mountains,  and  is  a  pleasant  vale,  having  a  lime- 
stone bottom,  about  nve  miles  wide ;  its  vicinity 
abounds  with  lead-ore,  and  shows  signs  of  pit 
coal.  The  curiosity  of  this  place  is  the  swallows, 
which  absorb  several  of  the  largest  streams  of 
the  valley,  and  after  conveying  them  several  miles 
under  ground,  return  them  again  to  the  snr&ce. 
Hence  its  name  of  Sinking-Sprinff  Valley.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  called  the  Arch 


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Springs^  which  run  close  upon  the  road  from  the 
town  to  the  fort ;  being  a  deep  hollow  formed  in 
the  Uroe-stone  rock,  about  thirty  feet  wide,  covered 
with  a  stony  arch^  and  giving  passage  to  a  fine 
stream  of  water,  which  enters  the  mouth  of  a 
spacious  cave,  whose  exterior  aperture  is  sufficient 
to  adroit  a  shallop  with  her  sails  full  spread. 
In  the  midst  of  this  cave,  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
feet  wide,  are  timber,  bodies  and  branches  of 
trees,  &c.  which,  being  lodged  up  to  the  roof  of 
the  passage,  show  that  the  water  rises  to  the  top 
during  freshes.  The  cave,  extending  about  forty 
yards,  widens  into  a  large  kind  of  room,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  is  a  vortex,  where  the  water 
forms  a  whirlpool,  and  absorbs  pieces  of  float- 
ing timber,  which  are  instantly  conveyed  out 
of  sight.  From  the  top  of  the  Bald-eagle 
mountains  is  a  fine  prospect  of  those  of  the 
Alleghany. 

Bald  Eagle,  a  river  of  the  United  States 
which  runs  forty-four  miles  north-west,  and  fiills 
into  the  Susquehanna. 

Bald  Eagle  Creek,  a  head  water  of  the 
Huron.  ■ 

BAL'DERDASH,  n.i.icv.a.  Probably  of 
Sax.  balb,  bold,  and  dash,  to  mingle ;  any  ming 
jumbled  together  without  judgment;  rude  mix- 
ture ;  a  coi^used  discourse.  The  verb  is  derived 
from  the  noun,  and  signifies  to  mix  or  adulterate 
any  liquor.  Balderdash,  in  its  primary  sense, 
probably  signified  the  froth  or  toam  made  by 
Darbers  in  dashing  their  balls  backwards  and 
forwards  in  hot  water. 

They  wonld  no  more  live  under  the  yoke  of  the 
tea,  or  have  their  heads  washed  with  his  bobbly 
fcpume  or  bubect  faf<farrf<iil  iViu&e,  Lemiem  ttuff*. 

It  ii  against  my  freehold,  my  inheritance, 
•  To  drink  each  MdsnbuA,  or  bomiy  clabber! 

B«ff  Jcntom, 
Mine  is  such  a  drench  of  balderdash. 

Beamnont  and  Flet^er. 

Bald  Head,  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  Cape 
Fear  river,  North  Carolina.  A  light-house  was 
erected  here  in  December  1794;  four  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Cane  Fear. 

Bald  Head,  tne  south-west  part  of  West  Bay, 
in  the  district  of  Maine. 

Bald  Head,  a  point  on  the  north-western  shore 
of  America,  in  Norton  sound.  Long.  198°  IS' 
E.,  lat  64°  43'  N. 

Bald  Head,  a  promontory  of  New  Holland, 
about.400  feet  high,  on  the  south-west  coast,  at 
-  the  mouth  of  King  George's  sound.  Branches 
of  coral  appearing  through  the  surface  of  the  top, 
have  given  rise  to  a  conjecture  that  this  promon- 
tory emerged  from  the  sea.  Long,  1 18°  E., 
lat.  35°  6'  S. 

BALDI  (Bernard),  an  Italian  mathematician 
and  poet,  bom  at  Urbino  in  1553.  He  studied 
at  Padua  and  afterwards  became  mathematician 
to  the  duke  of  Guastalla.  He  wrote  several 
excellent  poems  in  the  Italian  language,  and 
translated  the  works  of  various  ancient  mathe- 
maticians into  that  language.  He  died  in  1617. 
His  Lives  of  Mathematicians  were  printed  in 
1707. 

BALDINI  (John  Anthony),  an  Italian  noble- 
man, bom  at  Placentiai,  in  1654.    He  was  a  man 


of  great  lesming,  and  employed  as  ambassador 
at  different  courts  of  Europe.  He  was  also  at 
the  congress  of  Utrecht.  He  made  a  large  collec- 
tion of  curiosities  imd  books ;  a  catalogue  of 
which  was  printed  in  the  Italian  Literary  Journal. 
He  died  in  1725. 

BALDINUCCI  (Philip),  of  Florence ;  a  con- 
noisseur in  the  polite  arts,  and  the  continuator 
of  Vasari's  lives  of  the  painters.  He  died  in 
1696,  aged  seventy-two. 

Bald  Island,  an  island  off  Mount  Gardner, 
on  the  south-west  coast  of  New  Holland,  about 
two  miles  long.  Long.  18°  29'  E.,  lat.  34° 
55' S. 

BALDIVIA,  or  Valdivia,  a  sea-port  town 
of  Chili  in  South  America.  It  is  situated  be- 
tween the  rivers  Callaculles  and  Portero,  where 
they  hiX  into  the  South  Sea,  and  was  built  in 
1551  by  the  Spaiiish  general  Valdivia,  from  whom 
it  takes  its  name.  In  1643  it  was  taken  by  the 
Dutch,  who  would  probably  have  maintained 
their  conquest  against  all  the  power  of  the  Spanish 
viceroy,  had  they  not  been  obliged  to  relinquish 
it  through  sickness  and  famine. 

BALIXMGN Y,  n.  s.    Gentian ;  a  plant. 

BALDO  Monte,  a  mountain  of  luly,  the 
highest  in  the  Veronese.  It  is  situated  at  the 
head  of  lake  Gar^^  and  is  iamous  for  its  rare 
plants.    Sea  shells  are  found  upon  the  top  of  it. 

BALDOCK,  a  market-town  and  parish  of 
Herts,  eight  miles  south  from  Biggleswade,  and 
thirty-seven  north  from  London ;  containing  1600 
inhabitants.  It  is  a  neat,  pleasant  place,  originally 
built  by  the  knights-templars,  in  the  leign  of 
Stephen,  and  stands  on  the  old  Roman  road, 
Ikening  street,  and  the  present  great  nortli  road. 
The  church  is  large  and  handrnme,  with  three 
chancels.  There  is  a  well-endowed  alms-house, 
and  several  excellent  charities  in  this  parish. 
Market  on  Thursday.  The  chief  articles  of  trade 
are  com  and  malt 

Baldock  (Ralph  de),  bishop  of  London  under 
Edward  I.  and  II.,  was  educated  at  Mertons 
college  in  Oxford ;  became  dean  of  St.  Paul's ; 
was  afterwards  promoted  to  the  see  of  London ; 
and  at  last  was  made  lord  high  chancellor  of 
England.  He  liad  a  very  amiable  character  both 
for  morals  and  learning;  and  wrote  Historia 
Anglica,  or  an  history  of  Uie  British  affairs,  down 
to  his  own  time,  and  a  Collection  of  the  Statutes 
and  Constitutions  of  the  church  of  St  Paul.  He 
died  at  Stepney,  July  24, 1313. 

Bald-Pate,  in  zoology,  a  name  given  by  Ray 
to  the  columba  leucocephala. 

BALDRED ;  Sax.  from  bald,  bold,  and  rede, 
counsel ;  the  last  king  of  Kent. 

BALITRICK,  n.  s.  It  was  formeriy  written 
bdudrick,  and  signified  a  belt  of  leather,  from  the 
old  French  baudrier^  derived  from  the  verb  6au- 
droyer,  to  dress  skins.  It  is  now  used  to  signify 
a  fi^rdle,  a  bracelet,  and  has  been  applied  to  the 
zodiac. 

Athwart  his  breast  a  baldriek  braae  he  waie. 
That  shin'd   like  twinkling  stars,  with   stones  most 
precious  rare.  Spenaer, 

That  like  the  twins  of  Jove,  they  seem*d  in  sights 
Which  deck  the  baUrieh  of  the  heavens  bright       Id. 

That  a  woman  conceived  me,  I  thank  her  ^  that 
she  brought  me  up,  1  likewise  give  her  ,most  humble 


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but  thM  I  ^n  hkre  a  f«chcfll  nmd^  in  ray 
ibrebead,  or  hang  my  bagU  ia  an  iavkible  baUnek, 
aUwMiMahaUpaxAmme.  Shakpenr^ 

A  radiaat  haUriek  o'er  biasboolden  ty'd, 

SiMtaia'd  tba  nMrd  tbat  glittBT'd  at  Us  aiile^  Ptpa, 

Baldrick  was  a  belt  worn  by  the  Saxons, 
hanging  from  the  shoulder  across  the  breast,  on 
which  the  sword  was  hung. 

BALDWIN,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was 
bom  of  obscure  parents  at  Exeter,  where,  in  the 
early  part  of  hit  life,  he  taught  a  grammar  school ; 
after  which  he  took  orders  and  was  made  arch- 
deaeon  of  Exeter ;  but  resigned  and  became  a 
Cistertian  monk  in  the  monastery  of  Ford  in 
Devonshire,  of  which  in  a  few  years  he  was  made 
abbot.  Id  1180  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Worcester.  In  1 184  he  was  promoted  to  the  see 
of  Canterbury  by  pope  Lucius  HI.,  and  by  his 
successor  Urban  III.  was  appointed  legate.  Is 
1 189  he  crowned  king  Riehara  I.  at  Westminster; 
and  soon  after  followed  that  prince  to  the  holy 
knd,  where  he  died  at  the  siege  of  Ptolemats. 
He  wrote  various  tracts  on  religioas  subjects, 
which  were  collected  and  published  by  Bertraad 
Tissier  iii  1663. 

Baldwin  I.  earl  of  Flanders,  was  prodaimed 
emperor  of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  1204,  in  op- 
position to  Theodore  Lascarts,  but  enjoyed  ms 
new  dignity  littie  more  than  a  year.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother  Henry,  who  took  Con- 
itantinople  in  1206. 

Baldwin  II.,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  sue- 
ceeded  Robert  the  tburtik  Latin  emperor  A.D. 
1239,  and  reigned  thirty-three  yeus;  but  was 
expelled  by  Michael  VIIL,  who  recovered  Con- 
stantinople, and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  empire  of 
tlM  Latins  in  the  east,  A.D.  1261. 

Baedwiv  (Frascb),  a  learned  cJTiliaD,  bom  at 
Arras,  in  1520.  He  is  said  to  have  dianged  his 
religion  four  different  times,  from  the  Protestant 
to  the  Catholic  faith,  and  vice  veru.  He  how- 
ever obtained  successively  the  patronage  of  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  Anthony  king  of  Navarre, 
and  Hent^  III.  king  of  Poland;  the  latter  of 
whom  having  invited  him  to  hb  court,  he  was 
nakkig  preparations  for  his  journey,  when  he 
was  seised  with  a  fever,  of  which  he  died  in 
1572.  He  wrote  Le|es  de  Rustica ;  Novella  Con- 
stittttio  prima;  de  Heredibus  et  Lege  Flacidia; 
and  olfaer  works. 

Baldwiit  I.  king  of  Jerusalem,  was  the  son 
of  EustaA,  count  of  Boulogne.  Having  ac- 
companied his  brother  Godfrey  into  Palestine, 
he  there  obtained  the  country  of  Edessa.  He 
ascended  thedhvne  of  Jerusalem  as  his  brother's 
successor  in  1100,  and  next  year  took  Antipatris, 
Cesarea,  and  Azotus ;  and  Acre,  after  a  long  siege, 
in  1104.  He  died  in  1118,  and  was  interred  on 
Mount  Calvary.  He  was  an  active  and  enter- 
prising prince. 

Baldwin  II.  son  of  Hugh,  count  of  Rethel, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1118,  afler  Eustace, 
the  brother  of  Baldwin  I.  had  given  up  all  claim 
to  it.  In  1120  he  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Saracens,  but  was  made  prisoner  by  them  in 
1124;  and  gave  up  the  city  of  Tyre  to  obtain  his 
liberty.    He  died  in  1131. 

Baldwin  III.  IV.  and  V.  were  also  kings  of 
Jenisalem  in  the  latter  port  of  the  twelfth  cen- 


tury; the  last  of  this  muDe  being  poisoned,  ilwas 
diougbt,  by  his  mother,  in  1186. 

BAXB,  fi.  9,  v.n.  k,  v.  q.  Fr.  embailar; 
Ital*  wihalitare^  a  bundle  or  parcel  packed  up  for 
carviage;  a  pair  of  dice.  To  make  up  into  a 
paitet  As  used  fa^  satlon,  it  is  distinguished 
noa  pumping,  and  signifies  to  lave  out  water 
from  hand  to  hand ;  from  the  French  haiUer. 

One  hired  an  ass  ia  th*  dog-days,  U»  eany  cectaia 
haki  of  goods  to  sach  a  tovn.  Z'&lranff. 

It  is  part  of  the  Mm  ia  whieh  bohea  tea  wm 
brought  over  from  Cklaa.  IFaoAMrd. 

It  is  a  felso  dice  of  the  same  fofe,  bat  not  the  oaao 
cat.  Otosr^My.  Chane.  sign.  Q.  2. 

For  exereise  of  anas  a  Ms  of  dice. 

BmJ9mm,NmfIfm. 

BALF,  n.«.         -)     Sax.  btti;    Dan.  hale; 
Bale'pul,  a^.      >  Icetandie  60/,  M ;  Cimb. 
Bale'fully*  adv. )  baid ;  Sax.  bealopill.  Mi- 
sery, cahmtty^  mischief,  poison,    its  genuine 
meaning. 

And  I  salle  telle  that  tale,  or  I  ferrer  go, 
IVow  falsnet  biewes  hate  wkh  him,  and  many  mo. 

R.  Bnmuu,  p.  55w 
8ho  look'd  about,  and  aeeiag  one  in  mail 
Jktmed  to  point,  aooght  back  to  turn  agaia;. 
For  light  she  hated  as  the  deadly  iaJe.   . 

FatriB  Quttm, 
Bat  when  be  saw  his  thioat'ning  was  bnt  Tain, 
Ho  tua'd  abo«t»  and  seaich'd  hiaM^  booka  again. 

ThenGofofth  they  playmt,  and  make  foil 


Unto  the  author  of  their  kdefkB  bane. 

Snob  ttonnio  stooiee  d»  brood  my  lid^UI 
As  if  my  yoaro  wore  wast  and  waxo&old. 
Boiling  ohofter  chokfli^ 
By  light  of  these,  our  haUfid  eBomias. 


Roand  he  throws  his  haUfid  eyes. 
That  witnessed  huge  aflUctiom  and  disokay, 
Hia'd  with  obdurate  pride  and  stedfut  hate. 


IPapoen,  anfelt,  the  liory  seipenit  skims 
Botwiat  her  linen  and  her  naked  limba. 
His  tal»/W  breath  iaapiiing  as  ho  glidea. 

DiydM. 

Happy  leme,  whose  most  wholeaonm  air 
Poisons  enTenom'd  sptdcn,  and  foibids 
The  hokfiU  toad  and  vipca  from  herahoic. 

Bale,  in  commerce,  is  particularly  applied  to 
a  quantity  of  packed  up  merchandise,  well  se- 
cured for  carriage  or  voyages.  To  sell  goods  in 
the  bale  is  to  sell  them  in  tlie  lump,  on  showing 
a  specimen,  without  unpacking,  or  taking  off  the 
cordage.  Thus  the  East  India  Company  and 
others  sell  their  goods.  In  the  East  India  trade, 
the  bulky  goods  are  salt-petre,  pepper,  red  earth, 
tea,  &c.  Bale  goods  stand  opposed  to  piece 
goods. 

A  Bale  of  camlet,  at  Smyrna,  is  called  a  table, 
on  account  of  its  flat  square. 

A  Bale  of  cotton  yam  is  from  300  to  400 
weight. 

A  Bale  of  dice  denotes  a  little  packet,  or 
paper,  containing  some  dozens  of  dice. 

J  Bale  of  dowlas,  or  of  lockram,  consists  of 
either  three,  three  and  a  half,  or  four  pieces. 

^  Bale  of  paper  denotes  a  certain,  or  rather 
uncertain  number  of  reams  packed  together  m 


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BAL 


«  bonidLe.  Thote  wan  from  Mftraeillcs  to  Con- 
sUntiD6ple  usually  contain  twelve  reams.  A 
bale  or  ballon  of  crown  paper,  manufactured  in  the 
depaitmenta  of  the  Var,  tne  Lower  Alps,  and  the 
mouths  of  the  Rhone,  consists  of  fourteen  reams. 

A  Hals  of  raw  silk  contains  from  100  to 
400  weight. 

B^LK  (John),  bishop  of  Ossory  in  Ireland, 
was  bom  at  Cove,  in  Suffolk,  m  1495.    At 
twelve  years  «f  age  he  was  ^tered  in  the  mo- 
aasteiy  of  the  Carmelites,  Norwich.    He  was 
edttciUed  a  Roman  Catholic;  but,  being  converted 
to  the  Protestant  religion  by  Thomas  Lord  Went* 
worth,  on  the  death  of  Lord  Cromwell^  who  pro« 
teeted  him  from  the  Romish  clergy,  he  was 
obliged  to  retire  into  the  Low  Countries,  where 
he  continued  eight  yean.    Soon  after  the  acces- 
sion  of  Edward  VI.  he  was  recalled;  and  being* 
fint  presented,  to  the  living  of  Bishop*s  Stoke 
in  Hampshire,  in  1552,  was  nominated  to  tha 
see  of  Ossory.    During  his  residence  in  Ireland 
he  was  remarkably  assiduous  in  propagating  tha 
protestant  doctrines;  but  frequently  at  the  hsoard 
of  his  life.    Qnce  five  of  ais  domestics  were 
muidevedy  as  he  would  probably  have  been,  had 
not  the  sovereign  of  Iwilkenny  come  to  bis  as« 
sistance  with  100  horse  and  300  foot.    On  the 
aocessimi  of  queen  Mary,  the  tide  of  opposition 
became  so  powerful,  that  he  embarked  tor  Hol- 
land, but  was  very  unfortunate  in  his  escape. 
First  he  was  taken  by  a  Dutch  man  of  war,  and 
robbed  of  all  his  effects.    Then,  being  forced  by 
-stress  of  weather  into  St.  Ive's  in  Comwallt  ha 
was  confined  on  suspicion  of  treason.   Being  re^ 
leased  after  a  few  days  confinement,   the  ship 
tocbored  in  Dover  rrad,  where  he  was  agpiiii 
seized  on  a  fidse  accusation.   Afiter  his  arrival  in 
HoUand  he  was  kept  prisoner  for  three  weeks, 
and  at  length  obtained  bis  liberty  on  paying  £3(K 
From  HoUand  he  travelled  to  Basil  in  Switzo^ 
land,  where  he  continued  till  queen  Elisabeth 
ascended   the    thpon«.      AAer   his  lelum   to 
England  be  was^  in  156Q|  made  prebeodafy  of 
Canterbury,  not  choosing  to  return  to  his  former 
flod^  of  wolves.    Be  di£  in  November  1  J»63,  at 
Caalerbniy,  agjBd  sixty'.eighL    He  was  so  severe 
a  whter  agaiqst  the  dburoh  of  Rom^  that  his 
books^  aie  paitieularly'  pcobibited  in 'the  expwrgar 
tcwY  index,  published  at  Madrid  i^  1667.   Most 
<d  his  writiagi  are  aittacks  upoa  the  religion  he 
had  abandons.   His  Brief  Chronicle  concerning 
Sir  John  Oldcasiie  was  republished  in  1729; 
and  be  is  also  the  author  of  many  stroMSige  pic^ 
ductioDS  in  En^^Ush  metre,  among^  which  are 
several  phiys  on  sabred  suliyects,  a  sp^imen  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  the  Harleian  Miscellany. 
To  modem  readers  they  would  appear  strange 
bnilesques ;  but,  as  the  author  himself  informs 
m,  they  were  gravely  and  piously  represented  in 
his  own  days  byyoung  men  a|  the  market-cross 
of  Kilkenny.    Tne   j^rincipal  work  of  bishop 
Bale  is  his  Scriptorum  lUustrium  Majocis  Bay 
taonite  Calalogus ;  or.  An  Account  of  the  Lives 
of  eminent  Writers  of  Britain ;  which,  according 
to  the  title,  commences  with  Japhet  the  son  <v 
Noah,  and  reaches  to  the. year  1557 1    It  formed 
llie  foundation  of.  all  the  large  subsequent  conk- 
piJatioiie.  of  this.  kind. 

Bau[,  Baslb  or  Basil.    See  Basle. 


BALEARES  Insula^  or  Balbaaic  Islamos, 
islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  so  called  from  BoX- 
Xciv,  because  the  inhabitants  were  excellent 
slingers.  But  Bochart  makes  the  name  of  Punic 
or  ^hcenician  original,  as  were  the  people: 
Baal-Jare,  signifying  a  master,  or  skilful  at  throw- 
ing;  the  Phcenicians  and  Hebrews  being  dexte- 
rous at  the  use  of  the  sling.  The  Greeks  called 
these  islands  Gymnasia,  because,  in  summer,  the 
inhabitants  went  naked,  or  rather  because  they 
wero  only  armed  with  a  sling  in  war.  There  are 
two  principal  ones  called  Major  and  Minor;  and 
hence  the  modern  names  Mstjorca  and  Minorcsu 
The  Major  is  distant  from  the  Minor  thirty  nules 
to  the  west;  in  length  40  miles,  and  in  circuit 
150.  They  were  subdued  by  Quintus  Mete^ 
lusi,  A.  A,  C.  190,  The  Baleares,  together  with 
the  adjacent  islands,  were  a  part  of  the  Pro- 
vincia  Citerior  orTarTaoonensis,and  of  the  resort 
of  the  Coventus  Carths^niensis,  or  New  Car- 
thage. These  islands  are  called  Cheorades,  by 
ApoUonius,  and  Choeradades,  by  Strabo,  i.  e« 
rocky.    See  Majorca  and  Minorca. 

BALEARICUS,  a  surname  obtained  by  Me- 
tellus  upon  his  conquest  of  the  Baleares. 

BM.ECHOU  (John  Joseph),  a  celebrated 
French  engraver,  bom  at  Aries,  in  1719.  He 
died  at  Avignon,  in  1765.  Thb  extraordinarv 
artist  wrought  entirely  with  the  graver,  of  whicn 
he  was  fully  master.  The  clearness  of  his  strokes^ 
and  the  depth  of  color  which  he  produced,  are 
fiur  beyond  any  prodnctionprior  to  his  own.  His 
two  la^e  plates  from  Vemet,  the  one  represent 
ing  a  storm,  the  other  a  calia,  must  ever  be  coar 
'  sidered  as  astonishing  epiertions.  They  ate  too 
well  known,  aad  too  much  admired,  to  need  anv 
further  eulogium:  «ul  were  never  equaUetd^ 
until  ihfiY  were  peihaps  surpassed  by  our  counr 
tiyman  WooUieC 

BALEN  (Hendrick  Van),  history  and  poiw 
trait  painter,  was  bom  at  Antwerp^  in  1560;  wee 
a  disciple  of  Adam  Van  Oort,  and  lesided  al 
Rome  a  considerable  time.  He  copied  the 
antiques;  and  at  his  return  to  his  ow«  country, 
the  visible  iwprovieiQenit  of  his  tssta  procured 
him  the  eMMem  of  the  ablest  judges^  Be  gane 
to  his  figures  so  much  truth,  roundness,  and 
correctness  oi  outline,  th»t  few  of  bis  contemp<^- 
raries  could  enter  into  competition  wi^  mm. 
Several  fine  poctiaits  ^  his  lemain.  His  died  in 
leai^. 

Balex  (John  Van),  peinter  of  history,  land- 
scapes, and  bc^s,  was  born  al  Antwerp,in  1611 ; 
ana  deri?ed  h»  knowledge  of.  the  art,  and  his 
fine  taste  of  drawing  and  design,  from  his  &ther 
Hendrick ;  hut,  as  soon  as  he  had  made  a  com- 
petent progress,  he  tfavelled  to  Rome,  and  lived 
tor  several  years  in  that  and  other  cities  of  Italy. 
Thece  he  acquired  a  good  gusto  of  design,  thou^ 
he  was  sometimes  incorrect.  His  particular 
merit  was  m  his  figures  of  naited  boys,  cupids, 
and  nymphs  bathmg  or  hunting,  of  which  sub- 
jects he  painted  a  coasiderable.  number ;  and  he 
procured  bo^  praise  and  riches  by  his  land- 
scapes and  histories.  The  carnations  of  his 
figures  were  clear  and  fresh;  his  coloring  in 
geneml  transparent ;  the  airs  of  his  heads  were 
in)  the  manner  of  AlbanOk. 

BALENGARIA,  Balcngbr,  in  writers  of  the 


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middle  age,  a  kind  of  vessel  of  war,  but  of  what 
particular  construction  seems  not  well  known. 
Blount  says,  that  by  thestat.  28  Hen.  VI.  cap.  5, 
balenger  seems  to  have  been  a  kind  of  barge. 

BALES  rPeter),  a  fisimous  master  in  the  art 
of  penmanship,  or  iair  writing ;  and  one  of  the 
first  inventors  of  short  hand.  He  was  bom  in 
1547,  and  is  styled,  by  Anthony  Wood,  *  a  most 
dexterous  person  in  his  profession.'  Wood  adds, 
that  *  he  spent  several  years  in  sciences  among 
the  Oxonians,  particularly  in  Gloucester-hall ; 
but  that  study,  which  he  used  for  a  diversion  only, 
proved  at  length  an  employment  of  profit.'  He 
IS  mentioned  in  HoUinshed's  Chronicle,  A.  D. 
1525;  and  Mr.  Evelyn  has  celebrated  his  deli- 
cate execution  of  a  piece  of  writing,  containing 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Creed,  Decalogue,  with 
two  short  prayers  in  Latin,  his  own  name,  motto, 
day  of  the  month,  year  of  the  Lord,  and  reign  of 
the  Queen  (Eliiabeth),  to  whom  he  presented  it 
at  Hampton  Court,  all  *  writteu  within  the  circle 
of  a  single  penny,  inchased  in  a  ring  and  borders 
of  gold ;  and  covered  with  a  crystal,  so  accurately 
wrought  as  to  be  very  plainly  legible,  to  the 
ercat  admiration  of  her  Majesty,  the  whole  Privy 
i^ouncil,  and  several  ambassadors  then  at  (%urt  V 
He  was  also  dexterous  in  imitating  hand-writings 
and,  about  1586,  was  employed  by  Secretary 
Walsingham  in  certain  political  manoeuvres. 
In  1590,  we  find  him  at  the  head  of  a  school, 
near  the  Old  Bailey,  London ;  in  which  year  he 
published  his  Writing  Schoolmaster,  in  three 
parts :  the  first  teaching  swift  writing,  the  second 
true  writing,  the  third  &ir  writing.  In  1595,  he. 
had  a  great  trial  of  skill  in  Blackfriars  with  one 
Daniel  Johnson,  for  a  golden  pen  of  £20  value, 
and  won  it.  He  had  also  the  arms  of  Calligraphy 
given  him,  which  are  Azure,  a  Pen,  Or,  as  a 
prize,  at  a  trial  of  skill  in  this  art  among  the 
oest  penmen  in  London.  In  1597,  he  repub- 
lished his  Writing  Schoolmaster,  which  was  in 
mx&k  high  reputation,  that  no  less  than  eighteen 
copies  of  commendatory  verses,  composed  by 
learned  men  of  that  time,  were  printed  before  it. 
Wood  says,  that  he  was  engagea  in  Essex's  trea- 
sons in  1600;  but  he  was  only  engaged,  and 
very  innocently  so,  in  serving  the  treacherous 
purposes  of  one  of  that  Earl's  mercenary  de- 
pendents. 

BALESSAN,  the  eastern  name  for  that  spe- 
cies of  the  Amyris  which  produces  the  celebrated 
balsam  d  Mecca,  the  ancient  balm  of  Gilead. 
This  plant  grows  to  the  height  of  fourteen  feet, 
flourishing  in  a  hot  climate,  and  in  a  stony  bar- 
ren soil.  In  general  it  is  lower,  and  Mr.  Bruce 
describes  a  specimen  five  feet  and  a  half  in 
hei^t,  and  five  inches  across  the  stem  where 
thickest.  The  wood  is  white,  light,  and  of  open 
texture,  covered  with  a  smooth  bark,  reddish  or 
of  bluish  white,  resembling  tliat  of  a  healthy 
standard  cherry-tree,  green  within,  and  emitting 
a  very  fragrant  odor.  That  of  the  branches, 
which  are  very  flexible  and  resinous,  is  equally 
agreeable.  The  leaves,  which  are  everjjreen  and' 
scanty,  bear  some  resemblance  to  those  of  rue ; 
and  the  flowers,  which  are  leguminous  and  of  a 
purplish  color,  resemble  those  of  the  acacia. 
The  firuit  consists  of  small  pointed  ovoidal  berries. 


containing  a  yellowish  fluid  sinular  to  honer,  of 
a  bitterish  taste,  and  exhaling  a  pleasing  perfume, 
approaching  the  odor  of  balm. 

It  has  been  in  modem  times  maintained  that 
the  plants  producing  the  balsam  of  Mecca  are 
restricted  to  a  plantation  of  a  little  more'  than 
thirty  acres,  at  Beder  Ilunein,  a  station  for  pil- 
grims in  Arabia,  between  Mecca  and  Medina. 
Yet  it  cannot  be  positively  affirmed  if  this  be  one 
species,  that  Abyssinia,  the  country  ascribed  to 
the  other,  is  deprived  of  it ;  or  that  the  balm  of 
Gilead  grows  in  Abyssinia  exclusively.  Thes^ 
are  facts  which  require  elucidation  from  future 
botanical  research.  The  plantation  belonccs  to  a 
noble  family  of  Arabs,  of  the  tribe  Beni  K'oreish, 
from  which  Mahomet  originated,  unless  the  Wa- 
habees,  who  interrupted  the  wo^  red  pilgrimages, 
have  dispossessed  them  of  their  inheritance.  The 
balsam  is  a  resinous  matter,  exuding,  like  ordi- 
nary resin  from  incisions  in  the  bark,  in  July, 
August,  and  September.  It  is  received  in  an 
earthen  bottle,  and  the  most  productive  trees  do 
not  yield  more  than  sixty  drops  a  day,  we  are 
told.  At  this  time  it  emits  a  very  strong  and 
pungent  odor,  and  is  of  a  rough,  acrid  taste,  a 
pale  yellow  turbid  color,  and  it  dissolves  in 
oils  readily.  Afterwards  it  acquires  a  deeper 
color,  as  well  as  greater  consistency  and  clear- 
ness, and  is  not  unlike  honey  in  its  appearance. 
It  sinks  in  clear  Water  to  Uie  bottom,  and,  if 
dropped  on  hot  iron,  collects  itself  into  a  glo- 
bule. It  is  said  to  be  frequently  adulterated 
with  honey,  wax,  and  oil.  The  best  kind  is  called 
opobalsamum;  there  are  two  other  kinds,  the 
carpobalsamum,  and  xylobalsamum;  they  are 
obtained  from  an  expression  of  the  firuit  of  the 
amyris,  the  other  from  a  decoction  of  the  twigs. 

Prosper  Alpinus  ascribes  many  properties  to 
the  balsam  of  Mecca,  esteemed  the  most  precious 
of  all  that  bear  the  appellation  of  balsam,  and 
which,  in  ordinary  description,  we  most  consider 
synonymous  with  the  balm  of  Gilead ;  and  the 
modem  Arabs,  Turks,  and  Egyptians,  entertain 
great  confidence  in  its  efficacy.  It  is  a  powerful 
vulnerary:  Mahomet  affirmed,  that  a  grove  of 
the  trees  sprung  up  from  the  blood  of  bis  own 
tribe  killed  in  battle,  the  juice  of  which  cored  the 
wounds  of  the  faithful,  however  deadly,  nay,  that 
it  recovered  some  of  them  from  death  itself.  It 
is  also  taken  for  complaints  in  the  breast,  in  fe- 
vers, and  rheumatism.  Hasselquist  says,  it  is 
useful  as  a  stomachic  in  doses  of  three  grains. 
Its  repute  as  an  antiseptic  is  very  great ;  and  it  is 
esteemed  so  efiectual  an  antidote  against  the 
plague,  that  when  this  distemper  makes  its  appear- 
ance, the  Egyptians  take  a  certain  quantity  oaily 
Its  principal  use,  however,  is  as  a  cosmetic  by 
the  eastern  females  of  rank :  after  being  kept  in  a 
very  warm  bath,  the  face  and  breast  are  anointed 
with  it,  and  the  same  process  is  continued  every 
third  day  for  a  month.  Oil  of  almonds  and  other 
cosmetics  are  then  rubbed  over  the  parts,  where- 
by the  skin  and  complexion  are  beautifully  reno- 
vated. Lady  Mary  VVortley  Montague  relates, 
that  she  was  induced  to  try  the  experiment,  by 
w)>ich  her  taca  became  swelled  and  red  for  three 
days,  durin  r  which  she  suff.^red  much  pain  ;  but 
her  complexion  was  greatly  improved.  She  adds^ 


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that  the  ladies  of  Constantinople,  by  whom  it  is 

used,  have  the  finest  bloom.    As  yielding  the 

virtues  of  the  baJm  of  Gilead,  this  plant  has 

been  celebrated  from    very  remote    antiquity. 

When  Joseph  was  confined  by  his  brethren  in  a 

,  pit,  it  is  said,  *  they  sat  down  to  eat  bread ;  and 

'  they  lifted  up  their  eyes  and  looked,  and  behold 

.  a  company  of  Ishmaelites  came  from  Gilead, 

with  their  camels  bearing  spicery,  and  balm,  and 

myrrh,  going  to  carry  it  down  to  Egypt/    Jere- 


taste,  that  he  obtained  the  prize  of  merit  in  the 
academy  of  St.  Luke,  in  1694,  when  he  was  only 
twenty-eight.  From  that  time  his  reputation 
was  established,  and  he  was  engaged  to  work  foe 
most  of  the  churches  and  the  nobility,  and  his 
paintings  were  universally  admired.  His  style 
IS  like  that  of  Maratti;  and  his  works  have  a 
certain  mixture  of  the  manners  of  Raphael,  Cor- 
regio,  and  Caracci.  He  died  in  1740.  In  Uie 
church  of  Santa  Maria  Mater  Domini,  at  Venice, 


miah  particularly  aUudes  to  its  virtues ;    and  there  is  one  of  his  most  capital  performances, 

Josephus  states,  the  quee>  of  Sheba,  or  Saba,  representing  the  nativity  of  our  Saviour.    In  a 

'  who  was  mqiiisitive  it.t6  philosophy,  and  on  chapel  belonging  to  the  church  of  S.  Geminiano, 

that  and  otner  accounts  was  also  to  be  admired/  in  tne  same  city,  there  is  another  capital  picture 

brought  the  balm  of  Gilead  as  a  present  to  Solo-  of  his,  representing  our  Saviour  aead,  in  the 

mon,  on  her  visit  to  Jerusalem.  arms  of  the  virgin. 

*  They  say  also,'  he  adds,  *  that  we  possess  the       Balestra,  in  ichthyology,'  a  name  by  which 


root  of  this  balsam,  which  our  countiy  still  bears, 
from  that  woman's  gift.'  It  appears  from  the 
writings  of  the  ancients,  nearly  contemporary 


Sylvian  and  others  have  called  the  fish  more 
usually  known  by  the  name  of  Capriscus. 

BALETCHENC^,  a  town    of  Turkey  in 


with  Josephus,  that  Judea  was  generally  be-    Asia,  on  the  Kurasir,  twenty-one   miles  from 


lieved  to  he  possessed  of  it  exclusively,  rliny 
says,  'To  all  other  odors  whatsoever  is  to  be 
preferred  that  balsam,  which  is  produced  in  no 
other  part  of  the  world  than  the  land  of  Judea, 
and  tnere  in  two  gardens  only,  both  belonging 
to  the  king,  one  not  exceeding  twenty  acres  in 


Hazahan,  and  twenty-seven  miles  from  Kati- 
bounou.  It  consists  of  260  houses,  and  carries 
on  a  considerable  traffic  in  horses,  cattle,  and 
goats'  hair,  made  into  bags. 

HALEY  (Walter),  the  son  of  Henry  Haley  of 
Wamwell  in  Dorsetshire,  was  bom  at  Portsham, 


size,  and  the  second  still  smaller.'  Strabo  partly  and  educated  at  Winchester,    f^rom  thence  he 

confirms  the  above  accounts,  ascribing  it  to  that  was  sent  to  Oxford ;  and,  after  two  years  proba- 

countiy,  over  or  near  to  which  the  quieen  of  She-  tion,  was  Emitted  perpetual  fellow  of  New  Col- 

ba  reigned.    '  Near  to  this,' he  says, '  is  the  most  lege,  in   1550.      Having  taken  his  degree   of 

fiivor^  land  of  the  Sabeans,  a  very  great  people.  M.  A.  he  practised  physic,  and  in  1558  was 

Frankincense,  myrrh,  and  cinnamon,  grow  among  proctor  of  the  university.    About  this  time  he 

them,  and  in  the  coast  that  is  about  Saba,  the  obtained  the  prebend  of  Wells,  which  he  resigne<? 

balsam  also.'     Whence  Bruce    observes,  that  in  1559.    In  1561  he  was  appointed  queen' 

'  among  the  myrrh-trees  behind  Asab,  all  along  professor  of  physic,  in  1563  proceeded  M.  D 

the  coast  to  the  Straits  of  Babelmandel,  is  its  and  afterwards  became  one  of  her  majesty's  phy- 

native  country.    It  grows  to  a  tree  about  four-  sicians  in  ordinary.    He  was  thought  skilful  in 

teen  feet  high  spontaneously,  and  without  culture,  his  profession,  and  had  considerable  practice, 

like  the  myrrh, the  oofiee, and  frankincense-tree ;  He   died  in  1592,  aged  sixty-three;  and  was 

they  are  all  equally  the  wood  of  the  country,  and  buried  in  the  inner  chapel  of  New  College.    His 

occasionally  cut  down  for  fuel.'     Diodorus  Si-  works  are,  1.  A  Discourse  of  three  kinds  of  Pep- 

culus  affirms  that  this  balsam  grew  in  a  valley  of  per  in  common  use,  1588, 8vo.    2.  Brief  Treatise 

Arabia  Felix.    Ali  Bey  says,  that  there  is  no  of  the  Preservation  of  the  Eye-sight ;  first  printed 

balsam  made  now  at  Mecca:  that,  on  the  con-  at  Oxford  in  1616  and  1645,  8vo.    3.  Directions 

trary,  it  is  very  scarce,  and  is  obtained  princi-  for  Health,  natural  and  artificial ;  with  medicines 

pally  in  the  territory  of  Medina ;  as  also  that  it  for  all  diseases  of  the  eyes,  1626,  4to.    4.  Expli- 

was  called  belsan,  for  whose  history  see  our  arti-  catio  Galeni  de  potu  Convalescentium  et  Senum^ 

cle  Babia.  &c.  MS.  formerly*  in  Lord  Aylesbury's  library. 

Galen  travelled  into  Syria  and  Palestine,  pur-       BALFROSH,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  pro- 

posely  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  this  substance :  vince  of  Mazendaran,  consisting  of  one  principal 


in  1516  we  find  the  emperor  Selim  levying  a  tax 
of  three  pounds  weight  of  it  annually  on  Arabia 


street,  occupied  almost  wholly  by  a  bazaar,  and 
divided  into  seventeen  wards.     Here  are  eight 


and  Egypt ;  which  is  said  to  be  levied  to  this  day.  caravansaries,  three  of  which  are  devoted  to  the 
Part  of  the  governor  of  Cairo's  appointments  use  of  the  Russians  and  Armenians.  It  is  the 
include  a  right  to  receive  a  pound  of  indsam ;  the  second  town  of  the  province,  distant  twenty 
like  quantity  is  due  to  an  officer  who  conducts  miles  west  of  Fehrabad. 
the  caravan  of .  pilgrims  to  Mecca ;  and  half  a  BALGA,  a  bailiwic,  castle,  and  town-  of  Bran- 
pound  to  the  pacha  of  Damascus.  denberg,  in  East  Prussia,  opposite  Pillau,  and 
BALESTRA  (Antonio),  an  excellent  historical  twenty-four  miles  south-west  of  Konigsberg. 
painter,  bom  at  Verona  in  1666.  At  the  age  of  The  celebrated  fortress  of  Storeda  is  in  this 
iwenty-ooe  he  went  to  Venice,  where  he  con-  vicini^. 

tinned   for  three  years,  under  the  direction  of  BALGAVIES,  a  lake  of  Scotland,  in  the  parisl4 

Ant.  Bellucci.    lie  next  visited  Bologna  and  of  Aberiemno,  in  Angusshire,  through  which 

Rome,  and  at  the  latter  became  the  disciple  of  the  Lunan  runs.    It  furnishes  much  marl  for 

Maratti.    Under  him  he  exerted  himself  in  de-  manuring  the  adjacent  grounds, 

fligning  after  Raphael,  Corregio,  Annibal  Caracci,  BALGILLO,  a  hill  of  Scotland,  in  the  parish 

lcc«  by  which  he  so  efiectually  confirmed  his  of  Monyfeith  in  Angusshire,  about  half  a  mile 

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north  of  Brougfaty  Castle ;  on  which  there  are 
still  to  be  seen  remains  of  those  fortifications 
that  were  erected  by  the  English,  under  Henry 
VIII.  when  tliey  ravaged  Dundee  and  most  of 
the  county  during  the  regency  of  the  earl  of 
Arran,  in  1548. 

BALGONIE,    a  district  in    Fifeshire,    the 

Eroperty  of  the  E^rl  of  Leren^  and  from  which 
is  eldest  son  takes  his  title.  It  produces  ex- 
cellent coals,  and  is  said  to  have  been  wrought 
for  that  mineral  upwards  of  300,  some  say  500, 
years  ago. 

BALGONIE  Castle,  one  of  the  earl  of 
Leven's  seats,  in  the  parish  of  Markinch,  in  Fife- 
shire,  a  fabric  of  great  antiquity,  supposed  to 
have  been  built  in  the  twelfth  century. 

BALGUY  (John),  an  eminent  divine  of  the 
church  of  England,  was  bom  in  1686,  at  Shef- 
field, and  studied  at  Cambridge,  where  he  took 
the  degrees  of  A.  B.  and  M.  A.  In  1708  he  was 
appointed  tutor  to  Joseph  Bauks,  esq.  grand- 
fiither  to  the  celebrated  Sir  Joseph.  In  1710  he 
was  ordained  a  deacon,  and  in  1711  a  priest, 
when  Sir  H'.  Liddel  bestowed  on  him  tfie  donar- 
five  of  Lamesly  and  Tanfield.  In  this  small 
cure  he  composed  a  new  sermon  every  week,  250 
of  which  he  afterwards  burnt,  tbat  his  son^  Dr* 
Thomas  Balguy,  archdeacon  of  Winchester^ 
might  exercise  his  own  genius,  instead  of  trust- 
ing to  his  father's  labors.  In  1727  he  was  col- 
lated by  bishop  Hoadly  to  a  prebend  in  Salisbury, 
with  the  right  of  presenting  to  four  livings ;  of 
which  he  gave  one  to  hiis  son,  and  another  to  his 
brother-in-law,  Mr.  Robinson.     He  published 

1.  Silvius's  Examination  of  certain  Doctrines 
taujrht  by  the  Reverend  Mr.  Stebbing,  in  1718; 

2.  Silvius's  Letter  to  the  Rev..  Dr.  Sherlock,  in 
1719  ;  both  anonymously,  in  vindication  of  Bp. 
Hoadly.  Mr.  Stebbing  having  replied  to  these 
works,  Mr.  Balguy  published,  3.  Silvius's  De- 
fence of  a  dialogue  between  a  Papist  and  a  Pro- 
testant, in  answer  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Stebbing; 
with  remarks  on  that  author's  manner  of  writing; 
4.  A  Letter  to  a  Debt  concerning  the  Beauty 
and  Excellence  of  Moral  Virtue,  and  the  support 
which  it  receives  ^m  the  Christian  Revelation, 
in  1726.  In  this  treatise  he  attacked  XiOrd 
Shaftesbury 's  principles,  with  equal  politeness 
and  strength  of  reasoning.  5.  The  Foundation 
of  Moral  Goodness,  or  an  Enquiry  into  the  Ori- 
ginal of  our  Ideas  of  Virtue ;  in  two  parts,  in 
1728.  6.  Divine  Rectitude,  or  a  brief  Enquiry 
concerning  the  Moral  Perfections  of  the  Deity, 
&c.  7.  A  second  Letter  to  a  Deist.  8.  The 
Law  of  Truth.  9.  Essay  on  Redemption  :  and, 
10.  A  Volume  of  Sermons.  He  died  in  1748, 
aged  sixty-three. 

BALI,  or  Bally,  sometimes  called  also  Little 
Java,  one  of  the  Sunda  or  Sumatran  islands^ 
separated  from  the  eastern  extremity  of  Java  by 
the  straits  of  Bali,  about  five  or  six  leagues  wide 
and  of  very  intricate  navigation.  Its  length 
according  to  Sir  T.  S.  Raffles,  to  whom  we  are 
mdebted  for  the  greater  part  of  our  information 
respecting  these  islands,  is  about  eighty  miles, 
ana  in  its  breadth  nearly  equal,  the  whole  sur- 
hax  containing  about  6400  square  miles.  He 
thinks  the  population  may  be  estimated  at  a  little 
iDore  than  sixty  persons  to  each  square  mile, 
whkh  would  give  about  400,000  for  the  number 


of  its  inhabitants.  The  country  is  uioantainoiis, 
rising  into  the  interior ;  the  ravines  and  beds  of 
riven  are  deep,  and  the  rivers  rapid. 

Bali  is  well  cultivated  and  thickly  planted 
with  cocoa-nut  and  other  fruit-trees :  the  uncul- 
tivated parts  are  crowned  with  deep  forests. 

Its  productions  consist  chiefly  of  rice,  maize, 
yams,  and  sweet  potatoes;  rice  yields  from  thirty 
to  forty  fold,  and  the  maize  often  more  than  a 
hundred.  The  Balinese  also  grow  conoli  on  the 
dry  land,  of  a  superior  kind ;  some  opium,  nut- 
megs, dyeing  drugs  and  tobacco,  are  also  objects 
of  culture.  On  Ste  whole,  the  Balinese  may  be 
considered,  we  are  told,  as  the  nlost  civilised 
islanders  in  this  archipelago,  not  excepting  even 
the  Javanese.  The  women  manufacture  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  cotton  cloth  for  exportation; 
and  are  not  so  much  in  the  field  as  those  of  Java ; 
the  men  manu&cture  their  own  fire-anns.  On 
the  eastern  coast  at  a  place  called  Pejah  a  gold 
mine  has  been  opened.  They  import  chintz  and 
other  piece  gooas,  iron,  and  china  ware.  Iron, 
in  particular,  is  in  great  reouest.  The  religion 
is  that  of  Budh,  but  not  divided  into  castes ;  and 
the  priesthood,  at  least  in  general,  is  hereditary. 
The  priests  live  secluded  in  separate  societies, 
among  the  mountains,  having  lands  assigned 
for  the  support  of  themselves  and  their  temples. 
Justice  is  administered  by  distinct  civil  magis- 
trates, who  very  intelligently  expound  the  law 
from  written  authorities,  which  is  a  decided 
proof  that  civilisation  has  had  a  powerful  in- 
fluence even  upon  the  body  of  the  people. 

Bali  is  governed  by  seven  native  and  inde- 
pendent princes,  each  absolute  in  his  own  do- 
minion ;  though  their  despotism  appears  to  be  of 
a  much  milder  character  than  among  the  native 
governments  of  Java.  A  right  of  prirate  pro- 
perty in  the  soil  is  said  to  be  established,  and 
the  claims  of  the  government  to  be  conftned  to 
a  regular  tax  in  kind  on  the  rice.  The  language 
presents  the  singular  distinction  of  onp  class  of 
words  to  be  used  by  the  privileged  orders,  and 
another  for  the  people  in  general.  A  sort  of 
feudal  service  in  war  is  maintained ;  slavery,  we 
regret  to  add,  though  unknown  among  them,  is 
encouraged  by  the  sale  of  their  priftoners  of  war 
to  other  nations.  Th^  are  also  said  to  use  poi- 
soned arrows  in  war. 

Historically  it  seems  only  to  be  known  that 
this  island  was  visited  by  Sir  Francis  Drake  it 
1597,  and  that  the  conversion  of  the  natives  to 
Budhism  took  place  about  1750  years  since. 
The  east  peak  of  the  island  is  in  lat.  8°  24'  long. 
115°  24'  £. 

Their  language  is  written  in  the  same  character 
as  tbat  of  Java,  and  the  Javan  is  said  to  be  spoken 
at  the  courts  of  their  princes,  but  it  is  considered 
as  a  foreign  tongue.  The  Kawi,  the  learned 
language  of  all  these  islands,  is  well  understood 
at  Bali.  The  Balinese  are  represented  as  mild 
and  inofiensive  in  their  manners ;  they  readily 
associate  with  strangers,  and  are  altogether  di- 
vested of  those  bigoted  prejudices  of  caste,  nation 
and  religion,  with  whicn  the  people  of  continen- 
tal Asia  are  generally  imbued.  On  the  other 
hand  they  are  said  to  be  the  only  people  of  this 
archipelago  who  possess  either  courage  or  tracta- 
bility  for  receiving  the  regular  discipline  of 
European  troops.     Their  food  consists  princi- 


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pally  of  the  flesh  of  bogs  and  bufTaloes,  with 
which  ships  touching  here  are  readily  and  rea- 
sonably supplied.  Nor  is  the  use  of  spirituous 
liquors  or  opium  unknown,  both  of  which  have 
b^n  introduced  by  Europeans.  Their  houses, 
like  those  of  Java,  are  built  upon  the  ground,  and 
not  raised  upon  posts  as  amongst  the  Malays. 
They  are  generally  clothed  in  cotton  of  their 
own  manu&cture,  and  of  a  good  fabric.  Until 
they  are  married,  indeed,  the  females  go  nearly 
naked,  then  the  bridegroom  wraps  a  selendang 
or  cloth  round  the  bosom  of  his  chosen  fair. 
There  is  said  to  be  great  general  prudence  and 
fidelity  in  their  marriages. 

BALIO.    See  Bailg. 

BALIOL,  Balliol,  or  BAiLLiOL(John),  king 
of  Scotland.    On  the  death  of  queen  Margaret, 


character:  are,  the  head  is  flat;  eight  teeth  in 
each  side,  the  two  anterior  ones  are  longest;  in 
the  place  of  gills  an  aperture  immediately  above 
the  pectoral  fins ;  the  body  flat;  the  scales  joined 
together  by  the  skin,  and  the  belly  keeled.  There 
are  eight  species  of  this  genus: — viz.  B.  acu- 
leatus,  with  a  triradiated  back  fin,  and  the  spines 
of  the  tail  lean  upon  each  other.  It  is  a  native 
of  India.  2.  B.  hispidus  with  the  head-fin  uni- 
radiated,  and  a  round  black  spot  in  the  tail-fin ; 
the  body  rough,  and  bristly  towards  the  tail; 
the  spine  or  horn  situated  between  the  eves ;  the 
snout  subulated,  and  instead  of  a  belly-fin  a 
jagged  sharp  spine.  This  is  a  native  of  Carolina. 
3.  B.  monoceros,  whose  head-fin  consists  of  but 
one  ray,  and  the  tail-rays  carinated.  It  is  called 
the  unicorn-fish  by  Catesby.    This  fish  has  been 


in  her  passage  from  Norway,  being  at  the  h^  of    accounted  poisonous.      They  mostly  frequent 


the  English  interest  in  Scotland,  he  claimed  the 
vacant  throne,  by  virtue  of  his  descent  from 
David  earl  of  Huntingdon,  brother  to  William 
the  Lion,  king  of  Scotland.  Robert  Bruce  op- 
posed Baliol,  but  having  submitted  to  the  arbi- 
tration of  Edward  I .  it  was  decided  in  favor  of 
Baliol,  who  did  homage  to  him  for  the  kingdom 
on  the  12th  of  November,  1292.  Baliol,  how- 
ever, did  not  long  enjoy  the  crovm,  for  having 
remonstrated  against  the  power  which  Edward 
assumed  over  Scotland,  he  summoned  him  to 
his  tribunal  as  a  vassal.  Irritated  at  this,  Baliol 
concluded  a  treaty  with  France,  on  which  a  war 
with  England  immediately  commenced ;  and  after 
the  battle  of  Dunbar  he  surrendered  his  crown 
into  the  hands  of  the  English  monarch,  who  sent 
him  and  his  son  to  London  to  be  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower.  The  pope  interceded  for  them,  and 
they  were  liberated,  and  committed  to  his  legate 
in  1297.  Baliol  retired  to  his  estate  in  France, 
where  he  died  in  1314. 

Baliol  (Edward),  the  son  of  John  Baliol, 
king  of  Scotland.  Notwithstanding  the  manner 
in  which  his  father  was  degraded,  and  obliged  to 


those  seas,  amongst  the  Bahama  islands,  where 
the  corals  are  in  great  plenty.  4.  B.  papillosus, 
with  a  biradiated  back-fin,  and  a  papillous  body. 
5.  B.  ringens,  with  a  triradiated  back-fin ;  three 
folds  in  each  side  of  the  head,  and  the  tail-fin 
forked.  It  is  found  at  Ascension  island.  6.  B. 
tomentosus,  whose  head-fin  is  biradiated,  and  the 
body  of  it,  towards  the  hind  part,  hairy.  It  is  a 
native  of  America.  7.  B.  verrucosus,  has  a  tri- 
radiated back-fin,  and  the  tail  full  of  little  Avarts. 
In  the  place  of  a  belly-fin  this  species  has  a  large, 
thick,  warty  ray,  and  twenty-five  small  reversed 
sharp  spines  at  the  side  of  the  tail,  disposed  in 
four  rows.  It  is  a  native  of  India.  8.  B.  ve- 
tula,  or  old  wife,  with  a  triradiated  back-fin ;  the 
belly-fin  longitudinal  and  somewhat  carinated; 
and  the  tail-fin  forked.  It  is  found  at  Ascension 
island. 

The  fishes  of  this  genus  are  remarkable  for 
their  splendid  colors.  The  species  mentioned  by 
Linnsus  and  Gmelin  are  the  following : — mono- 
ceros,  scriptus  fi,  hispidus,  tomentosus,  papillo- 
sus, verrucosus,  biaculeatus,  aculeatus,  vetula, 
maculatus,  ringens,  sinensis,  assassi,  capriscus, 


give  up  his  crown,  he  laid  claim  to  the  "kingdom  forcipatus,  punclatus,  Kleinii,  curassavicus,  and 

of  Scotland,  and,  assisted  by  France,  invaded  Americanus.    Lacepede  has  described  twenty- 

and  recovered  it;  but  it  was  soon  again  wrested  four  species  of  balistes,  in  his  work  on  fishes, 

from  him ;  and  dying  afterwards  without  issue  and  which  he  divides  into  four  sections : — Le 

the  femily  became  extinct.  baliste  mamelonn^,  le  baliste  pralin,  le  baliste 

Baliol,  or  Balliol  (Sir  John  de),  founder  of  verdatre,  le  baliste  Mungo-Parck  (Park);  le  ba> 

Baliol   college,  in  Oxford,  was  son  of  Hugh  liste  m^tallique,  &c.  are  new  or  interesting  spe- 
Baliol,  of  Bemard^s  castle  in  the  diocese  of 
Durham,  and  eminent  for  his  power  and  riches. 


He  was  appointed  governor  of  Carlisle  in  1248 ; 
and  when  Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  III.,  was 
married  to  Alexander  III.,  king  of  Scotland,  the 
guardianship  of  the  royal  pair,  and  also  of  the 
kingdom,  was  committed  to  him  and  another 
lord ;  but  in  about  three  years  they  were  charged 
with  abusing  their  trust,  and  the  English-  mo- 
narch inarched  towards  Scotland,  on  purpose  to 


cies  described  by  Lacepede. 

BAL'ISTER,  n.  *.  Lat  bditta;  Fr.  balesta, 
a  cross  bow. 

A  spindle  fall  ol  nw  thread  to  make  s  &Ue  string 
for  the  king's  baiuier  or  cross  bow. 

Blount's  Tmmm,  p.  92. 

BALIZE,  a  river  in  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan, 
South  America,  which  foils  into  the  bay  of  Hon* 
duras,  in  lat.  14°  69'  N.  On  its  banks,  and' to 
the  extent  of  200  miles  up  the  streEun,  the  Eng^ 


punish  them.    Baliol,  however,  pacified  him  by    lish  .cut  mahogany,  and  by  the  treaty  of  1783 


advancing  a  sum  of  money.  During  the  wars 
between  Henry  III.  and  the  barons  he  adhered 
to  the  king,  on  which  account  the  barons  seized 
hift  lands.  In  1263  he  began  the  foundation  and 
endowment  of  Baliol  college,  which  was  after- 
wards completed  by  his  widow.  .He  died  in 
1269. 

BALISTES,  in  icthyology,  a  genus  of  fishes 
belonging  to  the  order  of  amphibia  nantes.    The 


a  right  was  guaranteed  to  British -subjects  of  cut- 
ting and  carrying  away  logwood,  in  the  district 
between  this  river  and  the  Rio  Hondo.  Beyond 
the  scene  of  their  operation  the  Balize  is  very 
imperfecdy  known. 

Balize,  a  sea^port  town  of  Yucatan,  South 
America,  is  an  establishment  chiefly  composed 
of  English  settlers,  at  the  mouth  of  the  abov» 
river     The  houses  are  mostlv  built  of  the  wood 

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of  the  neighbourhood,  amongst  which  the  grace- 
ful raaliogany  frequently  furnishes  pillars  of 
eight  or  .en  feet  high,  on  which  they  stand,  sur- 
rounded by  piazzas.  The  cocoa  tree  and  tamarind, 
largely  interspersed  among  the  buildings,  which 
are'  also  frequently  thatched  with  leaves  of  the 
palmetto,  give  the  whole  place  a  very  picturesque 
appearance.  But  the  better  sort  of  houses  have 
of  late  been  shingled.  The  neighbourhood  is 
low  and  swampy. 

BALK,  n.  «.  V  a.  &  v.  n.  Dutch  and  Germ. 
balk;  Sax.  and  Wech  bale,  derived  by  Skinner 
from  Ital.  valicarCy  to  pass  over.  A  great  beam 
such  as  is  used  in  building  ;  a  rafter  over  an  out- 
house or  barn ;  a  ridge  of  land  left  unploughed, 
between  the  furrows,  or  at  the  end  of  the  field ; 
land  over  which  the  plough  slips  without  turning 
it  up ;  figuratively  any  thing  overpassed,  untouch- 
ed. A  disappointment;  to  frustrate, to  elude,  to 
omit,  or  refuse  any  thing ;  to  heap  together ;  to 
turn  aside,  to  deal  in  cross  purposes ;  to  speak 
differently  from  the  intention.  The  two  last 
meanings  are  arbitrary,  and  rest  on  the  authority 
of  Spenser  only. 

His  owne  bond  than  made  he  ladders  three 
To  climben  by  the  ringes  and  the  stalkes 
Unto  the  tubbes  hanging  in  the  balkn.        '    Chauter. 
Another  thing  in  the  grammar  schools  I  see  no  use 
of,  unlets  it  be  to  balk  young  lads  in  learning  lan- 
guages. Locke. 
Every  one  has  a  desire  to  keep  up  the  vigour  of 
his  faculties,  and  not  to  balk  his  und«rsunding  by 
what  is  too  hard  for  it.  M 
But  one  may  balk  his  good  intent 
And  take  things  otherwise  than  meant       Prior, 
The  prices  must  have  been  high ;  for  a  people  so 
rich  would  not  balk  their  fancy.                   Arbuthnot, 
BalU'd  of  his  prey,  the  yelling  monster  flies. 
And  fills  the  city  with  his  hideous  cries.          Fope. 
The  most  effectual  way  to  balk 
Their  malice,  is  to  let  them  talk.        Churchill. 

By  grisly  Pluto  he  doth  swear. 
He  rent  his  clothes,  and  tore  his  hair; 
And  as  he  runneth  here  and  there^ 

An  acorn  cup  he  greeteth ; 
Which  soon  he  taketh  by  the  stalk. 
About  his  head  he  lets  it  walk. 
Nor  doth  he  any  creature  balk. 
But  lays  on  all  he  meeteth. 

Drayton'M  Nimfhid. 
This  was  looked  for  at  your  hand,  and  this  was  baUU. 

Shdhtpcare. 
When-as  the  ape  him  heard  so  much  to  talke 
Of  labour,  that  did  from  his  liking  balke. 
He  would  have  slipt  the  collar  handsomely,     ^penacr. 
But  to  occasion  him  to  further  talke 
To  feed  her  humour  with  his  pleasing  style. 
Her  list  in  stryfuU  termes  with  him  to  batiie. 
And  thus  replyde.  Id. 

BALK'ERS.  In  fishery.  Men  who  stand  on 
%  cliff,  or  high  place  on  the  shore,  and  give  a  sign 
to  the  men  in  the  fishing  boats,  which  way  the 
passage  or  shoal  of  herrings  is. — Covfell. 

The  pilchards  are  pursued  by  a  bigger  fish,  called  a 
plusher,  who  leapeth  above  water,  and  bewrayeth 
them  to  the  balker.  Carew'a  Sw.  of  Com. 

BALKH,  a  province  of  Turkist^n,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  AmCi,  on  the  east  by  Badak- 
sh&n,  on  the  south  by  the  HindG-cush,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  deserts  of  Khwarezm,  the  ancient 
Bactria.    Its  present  extent  is  about  260  miles 


from  east  to  west,  and  about  110  from  north  to 
south.  The  southern  and  eastern  districts  are 
comparatively  cool  for  the  climate,  and  the  val- 
leys towards  the  Ami  are  well  watered  and  fer- 
tile. The  rivers  from  the  Hindu-cush,  we  learn 
from  Mr.  Elphinstone,  flow  in  a  direction  almost 
due  north,  mto  the  Amii :  the  Koksha,  or  Ba- 
dakhshan,  is  the  easternmost;  next  comes  the 
Ak-ser&T;  and  the  last  and  most  westerly,  the 
Rehlis,  loses  itself  in  the  sands  before  it  reaches 
Balkh.  Balkh  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
Mai'mench,  AndekhQd,  Shilbdrkan,  or  Shibberg- 
han,  Balkh  Proper,  Kulum,  Hazeret  Im&m, 
Kundus  Khost,  Inder^b,  and  T^likan.  The 
three  first  border  on  the  deserts,  and  are  occupied 
by  wandering  hordes  of  Uzbegs  and  Turcomans. 

Balkh,  a  city  of  Turkist4n,  the  capital  of  the 
above  province,  stands  in  lat.  36°  45'  N.,  long. 
65°  20'  £. ;  it  is  now  in  ruins ;  but  is  surround^ 
by  360  fertile  villages.  The  districts  Kulum 
and  Hazeret  Imkm  are  barren,  but  those  on  the 
north  side  of  the  HindCi-cush,  are  productive 
and  well  peopled.  The  population  ot  the  whole 
province  amounts  probably  to  a  million.  Balkh 
was  originally  built  by  Kayhmaras,  and  was  the 
favorite  residence  of  the  Persian  kings  of  the 
Caianian  dynasty.  It  was  once  esteemed  the 
chief  Mussulman  city  in  the  north,  and  called 
Kubbatu'l  islam,  (the  holy  shrine  of  Islamism). 
Jengiz  Kh^  took  it  in  1221,  and  the  last  of  his 
family  was  driven  out  of  it  by  Tamerlane.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  house 
of  Ta'imur  was  expelled  by  the  Uzbegs,  who  have 
ever  since  maintained  a  precarious  dominion 
over  these  provinces.  Kilij  All  Bey  was  the 
reigning  prince  when  Mr.  £lphinstone  visited 
Afghanistan,  nominally  acknowledging  the  autho- 
rity of  the  king  of  C^bul ;  but  in  all  the  internal 
government  entirely  independent. 

BALKY,  a  large  decayed  old  town  of  Hin* 
dostan,  in  the  province  of  Beeder,  surrounded  b)' 
a  wall.  It  is  distant  fifteen  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Beeder,  and  forty-five  north-east  of  Kalbergah. 
Long,  rr  29'  E.,  lat.  17**  49'  N. 

BALL,  a  small  place  in  the  county  of 
Mayo,  107  miles  from  Dublin.  Here  is  a 
celebrated  holy  well  and  a  round  tower ;  also  at 
Moat  in  the  neighbourhood  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
abbey.  In  the  course  of  the  festival  held  here  it 
it  is  said  that  300  sheep  are  sometimes  con- 
sumed. 

Ball  (John),  a  puritan  divine,  bom  in  Ox- 
fordshire in  1585.  He  had  a  curacy  of  £20  per 
annum  in  Staffordshire,  and  kept  a  school.  He 
wrote  strongly  against  such  as  separated  from  the 
church,  as  disapproving  of  the  ceremonies  and 
government,  though  he  was  far  from  being  satis- 
fied  with  these  in  some  respects  himself.  He 
died  in  1640. 

BALL'.  Germ,  and  Dutch  bolUn-bol,  to  roll, 
turn,  round ;  any  thing  round,  or  roundly,  as  a 
cricket  ball,  a  billiard  ball,  the  eye  ball,  the  globe, 
any  thing  globular. 

'  Balf  diminutirely  Belmf  the  sun,  or  Apollo, 
of  the  Celts,  was  called  by  the  ancient  Gauls 
Abellio.  Whatever  was  round,  and  in  particular 
the  head,  was>  called  by  the  ancients  either  Bai,  or 
Be/,  and  likewise  Bbl  and  Bui.  Among  the  modem 
Persians,  the  head  is  called  PoU ;  and  the  Flem- 


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rags  do  still  call  the  head  BaUe.  UoXoc  is  the 
head  or  poll ;  and  voXiiv  is  to  turn.  BoXoc  like- 
wise si|?nifies  a  round  ball,  whence  bowl,  and 
hell,  and  ball,  which  the  Welsh  term  hcl.  By  the 
Scotch  also  the  head  is  named  bhel;  whence  the 
English  bill  is  derived,  signifying  the  beak  of  a 
bird.  Figuratively,  the  Phrygians  and  Thurians 
by  paKktiv  understood  a  king.  Hence  also,  in 
the  Syriac  dialects,  /3aaX,  jlijX,  and  likewise 
/3(wX,  signifies  lord,  and  by  this  name  also  the 
sun ;  and  in  some  dialects,  HX  and  IX,  whence 
IXoc  and  HXtoc,  TijXioc  and  Bi|Xioc,  and  also,  in 
the  Celtic  diminutive  way  of  expression,  EXevoc, 
TcXevoc,  and  BcXevoc,  signified  the  sun ;  and  EXevi;, 
TtXtvfi,  and  BcXevii,  the  moon.  Among  the  Teu- 
tonics, hoi  and  heil  have  the  same  meaning; 
whence  the  adjective  holig,  or  heiligy  is  derived, 
and  signifies  divine  or  holy ;  and  the  aspiration 
being  changed  into  s,  the  Romans  form  their  SoL* 

Baiter. 

For  where  as  God  hath  shewed  iinto  us  certain 
tokes  of  his  Godhed»  in  the  heavenly  ballei  and  cir- 
cles above,  and  on  the  yearthe  beneth,  in  the  sea, 
and  in  all  lyning  creatures  on  the  yearthe,  yet  hath 
he  wrought  in  none  of  thym  more  wonderfully  than 
in  manne.  UdtM.  Actty  ch.  xvii. 

The  palme  play,  where  despoiled  for  the  game. 
With  dased  eyes  oft  we  by  gleams  of  love 
Have  misted  the  baU,  and  got  sight  of  our  dame. 
To  bait  her  eyes  which  kept  the  leads  above. 

Earl  of  Sumy. 

Be  subject  to  no  sight  but  mine ;  invisible 
To  every  eye-ball  else.  Shaktpeaire. 

BalU  to  the  stars,  and  thralls  to  fortune  reign, 
Tum'd  from  themselves,  infected  with  their  ci^e. 
Where  death  is  fearM,  and  life  is  held  with  pain. 

Sidney, 
Those  I  have  seen  play  at  ball,  grow  extremely  ear- 
nest who  should  have  the  ball.  Id, 
What,  though  in  solemn  silence,  all 
Move  round  the  dark  terrestrial  ball! 
What  tho'  nor  real  voice  nor  sound 
Amid  their  radiant  orbs  be  found  ! 
In  reason's  ear  they  all  rejoice. 
And  utter  forth  a  glorious  voice ; 
For  ever  singing,  as  they  shine, 
'  The  hand  that  made  us  is  divine.' 

Andrew  ManeU, 
*«*  This,  with  the  other  sublime  and  beautiful 
hymns  in  the  Spectator,  were  meanly  with- 
held from  their  genuine  author,  and  falsely 
ascribed  to  Addison  and  Tickell. 
Nor  arms  they  wear,  nor  swords  and  bucklers  wield. 
But  whirl  from  leathern  strings  huge  halU  of  lead. 

Dryden. 
Thus  nothing  to  her  genius  was  deny'd ; 

But,  like  a  ball  of  fire,  the  further  thrown^ 
Still  with  a  greater  blaze  she  shone ; 

And  her  bright  soul  broke  out  on  ev'ry  side.  Id. 

Like  a  frail' of  snow  tumbling  down  a  hill,  he 

gathered  strength  as  he  passed.  Howdl, 

Ye  gods,  what  justice  rules  the  baU? 

Freedom  and  arts  together  fall.  Pope, 

Tis  but  a  ball  bandied  to  and  ho,  and  every  man 

carries  a  racket  about  him  to  strike  it  from  himself 

among  the  rest  of  the  company.  Staift, 

Ball',  n.  s.  Fr.  bat,  from  balare,  low  Lat. 
from  paXXiZiiv.  To  throw  or  cast  about  the  legs 
and  feet,  from  jSoXXoi,  to  throw.  An  entertain-, 
ment  of  dancing;  a  fashionable  amusement, 
either  public  or  private ;  in  the  former  case  it  is 


conducted  and  controlled  by  a  master  of  the 
ceremonies  ;  and  in  the  latter  it  is  given  by  in- 
dividuals, and  is  select,  because  none  are  ad- 
mitted but  persons  specially  invited.  At  public 
balls,  or  dancing  assemblies,  the  expenses  are 
defrayed  by  the  company;  at  private  entertain- 
ments of  this  description,  the  guests  are  gratui- 
tous participants. 

He  would  make  no  extraordinary  figure  at  a  ball ; 
but  I  can  assure  the  ladies,  for  their  cpnsolation,  that 
he  has  written  better  verses  on  the  sex  than  any  man. 

Swift, 
Have  you  not  been  in  pain  even  at  a  baU,  because 
another  has  been  taken  out  to  dance  before  you. 

Toiler,  No.  253. 
There's  nothing  in  the  world  like  etiquette ; 
In  kingty  chambers,  or  imperial  halls. 
As  also  at  the  race  and  county  baUt.         Byron, 

Ball,  among  Cornish  miners,  a  tin  mine. 

Ball,  in  antiquity,  a  species  of  game  frequent 
among  the  ancients.  The  Romans  had  four 
kinds  of  pile,  or  balls ;  the  first  called  trigon  or 
trigonalis,   because   the  three   gamesters   were 

E laced  in  a  triangle :  these  caught  and  tossed  the 
all,  taking  great  care  not  to  let  it  fiill  to  the 
ground.  The  second  and  third,  called  follis, 
made  of  leather,  blown  up  like  our  foot-balls: 
the  largest  sort  of  these  were  struck  with  the  arm, 
the  smaller  with  the  fist :  the  former  seem  to  have 
been  distinguished  by  the  appellation,  paganica, 
as  being  much  used  in  country  villages:  the  fourth 
was  the  harpast,  a  kind  of  small  ball,  so  called  be- 
cause the  gamesters  endeavoured  to  snatch  it  from 
each  other.  Galen  has  an  entire  treatise  on  the 
exercise  of  the  lesser  ball. 

Ball,  Hero's,  pila  Ueronis,  a  kind  of  artificial 
fountain,  wherein  the  water  is  made  to  spout  out 
of  a  hollow  ball  or  globe ;  so  named  m>m  the 
inventor,  Hero  of  Alexandria,  who  has  left  the 
description  of  it  in  his  Spiritalia. 

The  Ball  of  a  Dog's  Foot  is  the  prominent 
part  of  the  middle  of  the  foot,  called  by  Latin 
writers  of  the  middle  age,  pelota. 

Ball  of  a  Pendulum,  the  weight  at  the  bot- 
tom. In  shorter  pendulums,  it  is  called  the 
bob. 

Ball  Puff,  in  botany,  the  English  name  of 
the  lycoperdon.    See  Lycoperdon. 

Ball  Vein,  in  mineralogy,  a  name  sometimes 
given  by  miners  to  a  sort  of  iron  ore,  common  in 
Suffolk,  and  wrought  to  a  considerable  advan- 
tage. It  yields  not  any  great  quantity  of  metal, 
but  what  it  h^s  runs  freely  in  the  fire,  and  is 
usually  found  in  loose  masses,  covered  with  one 
or  more  crusts.  It  contains  some  sparkling  par- 
*  tides ;  and  is  usually  of  a  circular  form  in  the 
perfect  masses,  thickest  in  the  middle,  and  gradu- 
ally thinner  as  it  approaches  the  sides. 

Ball,  French,  bsdle,  in  the  military  art,  com- 
prehends all  sorts  of  bullets  for  fire-arms,  from 
the  cannon  to  the  pistol ;  also  a  composition  of 
divers  ingredients,  generally  of  the  combustible 
kinds,  serving  to  bum,  give  light,  smoke,  stench, 
or  the  like ;  as  fire-balls,  light-balls,  smoke-balls, 
stink-balls,  land-balls,  &c.  Cannon-balls  are 
made  of  iron,  musket-balls,  pistol-balls,  &c.  are 
of  lead*  The  experiment  has  been  tried  of  iron 
balls  for  pistols  and  fusees,  but  they  are  justly 
rejected,  not  only  on  account  of  their  lightness. 


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f42^ 

^6«8' 

32 

610 

24 

5-54 

18 

504 

12 

pound  hall  the 

4-40 

^    9 

diameter  is 

400 

6 

3-49 

3 

2-77 

2 

2-42 

^  1 

^•92 

ii^hich  prevent!  them  from  flying  straight,  but 
because  they  are  apt  lo  furrow  the  barrel  of  the 
pistol,  &c. 

Cannon-balls  are  distinguished  by  their  respec- 
tive calibres :  thus 


For  a 


A  new  description  of  inflammable  balls,  ap- 
plicable for  besieging  a  town,  and  peculiar  for 
Its  small  weight,  by  which  means  it  may  be 
thrown  to  a  great  distance,  and  takes  Are  on  a 
very  curious  plan,  has  been  invented  by  Captain 
Thomas  Dundas,  of  the  royal  navy.  It  spreads 
a  flame  in  three  distinct  openings,  which  is  so 
strong  that  the  Are  extendi  a  full  yard  in  length 
from  the  ball  itself,  and  is  so  powerful  that  any 
thing  under,  over,  or  near,  cannot  escape  its 
cffiects.    See  the  article  Shot. 

Balls,  Anchor,  are  made  in  the  same  way  as 
the  light-balls,  hereafter  described,  and  filled  with 
the  same  composition,  only  with  this  addition, 
that  these  are  made  with  an  iron  bar  two-thirds 
of  the  ball's  diameter  in  leno^h,  and  three  or 
four  inches  square.  One-half  is  fixed  within  the 
ball,  and  the  other  half  remains  .without;  the 
exterior  end  is  made  with  a  grapple  hook.  An- 
chor-balls are  very  useful  to  set  Are  to  wooden 
bridges,  or  any  thing  made  of  wood,  or  even 
the  rigging  of  ships,  Sec.  for  the  pile  end  being 
the  heaviest,  flies  foremost,  and  wherever  it 
touches,  fastens,  and  sets  all  on  Are  about  it. 
^  Balls,  Chain,  are  two  balls  linked  together 
by  a  chain  of  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  and  some 
have  been  made  with  a  chain  of  three  or  four 
feet  long ;  they  are  used  to  destroy  the  palisa- 
does,  wooden  bridges,  and  chevaux-de-fnzes  of 
a  fortification.  They  are  also  very  destructive  to 
the  rigging  of  a  ship. 

Balls,  Fire  and  Ltgut;  the  Greeks  had 
various  kinds  of  fire-balls,  or  UvpofioKot  \i9ot; 
one  kind  called,  more  particularly,  eKVTdXui,  or 
fcvroXi^iC)  niade  of  wood,  sometimes  a  foot,  or 
even  a  cubit  long ;  their  head  armed  with  spikes 
of  iron,  beneath  which  were  hemp,  pitch,  and 
other  combustibles,  which  being  set  on  fire,  they 
were  cast  among  the  enemy.  Also  composed  of 
mealed  powder  two,  saltpetre  one  and  a  half, 
sulphur  one,  resin  one,  turpentine  two  and  a 
half  parts.  Sometimes  they  are  made  of  an  iron 
shell,  sometimes  a  stone,  filled  and  covered  with 
various  coats  of  the  above  composition,  till  it 
conglomerates  to  a  proper  size,  the  last  coat 
being  of  grained  powder.  But  the  best  method 
of  making  them  is  to  take  thick  brown  paper, 
make  a  shell  the  size  of  the  mortar,  and  fill  it 
with  a  composition  of  an  equal  quantity  of  sul- 
phur, pitch,  resin,  and  mealed  powder ;  which 
being  well  mixed,  and  put  in  warm,  will  give  a 
clear  fire,  and  bum  a  considerable  time.  When 
they  are  intended  to  fire  magazines,  buildings, 


he.  the  composition  must  be  mealed  powder,  ten, 
saltpetre  two,  sulphur  four,  and  resin  one ;  or 
rather  mealed  powder  forty-eight,  saltpetre  thirty- 
two,  sulphur  sixteen,  resin  four,  steel  or  iron 
filings  two,  fir  tree  aaw-dust  boiled  in  saltpetre  ley, 
two,  birch-wooid  charcoal  one,  well  rammed  into 
a  shell  for  that  purpose,  having  various  holes 
filled  with  small  barrels,  loaded  with  musket- 
balls  ;  and  lastly,  the  whole  immeiged  in  melted 
pitch,  resin,  and  turpentine  oil. 

Balls,  Poisoned;  the  Indian  and  African 
nations  have  always  been  ingenious  at  poisooing 
several  sorts  of  warlike  stores  and  instrumeDts. 
Their  composition  »  generally  mealed  powder 
four,  pitch  six,  resin  three,  sulphur  five,  ass^ 
foetida  eight,  extract  of  toads'  poison  twelve, 
other  poisonous  substances  twelve,  made  into 
balls  as  above  directed.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  French  revolution,  poisoned  balls  were 
exhibited  to  the  people,  pretended  to  have  been 
fired  by  the  Austrians,  p^cularly  at  the  siege  of 
Lisle.  Major  James  says  he  has  seen  some  of 
this  sort.  They  contained  glass,  small  pieces  of 
iron,  &c.  and  were  said  to  be  concocted  together 
by  means  of  a  greasy  composition,  whi(£  was 
impregnated  with  poisonous  matter.  In  1792 
they  were  depositea  in  the  archives  of  Paris. 

Balls,  Red-hot,  are  heated  red-hot  upon  a 
large .  coal  fire  in  a  square  hole  made  m  the 
ground,  six  feet  every  way,  and  four  or  five  feet 
deep.  Some  make  the  fire  under  an  iron  grate, 
on  which  the  shell  or  ball  is  laid ;  but  the  best 
method  is  to  put  the  ball  into  the  middle  of  a 
clear  burning  fire,  and  when  red-hot,  all  the  fieiy 
particles  must  be  swept  off.  Whatever  machine 
YOU  use  to  throw  the  red-hot  ball  out  of,  it  must 
oe  elevated  according  to  th«  distance  you  intend 
it  shall  range,  afnd  the  charge  of  powder  must  be 
put  into  a  flannel  cartridge,  and  a  good  wad 
upon  that ;  then  a  piece  of  wood  of  the  exact 
diameter  of  the  piece,  and  about  three  inches 
and  a  half  thick,  to  prevent  the  ball  from  setting 
fire  to  the  powder ;  then  place  the  ball  on  the 
edge  of  the  mortar,  &c.  with  an  instrument  for 
that  purpose,  and  let  it  roll  of  itself  against  the 
wood,  and  instantly  fire  it  off.  Should  there  be 
a  ditch  or  parallel  before  such  a  batteiy,  with 
soldiers,  the  wood  most  not  be  used,  aa  the  blast 
of  powder  will  break  it  to  pieces,  and  its  own 
elasticity  prevent  it  from  flying  far ;  it  would  in 
that  case  either  kill  or  wound  your  own  people. 
On  this  account  the  wad  must  be  double,  the 
second  being  damp.  If  the  gun  li^  at  a  de- 
pression, there  must  be  a  waid  over  the  shot, 
wliich  may  be  rammed  home. 

Balls,  Smoke,  are  prepared  similariy  to 
other  fire-balls,  and  they  contain  five  to  one  of 
pitch,  resin,  and  saw-4ust  This  compositioD 
IS  put  into  shells  made  for  that  purpose,  having 
four  holes  to  let  out  the  smoke.  Smoke-bal& 
are  thrown  out  of  mortars,  and  continue  to  smoke 
from  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes- 

Balls,  Stang,  are  generally  termed  bar^hot, 
and  by  some  called  balls  of  two-heads;  thev 
are  sometimes  made  Of  two  half-balls,  joined 
together  by  a  bar  of  iron  from  eight  to  fourteen 
inches  long :  they  are  likewise  made  of  two  en- 
tire balls ;  they  answer  the  same  purpose  as  the 
before-mentioned . 


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Balls,  Stink,  are  prepared  by  a  composition 
of  mealed  powder,  xesin,  saltpetre,  pitch,  sul- 
phur, raspea  horses  and  asses  hoo&y  burnt  in  the 
nre,  assa-foetida,  seraphim  gum  or  ferula,  and 
bug  or  stinking  herbs,  made  up  into  balls,  as 
mentioned  in  light-balls,  agreeable  to  the  size  of 
the  mortar  out  of  which  they  are  to  be  thrown. 

Balls,  in  electridty,  are  two  pieces  of  cork,  or 
pith  of  elder,  nicely  turned  in  a  latiie  to  the  size 
of  a  small  pea,  and  suspended  by  fine  linen 
threads ;  intended  as  electrometers,  and  of  excel- 
lent use  to  discover  small  degrees  of  electricity, 
to  observe  the  changes  of  it  from  positive  to 
negative,  and  vice  versa;  and  to  estimate  the 
force  of  a  shock  before  the  discharge,  so  that  the 
operator  should  always  be  able  to  tell  very  nearly 
before  the  discharge,  by  knowing  how  high  he 
has  charged  his  jars,  what  the  explosion  will  be. 

Balls,  in  heraldry.    See  Ballets. 

Balls,  Crystalline.  There  are  two  sorts  of 
fossil  bodies  mentioned  in  authors  by  this  name, 
and  distinguished  into  the  echtnated,  and  con- 
cave. The  first  are  roundish  nodules  of  stony 
matter,  covered  over  with  points  of  crystal ;  and 
the  other  flints,  and  other  stones,  having  cavities 
in  their  middles,  which  are  lined,  or  crusted  over 
with  these  crystals. 

Balls,  Horse,  among  farriers.  Horses  have 
a  very  nice  taste ;  ft  is  tiierefore  proper  to  give 
the  most  disagreeable  drugs,  in  the  form  of  ballSy 
and  to  make  drenches  of  the  more  palatable. 
Balls  should  be  of  an  oval  shape,  not  exceeding 
the  size  of  a  pullet's  egg;  and  should  be  dipped 
in  sweet  oil  to  make  them  slip  down  the  easier. 
Some  horses  have  a  strait  gullet,  which  makes 
them  very  averse  to  a  ball  being  thrast  down 
their  throats ;  such  horses  bad  better  have  drenches 
given  them,  or  their  medicines  may  be  mixed 
with  bran,  or  in  their  mashes.  See  Farriery, 
Index, 

Balls,  Mercurial,  in  pharmacy,  are  an 
amalgam  of  mercury  and  tin,  su£Bciently  solid 
to  be  moulded,  and  to  preserve  a  given  form. 
The  method  of  making  them  is  by  adding  mer- 
cury to  melted  tin,  and  pouring  the  fluid  mass 
into  a  round  hollow  mould.  These  balls  are 
sometimes  employed  to  purify  water,  in  which 
they  are  boiled. 

Balls  of  Fire,  in  meteorology,  a  kind  of 
luminous  bodies,  commonly  appearing  at  a  great 
height  abo?e  the  earth,  with  a  splendor  surpass- 
ing that  of  tlie  moon;  and  even  occasionally 
equalling  her  apparent  size.  They  generally 
proceed  with  great  velocity  in  this  hemisphere, 
from  north  to  south,  frequently  breaking  into 
several  smaller  ones,  sometimes  vanishing  with  a 
report,  and  sometimes  not.  These  luminous 
appearances  no  doubt  constitute  one  branch  of 
the  ancient  prodigies,  or  blazing  stars.  They 
sometimes  resemble  comets,  in  being  attended 
with  a  train,  but  frequently  they  appear  with  a 
round  and  well  defined  disk.  The  first  of  which 
we  have  any  accurate  account,  was  observed  by 
Dr.  Halley  and  others  at  different  places,  in  1719. 
From  the  slight  observations  they  could  take  of 
its  course  among  the  stars,  its  perpendicular  height 
was  computed  at  about  seventy  miles  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  The  height  of  others  has 
also  been  computed,  and  found  to  be  various ; 


though  in  general  it  is  supposed  to  be  beyond  the 
limits  assigned  to  oiur  atmosphere,  or  where  it 
loses  its  refractive  power.  The  most  remarkable 
on  record  appearea  on  the  18th  of  August  1783, 
about  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening.  It  was  seen 
to  the  northward  of  Shetland,  and  took  a  south- 
eriy  direction  for  an  immense  space,  being  obser- 
ved as  far  as  the  southem  provinces  of  France 
and  Rome.  During  its  course  it  appears  fre- 
quently to  have  changed  its  shape,  sometimes 
appearing  in  the  form  of  one  ball,  sometimes  two 
or  more;  sometimes  with  a  train,  sometimes 
without  one.  It  passed  over  Edinbui^h  nearly 
in  the  zenith,  and  nad  then  the  appearance  of  a 
well  defined,  round  body,  extremely  luminous, 
and  of  a  greenish  color;  the  light  which  it 
difiused  on  the  ground  giving  likewise  a  greenish 
cast  to  objects.  After  passing  the  zenith,  it  wait 
attended  by  a  train  of  considerable  length,  which 
continually  augmenting,  at  last  obliterated  the 
head  entirely,  so  that  it  looked  Uke  a  wedge,  flying 
with  the  obtuse  end  foremost  The  motion  was 
not  apparently  swifi,  by  reason  of  its  great  height ; 
though  in  reality  it  must  have  moved  with  great 
rapidity,  on  account  of  the  vast  space  it  travelled 
over  in  a  short  time.  In  other  places  its  appear- 
ance was  very  different.  At  Qreenwich,  we  are 
told,  that  two  bright  balls  parallel  to  each  other 
led  the  way,  the  diameter  of  which  appeared  to 
be  about  two  feet ;  and  were  followed  by  an  ex- 
pulsion of  eight  others,  not  elliptical,  seeming 
gradually  to  mutilate,  for  the  last  was  small. 
Between  each  two  balls  a  luminous  serrated  body 
extended,  and  at  the  last  a  blaze  issued  which 
terminated  in  a  point.  Minute  particles  dilated 
from  the  whole.  The  balls  were  tinted  first  by 
a  pure  bright  light,  then  followed  by  a  delicate 
yellow,  mixed  with  azure,  red,  green,  &c.  which, 
with  a  coalition  of  bolder  tints,  and  a  reflection 
from  the  other  balls,  gave  the  most  beautiful 
rotundity  and  variation  of  colors  that  the  human 
eye  could  be  charmed  with.  The  sudden  illumi- 
nation of  the  atmosphere,  and  Ihe  form  aiKl 
singular  transition  of  this  bright  luminary,  tend- 
ed much  to  make  it  awful:  nevertheless  the 
amazing  vivid  appearance  of  the  different  balls, 
and  other  rich  connective  parts  not  very  easy  to 
delineate,  gave  an  effect  equal  to  the  rainbow  in 
the  zenith  of  its  glory.  Dr.  Blagden,  in  a  paper 
on  this  subject  in  the  seventy-fourth  volume  of 
the  Philosophical  Transactions,  has  not  only  given 
a  particular  account  of  this  and  other  meteors  of 
the  kind,  but  added  several  conjectures  relating  to 
the  probable  causes  of  them.  The  opinion  which 
he  nni^ly  adopts,  as  the  most  probable,  is,  that 
these  fire-balls  are  great  bodies  of  electric  matter 
moving  from  one  part  of  the  heavens,  where  to 
our  conception  it  is  superabundant,  to  another 
where  it  is  deficient 

Other  fireballs  have  appeared  much  smaller 
and  nearer  the  surfifice  of  the  earth,  and  some- 
times rolling  or  felling  upon  it,  and  exploding 
with  violence;  as  is  ft e  case  with  those  which 
appear  in  the  time  of  thunder,  and  frequently 
produce  mischievous  effects.  One  of  these  is 
mentioned  by  some  authors  as  falling  in  a  serene 
evening  in  the  island  of  Jamaica;  exploding  as 
soon  as  it  touched  the  surfi&ce  of  the  ground,  and 
making  a  considerable  hole  in  it.    Another  is 


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mentioned  by  Dr.  Priestley)  as  rolling  along  the 
sor&ce  of  the  sea,  then  rising  and  striking  the 
top-mast  of  a  man  of  w,  exploding  and 
damagiiig  the  ship.  In  like  manner  we  hear  of 
an  electrified  cloud  at  Java,  whence,  without  any 
thunder  storm,  there  issued  a  vast  number  of 
fireballs  which  did  incredible  mischief.  All  these 
point  out  the  true  origin  of  balls  of  this  kind, 
viz.  an  extensive  accumulation  of  electricity 
bursting  from  one  part  of  the  atmosphere  to 
another. 

This  is  confirmed  by  an  experiment  related  at 
the  end  of  Dr.  Prie^ey's  fifth  volume  on  air. 
He  states  that  a  gentleman  having  charged  with 
a  very  powerful  machine,  a  jar,  which  had  the 
wire  supporting  the  nob  of  a  considerable  length, 
and  passed  through  a  glass  tube,  a  globe  of  fire 
was  seen  to  issue  out  of  it.  This  globe  gradually 
^  ascended  up  the  glass  tube  till  it  came  to  the  top 
of  the  knob,  where  it  settled,  turning  swiftly  on 
its  axis  and  appearing  like  a  red-hot  iron  ball  of 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  diameter.  On  con- 
tinuing to  turn  the  machine,  it  gradually  descended 
into  the  jar,  which  it  had  no  sooner  done,  than 
there  ensued  a  most  violent  explosion  and  flash, 
the  jar  being  discharged  and  broken  at  the  same 
time.  We  may  yet  gather  from  these  experi- 
ments, that  a  firelNill  will  be  the  consequence  of 
a  very  violent  electrification  of  any  substance, 
provided  at  the  same  time  that  the  air  be  in  a 
very  non-conducting  state,  so  that  the  electricity 
may  not  evaporate  into  it  as  fast  as  it  is  collected ; 
for  this  would  produce  only  lucid  streams  and 
flashes,  as  in  the  common  experiments  with  the 
Leyden  phial,  and  it  is  probably  an  inattention 
to  this  circumstance  which  has  hitherto  prevented 
the  repetition  of  the  experiment  above  mentioned. 
The  case  is  the  same  in  thunder-storms,  where 
an  excessive  accumulation  of  electric  matter 
always  produces  fireballs,  the  most  mischievous 
kind  or  lightning.  A  philosopher  of  the  last 
century,  it  is  well  known,  met  his  death  firom  a 
ball  of'^^is  description  in  attempting  to  draw  the 
electric  fluid  from  the  clouds. 

Balls  of  Hair  and  other  substances,  in 
natural  history*,  covered  over  with  a  smooth, 
shining  coat,  or  shell,  are  mentioned  by  zoolo- 
gists, as  sometimes  found  in  the  stomachs  of 
several  animals ;  they  occur  most  frequently  in 
those  quadrupeds  which  lick  the  surface  of  their 
bodies,  in  which  case  they  are  composed  of  the 
hair  that  has  been  removed  by  the  tongue ;  the 
hair,  partly  by  the  operation  of  licking,  and  still 
more  by  the  motion  of  the  stomach,  becomes 
mixed  and  interwoven  in  a  such  a  manner,  that  it 
resembles  the  texture  of  a  hat,  and  when  moulded 
into  a  round  figure,  receives  a  smooth,  shining 
coat,  or  calculous  incrustation.  These  are  the 
sort  of  balls  usually  met  with  in  the  cow,  sheep, 
and  goat  kind,  especially  the  chamois.  Every 
indigestible  substance  that  is  swallowed  is  liable, 
however,  to  give  origin  to  these  balls,  or  to  form 
a  nucleus  for  calculous  concretion;  hence  we 
meet  witli  them  composed  of  the  reedy  fibres  of 
vegetables,  husks  of  seeds,  feathers,  and  different 
animal  and  vegetable  exuvis.  When  such  sub- 
stances, as  stones  of  fruit,  nuts,  or  inorganic 
substances,  as  pebbles,  coins,  &c.  are  long  de- 
tained, and  have  been  covered  with  a  deep  in- 


crustation, they  consttCute  the  bezoMdic  stonei. 
See  Bezoar  and  .£gao«opila. 

Acoordius  to  some  writers  the  human  subject 
is  liable  to  me  formation  of  balls  in  the  intes- 
tines, in  consequence  of  indigestible  matters  not 
being  regularly  expelled.  Cases  have  been  re- 
lated of  deaih  ensuine  from  aocumulatiotts  of 
gooseberry  seeds,  which  had  been  rolled  into  a 
solid  ball  in  the  stomach ;  and  Sir  Hans  Sloane 
gives  the  history  of  a  ball  found  in  the  intestines 
of  a  man,  much  afbicted  with  the  colic,  six  inches 
in  circumference,  of  a  spongy  substance,  aod 
which,  when  viewed  with  a  microscope,  appeared 
made  up  of  small  transparent  hairs  or  fibres, 
wrought  together  like  the  tophus  bovinus ;  in  the 
middle  was  a  common  plumo  stone,  which  made, 
as  it  were,  the  core  or  nucleus  upon  which  the 
fibrous  matter  had  collected,  stratum  super  strar 
tum.  Phil.  Trans.  No.  309,  p.  3387.  Sloane, 
in  PhU.  Trans.  No.  282,  p.  1282. 

Balls  of  Silk  Worms,  or  Balls  of  Spiders, 
are  little  cases  or  cones  of  silk,  wherein  those 
insects  deposit  their  eggs.  Spiders  are  extitmely 
tender  in  their  balls,  which  they  carry  about  with 
them,  adhering  to  the  papillie  about  their  anus. 
Grew  mentions  balls  or  bags  of  a  species  of  silk- 
worms  in  Virginia,  as  big  as  hen's  eggs,  and 
containing  each  four  aurelias. 

Balls,  Vegetable,  in  botan^r  a  particular 
plant  of  a  deep  green  color,  of  an  irregular  sphe* 
rical  shape,  hollow  within,  and  of  different  sizes, 
firom  an  inch  and  a  half  to  three  inches  in  di- 
ameter. It  probably  belongs  to  the  conserva 
genus,  in  the  class  of  mosses ;  though  Dr.  Ray 
has  ranged  a  similar  plant  under  the  genus  of 
alcyonium. 

BAL'LAD,  V.  &  n.^    Ti.b^adt^lt^.ballata. 
Bal'lader,  I  A  song.     It  once  signi* 

Bal'ladry,  I  fied  a  solemn  and  sacred 

Bal'lated,  I  song :  the  Song  of  Solo* 

Bal'latry,  mon  was  called  the  bal- 

Bal'lett.  J  let  of  ballets.    It  is  now 

generally  employed  to  designate  those  popular 
compositions  which  are  sung  in  simple  melodies 
by  all  classes  of  the  community;  and  which, 
while  true  to  nature,  illustrate  the  manners,  cus- 
toms, and  opinions,  of  the  age  and  country  to 
which  tihey  belong.    In  composition,  this  word 
is  used  as  baUadrmomger,  baliad-sm^^,  &c. 
At  ceitaine  timis  gan  rep«ire 
Smale  birdit  doone  fiom  the  aire. 
And  oa  the  ihipit  bounds  eb<rate» 
Ysate  and  song  with  voyce  fall  <mt, 
BdUadei  end  layee  right  ioyously. 

And  also  I  have  oite  assaide 
Roundel,  haiadei,  and  vereloie 
For  her,  on  whom  myn  hext  laic. 
To  make. 

Alas !  I  make  but  repetition. 
Of  what  is  ordinary  and  ryalto  talk. 
And  baUeted,  and  would  be  plaid  o'  the  stage. 
But  that  vice  many  times  finds  each  loved  friends. 
That  preachers  are  chann'd  silent.  ITcMar 

And  otherwhyles  with  amourous  delights. 
And  pleasing  toys  he  would  her  entextaine ; 
Now  singing  sweedy  to  soiprixe  her  sprights  ; 
Now  making  lays  of  love,  and  lover's  paine, 
Brattsles»  baUadi.  virelayes,  and  verses  vmine  ; 
Oft  puvpMes,  oft  riddles  he  devys'd. 
And  thousands  like  which  ik>wed  in  his  brain«» 


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With  whiche  he  led  her  fanof,  and  entysM 

To  take  to  hia  new  love,  and  leave  her  old  despyt'd. 

8peiuer*s  Faerie  Queene. 
U  there  not  a  baOad,  hoy,  of  the  king  and  the  beggar? 

The  world  was  Tery  guilty  of  rach  baUad*  tome 
three  ages  since.  id, 

I  had  rather  be  a  kitten,  and  cry  mew. 
Than  one  of  these  same  metre  ftoflotf-mongera.       Id, 
The  baUatrg  and  the  gamat  of  every  municipal  fiddle.. 

Ifitfon. 

More  solid  things  do  not  shew  the  complexion  of 
the  times  so  well  as  baUadi  and  libels.  8eUe». 

No  sooner  *gan  he  raise  his  tonefol  song. 
Bat  tads  and  lasses  round  about  him  throng. 
Not  ftoflod-singer,  plac*d  above  the  crowd. 
Sings  with  •  note  so  shrilling,  sweet,  and  loud.    Oag» 

Thither  no  more  the  peasant  shall  repair. 
To  sweet  oblivion  of  hb  daily  care ; 
No  more  the  farmer's  news,  the  barber's  tale. 
No  more  the  woodman's  baUad  shall  prevail. 

Goldmnith. 

Ballads  are  ordinarily  jimongst  the  first 
efforts  of  a  semi-baibarous  people  in  poetry; 
and  a  collection  of  the  best  and  most  popular 
compositions  of  this  kind  will  throw  great  light 
on  die  manners  of  a  people  in  any  stage  of  their 
civilisation.  We  can  only  attempt  a  slight  sketch 
of  the  history  of  this  kind  of  poetry  in  our  own 
country.  *  That  our  ancestors/  says  Mr.  Turner, 
(Anglo-Saxons,  p.  287,  c.  ii.)  *  had  popular  songs 
on  the  actions  of  their  great  or  favorite  characters, 
or  on  such  other  subjects  as  interested  the  vul- 
gar mind,  is  proved  by  many  instances,  which 
may  be  traced  in  the  ancient  writers.  Alfred 
says,  in  his  manual,  that  no  one  had  ever  ap- 
peared before  Aldhelm,  so  competent  in  English 
poetry;  none  had  been  able  to  compose  so  much, 
or  to  sing  and  recite  it  so  appositely.  The  king 
mentions  a  popular  ballad  of  Aldhelm's,  which 
was  in  his  time,  (that  is,  nearly  two  centuries 
afterwards)  sung  in  the  streets.  Malmsbuiy  adds, 
that  Aldhelm,  anxious  to  instruct  his  countrymen, 
then  semi-barbarous,  and  inattentive  to  their 
religious  duties,  took  his  station  on  the  public 
bridge,  as  if  a  singer  by  profession,  and,  by  mix- 
ing sacred  with  lighter  topics,  won  their  atten- 
tion, and  ameliorated  their  minds.  Bede  mentions 
that  in  a  festive  company  the  harp  was  sent 
round,  that  those  might  sing  who  could.  It  was 
a  book  of  Saxon  poems,  says  the  above  historian, 
which  first  allured  Alfred  to  learfi  to  read ;  and 
the  fact  that  he  bad  his  children  taught  to  read 
the  Saxon  poems,  and  that  he  himself  visited  the 
Danish  camp  as  a  harper,  which,  in  the  reign  of 
his  grandson,  Anlaf  imitated,  prove  the  existence 
of  popular  songs  which  instructed  both  the  child 
ana  ttie  rude  warrior. 

The  connexion  of  these  compositions  with  the 
foundations  of  our  history  is  clear.  When 
Malmsbury,  after  narrating  the  reign  of  Athel- 
sian,  proceeds  to  describe  his  origin  from  Ed- 
ward's amour  with  a  shepherd's  daughter,  he  says, 
The  following  facts  I  have  taken  rather  from  the 
iongs  (cantilenio)  worn  out  by  the  course  of  time, 
than  from  books  composed  for  the  instruction  of 
posterity. 

A  curious  fragment  of  a  ballad,  composed  by 
Canute  the  Great,  says  Mr.  Turner,  has  survived 


to  us.  As  this  prince  was  sailing  by  tho  abbey, 
in  the  isle  of  Ely,  he  heard  the  monks  chanting 
their  psalms  and  anthems,  and  was  so  struck 
with  tne  interesting  melody,  that  he  composed  a 
little  Saxon  ballad  on  the  occasion,  which  began 
thus; — 

QDefie  pmjen  iSe  mnnechep  binnen  61y, 
Tha  Cnur  chin;  |\evtSe|\  by 
RopeiS  Cnirep,  noe|\  iSe  laoto 
Ant  he|\e  pe  ^ep  munechef  r*^Z' 

Meny  sang  the  ai^sXs  a  Ely 
When  Canute  the  king  was  sailing  by ; 
Row,  ye  knights,  near  the  land. 
And  let  us  hear  those  monka'  song. 

In  Domesday-book,  the  Joculator  Regis,  who 
was  evidently  a  minstrel,  is  mentioned  as  having 
lands  assigned  for  his  maintenance  in  Gloucester- 
shire, Du  Cange,  iii.  1543;  and  in  the  batle  of 
Hastings,  Tarblessen  or  Taillefer,  an  esquire  in  the 
conqueror's  army,  obtained  permission,  as  a  sort 
of  forlorn  hope,  to  lead  the  van,  and  threw  him- 
self upon  the  English  spears,  singing  the  popular 
ballad.  Chanson  de  Roland,  Id.  iv.  769.  Sub- 
sequent to  the  conquest  we  meet  with  many 
genuine  English  songs :  Horn  Child  :  the  Squire 
of  lowe  Degree :  and  a  Lytele  geste  of  Robin 
Hoode,  have  been  pointed  out  as  tales  without 
foreign  admixture.  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  was 
at  once  the  hero  of  chivalry  and  the  patron  of 
song :  his  well  known  deliverance  from  captivity 
in  Germany  is  connected  by  history  with  our 
subject ;  and  the  celebrated  Scotch  novelist  has 
well  availed  himself  of  all  the  romantic  truths 
of  the  story.  Edward  IV.  incorporated  the 
Minstrels  by  charter,  and  they  were  protected 
by  a  corporation  under  the  government  of  a 
marshal  and  two  wardens.  This  charter  was 
renewed  by  Henry  VIII.  But  by  statute  39 
Eliz.  the  profession  was  visited  with  the  last  dis- 
grace, and  minstrels  were  included  and  made 
mnishable  among '  rogues,  vagabonds,  and  sturdy 


Our  older  ballads  are  all  in  the  northern  dia- 
lect :  but  singularly  enough,  on  the  accession  of 
the  Stuarts,  we  find  the  whole  spirit  of  these  com- 
positions evaporate ;  and  English  minstrelsy  be- 
came extinct.  See  Percy's  Reliques  of  English 
Poetry :  also  Dr.  Bumey's  History  of  Music :  Sir 
Walter  Scott's  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border ; 
and  Warton's  History. 

BALLADUK,  a  town  in  the  desert  of  Syria, 
140  miles  E.N.E.  from  Damascus. 

BALLAGHAN  Point,  at  the  south-west  en- 
trance of  Carlingford  Bay,  a  cape  on  the  east 
coast  of  Ireland.  Eleven  miles  S.  E.  of  Newry. 
Long.  6*»  4'  W.,  lat.  53**  58'  N. 

BALLAGHAN,  or  Ballaghy,  a  town  of 
Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Sligo,  and  province  of 
Connaught.  Twenty  miles  south  of  Sligo,  and  1 05 
from  Dublin     Long.  9**  50*  W.,  lat.  53**  48*  N. 

BALLAGHNEED,  a  village  of  Ireland,  in 
Tyrone,  with  a  good  inn,  seventy-eight  miles 
from  Dublin. 

BALLAGHY,  three  towns  in  Ireland,  viz.  1 
in  Londonderry,  ninety-two  miles  from  Dublin. 
2.  in  the  county  of  Mayo,  ninety-seven  psiles 
from   Dublin.     And  3.  in  Sligo.    See  Bai^ 

LAGRAN. 


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BALLAST. 


B  ALLAMONOy  a  village  in  the  Isle  of  Man, 
near  Castletown. 

BAIXAN,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Sarte,  seated  on  the  Ome.  Long. 
20' E.,lat.  48^10' N. 

BALIANDEN.    See  Ballenden. 

BALLANI,  a  species  of  sheli-fish,  abont  a 
finger's  lengthy  which  abound  in  the  harbour  of 
Ancona,  and  lodge  among  the  stones.  They  are 
much  valued  at  Rome,  whither  great  quantities 
are  sent. 

BALLANTRAE,  a  small  post-town  and  pa^ 
rish  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Ayr.  The 
village  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Stinchar. 
It  carries  on  a  salmon-fishing  and  some  cotton 
manufactures.  DisUnttwAity-eight  miles  S.  S.  W. 
of  Ayr. 

BALLAPATTY,  a  town  of  the  Carnatic, 
in  Hindostan, twelve  miles  west  of  Vencatigherry. 

BALLAPILI.Y,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  Ae 
ceded  Balaghaut  district  of  Commim.  Long. 
78**  38'  E.,  lat.  IS**  N. 

BAL'LARAG,  v.  a.  A  ludicrous  and  low 
word,  purporting  to  bverpower  by  word  or  act ; 
to  bully;  to  threaten.  It  is  still  used  in  the 
north,  and  pronounced  bulfyrag. 

On  Mindcn's  plains,  ye  meek  mounseen  ; 
Remember  Kingsley's  grenadiers. 
You  vainly  thottght  to  haUyrag  us. 
With  your  fine  squadron  off  Cape  Iiagos.     WarUm, 

BALLARD  (George),  one  of  those  occa- 
sionid  geniuses  in  lower  life  which  shoot  up 
without  culture,  was  bom  at  Campden,  in  Glou- 
cestershire. Being  of  a  weakly  constitution,  his 
parents  put  him  to  a  habit-maker ;  and  in  this 
situation  he  mastered  the  Saxon  language.  The 
time  he  employed  in  leamine  it  was  stolen  from 
sleep,  after  the  labor  of  the  day  was  over.  Lord 
Chedworth,  and  the  gentlemen  of  his  hunt,  who 
u^ed  to  spend  about  a  month  of  the  season  at 
Campden,  heard  of  his  fame,  and  generously  of- 
fered him  an  annuity  of  £lOO,  but  he  modestly 
told  them  that  £60  was  fully  sufficient  to  satisfy 
both  his  wants  and  hi^  wishes.  Upon  this  he 
retired  to  Oxford,  for  the  benefit  of  me  Bodleian 
library ;  and  Dr.  Jenner,  president,  made  him 
one  of  the  eight  clerks  of  Magdalen  College. 
He  was  afterwards  one  of  the  University  bea- 
dles, but  died  in  June,  1755,  rather  young; 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  owing  to  too  in- 
tense application.  He  left  large  collections  be- 
hind him,  but  published  only  Memoirs  of  Bri- 
tish Ladies,  who  have  been  celebrated  for  their 
Writings  or  Skill  ia  the  learned  I^mguages, 
Arts,  and  Sciences,  1752.  4to.  He  drew  up  an 
account  of  Campden  church,  which  was  read  at 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  November  21,  1771. 

Ballard,  ,Cape,  a  cape  of  Newfoundland. 
Long.  52*  26'  W.,  lat.  46°  55'  N'. 

BallarpVPoint,  a  cape  on  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Clare.  Longitude 
9^  32'  W.,  lat.  52°  42'  N. 

BALLARE,  in  middle-age  authors,  to  dance. 

BALLARINA,  in  ornithology,  a  name  under 
which  Olina  describes  the  white-w^tail,  mota- 
cilla  alba. 

BALLAS,  a  trading  place  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Nile,  Upper  Egypt,  where  a  great  quantity 


of  earthen  pots  of  a  peculiar  kind  are  i 
tured.    Ten  miles  south  of  Dendera. 

BALLASSA-GYARMATH,  a  considerable 
market-town  and  castle  of  Hungary,  in  the 
county  of  Neograd.  It  suffered  dreadfiilly  by  a 
conflagration  in  1800 ;  when  no  less  than  568 
houses  were  destroyed,  and  only  fifty,  with  the 
town-house,  left  standing. 

BALLASEDERE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  die 
county  of  Sligo,  100  miles  from  Dublin,  near  a 
water-fall. 

BALLAST, v.&n.  ^      Ang.-Sax.   hlsstan, 
Bal'lastury.  )  be-hlaestan,    to    lade, 

load,  or  fraught  a  ship.  Past  participle  hkested, 
be-hlssted,  loaded  or  lacfen.  Dut.  and  Ger 
ballast.  It  is  applied  to  that  lading  or  loadiog 
which  is  used  to  steady  a  vessel  in  Uie  water,  or 
to  steady  any  thing  in  its  motion  or  action.  See 
Navigation,  for  the  niutioal  illustration  of  the 
term. 

'Mongst  friends  ? 
If  brothers : — ^Would  it  had  been  so,  that  they 
Had  been  my  father's  aona !  then  had  my  pine 
Been  less  ;  and  to  more  equal  baUaatmg 
To  thee,  Posthomus.  8habp§aK. 

There  most  be  middle  cooneeUort  to  keep  thiag* 
steady ;  for,  without  that  baUatt,  the  ship  will  roU  too 
much.  Boooa. 

While  thus  to  battati  love  I  thought. 
And  to  more  steadily  t'  have  gone, 
I  saw  I  had  love's  pinnace  overfraugku    Dmm. 
Now  you  have  given  me  virtue  for  my  guide. 
And  with  true  honour  hAln^A&i  my  pride. 

Diydae. 

Why  should  he  sink  where  nothing  seem'd  to  preas? 

His  lading  tittle,  and  his  haSloM  less.  &n/>. 

Those  men  have  not  froflcut  enough  of  humility  and 

fear.  ^ 


Ballast,  in  navigation.  The  principal  ob- 
ject is  to  make  a  vessel  sink  to  a  proper  depth  io 
the  water,  that  she  m^  steadily  carry  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  sail.  There  is  often  great  dif- 
ference in  the  proportion  of  ballast  required  to 
prepare  ships  of  equal  burthen  for  a  voyage ; 
the  quantity  being  more  or  less  according  to  the 
sharpness  or  flatness  of  the  ship's  bottom,  which 
seamen  call  the  floor. 

Tha  properly  ballasting  of  a  ship  is  amongst 
the  most  important  duties  of  the  skilful  mariner ; 
for,  although  it  is  known  that  ships  in  general 
will  not  carry  a  sufficient  quantity  of  sail,  till 
they  are  laden  so  deep  that  the  surface  of  the 
water  will  nearly  glance  on  the  extreme  breadth 
amidships,  yet  there  is  more  than  this  general 
knowledge  required;  since,  if  she  has  a  great 
weight  of  heavy  ballast,  as  lead,  iron,  &c.  in  the 
bottom,  it  will  place  the  centre  of  gravity  too 
low  in  the  hold;  and,  although  this  will  enable 
her  to  carry  a  great  sail,  she  will  nevertheless 
sail  heavily,  and  run,  in  rolling,  the  risk  of  being 
dismasted. 

The  ballast,  therefore,  should  be  so  disposed 
that  she  may  be  duly  poised,  and  maintain  a 
proper  equilibrium  on  Uie  water,  so  as  neither 
to  be  ti>o  stiff  nor  too  crank:  in  the  first,  al- 
though the  ship  may  be  fitted  to  cany  a  great 
sail,  her  velocity  will  not  be  proportioaably  in- 
creased ;  whilst  her  masts  are  endanged  by  her 
sudden  jerks  and  laboring:  and,  in  the  la^  she 


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"vpill  be  incapable  of  carrying  sail  without  the 
risk  of  upsetting.  The  former  is  occasioned  by 
disposing  too  great  a  quantity  of  heavy  ballast  in 
the  bottom,  which  brings  the  centre  of  gravity 
near  the  keel;  and,  that  being  the  centre  about 
which  the  vibrations  are  made,  the  lower  it  is 
placed,  the  more  violent  will  be  the  motion  of 
rolline.  Crankness,  on  the  other  hand,  is  occa- 
sioned by  disposing  the  ship's  lading  so  as  to 
raise  the  centre  of  gravity  too  high,  which  endan- 
gers the  mast  in  carrying  sail  when  it  blows 
hard :  for  when  the  masts  lose  their  perpendi- 
cular, they  strain  in  the  nature  of  a  lever  on  the 
Bhrouds,  which  increases  as  the  sine  of  their 
obliqui^. 

As  a  general  principle,  it  may,  therefore,  be 
observed,  that  ballast  should  be  placed  round 
and  near  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  ship,  because 
it  will  prevent  the  pitching  being  so  violent  as  it 


would  be  if  it  were  carried  much  fore  or  aft  of 
that  point.  When  a  vessel  is  passing  over  a 
wave,  she  will  be  at  one  time  supported  below 
the  centre  of  gravity;  and  immediately  after, 
her  head  will  incline  downwards,  or,  as  it  is 
termed,  she  will  pitch ;  when  it  is  evident,  that 
the  nearer  the  weight  is  to  the  point  over  which 
the  vessel  is  supported,  the  less  violent  will  the 
motion  be.  But  this  rule  stands  in  need  of  fre- 
quent modifications :  for  *which  reason,  a  large 
quantity  of  shifting  ballast  is  allowed  in  the  Royal 
navy.  Indeed,  throughout  the  whole  practice, 
as  we  are  finding  a  remedy  for  one  fault,  we  are 
in  danger  of  running  into  another;  and  much  of 
the  final  distribution  of  ballast  depends  upon 
knowing  well  the  peculiarities  of  the  vessel,  and 
observing  experimentally,  how  different  winds 
and  calms  affect  her. 


The 

following 

was,  until 

lately,  the  Ballast  allowed  to  our  Men  of  War : 

Shingle 

, 

Shingle 

1    Gnna. 

ToBnage. 

TronTons. 

Tons. 

Guns. 

Tonnage. 

Iron  Tons. 

Tons. 

110 

2290 

180 

370 

36 

870 

65 

160 

100 

2090 

180 

370 

32 

700 

65 

140 

98 

2110 

160 

350 

28 

600 

60 

100 

90 

1870 

160 

350 

24 

500 

50 

80 

80 

1620 

140 

300 

22 

450 

50 

70 

74 

1700 

80 

270 

20 

400 

50 

60 

64 

1370 

70 

260 

Sloop. 

300 

50 

40 

50 

1100 

65 

170 

Brig. 

160 

30 

15 

44 

900 

65 

160 

Cutter. 

20 

Seldom 

38 

930 

70 

170 

Sloop, 

15 

any. 

The  general  practice  then  was,  first,  to  stow 
the  iron  ballast  fore  and  aft,  from  bulkhead  to 
bulkhead,  in  the  main  hold,  next  to  fir  cants, 
nailed  on  the  limber  stmkes,  on  each  side  of  the 
kelson,  five  or  more  inches  clear  of  the  limber 
boards ;  and  winged  up  three  or  four  pigs  above 
the  floor-heads  in  the  midships,  or  bearing  part 
of  the  ship,  with  two  tiers  of  pigs  in  the  wake 
of  the  main  hatchway,  &c.  •  The  shingle  ballast 
was  spread  and  levelled  over  the  iron  ballast,  on 
which  was  stowed  the  lower  tier  of  water-casks, 
with  the  bungs  up,  and  the  bilge  dear  of  the 
sides.  The  midsnip  tiers  were  first  laid,  and 
the  casks  sunk  about  one  quarter  of  their  dia- 
meter into  the  shingle ;  the  sides  being  filled  in 
with  small  casks,  as  half-hogsheads,  Sec. 

Since  the  introduction  of  iron  tanks,  shingle 
ballast  has  been  altogether  laid  aside,  and  iron 
ballast  only  employed,  the  present  proportion 
of  which,  according  to  the  practice  of  the  navy^ 
is  as  follows : — 

Table  of  the  proportion  of  Iron  BalUut  at  present 
allowed  in  the  navy,  tn  proportion  to  their  ton- 
nage. 

To  all  three-deckers,  |th  of  computed  ton- 
nage. 
To  two-deckers  and  oak  frigates  ^j^tb  ditto. 
To  fir  frigates  j^ths  of  ditto. 
To  22-gun  ships  and  sloops,  ^th  ditto. 
To  brigs,  sloops,  &c.  ^th  ditto. 


Smaller  vessels'  are  not  submitted  to  these 
rales ;  but  are  ballasted  as  circumstances  may 
require,  according  to  the  judgment  of  their  offi- 
cers. In  ships  of  the  line,  sixteen  ton  of  the 
above,  called  shingle  ballast,  is  moveable  as 
circumstancesr  require,  and  halif  that  quantity  to 
frigates. 

Additional  ballast,  to  the  amount  of  one-third, 
and  even  one-half,  of  the  original  quantity  is 
sometimes,  however,  demanded :  and  the  table 
only  exhibits  the  Official  and  ordinary  allowance. 

la  the  merchant-service,  the  stowage  consists, 
besides  the  other  ballast,  of  casks,  cases,  bales, 
box«s,  8tc.  all  carefully  wedged  off  from  the 
bottom,  sides,  pump-well,  &c.  and  great  atten^ 
tion  is  paid  that  the  most  weighty  materials  are 
stowed  nearest  to  the  centre  of  gravitjr,  or  bear- 
ing of  the  ship;  and  higher  or  lower  m  the  hold 
agreeably  to  the  form  of  the  vessel.  A  fiiU  low- 
built  vessel  requires  them  to  be  stowed  high  up, 
tiiat  the  centre  of  gravity  may  be  raised,  to  keep 
ber  from  rolling  away  her  masts,  and  from  being 
too  stiff  and  laborsome ;  as,  on  the  contrary,  a 
narrow  high-bnilt  vessel  requires  the  most 
weighty  materials  to  be  stowed  low  down,  neaN 
est  the  kelson,  that  the  centre  of  gravity  may  be 
kept  low,  to  enable  her  to  carry  more  sail.  To 
yachts  and  other  small  vessels,  both  in  the  navy 
and  merchant-service,  the  ballast  is  sometimes 
lead,  worked  between  the  timbers. 

^  the  19  Geo.  II.  it  is  enacted,  that  if  any 


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iiflsteT  or  owner,  or  any  person  acting  as  master 
of  any  ship  or  other  vessel  whatsoever,  shall  cast, 
throw  out,  or  unlade,  or  if  there  shall  be  thrown 
out,  &c.  of  any  vessel,  being 'within  any  haven, 
port,  road,  channel,  or  navigable  river  within 
England,  any  ballast,  rubbish,  gravel,  earth, 
stone,  wreck,  or  filth,  but  only  upon  the  land, 
where  the  tide  and  water  never  flows  or  runs ; 
any  one  or  more  justices  for  the  county  or  place 
where,  or  near  which  the  offence  shall  be  com- 
mitted, upon  the  information  thereof,  shall  sum- 
mon or  issue  his  warrant  for  bringing  the  master 
or  owner  of  the  vessel,  or  other  person  acting  as 
such,  before  him ;  and,  upon  appearance  or  de- 
fault, shall  proceed  to  examine  the  matter,  and 
upon  proof  made  thereof,  either  by  confession  of 
the  party,  or  on  view  of  the  justice,  or  upon  the 
oath  of  one  or  more  creditable  witnesses,  ne  shall 
convict  the  said  master,  &c.  and  fine  him  at  his 
discretion  for  every  such  offence,  any  sum  not 
exceeding  £5,  nor  under  50«,  &c.;  and  for  want 
of  sufficient  distress,  the  justice  is  to  commit  the 
master,  or  person  acting  as  such,  and  convicted 
as  aforesaid,  to  the  common  jail  or  house  of  cor- 
rection, for  the  space  of  two  tnonths,  or  until 
payment  of  the  penalties. 

Besides  the  above  general  act,  there  are  the 
6  Geo.  II.  c.  29,  and  the  32  Geo.  II.  which  re- 
gulate the  ballasting  of  merchant-vessels  in  the 
river  Thames,  placing  it  under  the  direction  of 
the  corporation  of  the  Trinity-house. 

To  trench  the  ballast,  denotes,  to  divide  the 
ballast  into  two  several  parts  or  more,  in  the 
ship's  hold,  commonly  done  to  find  a  leaJt  in  the 
bottom  of  a  ship,  or  to  undock  her. 

Shooting  of  the  ballast  is  when  it  runs  over 
from  the  one  side  to  the  other.  Hence,  it  is  that 
corn,  and  all  kinds  of  grain,  is  dangerous  lading, 
for  that  is  apt  to  shoot.  To  prevent  which,  they 
make  poucles;  Uiat  is,  bulkheads  of  boards, 
to  secure  it  from  moving  about^ 

BALLATAR  Crag,  a  rocky  hill  in  Aber- 
deenshire, whose  tremendous  impending  rocks 
seem  to  threaten  the  astonished  traveller  with  in- 
stant destruction. 

BALLATIGNES,  in  middle  age  writers,  dan- 
cings. 

BALLATOONS,  large  heavy  luggage-boats, 
used  for  carrying  wood  by  the  river  from  Astra- 
khan and  the  Caspian  Sea  from  Moscow.  They 
will  carry  from  100  to  200  tons,  and  have  from 
100  to  120  men  employed  to  row  and  tow  them 
along. 

BALLANTYNE  (John),  was  a  native  of 
Kelso,  in  Roxburgshire ;  and  at  an  early  age  en- 
tered into  business  as  a  printer.  He,  with  his 
brother,  distinguished  himself  by  the  great  im- 
provement of  the  art,  evinced  in  the  extensive 
publications  which  have  of  late  years  issued  firom 
their  press.  He  was  at  one  time  a  proprietor  of 
the  Kelso  Mail;  and  subsequently  ushered  into 
the  world  the  publications  known  as  the  Wa^ 
verly  novels.  He  was  possessed  of  sufficient 
literary  talents  to  be  thought  at  one  time  to  be 
their  author.     He  died  in  1821. 

BALLEBHGDAN,  the  original  name  of  the 
parish  of  Ardchattan,  Argyleshire. 

BALLENA,  Punta  de  la,  a  point  of  land  on 
the    east  coast  of   the  island   of   Margaritta: 


another  in  Chili,  on  the  coast  of  the  province  ot 
Quillota :  another  in  the  kingdom  of  Quito,  and 
on  the  shore  of  the  South  Sea. 

Ballena,  a  river  of  Florida,  which  ihlls  into 
the  Atlantic. 

BALLENDEN(Sir  John),  a  Scottish  poet,  in 
the  reign  of  James  V.,  descended  from  an  an- 
cient family  in  that  kingdom.  His  father,  Mr. 
Thomas  Ballenden,  of  Auchinoul,  was  director 
to  the  chancery  in  1540,  and  clerk  register  in 
1541.  From  one  of  his  poems  we  learn,  tliat  in 
his  youth  he  had  some  employment  at  the  court 
to  king  James  V.  and  that  ne  was  in  great  favor 
with  that  prince.  Having  taken  orders,  and  been 
created  D.D.  at  the  Sorbonne,  he  was  made 
canon  of  Ross,  archdeacon  of  Moray,  and  cleik 
register ;  but  viras  afterwards  deprived  of  that^ 
employment  by  the  factions  of  the  times.  How-' 
ever,  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  he  recovered  that 
office,  and  was  one  of  the  lords  of  session.  Be- 
ing a  zea)ous  papist,  he,  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
Laing,  was  extremely  assiduous  in  retarding  the 
progress  of  the  reformation ;  till  at  last,  finding 
the  opposition  too  powerfiil,  he  quitted  Scot 
land,  and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1550. 
He  ij  generally  esteemed  one  of  the  best  Scot- 
tish poets  of  that  age.  His  works  are,  1.  The 
History  and  Chronicles  of  Scotland  of  Hector 
Boies  (Boethius),  translated  by  Mr.  John  Bal- 
lenden, Edinb.  1536.  2.  Cosmography  to  the 
History  of  Scotland,  with  a  PoeticS  Proem.  3. 
A  Description  of  Albany.  4.  Translation  of 
Boethius's  Description  of  Scotland.  5.  Epistles 
to  king  James  V. — Bale  says  he  had  seen  these 
letters.  6.  Several  poems  in  Carmichael's  Col- 
lection. 7.  Virtue  and  Vyce,  a  poem  addressed 
to  king  James  V. 

BALLENGARY,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Kerry,  on  the  mouth  of  the  Shannon, 
near  Ardfert. 

BALLENSTEDT,  an  ancient  county  and 
castle  in  the  principality  of  Anhalt-Bembuig, 
Germany,  on  tne  confines  of  Quedlingburg.  It 
is  the  ordinary  residence  of  the  prince  of  Anhalt, 
and  contains  a  riding-house,  a  theatre,  and 
beautiful  gardens.  At  the  foot  of  a  hill  on  the 
rivulet  of  Getel.  Population  2500.  Eighteen 
miles  south-west  of  Bemburg,  twenty-seven 
north-east  of  Nordhausen.  Long.  11®  25'  £., 
lat.  51**  45'  N. 

BALLERINI  (Peter  and  Jerome),  two  bro- 
thers, Italian  priests,  natives  of  Verona.  Peter 
was  bom  in  1698,  and  Jerome  in  1702.  They 
wrote  in  conjunction,  several  learned  and  in- 
genious poems,  and  published  various  editions  of 
ecclesiastical  authors. 

BALLEROY,  a  town  and  castle  of  France, 
in  Normandy,  with  1180  inhabitants,  and  several 
iron  mines,  and  forges.  It  stands  on  the  Dromme, 
and  is  the  head  of  a  canton,  in  the  department 
of  Calvados,  arrondissement  of  Bayeux.  Seven 
miles  S.S.W.  of  Bayeux,  eighteen  south  of  Can. 

BALLERUS,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  o 
fresh  water  fish  of  the  leather  mouthed  kind, 
which  appears  to  be  the  same  with  the  caicassius, 
or  carcassi  tertium  genus. 

Ballerus  is  also  a  name  given  by  Aris- 
totle to  that  species  of  cyprinus  called  blicca, 
and  pleysta,  and  pallerus,  by  modem  writers. 


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BALLET,  a  dramatic  &ble  represented  by 
action,  music  and  dancing.    The  origin  of  the 

,  badlet  is  to  be  traced  to  the  meretricious  taste  of 
the  Italian  courts,  and  succeeded  the  more 
dangerous  but  more  manly  amusement  of  tlie 
tournament.    The  interview  between  our  Henry 

,       VIIL  and  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  tlie  field  of 

I  the  cloth  of  gold,  presents  us  with  an  early  speci- 
men of  these  entertainments.    In  the  next  cen- 

I  tury  they  reached  the  summit  of  their  glory  in 
the  splendid  pomps  of  the  courts  of  Tuscany 
and  Lorraine.  The  genius  of  Ben  Jonson,  and 
even  that  of  Shakspeare,  was  matured  amidst  the 
scenery  connected  with  the  Italian  ballet :  but  it 
found  its  most  zealous  patron  in  Louis  XIV. ; 
and  probably  the  most  magnificent  ballet  ever 

Serformed,  was  that  which  this  prince  comman- 
ed  and  bore  a  part  in,  in  the  year  1664.  In 
honor  of  this  memorable  f&te  ,  tlie  name  of  the 
Carousel  has  been  given  to  the  spot  of  its  cele- 
bration ;  and  the  theatres  of  England,  France, 
and  Italy,  have  been  always  striving  since  in 
amicable  warfare,  to  sustain  the  public  par- 
'  tiality  for  these  spectacles. 

Ballets,  or  Balls,  in  heraldry,  make  a  fre- 
quent bearing  in  coats  of  arms,  though  never 
so  called ;  for,  according  to  their  several  colors 
they  have  different  names ;  as  besants,  when  the 
color  is  or;  plates  when  argent;  hurts  when 
azure ;  torteaux  when  gules;  pomies  when  vert; 
pellets  or  agresses  when  sable;  golpes  when 
purple ;  orenges  when  tanne ;  and  guzes  when 
sanguine. 

BAL'LETTE,  n.  f.  Fr.  hatlette.  A  dance 
in  which  some  history  is  represented. 

BALLEXARD  (n.),  a  citizen  of  Geneva,  bom 
in  1726.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  physical 
education  of  children,  which  gained  the  prize 
from  a  society  in  Holland ;  and  a  dissertation  on 
the  question,  what  are  the  principal  causes  of  the 
deaths  of  children?  He  died  at  Geneva  in 
1774. 

.  BALLI  (Joseph),  a  scholastic  divine,  bom  at 
Palermo  in  Sicily.  He  was  a  canon  of  Bari,  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples ;  and  author  of  De  Fac- 
cunditate  Dei,  and  De  Morte  Corporam  Natura- 
Hum.     He  died  at  Padua  in  1640. 

BALLI  ACE,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
Illyria,  in  the  vicinity  of  Apollonia.  . 

BAL'LIAGE,  -a  duty  payable  to  the  city  of 
London,  for  the  goods  ana  merchandise  of  aliens, 
according  to  the  charter  16  Car.  II. 

BALLIANI  (John  Baptist),  a  native  of  Ge- 
noa,  bom  in  1586.  He  rose  to  be  a  member  of 
the  senate,  and  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  Natural 
Motion  of  Heavy  Bodies,  1646.  He  died  in 
1666. 

BALXIARDS,  fi.  «.  From  ball  and  yard,  or 
stick  to  push  it  with.  A  play  at  which  a  ball  is 
driven  by  the  end  of  a  stick;  now  cogmiptly 
called  billiards.  Dr.  Johnson  says ;  but  biUiardt 
is  not  a  cormption,  being  the  Fr.  billard,  from 
biile,  the  term  tor  the  ball  used  in  playing. 

With  dice»  with  cards,  with  hatUarda  far  unlit. 
With  shuttle-cocks  misMemiog  manly  wit. 

Cieo.  Let  it  alone ;  let  va  to  HUiardi; 
Coiat,  Clftarmian. 

8hahpeare»     Antanjf  and  Cleopatra* 


BALLIBAY,  a  market-tovm  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Cavan,  fifty-three  miles  from  Dublin. 

BMXICORA,  a  borough  town  of  Ireland,  in 
the  county  of  Cork. 

BALLIMORE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Westmeath.  It  was  taken  in  1691  by 
General  Gingle ;  and  burnt  by  the  military,  in 
the  rebellion  of  1798.  Distant  from  Athlone  ten 
miles  north,  and  fifty  firom.  Dublin. 

BALLIN  (Claude),  a  celebrated  French  artist, 
bom  in  1615.  His  &ther  was  a  goldsmith,  and 
under  him  he  learned  that  business.  When 
about  nineteen  years  of  age,  he  displayed  un- 
common genius,  by  making  four  silver  basins, 
on  which  were  represented  the  four  ages  of  the 
world.  These  were  purchased  by  Caidinal  Ri- 
chelieu, and  he  was  employed  to  make  four  rases, 
after  the  antique,  to  match  them.  He  afterwards 
executed  handsome  pieces  for  Louis  XIV.  and 
after  the  death  of  Vann,  he  succeeded  as  director 
of  the  mint,  for  casts  and  medals.  '  He  died  in 
1678. 

BALLINA,  or  Belleek,  a  town  of  Ireland, 
in  the  county  of  Mayo ;  fourteen  miles  north  of 
Castlebar,  and  120  from  Dublin.  It  has  a  con- 
siderable salmon  fishery;  and  in  1798  was 
taken  by  the  French  troops  who  landed  in  Ireland 
under  General  Humbert.    • 

BALLINACARGY,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in 
West  Meath,  about  forty-six  miles  from  Dublin. 

BALLINACHORA,  a  town  of  Ireland,  near 
Middletown,  in  Cork. 

BALLINACOURTY,  Point,  a  cape  on  the 
south  coast  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Watw- 
ford,  on  the  north  side  of  Dungarvan  Bay.  Dis- 
tant four  miles  east  of  Dungarvan. 

BALLIN  AGAR,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  King's 
county,  Leinster,  forty-one  miles  from  Dublin. 

BALLINAKIL,  a  market  town  of  Ireland,  in 
Queen's  county ;  a  borough  previously  to  the 
Union.  Here  are  woollen  manu&ctures,  and  the 
ruins  of  a  castle,  fourteen  miles  west  of  Carlow, 
fiibr-eight  from  Dublin. 

BALLINAKILL  Harbour  is  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland.  Forty  miles  north-west  of  Gal- 
way.    Long.  9**  ^8'  W.,  lat.  53**  S4' N. 

BALLINALACK,  a  town  in  West  Meath, 
Ireland,  about  fortv-eight  miles  from  Dublin. 

BALLINAMORE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in 
the  county  of  Galway,  eighty-four  miles  from 
Dublin. 

BALLINANAGHT,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Cavan,  fifty-four  miles  from  Dublin. 

BALLINASLOE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Roscommon,  seventy-two  miles  from 
Dublm.  It  is  noted  for  its  great  fairs  of  cattle, 
wool,  &c.  Of  sheep  there  will  sometimes 
80,000,  or  90,000,  be  seen  together  here. 

BALLINAVAR,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  Cork. 

BALLINDAGGIN,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Mayo,  nearly  100  miles  from  Dublin. 

BALLIN EKIL,  a  borough  town  of  Ireland, 
in  Queen's  county. 

BALLINGARRY,  a  tovra  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Limerick,  122  miles  from  Dublin. 

BALLINROBE,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  Mayo, 
where  the  assizes  are  sometimes  held.  It  is 
112  miles  from  Dublin.  Long.  9*  lO'  W.,  lat, 
53°  40'  N. 


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-     BALLI^TOGHER,  a  town  of  Sligo,  Ireland. 

BALLINTOY,  a  town  of  Ireland,  on  the 
coast  of  Antrim.  It  produces  coals.  It  has 
a  tolerable  good  harbour,  which  has  been  im- 
proved by  a  parliamentary  grant.  A  short  dis- 
tance to  the  eastward  is  the  small  island  of 
Carrick-a-rede,  separated  from  the  laod  by  a 
chasm  of  sixty  feet,  of  a  frightful  depth,  which  is 
passed  by  means  of  two  cables  stretched  across. 

BALLINTRY,  a  village  and  parish  of  Ireland, 
on  the  coast  of  Aiitrim.  Several  ancient  fortifi- 
cations are  within  its  precincts,  and  there  is  a 
cromlech  near  the  villaee.  Other  antiquities  are 
also  found  here.  It  is  twent)r  miles  north  of 
Bailymena,  and  150  from  Dublin. 

RALLISTA,  Lat.  from  PaXKtiv,  to  shoot,  a 
machine  used  by  the  ancients  for  shooting  darts ; 
it  resembled  in  some  measure  our  cross  bow,  Ve- 
«etiu8  informs  uj,  that  the  ballista  discharged 
oarts  with  such  rapidity  and  violence,  that  nothing 
could  resist  their  force:  and  Athenseus  acds,  tliat 
Agistratus  made  one  of  little  more  than  ^wo  feet 
in  length,  which  sliot  darts  500  paces.    See  Ab- 

TILL£RT. 

Ballista,  in  pracucal  geometry,  the  geomet- 
rical cross,  oiliea  also  Jacob's  staff.  See  Cross 
Staff. 

Ballista,  or  0$  BalIistje,  is  a  name  given 
by  some  anatomists  to  the  first  bone  of  the  tar- 
sus, otherwise  called  talus  and  astragalus. 

BALLISTARII,  or  Ballistrarii,  in  anti- 
quity, slidgeis  or  soldiers  who  fought  with  the 
ballists.  There  are  two  kinds  of  ballistarii ;  the 
one,  called  also  manuballistarii,  or  manuballistae, 
cast  stones  and  other  missive  weapons,  with  the 
hand.  The  others,  called  also  carroballistarii, 
or  carroballiste,  made  use  of  a  machine.  The 
ballistarii  were  scarcely  heard  of  before  the  age  of 
Constantine. 

BALLISTAEIUS  is  also  used,  in  writers  of 
the  middle  age,  for  a  cross  bowman,  or  arbaletier. 

BAL'USTER.    See  Balluster. 

BALLISTEUM,  or  Ballistrvea  ;  from/3aXX«, 
to  toss,  to  throw,  or  to  shoot;  in  antiquity^  a  mi- 
litary song  or  dance  used  on  occasions  of  victory. 
Vopiscus  has  preserved  the  ballisteum  sung  in 
honor  of  Aurdian,  who,  in  the  Sarmatian  war, 
was  said  to  have  killed  forty-eight  of  the  enemy 
in  one  day  with  his  own  hand.  The  ballistea 
were  a  kind  of  popular  ballads,  composed  by 
poets  of  the  lower  class,  without  much  regard  to 
the  laws  of  metre. 

BALLISTICA,  or  Ballistics  the  art  of 
throwing  heavy  bodies.  F.  Mersennus  has 
published  a  treatise  on  the  projection  of  bodies, 
under  this  title. 

BALLIUM,  old  law  Latin,  bail. 

Balliuic,  in  archsologia,  the  court  of  a  forti- 
fied castle.  The  outer  ballium  was  immediately 
within  the  gates,  separated  by  a  wall  from  the 
inner  ballium,  which  contained  the  apartments 
for  the  garrison  and  the  keeper.  St.  Peter,  in  the 
Bailey  at  Oxford,  stands  in  the  outer  ballium  of 
Che  castle.  The  Old  Bailey  and  New  Bailey  in 
London  were  in  similar  positions  in  regard  to  the 
walls  of  that  city ;  and  hence  are  their  names. 

BALLIVUS.    See  Bailiff. 

BALLOCH,  a  lake  of  Perthshire,   in   the 


parish  of  Muthil,  about  half  a  mile  in  < 
ference. 

BAL'LON,  )      Fr.  bahn,  a  little  ball  or  pack ; 

Bal'loon.  )  also  a  foot-ball.  Dut.  hmoen^ 
Germ,  balluyn,  Span,  hcdon^  Ital.  haUone.  A 
name  given  to  a  certain  game  played  with  a 
ball  filled  with  wind. 

Many  other  tporti  and  recreations  there  be  mach 
in  use,  as  foot-lmlU  bailoume,  quintan,  &c  and  many 
such,  which  are  the  common  recreations  of  the  countiy 
folks.  Burton's  Anatomy  of  MdancMg, 

Sir  Pet.  Faith,  I  was  so  entertained  in  the  pro- 
gress with  one  count  Bpemoun,  a  Welsh  knight :  we 
had  a  match  at  baloon,  too,  with  my  lord  W'.chum, 

for  five  crowns. O,  sweet  lady,  'tis  a  strong  game 

with  the  arm.  Eattward  Hoe, 

Ballon,  or  Ballone,  an  ancient  castle^ 
seated  on  the  sea-coast,  in  the  parish  of  Tarbat, 
in  Ross-shire;  which  exhibits  a  monument  of  the 
taste  and  grandeur  of  former  ages. 

Ballon,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Maine, 
France,  on  the  Ome,  with  3560  inhabitants.  It 
is  the  chief  place  of  a  canton  in  the  department 
of  the  Sarthe,  arrondissement  of  Le  Mans ;  and 
has  manufiictures  of  stamine  and  other  Hnen 
cloths.  Ten  miles  north-east  of  Le  Mans,  six- 
teen south  of  Alenpon.  Also  a  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Lower  Charente,  arron- 
dissement of  Rochefort;  nine  miles  south-east  of 
La  Rochelle. 

Bal'loon,  n.s.  In  chemistry,  a  large  globu- 
lar glass  flask,  with  a  short  neck,  generally  used 
as  a  receiver  in  distillations. 

In  architecture,  a  ball  or  globe  placed  on 
the  top  of  a  pillar. 

In  fire-works,abalI  of  pasteboard  stuffed  with 
combustible  matter,  whicn,  when  fired,  mounts 
to  a  considerable  height  in  the  air,  and  then 
bursts  into  briglit  sparks  resembling  stars. 

In  aerology,  a  hollow  vessel  of  silk,  which  is 
filled  with  inflammable  air,  and  ascends  with 
considerable  weight  annexed  to  it,  into  the  atmos- 
phere. Though  of  modem  introduction,  by  the 
following  citation  it  looks  as  if  the  existence  of 
such  a  machine  had  been  known  150  years  since : 
*  Like  baUoonet  fiill  of  wind,  the  more  they  are 
pressed  down,  the  higher  ther  rise.* — Htwyf 
Sermmu  (1658)  p.  115;    See  Aerovautics. 

Balloon,  in  a  general  sense,  signifies  any 
spherical  hollow  body,  of  whatever  mattitr  it 
be  composed,  or  for  whatever  purposes  it  be 
designea. 

Balloon,  in  ibe  French  paper  trade,  is  a 
term  for.  a  quantity- of  paper,  containing  twenty 
four  reams. 

Balloon  likewise  denotes  a  kind  of  game 
something  resembling  tennis,  llie  hsAXoa  is 
played  in  the  open  field,  with  a  great  round  ball 
of  double  leather  blown  up  with  wind,  and  thus 
driven  to  and  fro  with  the  strength  of  a  man's 
arm,  fortified  with  a  brace  of  wood. 

Balloon,  or  Balloen,  is  particulaiiy  used 
among  voyagers  for  the  state  oarges  of  Siam. 
These  balloons  are  a  kind  of  brigantines,  managed 
with  oars,  of  very  odd  figures,  as  serpents,  sea- 
horses, &&C.;  but,  by  their  sharpness  and  number 
of  oars,  of  incredible  swiftness.    They  are  said 


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to  be  made  of  a  single  piece  of  timber,  of  uncom- 
mon length;  they  are  raised  high,  and  much 
decorated  with  earring  at  head  and  stem :  some 
are  gilt  over,  and  carry  120  or  150  rowers  on 
each  side.  The  oars  are  either  plated  over  .with 
silver,  gilt,  or  radiated  with  gold;  and  the  dome 
or  canopy  in  the  middle,  where .  the  company  is 
placed,  IS  ornamented  with  some  rich  stuff,  and 
furnished  with  a  ballustrade  of  ivory,  or  other 
costly  matter,  enriched  with  gilding.  The  edges 
of  the  balloon  just  touch  die  water,  but  the 
extremities  rise  with  a  sweep  to  a  great  height. 
Some  are  adorned  with  a  variety  of  figures,  made 
of  pieces  of  mother  of  pearl  inlaid :  the  richer 
sort,  instead  of  a  dome,  carry  a  kind  of  steeple  in 
the  middle:  so  that,  considering  the  sleudcrness  of 
the  vessel,  which  is  usually  100  or  120  feet  long, 
and  scarcely  six  broad,  the  height  of  two  ends, 
and  of  the  steeple,  with  the  load  of  decorations, 
it  is  a  kind  of  miracle  that  they  are  not  overset. 
Balloon,  or  Ballot,  in  the  French  glass 
trade,  signifies  a  certain  quantity  of  glass  plates, 
smaller  or  greater  accordii^  to  their  quality. 
The  balloon  of  white  glass  conUins  twenty-five 
bundles,  of  six  pltftes  per  bundle;  but  the  balloon 
of  colored  glass  is  only  twelve  bundles  and  a 
half,  and  of  three  plates  to  a  bundle. 
Balloon,  Air.  See  AtaoNAUxics,  &c. 
BALXOT,  V,  &  n.'\  Fr,  balloUer,  Ital.  baU 
Ballota'nt,  tlotare,  from  Gr.  /SoXXm, 

Ballot'atiok,        ^from   ball,  Skinner.     A 
Ballot'in.  j  particular  mode  of  elec- 

tion. This  is  managed  by  putting  little  balls  or 
tickets  of  different  colors,  black  and  white,  pri- 
vately into  a  box,  which  has  two  compartments; 
by  counting  the  balls  it  is  known  wha^  is  the  re- 
sult of  the  poll,  without  any  discovery  of  the 
respective  voters. 

The  greatest  of  the  pariiament  men  bated  this  de- 
sign of  rotation  and  baOoHng,  as  being  against  their 
P*^^'-  Wood't  AihenUB  Oxaniemm. 

Whereupon  eight  haHaimM,  or  pages,  take  eight  of 
the  boxes,  and  go  four  on  the  one  side,  and  four  on 
the  other  side  of  the  house ;  and  every  magistrate  and 
senator  holds  up  a  litde  pellet  of  linen  as  the  box 
PM*^  between  his  finger  and  his  thumb,  that  they 
ntaj  aod  he  has  bat  one,  and  then  puts  it  into  the 
■■"■••  Barrmgton's  Oceana, 

No  competition  arriving  to  a  sufficient  number  of 
balls,  they  fell  to  ballot  some  others.  Wotton, 

The  election  of  the  duke  of  Venice  Is  intricate  and 
carious,  consisting  of  ten  several  baQfitotioM^  Id, 

Giving  their  votes  by  baOoiiing,  they  lie  under  no 
•^•-  Swift. 

BALLOTA,  White  Horehoond  ;  in  botany ; 
a  genus  of  the  gymnospermia  order,  and  didy- 
namia  class  of  plants;  ranking,  in  the  natural 
method,  under  the  forty-second  order,  verticillata. 
The  calyx  has  five  teeth,  with  ten  stria;  and  the 
upper  lip  of  the  corolla  is  cienated.  It  is  a  com- 
mon weed  growing  on  the  sides  of  banks  in  most 
parts  of  England,  as  also  in  walks  near  towns 
and  villages  in  Scotland;  so  is  seldom  admitted 
jnto  gardens.  The  flowers  are  in  whorls,  upon 
branched  peduncles,  and  lean  on  one  side  of  the 
«talk;  they  are  commonly  of  a  dull  red  color,  but 
•ODietunes  white.    It  was  formerly  used  in  hys- 


teric cases,  but  is  now  fallen  into  disuse.  The 
Swedes  reckon  it  an  almost  universal  remedy  in 
the  diseases  of  their  cattle.  Horses,  cows,  sheep, 
and  goats,  refuse  to  eat  it. 

BALLOTADE/    See  Balotade. 

BALLRIENAN,  a  pleasant  peninsula  of  Ire- 
land, in  the  county  of  Louth ;  in  which  there  are 
relicsof  a  Druid's  Grove;  supposed  to  have  been 
the  chief  seat  of  the  Arch-Druid. 

ball's  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast  of  Nor- 
folk island,  in  the  South  Pacific. 

Balis,  a  river  of  West  Greenland,  which 
runs  into  the  sea,  in  long.  50**  l(f  W.,  lat.  64** 
30'  N. 

'  Ball's  Pyramid,  a  small  island  in  the  South 
Pacific,  discovered  by  lieutenant  Ball  in  1788. 
Long.  159**  E.,  lat.  31°  35'  S. 

BALLSTOWN,  a  thriving  town  of  the  state 
of  New  York,  situated  in  Saratoga  county,  thirty 
miles  north  of  Albany. 

Also  a  town  of  Worth  America,  in  Lincobi 
county,  district  of  Maine,  195  miles  north-east 
of  Boston. 

BALLUNTEE,  a  town  of  Hindosta^i,  ip  Orissa, 
thirteen  miles  south-east  of  Cuttack. 

BALLUSTER.    See  Baluster. 

BALLUSTRADE.  See  Balustrade,  and 
Architecture,  Index. 

BALLY,  a  small  island  in  the  Eastern  seas, 
separated  from  the  west  coast  of  Bachian  by  a 
channel  about  five  miles  wide.    Lat.  0°  30'  S. 

Bally,  a  large  town  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
island  of  Lombhook,  about  fifteen  miles  from  the 
entrance  of  the  strait  of  Alass.  The  inhabitants 
trade  principally  for  rice  with  the  Dutch  settle- 
ments.   Long.  116°  28'  E.,  lat  8«  31'  S. 

'Bally,  a  Gaelic  word,  analagous  to  Bal, 
which  makes  part  of  the  names  of  above  100 
places,  mostly  small  towns,  or  villages,  in  ^re- 
land;  of  which  we  can  only  notice  a  few  of  the 
principal.  The  word  seems  to  be  a  corruption 
of  the  term  Ballibetagh,  anciently  used  to  express 
a  town  land  able  to  maintain  hospitality. 

Bai^lycastle,  a  sea-port  of  Antrim,  about 
thirty  miles  north  of  Carrickfergus,  and  113 
from  Dublin:  noted  fi)r  its  chalybeate  spring 
and  collieries. 

Ballyconnel,  a  town  of  Cavan,  in  Ulster, 
sixty-seven  miles  from  Dublin,  and  eleven  north- 
east of  Cavan. 

Ballycotton  Bay,  a  bay  on  tHe  north-west 
coast  of  Ballycotton  island. 

Ballycotton  Island,  an  island  of  St» 
George's  channel,  on  the  south-west  coast  of  Ire- 
land, four  miles  off  Cloyne.  Long.  7°  59*  W., 
lat.  51®  50'  N.  It  is  a  great  resort  of  sea-fowl, 
and  porpoises  frequently  come  ashore  here. 

Ballydovilin  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  soutli-west 
coast  of  Ireland.  Long.  9°  32'  W.,  lat.  51* 
2rN. 

Ballyela  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  west  coast  of 
Ireland,  128  miles  east  of  the  south  Arran  islands. 

Ballygabi BOON,  in  Kerry,  Munsler;  noted  for 
producing  great  quantities  of  cyder. 

Ballygilly  Head,  a  cape  on  the  east  coast 
of  Ireland. 

Ballyuays,  a  market  town  of  Ireland,  county 
of  Cavan,  fifty-seven  miles 'from  Dublin,  and  once 
a  considerable  place. 


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Ballyiiolm  Bay,  on  the  coast  of  Down, 
between  Carrickfergus  and  Copland  islands. 

Ballyuooly,  in  Cork,  seated  on  the  Black- 
water,  in  a  woody  country;  111  miles  from 
Dublin. 

Bally  LFSP  Bay,  a  harbour  on  the  north- 
west coast  oi  Ireland,  due  west  from  Sligo  Bay, 
and  east  from  Broad-haven.  Dunsinehead  is 
its  eastern  limit. 

Ballymahon,  a  town  in  Longford,  fifty-two 
miles  from  Dublin.  Long.  7°  56'  W.,  lat.  52** 
31  N. 

Bally  MEN  A,  a  market  town  of  Antrim,  on  the 
river  Maine,  Ireland.  It  has  a  town-house,  in 
which  the  quarter-sessions  are  held ;  and  a  linen 
manufacture  is  carried  on  here.  Twenty  miles 
north-west  of  Belfast,  and  ninety-three  nortli  of 
Dublin. 

Ballynahikch,  a  market  town  of  Down,  in 
Ireland,  seventy-six  miles  from  Dublin.  In  its 
neighbourhood  is  a  chalybeate  spring.  Here,  in 
1798,  the  rebels  were  defeated  after  a  bloody 
engagement  on  Lord*  Moira's  estate,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  town  was  at  that  time  destroyed. 

Ballyqxjinton  PorNT,  a  cape  of  Ireland, 
seven  miles  east  of  Down-patrick. 

Ballyraghan  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  west  coast 
x>{  Ireland,  in  the  north  part  of  the  county  of 
Clare.    Long.  9o  g'  w  ,  lat.  53**  7'  N, 

Ballyshannon,  a  town  oflreland,  in  the  county 
of  Donegal,  situated  on  a  bay  at  the  mouth  of  a 
river  flowing  from  Lough  Erne,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  fourteen  arches.  Here  are 
two  fisheries  of  eels  and  salmon.  Fish  and  grain 
are  the  chief  exports.  The  imports,  timber,  rock 
salt,  iron,  earthenware,  and  other  commodities  in 
small  quantities.  Distant  forty  miles  south-west 
of  Londonderry,  and  100  from  Dublin. 

Ballytore,  a  beautiful  village,  on  the  river 
Gris,  in  Kildare,  twenty-eight  miles  from  Dublin. 

B  ALLY  YOG  Y  Head,  a  capc  in  Cork,  opposite 
to  Mizeu  Head,  between  which  there  is  a  large 
bay. 

BAL'M,  V.  &  n.  I      Gr.  pakeafiov,  Lat.  bal- 

Balm'y,  S  samumy  Fr.  baUarme,  haulme, 

Ital.  balsamOf  Goth,  balsarif  Ang.-Sax.  baldsame, 
balzame,  Germ,  and  Swed.  balsam,  Dut.  balsem. 
Applied  to  a  fragrant  shrub,  as  balm-mint ;  the 
sap  of  a  shrub,  as  balm  of  Gilead ;  to  fragrant 
ointment ;  to  any  thing  fragrant,  sweet-smelling, 
soothing,  Unifying,  lulling,  mitigating,  either 
literally  or  metaphorically,  To  balm,  is  to  wash 
with  balm,  or  any  thing  softening,  fragrant,  and 
antiseptick.  See  Embalm.  Of  balm-mmt,  the 
species  are  1.  garden  balm;  2.  garden  balm,  with 
yellow  variegated  flowers;  3.  stinking  Roman 
balm,  with  soft  hairy  leaves.' — Miller.  *  Balm 
of  Gilead  is  the  juice  drawn  from  the  balsam- 
tree,  by  making  incisions  in  its  bark.  Its  color 
is  first  white,  soon  after  green ;  but  when  it  comes 
to  be  old  it  is  of  the  color  of  honey.  The  smell 
of  it  is  agreeable,  and  very  penetrating ;  the  taste 
of  it  bitter,  sharp,  and  astringent.  As  little 
issues  from  the  plant  by  incision,  the  balm  sold 
by  the  merchants  is  made  of  the  wood  and  green 
branches  of  the  tree,  distilled  by  fire,  which  is 
generally  adulterated  with  turpentine.' — Calmet. 
*  It  seems  to  me  that  the  zori  of  Gilead,  which 
vre  render  in  our  Bible  by  the  word  balm,  was 
not  the  same  with  the  balsam  of  Mecca,  but  only 


a  better  sort  of  turpentine,  tlien  in  "use  for  the 
cure  of  wounds  and  other  diseases.* — Frideaui't 
Cannex. 

In  May  that  mother  is  of  monethes  glade. 
That  the  freshe  flouris  ali^  blew,  white,  and  rede, 
Ben  quicke  ayen,  that  winter  ded  had  made. 
And  full  of  bourne,  is  fleting  eneiy  mede. 

Chauetr, 
But  forbeare  to  speake 
Of  baths,  or  bahning,  or  of  beaaty  now. 

Chapman,  Homer^t  Od^teg. 

We  saw  thee  in  thy  AoZmy-nest, 

Bright  dawn  of  oar  eternal  day; 
We  saw  thine  eyes  break  from  the  east, 
And  chase  the  trembling  shades  away. 

CnAme. 
Upon  an  hill  a  bright  flame  I  did  see. 
Waving  aloft  with  triple  point  to  sky. 
Which  like  incense  of  precious  cedar  tree. 
With  baimy  odours  fill'd  th'  ayre  fane  and  nie. 

Spenur. 

Where  many  groomes  and  squyres  ready  were. 
To  take  him  from  his  steed  full  tenderiy. 
And  eke  the  fayrest  Alma  mett  him  there. 
With  bairn  and  wine,  and  costly  spicery. 
To  comfort  him  in  his  infirmity*  U. 

This  is  most  strange  ; 
That  she,  that  even  but  now  was  your  best  object, 
The  argument  of  your  praise,  bahn  of  your  age. 
Most  best,  most  dearest,  should,  in  this  trice  of  time. 
Commit  a  thing  so  monstrous^  to  dismantle 
So  many  folds  of  favour.  ShtUupeare.  Lear. 

As  bees 
In  spring  time,  when  the  sun  with  Taurus  rides. 
Pour  forth  their  populous  youth  about  the  hive 
In  clusters ;  they  among  fresh  dews  and  flowers 
Fly  to  and  fro,  or  on  the  smoothed  plank. 
The  suburb  of  their  straw-built  citadel. 
New  rubb'd  witk  baim,  expatiate  and  confer 
Their  state-affairs.  MUm. 

Now  gende  gales 
Fanning  their  odoriferous  wings  dispense 
Native  perfumes,  and  whisper  whence  they  stole 
Those  baimy  spoils.  U- 

Publicola,  with  healing  hands  shall  pour 
Balm  in  their  wounds,  and  shall  their  life  restore ; 
Greek  arts,  and  Roman  arms,  in  her  conjoined, 
-    Shall  England  raise,  relieve  oppress'd  mankind. 

Maroefl, 

So  weak  are  human  kind  by  nature  made. 
Or  to  such  weaknes  by  their  vice  betrayed 
Almighty  vanity !  to  thee  they  owe 
Their  zest  of  pleasure  and  their  balm  of  woe. 

Yatms. 
O  smile,  ye  heavens,  serene ;  ye  mildews  wan. 
Ye  blighting  whirlwinds  spare  his  baimy  prime. 
Nor  lessen  of  his  life  the  litd^  span.  BaaUie. 

.  Balm,  in  botany.    See  Melissa. 

Balm,  or  Balsam.    See  Balsam. 

Balm  mint.    See  Balm. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  the  English  name  of  the 
dracocephalum  canariense,  or  canary  dragon's 
head. 

Balm  of  sulphur.    See  Sulphur. 

BALMUR^UM,  the  name  given  by  Leslie  to 
the  ancient  abbey  of  Balmerino,  which  was 
founded  A.  D.  1229,  by  king  Alexander  II.  and 
his  mother  Emergaida,  widow  of  William  the 
Lion.  That  princess  lies  interred  in  the  abbey 
church.    See  Balmerino. 

BALMURENACH,  the  original  name  of  Bal- 
merino. 


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BAIJ9AG0¥nN,  a  tmall  river  of  Scotland,  in 
Koss-sbive,  which  bounds  the  parish  of  KiUnuir 
Easter,  on  the  east. 

BALNAHUAICH,  one  of  the  western  isles  of 
Scotland,  on  the  coast  of  Argyllshire,  and  in  the 
parish  of  Jura,  on  the  north  end  of  that  island. 
Mr.  Stewart,  minister  of  Jura  and  Colonsay,  in 
his  statistical  report  of  these  parishes  to  Sir  J. 
Sinclair,  states  me  population  of  this  island  in 
1793  at  98  families,  and  133  souls.  It  abounds 
with  excellent  slates. 

BALNAVES  (Henry),  a  Scottish  protestant 
divine,  bom  in  Fife,  in  the  reign  of  James  V., 
and  educated  at  St.  Andrew's.  He  went  to 
France  to  finish  his  studies;  and  returning  to 
Scotland,  was  admitted  into  the  family  of  the 
earl  of  Arran,  then  regent;  but  in  1542  the  earl 
dismissed  him  for  having  embraced  the  protes- 
tant religion.  In  1554  he  joined,  says  Mackenzie, 
the  murderers  of  cardinal  Beaton;  for  which  he 
was  declared  a  traitor,  and  excommunicated. 
While  that  party  were  besieged  in  the  castle  of 
St.  Andrew^  they  sent  Balnaves  to  England, 
who  returned  with  a  considerable  supply  of  pn>- 
visions  and  money ;  but  being  at  last  obliged  to 
eurrender  to  the  French,  he  was  sent  with  the 
rest  of  the  garrison  to  France.  He  returned  to 
Scotland  About  1559 ;  and  having  joined  the  con- 
gregation, he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners to^treat  with  Uie  duke  of  Norfolk  on  the 
part  of  queen  Elizabeth.  In  15C3  he  was  made 
«ne  of  the  lords  of  session,  and  appointed  by  the 
general  assembly,  with  other  learned  men,  to  re- 
vise the  Book  of  Discipline.  Knox,  his  fellow* 
laborer*  gives  him  the  character  of  a  veiT 
^earned  and  pious  divine.  He  died  at  Edinburgh 
in  1579.  He  wrote,  1.  A  Treatise  concerning 
Justification,  Edinburgh,  1530,  8vo.  2.  A  Cate- 
chism, or  Confession  of  Faith,  1584,  8vo. 

BALNEAL',  ad,  -n      These,  with  6«ii  and 

BAt'KEARY,  n.  s.   tbagnioj  are  derived  from 

Balm'eation,        £the  Lat.  halntum,  which 

Baln ^ATORY,  ad.  )  signifies  a  bath.  To  wet, 
to  wash,  to  bathe. 

Others  attribute  this  haUtal  beat  to  the  sun,  whose 
all-scorchxng  beames  penetrating  the  pores  of  the 
earth,  do  heat  the  waters.  JSToweU'f  Lsitert, 

The  ftolneartef  and  bathing-plaees  he  exposeth  UDto 
the  summer  setting.  BrownU  Vtdgar  Erroun. 

As  the  head  may  be  disturbed  by  the  skin,  it  may 
the  same  way  be  relieved,  as'is  observahle  in  baimea- 
tkmt,  and  fomentations  of  that  part.  Id, 

BALNEARIl  Sbrvi,  in  antiquity,  servants 
4>r  attendants  belonging  to  the  baths.  Some  weie 
appointed  to  heat  them,  called  fbmicatores; 
others  were  denominated  capsarii,  who  kept  the 
clothes  of  those  that  went  into  them;  others 
alipta,  whose  care  it  was  to  pnll  off  the  hair ; 
tthersunctuarii,  who  anointed  and  perfiuned  ^e 
todv. 

BALNEARIUS  Fub,  or  Balnearium  Fur, 
in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  thief  who  practised  steal- 
ing the  clothes  of  persons  in  the  baths.  This 
Crime  was  reckoned  a  kind  of  sacrilege ;  for  the 
tot  baths  were  sacned;  hence  they  were  more 
severely  punished  than  common  thieves,  who 
li'ole  <^ut  of  private  houses.  The  latter  were  ac- 
quitted with  paying  double  the  value  of  the  thing 
Vol.  Ill 


stolen;  whereas  the  former  were  punished  with 
death. 

BALNEGLERA,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Armagh. 

BALNE'UM,  n.  a  vessel  used  in  chemistry. 

Balnbum,  a  term  used  liy  chemists  to  sig- 
nify a  vessel  filled  with  some  maiter,  as  sand, 
water,  or  the  like,  in  which  another  is  placed 
that  requires  a  more  gentle  heat  than  the  naked 
fire.    See  Chemistry,  Index. 

Balneum  Arevosum,  a  sand  bath. 

Balneum  Foenz,  a  hay  bath,  is  when  a  body 
IS  laid  to  digest  in  moist  hay,  whose  heat  is  like- 
wise directed  by  the  application  of  water. 

Balneum  Maria  is  by  some  so  called,  as 
being  supposed  to  have  been  first  invented  by 
the  blessed  Virgin;  but' by  others,  with  more 
propriety,  it  is  called 

Balneum  Maris,  or  sea  bath,  in  reg&rd  tlie 
vessel  here  floats  as  it  were  in  a  sea.  Here  the 
cucurbit  is  pUced  in  hot  water,  which  warms  the 
matter  contained,  and  disperses  it  for  exhalation. 

Balneum  Minerals,  or  mineral  bath,  is 
used  by  some  chemists  for  aqua  regia. 

Balneum  Rorxs,  or  Roritum,  is  a  fiimace 
where  the  cucurbit,  or  distilling  vessel,  is  only 
suspended  over  the  vapor  of  water,  and  not  in 
contact  with  the  water  itself. 

Balneum  Siccum,  or  Arenosum,  a  dry  or 
sand  heat 

Balneum  Vaporarium,  or  the  vapor  bath; 
the  same  with  Balneum  roris. 

BALOLY,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Dowlatabad,  thirty-five  miles  E.N.  E.  of 
Ottdighir. 

BALONGO,  three  islands  in  the  bay  of  Ben* 
gal,  near  the  coast  of  Arracan.  Long.  93^  to  93o 
%(/  E.,  lat.  19^  SC  to  20*  5'  N. 

BAIX)NICH,  in  the  ancient  materia  medica, 
a  name  given  by  Avicena,  Averrhoes,  and  others, 
to  a  kind  §f  camphor,  which  they  describe  as 
coarse,  brown,  and  of  less  value  than  the  odier 
sorts.  This  is  probably  the  same  with  our  rough 
camphor,  as  brought  over  to  us  from  the  Euf. 
Indies. 

BALOOCHISTAN,  Balochasthan,  or,  ac- 
cording to  some,  Belujistan,  a  large  province 
west  of  the  Indus,  bounded  on  the  nordi  by 
Seistan  in  Persia  and  Candahar,  on  the  south  by 
the  sea,  on  the  «ast  by  the  province  of  Sinde  and 
Shekarpoor,  and  on  the  west  by  Mekran  in 
Persia.  It  comprehends  all  that  space  of  terri- 
tory lying  between  the  ^S^  and  30°  of  north  la- 
titude, and  the  62°  and  69°  of  east  longitude. 
The  political  limits  are,  however,  difficult  to  de- 
fine with  accuracy,  from  the  perpetual  fluctua- 
tions to  which  they  are  subject  The  province  is 
extremely  mountainous,  peopled  by  warlike  semi- 
barbarous  tribes,  and  was  scarcely  known  to 
Europeans  till  the  years  1809  and  1810,  when  it 
was  visited  by  Mr.  Pottinger  and  a  few  other 
officers  in  the  East  India  Company's  service.  At 
that  time  the  whole  country  of  Baloochistan  was 
divided  into  the  followinff  provinces :— 1  Those 
of  Jli^aw&n  and  Slur^&n,  and  districts  of 
KelHt.  2.  Macran  and  Les.  8.  Kohistan,  the 
mountainous  region  west  of  the  desert.  4.  The 
desert.  5.  Cach  Gand&vah  and  the  district  of 
Herrend  Dfi^el.    6.  The  province  of  Sindli. 

2  F 


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The  principal  provinees  at  pi^Mnl  are  Jala- 
xTza,  Saiawan,  Zukree,  Mekran,  Lus  and  Mutch, 
although  this  includes  territories  not  properly 
subject  to  Mahmood  Khan,  the  jpresent  Ameer  of 
KeliLt,  the  capital. 

To  the  south  Baloochistan  Proper  commences 
at  Kohinee,  twenty-fi^e  miles  N.  £.  from  Bayla, 
in  lat.  26''  35'  N.,  and  extends  to  Noo^ky, 
seventv-nine  miles  N.  W.  from  Kelatj  in  lat  30^ 
N.  The  country  is  described  generally  as  a  con- 
fused heap  of  mountains,  through  which  the 
roads  lead  for  the  most  part  in  water-counes, 
and  the  beds  of  small  rivers. 

Tlie  principal  mountainous  range,  called  by 
Mr.  Pottinger  Brah^ic,  from'  the  BrahCits  who  in- 
babit  it,  rises  abruptly  out  of  the  sea  to  a 
considerable  height  at  cape  Mow&rl,  the  Monze 
of  the  Maps,  in  lat.  25^  N^  and  long.  66®  SS'  £. 
whence  it  runs  in  a  north-east  direction,  after- 
wards to  the  north,  and  at  last  resuming  it^  ori- 
ginal course  sinks  into  moderate  hills  and  unites 
with  the  lowest  ridges  of  the  chain  that  traverses 
Afghlmistkn.  Anciently  this  chain  formed  the 
ieparating  boundary  between  Persia  and  India. 
Near  the  Indian  Ocean  it  is  not  more  than  thirty 
miles  in  breadth;  but  about  the  same  distance 
from  the  shore  it  breaks  into  a  variety  of  branches, 
and  stretches  over  the  whole  country,  west  and 
north,  in  which  direction  it  unites  itself  with  the 
Persian  ranges,  ending  abruptly  in  the  sea,  or 
sinking  in  &e  sandy  region  which  divides  the 
^  cultivable  territory  from  the  ocean.  The  general 
'  inclination  of  the  boldest  ridges  is  from  the 
north-east  to  the  south-west,  whence  it  becomes 
highly  probable  that  the  Brahiiic  range  is  a  pni<- 
longation  of  the  Hindii  Cush,  the  Emodus  of  the 
tticients,  in  which  the  HezSrah  range  or  Paroj^a- 
misus,  extending  as  far  as  the  Caspian,  has  Itk 
origin.  With  Uiis  latter  chain  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  the  Brah(uc  mountains*  extending 
north  beyond  Ibe  main  body  of  Iflghlands,  is 
thought  to  be  united ;  a  branch  which  lying  be- 
tween Seis(ftn  and  Kirm&n  forms  the  eastfem 
boundary  of  the  Persian  empire.  Another  di- 
vision of  this  range  extends  from  their  south- 
western angle,  and,  running  nearly  parallel  with 
the  main  heights  in  that  direction^  forms  at  last 
a  junction  with  the  mountains  of  L&ristan,  in 
Persia,  and  sends  but  many  collatertd  ramifica- 
liona  terminating  in  iieadlahds  on  the  coast  of 
Macrim.  In  the  western  *parta  of  that  province 
the  mountains  reccfil  on  the  principal  body,  and 
Ibftn  a  complete  mass  of  mountains,  irregularly 
crowded,  which  the  natives  denominate  Kohistkn, 
or  ^he  highlands.  The  length  of  this  range  is 
stated  at  350  miled,  and  the  breadth  of  the 
loftiest  ridge  at  nearly  200.  The  town  of  Kelftt 
stands  upon  the  highest  level;  the  extraordinary 
elevation  of  which  is  supposed  to  exceed  by  one- 
'  eighth  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Pyrenees ;  a  fibct 
which  is  confirmed  by  the  severity  of  its  winters, 
and  by  the  great  height  of  the  bold  defiles  beiid- 
ing  down  to  the  northern  desert. 

In  this  mountainous  country,  filled  probably 
with  primitive  rocks,  the  soil  is  generally  barren; 
but  in  the  upper  provinces  rich  min  crops  are 
gathered  in  from  fields  which  to  ue  sight  exhibit 
scarcely  any  thing  but  pebbles.  The  lowlands 
ol  Caeh  Gand&vah,  tooMd  by  the  alluvions  of 


die  Indus,  are  extrmely  fertile,  prOdodsgMh, 
cottob,  indigo,  and  oil.  The  vallevs  of  Wudd, 
Khozdar,  and  Sohrab,  are  capable  ot  cultivation. 
The  precious  metals,  togetner  with  lead,  irpn, 
copper,  tin,  and  antimony,  abound  in  many 
parts  of  the  country ;  as  also  rock-salt,  nitre,  axu 
several  medicinal  minerals  of  great  vahie. 

The  whole  of  this  region,  though  mountainous, 
is  remarkably  destitute  of  water.  It  has  not  a 
single  river  that  is  navigable ;  boton  the  northern 
side  the  hills  are  a  few  brooks  and  mountain  U>r- 
renCs ;  but  these,  with  the  exception  of  the  Budar, 
are  frequently  dried  up  bv  the  intense  avidity  of 
thte  lowland  climate.  The  stream,  known  by 
different  names  in  different  parts  of  its  coone, 
as  Budar,  Mulidani,  Blia^ar,  Desti,  hx^  is 
supposed  to  have  been  formerly  much  la^r  and 
more  imporiant  than  at  present ;  its  source  is  in 
the  distnct  of  Gannsail,  neak*  the  banks  of  the 
Helmind,  or  Hindmind;  but  has  never  been 
traced  by  Europeans  beyond  the  parallel  of  29^ 
fh>m  ^  ocean.  At  the  distance  of  a  bundred 
yards  from  tlie  beach  it  is  not  more  than  twenty 
mches  deep ;  more  remote  from  the  shore,  how- 
ever, its  maignitude  increases ;  and  in  the  district 
of  Penj-gfir  it  has  a  copious  and  perpetual  stream. 

The  climate,  and  consequently  the  seasons, 
are  very  different  in  different  parts  of  the  conn- 
tiT.  In  tlie  loftiest  regions  they  resemble  those 
of  the  southern  and  middle  .parts  of  Enrope, 
whilst,  in  the  maritime  provinces  and  desert^ 
they  approximate  to  that  of  the  tropics,  and  are 
subject  onlv  to  three  changes,  introducing  the 
hot,  the  cold,  and  the  rainy  periods.  In  J  'hU&w^ 
and  Sarfiw^  the  spring  commences  towards  die 
end  of  February;  the  summer  at  the  beginning 
of  May;  the  autumn  succeeds  and  continues 
through  August  and  September,  afker  which  k 
severe  winter  concludes  the  year.  The  rains  in 
the  level  sands  of  Macr&n  continue  through 
February  and  Maroh,  and  afterwards  return  in 
June  and  July,  the  latter  being  occasioned  by  a 
south-west  monsoon.  The  hot  season  lasts  from 
March  till  October,  including  the  second  rains, 
after  which  the  cold  succeeds  and  continnes  from 
November  till  February.  I'he  aridity  and  drought 
in  Macr&n  are  so  extreme  in  the  summer  as  to 
render  the  country  scarcely  habitable.  Kohist^ 
has  a  climate  of  medium  temperature ;  and  Cack 
Gand&vah,  where  the  heat  is  so  intolerable  in  the 
Slimmer,  has  scarcely  any  winter  at  all. 

So  great  a  variety  of  climate  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a  great  variety  of  vegetation ;  and  after 
Nadir  Shah,  in  1739,  granted  the  whole  of  this 
territoiy  to  Nasir  Khain,  that  prince  endeavoured 
to  inspire  his  subjects  with  the  love  of  hgricul- 
ture,  and  gardening.  With  this  view,  he  ndt 
only  introduced  various  fruits  from  Cabul, 
but  almost  all  the  productions  of  temperate  and 
tropical  climes,  nuUierotis  kinds  of  whidi  aite 
still  to  be  found  in  some  part  or  other  of  these 
dominions.  All  the  different  kinds  of  European 
grain,  madder,  cotton,  indigo,  esculent  vege- 
tables, &c.  are  produced  in  pea  abundance; 
wheat  is  sown  in  August  and  reaped  the  follow- 
ing June;  barley  is  sown  in  September,  and 
reaped  in  May.  Madder,  after  lying  in  die 
ground  three  years,  is  brought  to  great  perice- 
tion.    U^pnsht,  or  cimeV&grass,  a  hupge  species 


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of  clover  (peihaos  lucern)y  produce!  Uro  ciopt 
m  a  month,  and  lasts  for  six  or  settD  years.  Toe 
provinces  of  Maciftn  and  Les,  <>r  lio,  yield  a 
crop  of  grass  in  each  of  the  rain  MOiofis.  The 
palms  throughout  the  whole  r^  .<ion  give  a  large 
quantity  of  dates,  and,  the  itipregnation  of  the 
female  blossoms  being  carefully  attended  to,  the 
varieties  are  almost  innumerable.  Rice  is  also 
plentiful,  and  forms  a  great  part  of  the  food  of 
the  inhabitants ;  bi>«ides  which,  they  have  bajri 
(holcus  spicattts);  jowart,  (holcns  rosghum); 
mung,  (phaseoius  mungo);  mayi,  dal,  urad,  and 
matar,  (leguminous  vegetables);  channiiy  (cicer 
arietmum);  and  til,  (sesamum).  Among  the 
timber  trees  of  Baloocbistan  may  be  enume- 
rated, the  B&bal,  (mimosa  fieimesiana) ;  lai,  (ta- 
marix);  mulberry,  nim,  (melia  azad  lirachta); 
pipal,  (ficus  religiosa);  sisi^,  (dalbergia  sissoo); 
chinar,  (oriental  plane);  mango,  walnut,  and 
sycamore.  The  common  European  forest  trees 
are  wanting.  The  apOrs,  a  species  of  the  zizy- 
phus,  resembles  the  jujube,  and  tamarind.  The 
wood  of  the  former  has  much  the  appearance  ot 
teak,  and  both  are  remarkably  hard  and  durable 

The  birds  and  animals  are  of  numerous  species, 
from  the  great  diversity  of  climate.  Most  of  our 
domestic  fowls  are  common,  with  the  exception 
4>f  ducks,  geese,  and  turkies.  The  magpye,  a 
bird  unknown  in  India,  is  not  uncommon  about 
Kellit.  Flamingoes  and  Horicans  (otis  houb&ra) 
are  found  in  the  lower  districts.  Poisonous  rep- 
tiles are  lest  frequent  than  in  India.  Fresh- 
water fish  are  exceedingly  scarce.  The  horse's 
of  Baloocbistan  are  strong,  but  very  vicious ; 
their  sheep  are  broad  tailed,  of  the  description 
of  the  Persian  dunbah.  Camels  and  dromeda- 
ries are  the  most  common  beasts  of  burthen,  the 
latter  of  which,  with  only  on^  hump  on  it«  back, 
is  remarkable  for  its  strengtii,  swiftness,  and 
power  of  abstinence.  Wild  and  very  fierce  dogs 
are  found  in  the  woods :  and  the  breed  of  those 
that  are  tame,  especiallv  the  shepherd's  dog  and 
the  greyhoiAd,  is  an  object  of  particular  atten- 
tion. 

The  inhabitants  have  been  divided  into  four 
classes : — 1.  The  Baloochees ;  2.  fbe  Brahooees ; 
3.  the  Debwkfs ;  4.  the  Hindoos.  The  two  first 
4)f  tliese,  speaking  different  languages,  are  evi- 
dently distmct  races,  formim^  together  the  ma- 
jority of  the  inhabitanu.  Mr.  Pottinger  thinks  the 
upper  and  inhospitable  regions  of  Jli&lawto  and 
Sar&w&n  were  first  peopled  by  the  Hindoos,  who, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eighth  century,  fled  from 
the  victorious  armies  of  Mahmdd  Sabuctagin  and 
his  soA  MasCidd.  The  two  principid  tribes  above- 
named  are  divided  into  many  different  kheils,  or 
tomuus,  but  dieir  actual  iiumber  has  never  been 
a;9certained. 

fi.  The  Balooches,  cal\edi  Nharree,  or  Ruk- 
shani,  inhabit  that  part  of  the  country  lying  west 
of  the  desert,  and  are  a  tribe  containing  1000 
fighting  men ;  by  whom  the  judgalls  or  culti- 
vators have  been  nearly  exterminated  out  of 
Northern  Mekran.  Mr.  Pottinger  thinks  they 
are  descendants  of  the  Turcuraan  soldiers,  who 
served  in  the  armies  tif  the  Seljdk  dynasties,  and 
were  dispersed  when  those  dynasties  were  over- 
turned ;  on  which  supposition,  the  first  establisb- 
ibenlof  Ae  Balooches  in  the  mountainous  regions 


east  <^  Persia,  must  be  rcterred  to  toe  fifth 
cestory  of  the  Hegindi,  answering  to  the  eleventh 
of  the  Christian  era,  when  they  begin  to  be 
named  by  ^e  Asiatic  historians.  But  die  Lord's 
prayer  in  their  language,  published  by  the  baptist 
missionaries  at  Seriimpor,  affords  us  evidence  of 
its  having  been  derived  fiiom  a  Tartarian  dialect ; 
also,  we  may  observe,  that  the  Bel^hiki,  or 
Bel^di,  commonly  spoken,  is  evidently  a  cor- 
rupt dialect  of  the  Persian,  approaching  to  that 
of  the  Curds,  on  the  western  side  of  Persia,  at 
the  BiahOiki,  or  Br&hd,  does  to  the  Hinduw^ 
spoken  in  the  Penj-4b. 

Whatever  be  their  origin  they  are  found  in  thff 
greatest  numbers  in  the  northern  and  eastern 
provinces,  and  are  divided  into  three  leading 
tribes, — the  Nhin'iis,  Rinds,  and  Magbsis,  <J 
which  the  first  and  last  are  most  important ;  the 
fonner  on  the  western  side  of  Baloocbistan ;  the 
latter  on  the  low  lands  of  Cuch  Gundkva,  at  tha 
eastern  foot  of  the  mountains.  These  tribes  art 
again  subdivided,  and  those  of  Rind  and  Miv- 
gree^  who  formerly  emigrated  from  Mekran,  and 
live  in  villages,  retain  the  appellation  of  Too* 
mun^, 

The  Balooches  are  gederally  tall  and  hand- 
some, but  not  athletic;  patient,  and  full  of 
courage.  They  delight  in  predatory  excuraion^ ' 
called  chapaus,  greatly  resembling  the  forays  el 
our  northern  holders  m  the  sixteenth  century. 
On  these  occasions  ^ev  are  mounted  on  drome- 
daries, provided  with  dates,  bread,  sour  cheese, 
and  water,  and  march  without  halting  to  the 
pkice  they  mean  to  attack;  here  they  conceal 
themselves  in  a  wood  till  night,  and  when  the 
inhabitants  are  asleep,  hasten  forwards,  bumin^^ 
destroying,  and  carrying  off  whatever  comes  m 
their  way.  These  diversions  occasion  frequent 
warfare ;  but  hospil^ty  is  nevertheless  genera}, 
and  pilfering  despised.  Their  domestic  habits 
are  pastoral,  and  Uieir  subjection  to  the  chie£i 
voluntary.  They  reside  in  tentt,  or  ghedlms  of 
black  folt,  or  coarse  blanket,  stretched  over  n 
frame  of  wicker-work,  formed  of  twigi  of  the  gai, 
or  tamarisk ;  an  assemblage  of  whidh  light  habi- 
tations forms  a  tliman  or  village,  and  its  inhaVn 
tants  a  kheU  or  family.  The  men  art  indolent, 
and  great  loven  of  opram,  though  not  aecuttoved 
to  any  other  species  of  intoxication.  They  w» 
less  jealous  of  their  wives  than  Muisulmans  ge- 
nerally ;  of  which,  though  their  religion  allows 
a  plurality,  they  comRionly  have  only  one.  Their 
regard  to  the  sanctity  Of  marriage  it  txemplary, 
and  many  of  their  customt  appear  to  otiai^ 
note  in  the  law  of  Mos^.  A  widow  must  be 
married  by  her  husband's  next  brother }  adulteiy 
is  punishable  by  the  death  of  both  parties ;  iw- 
confinence  before  marriage  authorises  divorce 
afterwards, -fh^  sang  or  premise  of  marriage  is 
inviolable ;  and  a  betrothed  virgin  is  eottti&ied 
as  having  nearly  the  tamt  ri^rtt  at  a  uairied 
Woman. 

Their  clothing  consists  of  a  long  thirt,  afad 
trowsers  of  blue  and  white  calioo,  together  wi& 
a  quilted  cap,  round  which,  when  they  are  in 
full  dress,  a  shawl  is  twitted ;  in  winter  thick 
warm  surtottts  are  worn  by  all  classes.  The 
women  when  young  tress  their  hair,  and  twist^  it 
round  their  heads,  foimiAg  th^  ends  itite  a  kaat 

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on  the  crown,  so  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  olT  the  women,  who  eometimes  asiist  in  out-door 

a  cap.    Their  dress  in  other  respects  resembles  work,  and  are  seldom  secluded  from  the  society 

that  of  the  men,  but  exposes  the  bosom  as  much  of  the  men.    The  common  'dress  used   in  this 

as  the  tunic  worn  by  the  females  of  Persia,  part  of  the  province  4s  an  under  coat,  which  fits 

When  out  of  doors  they  are  completely  veiled.  close  to  the  body  and  is  worn  over  die  pyrahun 

The  soldiere,  although  awkwardly  accoutred,  or  shirt:  dieir  trowsers  are  gathered  up  at  the 

are  excellent  marksmen ;  to  kill  a  lark  or  spar-  ankle,  and  a  small  round  flat-topped  cap  of  felt 

TOW  with  a  single  ball  at  the  distance  of  fifty  or  silk  is  the  only  covering  of  the  head.   The  shep- 

sixty  yards  is  not  considered  by  diem  as  any  herds  wear  a  white  felt  garment  above  die  shirt 

proof  of  dexterity ;  and  the  n^zah-b&zi,  or  spear  in  winter,  with  cloth  browsers  and  a  felt  cap. 

play,  their  fovorite  diversion,  evinces  not  only  The  females  wear  a  kind  of  stays  which  lace  be- 

considerable  skill,  but  superior  muscular  strength,  hind,  and  give  them  an  appearance  similar  to 

It  consists  in  the  rider  piercing  a  wooden  stake,  that  of  the  peasants  in  Switzerland.    It  has  also 

driven  into  the  grouna,  with  the  point  of  his  been  observed  that  with  the  exception  of  the 

spear  while  his  horse  is  at  full  speed;  and  re-  shepherds,  the  Brahooees  never  increase  their 

guires  the  most  critical  management  of  both  clothing  in  the  severest  weather.    The  common 

orse  and  spear  at  the  same  instant  of  time.    On  language  is  die  Kooigalee. 

the  whole,  die  similarity  between  the  manners  3.  The  DehwJirs,  or  Dehkins,  i.  e.  villajrers, 

of  thisj)eople  and  Uiose  of  the  Curds  and  wan-  are  exclusivel>  employed  in  agriculture,  and  hold 

dering  Turcum&ns,  die  Yatiik  of  die  Turks,  found  their  lands  by  a  sort  of  feudal  tenure,  being  bowid 

in  every  part  of  Anatolia,  render  the  above  con-  to  provide  die  khan*s  guests  widi  water,  fuel, 

jecture  as  to  their  origin  highlv  probable.  provender,  &c. ;  to  attend  him  in  bis  bunting 

2.  The  Brahooees,  or  Brinu/s,  are  a  strong  excursions,  and  to  supply  him  with  couriers 

hardy  race  of  men,  with  uncommoidy  short  and  when  required,  in  oonsiaeration  of  which  they 

thick  bones.    Their  cast  of  countenance  is  dif-  arc  exempted  from  all  military  duties.;  they  are 

ferent  from  die  Balooches  and  Asiatics,  generally  tacit,  harmless,  and  submissive  to  die    odier 

exhibiting  a  roundness  of  fdice,  and  bluntness  of  tribes.     They  differ  considerably  from  all  the 

features,  somewhat  resembling  Europeans.  They  odier  inhabitants  of  die  province,  being  uncomely 

are  divided  into  separate  trilii,  die  principal  of  in  appearance,  low  in  stature,  coarse  in  features, 

which  are  the  following :  with  nigh  cheek  bones,  but  possessing  a  more 

Sffen  ^^^»  9^  humored  and  honest  expression  of 

The  Kumburanee,  or  die  tribe  of  the  chief          *  countenance.  They  never  nugrate,  and  ih^lj^ 

Mahmood  KhaL,  estimated  at  .    .    .    1,000  pjage  «  pure  Persian.    Mr.  Pottinger  from  dus 

The  tribe  of  Mengil  .    .....    .12,000  latter  circumstence  concluded  dutdiey  sprang 

Zukree                  •                                    6  000  '^"^  ^*  Gebrs,  or  followers  of  Zoroaster,  who 

Panduiani   ''*'*'''''    ^'qqq  fled  before  the  victorious  arms  of  the  Mussul- 

jjjjjgj-i         6*000  ™*'^  ^ut,  aj^iinst  this  opinion,  their  dispersion 

Imaum  Hosieing  !    .'    .'    !    !    !    !    '.    4!ooo  through  othei  parts  of  Asa,  diw  corresDondcnce 

^^e                  ...,..••    %^  ^ith  die  t^jies  of  Afghanistfin,  together  widi 

•^    '^       '  their  xealotts  observance  of  the  Sunnah,  power- 

They  are  hard-working  people,  of  voracious  fully  militate, 
appetites,  devouring  their  animal  food  almost  4.  The  Hindoos  are  few  in  number  and  carry 
raw.  When  they  cure  their  meat«  it  is  effected  on  the  miserable  traffic  of  the  country,  acting  as 
by  drying  it  in  the  sun,  and  smoking  it  over  a  money-changers  and  agents  to  the  native  chiefs, 
fire ;  after  which  it  .will  keep  for  several  months,.  Many  of  them  are  not  so  indigenous  as  they  have 
and  in  flavor  very  much  resembles  rein-deer's  been  generally  represented,  but  are  merchants 
tongue.  The  people  generally  are  less  ferocious  from  Multan.  The  Hindoos  are  supposed  to 
than  their  neighbours,  for  which  reason  the  have  been  the  first  setders  in  these  mountains, 
foireniment  of  their  chiefs  asssumes  a  more  des-  and  were  long  tolerated  by  their  Mussulman  con- 
poidc  character.  They  are  disinterested,  placa-  querors,  who,  according  to  cunent  traditions, 
ble,  and  humane  ;  the  very  reverse  ot  the  were  first  admitted  into  &eir  impregnable  retreats 
Baloochees,  and  the  uncouthness  of  their  manners  as  traders,  where  being  indulged  with  too  much 
is  to  be  attributed  solely  to  their  want  of  civi-  lenience,  they  finally  subvertMi  the  government, 
lisation.  All  the  Baloochees  are  excellent  work-  Numerous  Hindoo  occupiers,  however,  still  re- 
men,  but  none  are  equal  to  die  Brahooees  in  mained  in  the  country,  till  within  the  last  two 
strength  and  courage.'  Broad  sword  exercise,  centuries,  when  the  barbaritv  of  the  Mahomme- 
and  shooting  at  a  mark,  are  their  common  diver-  dan  tribes  increased  to  such  a  degree  that  do 
tions ;  in  both  of  which  thev  are  said  to  excel,  medium  could  be  observed,  and  the  native  Hin- 
Their  breed  of  shepherds'  dogs  is  excellent;  dops,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  merchants,  nn- 
greyhounds  are  also  trained  auKMigst  them  with  derwent  compulsoi^  conversion,  or  fled  die 
great  care,  and  a  single  one  is  firequendy  ex-  country.  The  remaining  few  have  however  oon- 
changed  for  two  cameb,  or  sold  for  400  rupees,  siderably  degenerated  fnm  the  laws  of  the  Sh4s- 
Their  breed  of  horses  is  largt  and  hardy,  equally  ter ;  chey  eat  animal  food,  use  leadiem  bags,  and 
accustomed  to  the  heat  of  Gund&va  and  the  cold  *  in  many  other  respects  violate  their  religious 
of  Kelftt,  but  they  are  often  vicious.  tenets,  and  perhaps  it  is  this  partial  conformity 

The  Brahooees,  in  religion,  are  strict  observers  which  constitutes  the  true  principle  of  their  ti^e- 

of  the  Sunnah,or  die  traditional  lawof  theMussul-  ration. 

mans,  in  which  respect  diey  approach  nearer  to  the  Of  die  divisitms  of  Baloochistan  generally. 

Talks  diaa  the  Persians.    They  are  not  jealous  Jh4Uw4n  and  Siriwin,  widi  die  intennediaM 


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dittricty  «itendtiig  to  die  north  and  north-cist, 
and  boanded  by  that  part  of  the  BrahOic  moun- 
tains which  is  beyond  the  twenty-sixth  degree  of 
north  latitnde,  come  fint  under  our  considera^ 
tion.  Jb&Uw&n  is  the  most  southerly,  contain- 
infi:  six  t'hacs  or  districts,  each  governed  by  a 
different  chief.  Zehri,  the  largest  town,  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  mud  wall,  and  contains  3000 
houses.  There  are  no  streams  in  the  whole  pro- 
vince more  than  ten  inches  deep  in  the  dry  sea- 
son, and  water  can  be  obtained  only  by  digging 
in  the  beds  of  torrents.  Kelfitt  properly  belongs 
to  S&r4wto,  bnt  the  usurpations  of  the  ihkn  have 
rendered  it  nearly  a  distin9t  province.  To  the 
north  of  it,  bounded  by  the  Afji^h&n  hills  and  the 
desert  east  of  Kandahir,  lies  S&riw&n,  divided 
into  inferior  districts,  and  occupied  by  migra- 
tory tribes  of  the  BikhCiics.  The  piovince  is 
mountainous,  not  possessing  a  single  level  of 
more  than  a  few  miles  ui  circumference,  except 
a  naked  plain  qf  about  thirty  miles  in  exfent, 
called  the  Defthti-b^aulat,  or  Pennyless  Desert, 
forming  a  remarkable  gap  in  the  northern  front 
of  the  great  chain.  The  southern  province  is 
fertile,  having  frequent  rains,  but  the  least  popu- 
lous ;  Kelftt  is  considered  the  capital  of  Baloo- 
chistan  generally. 

Nooshky  is  a  small  tract  of  about  thirty-six 
square  miles,  lying  at  the  base  of  the  Kelat 
mountains.  It  is  an  arid  tract,  the  sand  hills  of 
which  shift  with  the  winds-  A  few  patches  of 
cultivable  land  are  nevertheless  met  with  occa- 
sionally ;  and  a  small  stream,  called  the  Xysur, 
issuing  from  the  hills^  irrigates  the  portion  of 
country  immediately  contiguous.  The  inhabi- 
tants dwell  under  black  felts  stretched  over  a 
frame  of  wickerwork  made  of  the  guz  plant,  by 
which  they  are  sheltered  from  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  The  soil  being  sandy,  the  heat  is  excessive 
in  the  summer ;  the  stream  fiiils  in  the  valley, 
and  the  inhabitants  migrate  to  the  mountains  for 
cool  air  and  water. 

The  fine  valley  of  Sohrab  extends  north  and 
south  about  fifty  miles  in  length  by  twelve  in 
breadth.  The  water  firom  the  hills  tuns  through 
.its  centre,  and  around  it  are  scattered  a  few  vil- 
lages. 

The  two  provinces  of  Les  and  Macrfut  are  in- 
cluded between  the  higher  ridges  of  the  Brahfiic 
chain  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  are  varied  by 
intersections  of  such  branches  of  these  hills  as 
diverge  towards  the  sea.  On  the  north  lie  the 
regions  of  Jliai&w&n,  S&HKw&n,and  Kelftt,  toge- 
ther with  Kehistan  and  the  desert;  smd  on  die 
west  the  Persian  litrist&B.  Lus  or  Les,  signifying 
in  the  Jedg^i  language  a  valley  or  plain,  pre- 
sents a  perfectly  level  surface  for  about  ninety 
miles  by  fifty,  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  lofty 
mountains  passable  by  only  five  lekhs,  or  defiles, 
two  in  the  eastern  and  western,  and  one  in  the 
northern  branch  of  this  great  chain.  This  is  a 
fertile  province,  watered  by  two  small  rivers, 
Habb  and  Puridi  (the  Arabis  of  the  ancients), 
Md  together  with  Macxin  formed  a  part  of  the 
Persian  empire.  The  sovereignty  is  at  present 
held  on  m  feudal  tenure  under  the  khan  oi^Kelat. 

B€ik,  the  capital,  stands  on  a  rocky  eminence 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Pur&li.  Many  of 
the  mhabxtanii  are  merchants  from  Multan  and 


Shidurpdr,  west  of  the  Indus,  and  their  immuni- 
ties are  considerable. 

The  population  of  Lus  is  about  26,000,  who 
are  of  me  same  tribe,  though'  distinguished  by 
the  different  names  of  Jedgil,  Jok'hya,  J^t'h, 
and  Numri.  They  are  an  indolent  and  curious 
people ;  the  men  athletic  and  middle-sized,  tlie 
women  plain,  and  dirty.  Their  manners,  appear- 
ance, and  language,  prove  that  they  must  .have 
been  derived  originally  from  Hindostan;  and 
the  latter  called  Jedgali  or  J^t*hgfili  has  a  close 
affinity  with  that  of  Sind'h.  They  are  food  of 
intoxicating  drugs,  and  nearly  one  third  part  of 
them  are  migratory. 

Of  Makran  there  are  fourteen  districts,  several 
of  which  are  uninhabited.  Water  is  extremely 
scarce  throughout  the  whole  territory,  a  great 
part  of  which  consists  of  barren  mountains  with 
nere  and  there  a  fertile  valley,  or  an  island  of 
palms  emerging  from  the  waste,  similar  to  those 
found  in  the  vast  deserts  of  Africa.  Many  of  the 
streams  of  this  region,  now  trifling  brooks,  were 
formerly  navigable.  In  one  of  these,  namely, 
Ag'hon  Nad),  is  a  celebrated  well  called  Anil^ 
Cund,  or  Fathomless  Abyss,  the  depth  of  which 
is  not  known.  The  Hindoos  attribute  the  dig- 
ging of  it  to  C41i,  whose  shrine  at  Hinglatz  or 
Hing-14j,  just  above  it,  is  the  resort  of  numerous 
pilgrims.  The  river  Dest  waters  the  district  of 
k«dge,  or  Kej,  which  receives  its  name  from  the 
capital  of  the  province.  This  ancient  town  car- 
rimi  on  formerly  a  considerable  trade  with  Kaa- 
dahdr  and  the  north  of  India,  but  has  gone  to 
decay  since  its  governors  threw  off  their  alle- 
giance to  the  kli4n  of  Kelftt  It  has  many  -ad- 
vantages of  site,  and  covers  three  sides  of  the  base 
of  a  UIl,  on  the  summit  of  which  is  a  castle 
deemed  impregnable. 

Kohistan  is  surrounded  on  the  east,  north,  and 
west,  by  sandy  deserts,  with  the  exception  of  a 
narrow  range  of  hills  which  connect  it  on  the 
north-west  with  the  Paropainisus  of  the  ancients, 
and  on  the  south  it  is  bounded  by  the  BrlthOIc 
chain,  of  which  it  forms  one  of  the  extremities. 
It  is  divided  into  two  districts,  the  Maid4ni  or 
plain,  and  the  Chopaki  or  hilly  country.  Water 
IS  extremely  scarce  and  the  population  scanty, 
-consisting  chiefly  of  Belfiches.  It  abounds  with 
salt  and  chalybeate  springs,  with  numerous  mi- 
neral productions,  and  its  hills  occasionally  be- 
tray a  volcanic  origin. 

The  desert,  300  miles  long  and  200  broad, 
is  traversed  by  the  Helmind  or  Hermend,  the 
natural  boundary  of  Baloochistan,  and  separated 
on  the  westt  by  a  narrow  range  of  hills  from  the 
deserts  of  Kirm&n.  Its  utmost  extent  includiag 
the  latter  is  about  600  miles  diagonally  from  east 
to  west,  and  500  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  moun- 
tains of  Afghanistan. 

This  vast  ocean  of  sand  is  composed  of  par- 
ticles so  light  that  when  taken  up  into  the  hand 
they  are  little  more  than  palpaole,  and  when 
agitated  by  the  winds  are  thrown  into  an  irre- 
gular mass  of  waves  running  east  and  west. 
Most  of  these  banks  rise  perpendicularly  from 
ten  to  twenty  feet  on  the  leevrard  side ;  and,  from 
the  redness  of  their  appearance,  might  be  taken 
for  bnck  walls,  whilst  the  windward  side  slopes 


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off  with  a  gradual  decUrity  to  the  base  of  the 
next  bank  or  waye.  The  camels  are  with  diffi- 
culty driven  up  the  perpendicular  or  leeward 
sides  of  these  sandy  hills ;  but  on  the  shelving 
sides  they  ascend  with  laborious  perseverance, 
and,  having  reached  the  summit  of  a  wave,  drop 
most  expertly  on  their  knees  and  slide  down  with 
the  sand  to  the  bottom  of  the  next  hollow. 
These  mountains  of  Sand  are  observed  to  be 
succeeded  by  hard  black  gravel,  without  the  least 
appearance  of  vegetation,  and  bare  stony  hilis 
lying  at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  are  the  first 
ascent  towards  higher  and  less  barren  regions. 
Throughout  th^  whole  desert  the  sands  are  ex- 
tremely hot,  and  the  fine  particles,  ntised  by  the 
wind,  getting  into  the  eyes,  nostrils,  and  mouth 
of  the  traveller,  cause  an  extreme  degree  of 
painful  irritation  and  thirst. 
.  Hie  Regency  of  Sind'h  and  also  Cach  Gan- 
d&vah,  east  of  the  BrahCiic  chain  of  mountains, 
between  India  ind  Persia,  though  commonly  in- 
cluded in  the  kingdom  of  fialoochistau,  belong 
more  properly  to  Hindostan. 

With  respect  to  the  history  of  Baloochistan 
antiauity  is  almost  silent.  The  mountainous  tract, 
whicn  forms  the  central  and  most  important  part 
of  this  territory,  appears  to  have  been  unknown 
to  the  ancients,  and  was  perhaps  uninhabited  up 
to  the  period  of  the  Mahommedan  conquests  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  of  the  christian 
era.  Alexander  marched  from  Pattal^,  (T'hatt 
liah  or  Tattah)  on  the  Indus,  through  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Arabits,  still  indicated  by  the  cape 
called  Arabia  by  the  natives,  the  Arahoh  of  the 
maps,  thence  he  advanced  into  the  country  of 
die  Otei'tJB  in  his  way  to  Oedrosia  or  Macron, 
where  the  greater  part  of  his  troops  are  said  to 
have  perished  from  thirst,  famine  and  fatigue. 
'Craterus  who  comms^nded,  with  another  part  of 
his  army,  passed  by  a  circuitous  route  -tnrough 
Arachosia  and  Drangiana,  the  Kandahar  and 
SeistAn  of  modem  geography ;  countries  placed 
in  a  higher  latitude,  south  of  the  extreme  deserts 
which  separate  the  Beldches  from  Persia  and 
Afghan islAn.  The  Mahommedan  invaders  fol- 
lowed the  track  of  Alexander,  whilst  the  Sultans 
of  Ghaznah,  who  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
level  country  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  and 
the  coast  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Persia,  never 
descended  the  hills.  The  Persian  historians  say 
the  idolatrous  Hindoos  were  driven  into  these 
retreats ;  but,  since  the  present  occupiers  betray 
no  affinity  with  the  natives  of  India  m  customs, 
features,  or  language,  the  origin  already  as^ 
signed  is  more  probable.  They  diemselves 
affirm  that  they  are  the  original  natives  of  the 
hills,  and  that  their  name  Br&hii€  is  derived  from 
Bardhi  mountains,  whilst  the  inliabitants  of  the 
pUun  are  called  N'h&rids  or  Nardhis,  Lowlaiiders. 
The  most  ancient  traditions  do  not  carry  the 
origin  of  the  Mussulman  government  further 
back  tlian  seven  generations. 

About  two  centuries  ago  the  city  of  Kel&t 
with  the  surrounding  country  was  possessed  by 
Sewah  Rajah  a  Hindoo,  and  the  Balooches 
tended  flocks  of  sheep  in  the  moimtains.  To 
protect  the  inhabitants  from  the  depredations  of 
a  people  residing  in  the  low  country  between 
Kellt,  Shade,  and  Shekirpoor,  the  rajah  sent 


ibr  Kumber  a  Baloochy  cbiaf»  and.  took  lun  wlo 
his  service,  aUowing  him  five  bundles  of  grass  and 
wood  per  day  for  each  man.  This  auxiliary 
siiortly  after  seised  the  government,  and  raised 
the  tribute  to  a  hundred  bundles,  besides  a  con- 
tribution of  horses,  camels,  and  footruiinera. 
This  tribute  is  still  occasionally  exacted  by  the 
Khan  of  Kelftt,  and  paid  by  the  detmars  or  pea- 
sants in  the  immediate  vicinity. 

Kumber  the  first  usurper  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Sumbar,  the  fatlier  of  the  next  prince,  Ma* 
hommed  Khan,  who  in  his  turn  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Abdolla  Khan.  This  prince  conquered 
a  considerable  part  of  Cach  Gandivah,  till  then 
subject  to  the  Nuww^bs  of  SindTi.  About  that 
time  the  celebrated  N&dir  Sh&h  parried  his  vic- 
torious arms  into  India ;  and  while  at  KandahAr 
sent  an  army  into  the  mountains  of  the  Beldches. 
Abdu'lhih  sent  his  two  sons  as  hostages  to  the 
conqueror's  camp ;  afi^r  which  he  was  allowed 
to  continue  in  his  government  as  a  feudatory  of 
Persia.  Upon  the  death  of  Abtiu'llah,  Nasir 
Khan  his  younger  son,  by  the  advice  of  N4dir 
Sh4h,  put  to  death  his  elder  brother,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  sovereignty,  and  took  possession 
of  the  Gad'hi  or  throne ;  and  having  performed 
some  imporiant  services  to  his  patron,  was  re- 
warded by  the  donation  of  several  provinces^ 
and,  being  a  man  of  considerable  abilities,  grealljr 
enlarged  his  dominions,  so  that  at  his  death,  in 
1795,  the  territories  descended  to  his  son  and 
successor  Mahmood  Khan  in  a  very  flourishing 
and  prosperous  stale.  This  prince  is  now  about 
twenty -nine  years  of  age ;  but  his  talents  being 
very  inferior  to  those  of  his  father,  the  dominions 
of  Kelftt  have  been  greatly  curtailed  by  the 
Ameers  of  Sinde  and  other  neighbouring  pro- 
vinces. His  brother  Mustapha  Khan,  who  is 
about  one  year  youngar  than  the  sovereign,  is, 
however,  of  an  active  martial  disposition,  and 
bids  £ur  on  bis  accession  to  restore  the  empire 
and  improve  the  hereditary  dominions.  The 
territory  at  present  subject  to  Mahmood  Khan, 
comprises  tne  higli  hilly  country  of  Sewislan, 
and  the  low  lands  of  Cutch  Oundava  and 
Amund,  Dajil  to  the  eastward ;  bounded  on 
the  norUi  by  Khorassan ;  on  the  south  by  Los 
and  Sinde;  o&  the  west  by  Mekran ;  and  on  the 
east  by  Sinde.  His  clear  revenue  is  about  tfarae 
lacks  of  rupees,  and  is  collected  from  Amund 
Dajil,  Cutcn  Gundava,  and  the  bazaar  toUs  of 
Keiat.  The  Khans  of  Baloochistan  aeknowlaJge 
the  paramount  authority  of  the  Cabul  sovereigusy 
to  whom  they  are  feudatories ;  but  their  obedi- 
ence is  in  proportion  to  the  talents  of  the  reigning 
prince,  and  the  political  circumstances  of  the 
Cabul  government.  The  present  territories  of 
Mahmood  Khan  are  supposed  capable  of  raisaog 
an  armv,  in^try  and  caTalry,  of  2^,P0O  men, 
although  formerly  the  sovereign  could  saise 
60,000.    See  Chrittie,  Khaieir,  ^c. 

It  was  probably  without  intention  that  UmAr 
Khin  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present  ^ver»- 
ment,  which  is  rather  a  militaiy  republic  than  an 
absolute  monarchy.  The  Serdto  or  cbie6  hold 
their  lands  on  feudal  tenure,  each  tribe  cfcooaes 
its  own  Serdir,  in  whose  family  die  ofiice  becomes 
hereditary.  The  general. administiaUaQ  sb»  how- 
ever, stUl  vested  in  ibe  Khte  of  Kdltt.    £«di 


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Serd&r  in  tone  of  war  attends  with  his  quota  oi 
troopsy  and  is  bound  to  obey  the  orders  of  the 
sovereign ;  but  if  to  his  own  detriment,  receiTes 
compensation. 

A  new  code  of  laws  was  established  by  Nasir, 
of  which  the  Koran  is  the  standard,  accompanied 
however  by  the  following  iipproveznents.  In 
cases  of  murder  where  the  deceased  is  a  fo- 
reigner, every  one  concerned  in  the  crime  is  im- 
mediately executed  without  commutation.  Bur- 
Slaries  and  night  robberies  are  punished  with 
ieath.  Adultery  may  be  aven^  by  the  hus- 
band ;  but  the  clearest  testimonials  of  guilt  are 
required  ;  and  if  he  &ils  of  producing  these  he 
is  liable  to  severe  punishment.  Minor  offences 
are  cognizable  by  the  Serdlu'  of  the  Khe'il,  or 
&mily,  with  an  appeal  lying  to  the  Serd&r  of  the 
whole  tribe,  and  ultimately  to  the  Khftn  himself, 
who  commonly  consults  the  heads  of  his  family 
before  he  deades  on  any  intricate  cause.  No 
execution  can  take  place  without  an  order  from 
the  sovereign,  except  in  case  of  the  murder  of  a 
traveller  on  his  roaa,  when,  as  a  speedy  execution 
b  necessary,  the  nearest  chief  is  empowered  to 
enforce  the  penalty  of  the  law. 

BALOR,  a  town  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island 
of  Luion.    Long.  122*»  5'  E.,  lat  15"  18*  N. 

BAL'OTADE,  n.  s.  The  leap  of  an  horse,  so 
that  when  his  fore-feet  are  in  the  air,  he  shows 
nothing  but  the  shoes  of  his  hinder  feet,  without 
verking  out.  A  balotade  differs  from  a  capriole ; 
for  when  a  horse  -works  at  caprioles,  he  yerks 
out  his  hinder  legs  with  all  his  force. — Farrier*$ 
Dictionaru, 

''  BALOtE,  a  town  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
island  of  Mindoro.  Long.  131"  15'  £.,  lat. 
13"  3' N. 

BALOU,  a  town  of  Armenia,  twenty-five  miles 
north-west  of  Khars. 

BALREMIT  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast 
of  the  island  of  Colonsay,  one  of  the  Hebrides. 
Long.  6"  r  W.,  lat.  56"  6*  N. 

BALRIE  Castle,  a  very  ancient  fort,  now  in 
ruins,  situated  on  an  eminence  at  the  west  end 
of  the  rooss  of  that  name,  Angusshire,  Scotland. 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  marquis  of  Argyll  in 
1640.  The  walls  are  eight  foet  thick.  This 
castle  and  the  adjacent  lands  were  the  property 
of  the  last  viscount  Fenton. 

BALROTHERY,  or  Balkuudery,  a  town  of 
Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Dublin,  fourteen  miles 
from  the  city  and  one  fiiom  the  sea. 

BALSA,  an  ancient  town  of  Lusitania  in  the 
Ager-Cunaeus ;  now  called  Tavira,  in  Algarva. 

Bai^av,  or  Native  Balsam,  an  oily,  resinous, 
liquid  substance,  flowing  either  spontaneously, 
or  by  means  of  incision,  from  certain  plants. 
There  are  a  great*  variety  of  balsams,  particularly 
distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  substances 
from  which  they  are  obtained ;  and  which  will 
be  found  explained  under  their  names  as  they 
occur. 

BAL'SAM,  -\     Of  the  same  deri- 

Balsam^atiom,  f  vation   as  hdm^  but 

Balsam  )cal,  ^more  limited  in   its 

Balsam'ick,  n.  &  o^f.  i  application.   It  is  al- 

Baisam'ous.  j  most  exclusively  used 

p  designate  an  unctuous  or  oily  mixture,  gene- 
nUy   attended  with  'firagranoe. 


Qheold  I  sigh  out  my  (|«yi  in  griel^ 
And,  M  my  beads,  count  miaeriet ; 
Uy  mind  would  meet  with  no  relief. 
For  all  the  haUam  of  my  eyet.  8tev9nm^ 

Brave  spirits  are  a  laimm  to  tbemselvet. 
There  is  a  nobleness  of  mind  that  heals 
Wounds  beyond  salves.  Cartwrighl^ 

Is  this  the  hakam  that  the  usuring  senate 
Pours  into  captains'  wounds?  tial  banishment! 
It  comes  not  ill  \  I  hate  not  to  be  banish'd  j 
It  is  a  cause  worthy  my  spleen  and  fury> 
That  I  may  strike  at  Athens.  Shakapemt^ 

Christ's  blood  our  haliam  ^  if  that  cure  us  here. 
Him,  when  our  judge,  we  shall  not  find  severe. 

That  this  herb  [ros-solis]  is  the  cause  thereof » shep- 
herds affirm  and  deny ;  whether  it  hath  a  cordial  vir- 
tue by  sudden    refection,  sensible  experiment  doth 
hardly  confirm ;  but  that  it  may  have  a  hal$amwd  and 
resumptive  virtue,  whereby  it  becomes  a  good  medi* 
cine  in  catarrhes  and  consumptive  dispositions,  prae^ 
tice  and  reason  conclude.       Brown**  Vtigar  ErrtliKrf, 
The  Britons  squeeze  the  works 
Of  sedulous  bees,  and  mixing  odorous  herbs. 
Prepare  haltomie  cups,  to  wheezing  lungs 
Medicinal,  and  shoit-breath'd  ancient  sires. 

Now  the  radical  moisture  is  not  the  tallow  or  ttX 
of  animals,  but  an  oily  and  baitamaiu  substance  ;  for 
the  fst  or  tallow,  as  also  the  phlegm  or  watery  piarts, 
an  cold  ;  whereas  the  oily  and  halnmom  parts  are  of 
a  lively  heat  and  spirit.  8l0m§, 

Balsam  Apple.  Lat.  momordiea.  An  annual 
Indian  plant. 

Balsam  Tree.  This  is  a  shrub  which  scaxM 
grows  taller  than  the  pomegranate-tree ;  the  blof^ 
soms  are  like  small  stars,  very  fragrant ;  whence- 
spring  out  little  pointed  pods,  enclosing  a  frdit 
like  an  almond,  called  carpobalsamum,  as  the 
wood  is  called  xylobalsamum,  and  the  juice  opo- 
balsamum. 

BALSAMATION  is  used  by  some  writers  for 
the  art  or  act  of  embalming  dead  bodies.  Dr. 
Hook  speaks  of  an  universal  balsamation,  or 
method  of  preserving  all  kinds  of  bodies  from 
corruption,  invented  by  Dr.  Elshot. 

BALSAM£L£ON,  in  the  materia  roedica, 
a  name  given  by  some  to  the  balm  of  Gilead. 
'  BALSAM  EL^UM,  in  ecclesiastical  writers, 
the  sacred  chrysm. 

BALSAMINA  Scamdens,  a  name  given  to  the 
large  fruited  white  briony  of  Ceylon. 

BALSAMINE,  Female,  in  botany,  the  name 
given  by  Toumefort  to  a  genus  of  plants,  calldc 
bv  Linnaus,  impatiens,  and  belonging  to  the  class 
of  syngenesia  raonogainia. 

BALSAMITA,  a  species  of  tansy. 

BALSAMICA.    See  Balsamics. 

BALSAMICS,  Baisamica,  Latin,  i.  e.  miti- 
gating ;  this  term  includes  medicines  of  vety 
different  qualities,  as  emottieots,  detergents,  re^ 
storetives,  &c. ;  but  in  all  these  kinds  there  are 
these  requisites,  that  they  be  soft,  yielding,  and 
adhesive;  and  by  their  smallness  they  have  a 
ready  dispositiou'to  motion.  Medicines  of  this 
tribe  are  generally  required  for  complaints  whose 
seat  is  in  the  viscera ;  and  as  they  cannot  be  con- 
veyed there  but  by  the  common  road  of  the  cir- 
culation, it  follows  that  no  great  effects  can  ^e  ex- 
pected from  them  but  by  their  long  cOkitinuatiqp. 


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BALTIC    SEA. 


Hoffman  calls  by  the  name  of  balsamics  'ibose 
medicines  ^hich  are  hot  and  acrid,  {flso  the 
natural  balsams,  gums,  &c.  by  which  the  vital 
heat  is  increased. 

BALSAMITA,in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
of  the  class  syngenesia,  and  order  polygamia 
aequalis.  Its  generic  character,  is  receptacle 
naked,  pappus  none,  calyx  imbricate.  It  c6n- 
tains  four  species,  of  which  the  only  one  re^ 
quirinfi:  notice  is  the  B.  vulgaris  (tanacetum  balsa- 
mita  of  Linheus)  common  costmary,  or  alecost. 
Its  stem  is  herbaceous,  leaves  oval,  dentate ;  in- 
ferior petiolate;  superior  sessile,  auriculate  at 
the  base,  flowers  corymbose.  It  is  a  pe^ennial 
plant,  native  of  the  south  of  France  and  Italy; 
and  was  formerly  prescribed  in  the  pharmacopceias 
as  a  carminative. 

BALSAS,  a  town  of  Peru,  in  the  province  of 
Chachapuyas,  on  tlie  east  shore  of  the  Amazons, 
forty  miles  north  of  Caxamarca.     Lat.  6°  16'  S. 

BALSEY  Clift,  a  high  land  on  the  east  coast 
of  England,  between  Orford  and  Harwich. 

BALSO,  a  river  of  Quito,  which,  after  wind-^ 
ing  through  forests,  enters  the  Bobonasa. 

BALSTAL,  a  well-built  market  town  of  Swit- 
zerland, in  the  canton  of  Solothum.  The  inha- 
bitants carry  on  a  great  trade  between  Bale  and 
Solothum.    Ten  miles  north-east  of  Solothum. 

BALSAMON  (Theodore),  patriarch  of  Anti^. 
och  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  the  canon  law,  which  were  printed 
at  Paris,  in  folio,  in  1620. 

BALSHAM,  or  Belesale  (Hugh  de),  the 
tenth  bishop  of  Ely,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  was 
first  a  monk,  and  afterwards  subprior  of  the  Be- 
nedictine monasteiy  at  Ely.  In  1247  he  was 
diosen  bishop  by  the  convent.  But  king  Henry 
III.  who  had  recommended  his  chancellor  Henry 
de  Wengham,  refused  to  confirm  his  election ; 
whereupon  Balsham  went  to  Rome  to  be  con- 
firmed by  the  pope ;  which,  however,  was  not 
done  for  ten  years,  when  at  last  his  holiness  con- 
firmed his  election  in  1257.  Bishop  Balsham 
then  executed  what  he  had  long  intended ;  by 
laying  the  foundation  of  St  Peter's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, the  first  in  that  University,  which  has 
immortalised  his  name  as  the  patron  of  literature. 
He  was  also  very  charitable  to  the  poor.  He 
died  in  1286,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of 
Ely.     • 

BALTA,  or  Baito,  a  town  of  European  Rus- 
sia, the  capital  of  a  circle  in  the  government  of 
Podolia,  situated  on  the  Kadyma,  a  tributary 
stream  of  the  Bog.  Before  the  annexation  of 
this  part  of  Poland  to  Russia,  one  half  of  Balta 
belonged  to  the .  palatinate  of  Braclaw,  and  the 
other  to  Tartary .  In  1 767,  in  the  war  which  broke 
out  between  the  Russians  and  Turks,  the  town  of 
Balta  was  laid  in  ashes  by  the  former.  Sixty- 
five  miles  N.  N.  £.  of  Bender. 

Balta,  one  of  the  smaller  Shetland  islands, 
near  the  east  coast  of  Unst.  Long.  4®  2*  W., 
lat61°rN. 

BALTAGIf  among  the  Turks,  porters,  and 
hewers  of  wood,  in  the  court  of  the  grand  seig- 
nior; who  also  mount  on  horseback  when  the 
emperor  rides  out.  Part  of  them,  who,  for  that 
purpose,  must  be  castrated^  keep  watch  at  the 
g3l«s  of  the  first  and  second  courU  of  the  ser- 


aglio.   These  last  are  called  capigi,  and  theii 
commander  capigi  pacha. 

BALTCHUTZKO,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Kolhy  van. 

BALTEATUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
cimex,  inhabiting  South  America.  2.  A  species 
of  elater,  of  a  black  color ;  anterior  half  of 
the  wing  cases  rufous.  Linn.  Fn.  Suec.  A  native 
of  Europe. 

BALTEUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  cer- 
ambyx,  that  inhabits  Lusitania.  The  thorax 
spinous;  body  ferruginous;  abdomen  ovate; 
wing  cases  with  a  blackish  band.    Linneus. 

BALTHASAR  (Christopher)  a  learned  French 
author  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  followed 
the  profession  of  an  advocate ;  but  having  em- 
braced the  protestant  religion,  from  pleading  at 
the  bar,  he  became  a  champion  for  the  refoimed 
churches ;  and  in  1659  a  pension  was  settled 
upon  him  by  the  national  synod  at  Loudon,  in 
consideration  of  his  services.  He  displayed 
great  abilities  in  combating  Baronius. 

BALTHAZARINI,  an  Italian  musician  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  who  was  a  great  &vorite 
at  the  French  court  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
He  composed  a  ballet,  which  he  called  Ceres  and 
her  Nymphs,  in  1531,  designed  for  the  marriage 
of  the  duke  de  Joyeuse  with  Mademoiselle  de 
Vaudemont,  the  queen's  sister;  and  this  is 
thought  to  have  been  the  origin  of  the  ballet  he- 
roique,  in  France. 

BALTHEUSOaioNis,  the  belt  of  Orion,  in 
astronomy,  a  part  of  the  constellation  of  Orion, 
consisting  of  three  bright  stars  of  the  second 
magnitude,  placed  nearly  in  a  right  line  in 
Orion's  girdle. 

BALTHICA,  in  conchology,  a  species  of  id- 
Una  that  inhabits  the  Baltic  Sea;  the  shell 
roundish,  smooth  outside,  carnation  color.  linn. 
Fn.  Suec.  About  the  size  of  a  horse-bean,  and 
very  rarely  larger;  extremely  thin,  pellucid, 
brittle,  and  white  within.    Chemnitz,  &c^ 

Balthica,  a  species  of  helix,  found  on  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic;  the  shell  imperforated, 
ovate, and  pointed ;  with  elevated  wrinkles;  aper- 
ture ovate,  and  very  ample.  Linn.  Fu.  Suec. 
This  animal  is  black,  with  two  tentacula;  shell 
pellucid,  and  with  four  whorls. 

BALTHICUS,  a  species  of  nautilus,  of  the 
smaller  kind,  that  is  found  adhering  to  the  roots 
of  fuci.  This  shell  is  sometimes  opaque,  some- 
times glossy,  frequently  pellucid ;  and  the  wreaths 
either  smooth,  striated,  ribbed,  or  tuberculated. 
It  is  specifically  distinguished  by  being  white, 
convex,  aperture  linear,  and  the  first  wreath 
much  larger  than  the  others.    Schroeb. 

BALTIA,  an  island  in  the  Baltic  Sea  whidi 
gives  name  to  it. 

BALTIC  Sea.  A  laige  gulf  of  the  Gi'rman 
Ocean,  penetrating  the  upper  part  of  Europe, 
and  surrounded  by  die  coasts  of  Denmark^ 
Sweden,  Russia,  Germany,  and  Prussia.  It  is 
.600  miles  in  length ;  from  eighty  U>  150  miles  in 
breadth,  commencing  at  the  Danish  islands  of 
Funen  and  Zealand;  it  stretches  beyond  the 
sixty-fifth  degree  of  latitude,  including  an  area 
of  surface  equal  to  10,000  square  leagues.  The 
two  extreme  divisions  of  this  sea  are  the  Gulfs 
of  Bothnia  and  Finland;  the  former  ranning 


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east  to  the  Ticinity  of  Petersburg,  the  lattisr  ex- 
tending north  till  it  penetrates  the  arctic  regions. 

Its  access  is  through  a  uarrow  winding  chan- 
nel, or  strait,  on  the  west  of  the  European  con- 
tinent, the  northern  part  of  which^  communi- 
cating with  the  ocean  on  the  south-west,  is  called 
the  Scaggerack;  the  middle  consists  of  the 
Great  and  Little  Belts,  and  the  southern  part 
of  the  Cattegat.  This  entrance  to  the  Baltic  is 
sometimes  called  the  sound.  It  is  also  connected 
tiear  Pillau  and  Memel  by  narrow  passages  with 
two  large  lakes  called  the  Frische  Haff  and 
Curische  Haff. 

The  proximity  of  the  coasts  and  islands,  the 
liballowness  of  the  waters,  the  flatness  of  the 
Prussian  shore,  the  ruggedness  of  that  of  Sweden, 
the  frequent  and  sudden  changes  of  the  winds, 
and  the  violent  storms  with  which  they  are  at- 
tended, render  this  sea  Tery  dangerous  for  navi- 
gators, although  the  breakers  are  much  less  for- 
midable than  those  in  the  German  Ocean.  The 
general  depth  of  the  Baltic  is  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  fathoms,  although  in  some  places  it  is 
much  less,  and  in  others  much  more.  Like  other 
inland  seas  the  Baltic  has  no  tides,  or,  if  it  has, 
they  are  scarcely  perceptible ;  but  a  strong  cur- 
rent generally  sets  towards  the  ocean,  which, 
when  checked  by  a  west  wind  forcing  the  Waters 
in  a  contrary  direction  through  the  straits,  causes 
the  Baltic  to  rise  much  above  its  ordinary  level. 
The  waters  of  this  sea  are  colder  and  less  salt 
than  those  of  the  Northern  Ocean ;  from  which 
circumstance,  together  with  the  deficiency  of 
tides,  it  is  usually  for  about  three  months  of  the 
year  so  completely  frozen  as  to  admit  in  many 
places  of  a  passage  over  the  ice.  Tlie  ice  in  tlie 
southern  part  begins  to  break  up  in  April,  al- 
though the  two  gulfs  are  not  generally  cleared 
before  the  middle  of  May. 

Numerous  rfvers,  of  different  degrees  of  im- 
portance, empty  themselves  into  this  sea,  which 
greatly  contribute  to  the  freshness  of  its  waters, 
and,  together  witli  the  diminished  evaporation  «f 
the  nortiiem  regions,  occasion  the  current  to* 
which  we  have  already  referred.  The  chief  of 
them  are  the  Wamow,  the  Oder,  the  Peene,  the 
Persante.  the  Wipper,  the  Vistula,  the  Pregei, 
the  Memel  or  tne  Niemen,  the  Dwina,  the 
Aura-Jocki,  the  Cano,  the  Tomeo,  tKe  Skel- 
leftea,  the  Pitea,  the  Lulea,  the  Umea,  the  An- 
germany,  the  Motala,  the  Luii^na,  and  the  Dal. 
The  earthy  particles  conveyed  into  the  bed  of 
the  Baltic  by  means  of  streams,  rivers,  &c.  are 
said  to  cause  the  depth  of  this  sea  to  diminish  at 
the  rate  of  four  feet  in  a  century ;  and  Mr.  Von 
Buck,  in  his  Travels  in  Sweden  and  Lapland, 
observes  with  respect  to  the  Bolhnian  Gulf,  that 
the  sea-bays  have  become  marshes  by  the  conti- 
nual decrease  of  the  g^lf  waters ;  and  that  we 
may  Soon  expect  to  see  the  site  of  that  aquatic 
region  covered  with  fields  and  cottages. 

The  islands  of  the  Baltic  are  numerous,  one 
chain  of  which,  reaching  from  Finland  to  Swe- 
den, divides  the  southern  part  of  the  sea  from 
the  northern,  commonly  called  the  Gulf  of  Both- 
nia. The  chief  of  the  Danish  islands  forming 
the  immediate  seat  of  the  govemmnent  are  Zea- 
land and  Funen.  Near  £e  shores  of  Livonia 
«re  the  islands  Dago  and  Oesel.    Gothland  and 


OeUnd  belong  to  Sweden ;  Rugen  to  Pomerania; 
and  Moen,  Bornholm,  Falster,  Alsen,  Laaland, 
together  with  several  others,  are  subject  to  the 
Danes. 

Considerable  fisheries  are  formed  on  some 
of  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  and  Mr.  Fischer,  a 
naturalist  of  Livonia,  enumerates  nearly  fifty  dif- 
ferent species  of  fish  in  the  waters  of  that  pro- 
vince ;  we  principal  of  which  known  as  articles  of 
commerce  are  salmon,  pike,  streamlings,  and  lam- 
preys. The  fishes  most  common  in  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  are  salmon,  sterlets,  and  carp.  Stur- 
geon is  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Cronstadt,  and 
smaller  fish  are  takeU  from  the  gulfs  and  bays  on 
the  eastern  parts  of  this  sea.  The  herring  and 
pilchard  fisheries  are  considerable.  Amber  is 
also  a  production  of  this  sea.  It  is  thrown  by 
the  frequent  stomis  on  the  coasts  of  Prussia  and 
Courland,  and  is  found  in  beds  near  Pillau  at  the 
depth  of  ninety  or  a  hundred  feet. 

The  general  commerce  of  the  Baltic  is  very 
considerable,  since  it  washes  the  shores  of  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  part  of 
Germany;  it  has  a  communication  with  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  by  means  of  the  canals  of  Ladoga, 
Vyschnei-Volotschok,  and  Maria,  thus  opening  . 
facifties  for  conveying  the  commodities  of  nor- 
thern Europe  into  the  interior  of  Asia. 

All  vessels  that  pass  in  or  out  of  the  Baltic  pay 
a  certain  duty  to  tne  Danish  government,  for  the 
maintaining  of  light-housres,  &c.  This  toll  is 
received  st  ElsinOre,  where  the  vessels  are  regu- 
larly entered  in  the  national  register,  a  view  of 
which  for  the  years  1816  and  1817,  will  enable 
the  reader  to  form  some  idea  of  the  comparative 
importance  of  the  Baltic  commerce. 

Jit  1816  were  registered  the  following  veueli :— 


From  the 

From  the 

North  Sea. 

Baltic 

America 

83 

85 

Bremen    .    • 

5i5 

56 

Danish     .    • 

408 

379 

Dutch      .    . 

473 

403 

English    .    . 

942 

906 

French     .    . 

8 

8 

Hamburgh    . 

18 

18 

Hanover  .    . 

113 

111 

Lubeck    .    . 

23 

22 

Mecklenburg 

126 

127 

Norwegian    . 

396 

398 

Oldenburg    . 

16 

13 

Pappenburg 

22 

17 

Portuguese   . 

25 

23 

Prussian  .    . 

5'i5 

.489 

Rostock   .    . 

65 

68 

Russian    .     . 

208 

191 

Spanish    .    . 

5 

4 

Swedish  .     . 

1097 

945 

4608 

426*. 

Total  number  tb 

4608 

it  passed  the  > 
B16     .     .     $ 

8871 

Sound  in  1 

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BAITIC   SEA. 


In  1817  were  regultred  ihifiMa»mg  vei$d»  >- 

America        

Bremen 4    * 

Danish 

Dutch 

English 

French 

Hamburgh 

Hanover       .*..,• 

Mecklenburgh 

Norwegian 

Prussian       

Russian    *..,... 

Swedish        

Other  nations 

Total  number  of  vessels  firo-n  J 
the  North  Sea    ...     J 
From  the  Baltic  the  same  year 

Total  number  of  ships  that) 
passed  the  Sound  m  1817  {' 

From  the 
North  6ea. 

68 

11 

463 

695 

2088 

22 

4!^ 

212 

169       . 
470 
§17 
197 
104* 
366 

6758 
6390 

13,148, 

in  coi»Ma<9>ce  of  ih449^  changeji  of  'Tnod,u- 
legular  aep^s,  and  fUong  currents,  mm  of 
which,  (sypecially  towards  the  noi:th,  liie  tnnce 
in  the  cour^  of.  a  year.  The  superior  and  info- 
jfioT  currents  of  the  Sound  ate  remarkable. 
These  were  discovered  ^ret  by  somq  of  our  own 
cQuntTyix^en,  who,  being  in  a  boat  in  the  middle 
of  th^  clmimeH  found  that  they  dr^M  towards 
th^  Cattegat;  but  upon  letting  down  a  loa^fd 
bucket  tq  the  depth  of  four  or  five  ^tbpmi 
^und  that  their  boat  becaipe  stationary,  and 
upon  sinking  the  bucket  still  deeper,  the  boat 
drifted  in  a  direction  diametrically  opposite  to 
tb^  fuper^cial  current. 

By  ^e  transfer  of  Swedish  Pomeiaai^  to 
Prussia,  pf  $we4i8h  Finland  to  Russia,  and  of 
Norway  tp  Swed^,  the  commerce  and  resources 
of  the  Badtic  nations  have  undergone  a  consider- 
able change. 

The  following  is  a  sketch  of  the  staple  aitidn 
of  their  comiperce  at  the  beginning  of  the  pre- 
sent century. 

Danish  vessels  visit  the  ports  of  Mecklenboi]^ 
and  Fomerani^,  with  horses,  bullocks,  butter, 
cheese,  fish,  fish-oil,  colonial  produce,  &c.;  and 
receive  ip  return,  diread,  linen,  brandy,  wool, 
hardware,  paper,  ^.  To  Petersbuigh,  Rigajr 
and  Memel,  the  Danes  send  herrings  and  dried 
^sh,  woollen  manufactures,  salt  of  France,  Spain, 
and  PoEtugal,  India  and  China  goods,  oyster*, 
and  dognskin  gloves;  for  which  they  receive 


The  winds  are  extremely  var^al^le  in  tb^  Qaltic ; 
bul  they  blow  most  commonly  from  the  east  in  the 
spring,  and  from  the  west  in  autumn;  calms  are    pota^l),  planks, lire-wood,  flax  and  hemp,  cor- 


seldom  experienced  except  in  the  middle  of  the 
summer.  The  irregular  variations  of  the  level  of 
the  Baltic  somewhat  resemble  tides,  and  occur 
generally  in  autumn,  when  the  weather  threatens 
rain.  These  sensible  swells  frequently  last  for 
weeks  together,  and  their  maximum  rise  being 
three  feet  and  a-half,  all  the  low  lands  are  inun- 
dated. On  these  occasions,  the  fresh-water  lakes 
which  communicate  with  the  sea  are  rendered 
brackish.  In  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  &11  of  the 
water  is  usually  succeeded  by  north  winds, 
whereas,  at  Stockholm,  these  winds  follow  the 
elevation.  M.  Kraft,  who  was  professor  of  ex- 
perimental philosophy  in  the  imperial  academy 


dage,  iron,  copper,  linens,  an4  com.  To  Hol- 
land, DenmarV  exports  rape-seed,  salted  and 
dried  fish,  and  timber;  and  receives  spices, 
drugs,  com,  pipes,  and  p^>er.  To  England, 
hides,  bar-iron,  kelp,  furs,  tar,  timber,  &c. 
The  return^  are,  hardware  goods,  woollens,  cot- 
tons, hats,  and  colonial  produce.  From  the 
official  account  of  the  real  value  of  the  imports 
into  Denmark  firom  Great  Britain,  firoro  the  5th 
January  1798,  to^the  5th  January  1808,  laid 
before  Parliament,  In  consequence  of  the  attack 
on  Copenhagen,  it  appears,  that  from  1798  to 
1803,  they  are  rated  about  half  a  million ;  and 
that  from  1803  to  1808,  they  varied  from  two  to 


at  Petersburgh,  published  a  treatise  on  the  inun-    six  millions.    France  receives  firom  Denmark,. 


dations  of  the  Neva  at  the  autumnal  equinox,  m 
which  he  observes,  that  three  or  four  days  before 
or  after  the  full  or  new  moon,  a  violent  north-west 
wind  drives  the  waters  of  the  Northern  Ocean,  dur- 
ing the  influx  of  the  tide,  into  the  Baltic,  and  is  im* 
mediately  succeeded  by  a  south  wind  in  that  sea 
and  the  Gulf  pf  Finland,  to  the  concurrent  effect 
of  which  he  attributes  the  phenomena  in  ques- 
tion ;  but  Schultens,  a  learned  Swede,  who  had 
closely  studied  the  physical  geography  of  the 
Baltic,  attributed  all  the  irregular  elevations  of 
this  sea  to. the  unequal  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere on  different  portions  of  the  water,  de- 
ranging, in  his  opinion,  their  common  level.  He 
was  led  to  this  conclusion  by  having  observed 
repeatedly,  that  when  the  waters  were  about  to 
ri^se,  tkhe  barometer  fell,  and  that  when  the  wat^ 
were  about  to  fidl  the  barometer  rose. 

The  waters  of  the  Baltic  are  of  different  de- 
grees of  saltness  in  d^ifferent  places,  and  in  the 
same  places  at  different  seasons,  and  during  dif- 
ferent winds.    The  waves  are  short  and  broken, 


horses,  butter,  cheese,  fish,  &c. ;  and  returns  salt, 
wines,  brandy,  fraits,  silks,  &c.  The  exporU  to 
Spain  and  Portugal  are  nearly  the  same  as  to 
France ;  the  imports  also  are  me  same,  with  the 
addition  of  wool  and  American  produce.  To 
the  Mediterranean,  Denmark  sends  fish,  salted 
provisions,  butter,  iron,  &c.;  and  receives  wines, 
brandy,  oils,  finit,  and  salt.  The  Danes  derive 
great  profit  from  hiring  their  vessels  to  the  porta 
of  Italy,  as  their  flag  is  generally  respected  by 
the  Barbery  States.  The  exports  to  the  Fstroe 
Islands  are  wheat,  floor,  brand^,  tea,  coffee, 
sugar,  linens,  £».;  the  imports  are  dried  and 
salted  fish,  fish-oil,  feathers,  hides,  tallow,  and 
worsted  stockings.  The  exports  to,  and  imports 
from,  Iceland,  are  nearly  the  same ,  the  impoits 
from  Greenland  are  whale-oil  and  bone,  8eal-«il 
and  skins,  eider  down ;  the  exports  nearly  the 
same  as  to  the  Faroe  and  IceMa  Islands.  Ueo- 
mark  has  also  a  trifling  trade  to  the  £a9t  and 
West  Indies. 

lu  1807  the  Danish  fleet  consisted  of  twenty- 


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six  tail  of  the  line ;  sixteea  frigatej ;  nine  sloops,  twenty  91*  flirty  tons  axe  employed  in  loading 

and  thirty  gun^vessels.  and  discnaiging  these  vessels  at  Cronstadt,  that 

The  foreign  oommerce  of  Sweden  ii  confined  cannot  enter  the  Neva.  At  the  close  of  1807, 
to  what  are  called  staple  towns,  which  alone  the  Russian  fialttc  fleet  consisted  of  twenty  sail 
have  custom-houses ;  they  are  Stockholm,  Got-  of  the  line,  fourteen  frigates,  six  brigs  and  cutters^ 
tenbuTgh,  Warbei^g,  Halmstad,  Nordkoeping,  and  nineteen  small  cxm ;  and  the  Baltic  flotilla, 
Landscrona,  Carlscrona,  Christianstad,  Carl-  of  twenty  galleys,  twenty-five  floating  batteries^ 
shaum,  Calmar,  Westerric,  Uddervalla,*  Mar-  eighty-one  gun-boats,  and  sixteen  yaub. 
9trand,  Gefle;  and  Abo  and  Wasa  in  Finland,  Baltic  Poat  (formerly  Eogcrwick,  from  the 
now  given  up  to  Russia.  The  foreign  commerce  island  of  Roog,  on  which  it  is  built),  a  sea-port  of 
is  supposed  to  be  divided  among  these  cities^  European  Russia,  in  Esthonia,  liow  the  govern- 
as  follows :  ment  of  Revel,  at  the  influx  of  the  rivulet  of  Pa^ 

Stockholm  ^s  of  exports,  and  |  of  imports,  dis  into  the  Baltic.  The  fortifications  were  begun 

Gotenburgh  ^hs                       i  by  Peter  I.  but  discontinued  by  Catherine  II. 

The  other  ports  i^ths                  }  Were  they  completed,  few  harbours  would  equal 

To  the  foreign  parts  of  the  Baltic,  Sweden  ex-  it  in  size^  depth,  or  security.  Thirty-ei^ht  miles 
|>orts  iron,  steel,  copper,  lime,  alum,  and'  her-  west  of  Revel,  160  north  of  Riga,  and  220  west 
rings,  and  receives  corn,  hemp,  tallow,  and  hy  sou^  of  St  Pe^ersburgh. 
bides.  To  Holland,  iron ;  and  receives  spices,  BALTIMORA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  po- 
tobacco,  prepared  colors  and  papers.  To  £ng*  lygamia  necessaria  order,  and  svn^enesia  class  of 
land,  she  exports  iron,  timber,  pitch,  tar^  potash,  plants.  The  receptaculum  is  chaffy ;  there  is  no 
and  herrings ;  her  imports  are  lead,  tin,  leather,  |>appus ;.  the  calyx  is  cylindrical  and  polyphyl- 
bear,  butter  and  cheese ;  and  every  kind  of  ma-  lous ;  and  the  ray  of  the  corolla  is  auinqueflo- 
nu&cture  and  colonial  produce.  In  France,  ^ous.  There  is  but  one  species,  viz.  a.  recta,  a 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  the  exports  are  iron,  steel,  native  of  Maryland.  It  is  allied  to  Milleria. 
copper  and  brass,  and  wines,  brandy,  fruits;  oil  .  BAIiTIMORE,  a  large,  populous,  and  well 
and  sil!<s  are  the  returns.  To  Italy  and  the  cultivated  county  pf  the  western  shore  of  Mary- 
Levant  she  exports  all  her  territorial  produo-  land,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Harford  county 
tions;  and  receives  salts,  spices,  fruits,  and  cot-  9^  the  Chesapeak,  north  by  Yorkcounty^  Penn- 
ton.  There  are  from  four  to  six  ships  of  600  to  sylvania,  south  by  Anne-Arundel  county,  south- 
1000  tons  bnrden  in  the  East  India  trade.  In  west  by  a  small  point  of  Montgomery,  and  west 
1800  she  bad  above  20<H)  merchant  vesieli  gf  by  Frederick.  It  is  tliir^-six  miles  from  north 
twenty  tons  and  upwards  y  but  the  ruptMre  with  to  souths  and  forty-five  from  east  to  west,  and 
England  and  cession  of  Finland  reduced  them,  eontaiqed  in  1820,  24,58Q  white,  and  33,463 
in  1810,  to  1500.  In  1809  her  navy  was  re-  total  population,  exclusive  of  the  city  of  Baltic 
duced,  in  consequence  of  her  wars  with  Russia,  vaove.  In  this  county  are  found  vast  quantities 
to  thirteen  sail  of  the  line,  nine  or  ten  frigates,  o^  ^^^  o^  of  the  best  quality,  and  it  is  watered 
and  about  150  vessels  of  the  fiotilbt  by  numerous  rivers. 

The  Prussian  ports,  including  Dantzic,  export  Baltimore,  the  largest  city  in  Maryland,  die 

almost  the  whole  of  the  commercial  productions  third  in  population^  and  the  fourth  in  commer- 

of  Poland,  consisting  of  com,  fir  planks  and  ^i^  importance  in  t)ie  United  States,  is  built 

rafters,  masts,  hemp,  tar,  pitch,  potash,  hides  ^?o^  &  o^yi  which  opens  from  the  north  side  of 

and  tallow,  leather,  honey  and  wax ;  besides  f^sttapsco  river,  and  affords  a  spacious  and  couve- 

I'omeranian  oak,  brandy,  woollens,  linens,  ca-  ^^^°t  harbour.    The  strait  which  connects  this 

viar,  and  amber*    The  imports  are  wines,  coffee,  W  yith  the  river  is  scarcely  a  pistol-shot  across, 

sut^ar,  tobacco,  spices,  salt,  iron,  copper,  Spanish  ^^  ^  ^^U  defended  by  fort  M' Henry.    A  small 

wool,  herrings,  and  flax  seed  from  Livonia  and  ^^^9  called  Jones's  Falls,  empties  into  the  north 

Courland.    Towards  the  close  of  the  last  cen-  ^^^1^  ^^  the  harbour,  and  divides  the  city  into  two 

tuiy,  the  merchant  marine  of  the  Prussian  ports  P^^^  called  the  Town  and  Fell's  Point,  con^ 

ou  the  Baltic,  consisted  of  betsween   900  and  Dieted  by  bridges.    At  Fell's  Point  the  water  \s 

1000  ships.    Salted  and  smoked  meat,  hides,  ^^P  eno^gh  for  vessels  of  oOO  or  600  tons,  but 

wool,  butter,  cheese,  com,  and  fruits,  are  the  ^^°^  larger  than  200  tons  can  go  up  to  the  city, 

-exportsof  that  part  of  Pomerania  which  belonged  Baltimore  is  well  situated  for  commerce.    It 

Co  Sweden  and  Mecklenburgh ;  the  com  of  the  supplies  Maryland,  and  large  portions  of  Penn* 

btter  is  principally  taken  off  by  England;  that  sylvaniaand  die  western  states  with  foreign  goods, 

of  Pomerania,  as  well  as  the  fruits,  used  to  go  to  ^^  '^  supposed  to  contain  nearly  70,000  inha- 

Sweden.  bitants.    Its  rapid  growth  may  be  uus  exhibited : 

The  exports  and  imports  of  Russia,  in  the  In  1765  the  population  was      300 

Baltic,  in  the  beginning  of  this  century,  were  17^ 18,503 

Exports.  ImpoTts.  1^10 46,555 

Roblet.  Rublei.  '  1820 62,627 

In  1802      -      47,000,000         33,000,000  t     ^-»^^    u                ^    *-     - 

1804  -      45  000  000         07  noA  nnn  ^°  ^^^  ™  tons  of  shipping  trading  here 

1805  .  52:000:000  iffiooo  '^^^}y^^'  ,  IP  1816  101,960,  in  533  foreign 
^  ,  - ,  '  '  ,vw,wv  ^^  ^^j  coasting  vessels  Baltimore  cannot  be 
rhe  number  of  her  merchant-vessels  that  na-  considered  on  the  whole  a  very  healthy  place,  al- 

vi|ate  the  BalUc  and  the  Ocean,  do  not  exceed  though  the  atmosphere  is  said  to  have  becom<^ 

.  fifty;  perhaps  100  smaller  vessels  cany  on  the  less  humid  of  late:  in  autumn,  the  most  unih- 

coasting-trade   here ;    and  about  100  craft  of  vorable  season,  the  opulent  portion  of  the*  in- 


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habitants  geneFally  retire  to  their  country  seats  in 
the  neigh^urhood.  It  is  in  general  well  built, 
most  of  the  houses  being  of  brick,  and  many 
lately  erected  displa^g  considerable  taste.  Its 
general  plan  is  similar  to  that  of  Philadelphia, 
the  streets  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles. 
Some  of  these  are  spacious,  one  in  particular  is 
about  a  mile  long,  and  eighty  feet  wide,  running 
«ast  and  west,  nearly  parallel  to  the  water.  The 
ground  on  the  north  and  east  of  the  city  rises  to 
a  considerable  elevation,  and  with  the  number  of 
ships  in  the  harbour  forms  a  scene  very  interest- 
ing. The  principal  public  buildings  are  a  court- 
house, penitentiary,  jail,  almshouse,  hospital, 
theatre,  exchange,  museum,  a  gallery  of  paint- 
ings, and  a  public  library,  possessing  about 
10,000  volumes.  Besides  these  there  are  ten 
banks,  and  thirty-one  places  for  public  worship, 
belonging  to  nearly  all  the  denominations  of  reli- 
gious professors  to  be  found  in  the  United  States. 
The  exchange  is  a  vast  pile  of  buildings  very 
lately  erected,  366  feet  in  length  by  140  in 
breadth,  comprising  four  wings.' .  The  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  the  Unitarian  church,  St. 
Paul's  church,  the  Court-house,  and  the  Union 
bank,  are  all  spacious  and  elegant  structures. 
The  Washington  monument  is  another  ornament 
to  this  city.  It  stands  in  an  elevated  situation, 
at  a  short'distance  above  the  compact  part  of  the 
town.  The  base  is  fifty  feet  square,  and  twenty- 
tliree  high,  on  which  is  placed  another  square  of 
about  ludf  ihe  same  size  and  elevation.  Upon 
this  stands  a  column  of  twenty  feet  diameter  at 
the  bottom,  and  fourteen  at  the  top,  on  which 
the  statue  of  Washington  is  placed,  163  feet  from 
the  ground.  Its  literary  and  scientific  institutions 
are  very  respectable.  St.  Mary's  college  was 
incorporated  as  a  university  in  1806,  and  is  well 
endowed.  It  has  a  good  libraiy  wi^  a  philoso- 
phical and  chemical  apparatus ;  and  is  under  the 
direction  of  a  president,  a  professor  of  divinity, 
one  of  moral,  and  one  of  natural,  philosophy,  one 
of  the  belles  lettres,  four  of  languages  and  ma- 
thematics, besides  eight  assistant  tutors.  The 
number  of  students  is  generally  about  140;  but 
they  are  admitted  at  a  much  earlier  age  than  in 
the  universities  of  England.  The  medical  college 
was  founded  in  1807.  It  received  a  new  charter 
in  1812,  when  it  was  denominated  the  univeirsity 
of  Maryland,  and  was  authorised  to  annex  the 
other  faculties  of  languages,  arts  and  sciences,  law 
and  divinity,  to  that  of  physic ;  but  the  medical 
department  was  the  only  one  lately  in  operation. 
The  building  is  spacious  and  elegant,  and  the 
instruction  is  under  the  direction  of  a  provost 
and  six  professors  of  anatomy,  &c.  There  is  ano- 
ther literary  institution,  called  the  Baltimore 
college.  Four  daily  liewspapers  are  published 
here.  A  great  number  of  nour  mills,  forges,  &c. 
are  placed  on  the  stream,  within  a  few  miles  of 
the  town,  and  add  greatly  to  its  trade.  In  1814 
an  attack  was  made  on  this  city  by  the  British 
troops  under  General  Ross,  but  they  were  re- 
pulsed and  their  commander  shun :  a  stone  struc- 
ture, called  the  Battle  monument,  has  been  erected 
to  commemorate  this  circumstance.  Lat.  39°  17', 
long.  760  36'. 
Baltimore,  a  town  of  Ireland  in  the  county 


of  Coik,  on  a  head  land,  runninsc  into  the  spa, 
five  miles  north-east  of  Cape  Clear. 

Baltimore  Biro.    See  Oriolus. 

BALTINGLASS,  a  town  of  Ireland  in  the 
county  of  Wicklow,  where  are  manufactures  of 
woollen,  linen,  and  diaper.  It  is  situated  on  the 
Slaney,  twenty-nine  miles  south  of  Dublin. 

BALTUS  (John  Francis),  a  French  Jesuit, 
bom  at  Mentz  in  1627,  was  librarian  at  Rheims, 
and  wrote  an  Answer  to  Fontenelle's  History 
of  Oracles,  printed  at  Strasburg,  8vo. 

BALTZAR  (Thomas),  an  eminent  musical 
composer,  and  ihe  finest  performer  on  the  violin 
of  his  time,  bom  in  Lubec.  He  came  into  Eng- 
land in  1658,  and  lived  about  two  years  with  Sir 
Anthony  Cope,  of  Hanwel,  in  Oxfordshire.  He 
was  the  great  competitor  of  Davis  Mell,  who, 
though  a  clockmaker,  was^  till  Baltzar  came 
hither,  allowed  to  be  the  finest  performer  on  the 
violin  in  England ;  and  after  his  arrival  he  divided 
with  him  the  public  applause,  it  being  agreed 
that  Mell  excelled  in  the  fineness  of  his  tone  and 
the  sweetness  of  his  manner,  but  Baltzar  in  the 
power  of  execution  and  command  of  the  instru- 
ment. It  is  said  of  the  latter  that  he  first  taught 
the  English  the  practice  of  shifting,  and  the  use 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  finger-board.  Baltzar 
shortenea  nis  oays  by  excessive  drinking,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey,  in  1663. 

BALVAG,  a  river  of  Perthshire,  which  runs 
through  and  connects  the  lakes,  Lochdoine,  Loch- 
voil  and  Loch-Lubnaig,  in  the  parish  of  Bal- 
quhidder.  It  abounds  in  trout  of  different  species, 
diar,  &c.  and  has  occasionally  a  few  salnum. 

BALVAIRD,  a  district  of  Perthshire,  in  the 
parish  of  Aberoethy,  memorable  for  one  of  those 
monuments  of  ancient  ingenuity  and  superstition, 
called  rocking  stones.  It  is  mentioned  by  Bu- 
chanan, but  has  long  ago  lost  its  motion ;  being 
choked  up  with  ^rth  and  gravel.  There  is 
another,  still  movable  in  the  parish  of  Dron. 

Balvaird  Castle,  an  ancient  edifice  in 
Perthshire,  among  the  hills,  in  the  south-west 
comer  of  the  parish  of  Abemethv ;  which  be- 
longed originally  to  the  Murrays  of  Balvaird,  and 
is  now,  along  with  the  estate,  the  property  of  the 
earl  of  Man^eld. 

BALUE  (John),  a  native  of  France,  bom 
about  1420.  His  parents  were  in  low  circum- 
stances, but  by  art  and  servility  he  obtained  be* 
vera!  rich  preferments,  and  at  last  was  made 
bishop  of  Angers,  when  his  old  patron  of  that 
see  was  deposed.  He  afterwards  got  a  cardinal's 
hat  firom  Paul  II.  But  a  correspondence  which 
he  had  engaged  in  with  the  dukes  of  Burgundy 
and  Bern,  to  the  disadvantage  of  Louis,  being 
discovered,  he  was  seized  and  confined  in  an  iron 
cage  eleven  years.  After  his  liberation  he  went 
to  Rome,  irom  whence  he  was  sent  as  legale  by 
Sixtus  V.  to  France.    He  died  in  1491. 

BALVENIE,  or  Balvent,  a  mountainous 
district  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Bamff,  on 
the  western  side,  watered  by  the  Spey,  where 
there  is  a  noted  rock,  which  produces  hones  ana 
whet-stones  sufficient  to*  supply  the  whole  island 
Here  are  also  veins  of  alum-stone,  and  springs  of 
alum  water. 

Balvehy    Castle,    an    ancient  foit ;    and 


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Balvemt  Crag»  a  remarkable  hill  or  rock,  in 
the  parish  of  MortUch  ID  Banfihire,  exhibiting, 
with  the  adjacent  grounds,  a  great  deal  of  picto- 
resque  rural  sceneiy,  and  a  pleasing  mixture  of 
the  sweet  and  the  wild. 

BALUSTER,  n,  i.  "J  Fr.  6atftirtrp,Span. 

Balustradr,  ft.  f.  ybalamter,  Ital.  ba- 

Balus'tered,  por^  &  «$'.  J  lattttrio,GT.pakettf 
irioy,  the  flower  m  blossom  of  the  pomegranate. 
Dr.  Johnson,  however,  derives  it  from  the  Italian 
baUitrierat  a  spike-hole,  or  loop-hole,  to  shoot 
out  at.  Babitier  is  sometimes  corruptly  written 
hamtter*  A  small  column  or  pilaster  from  an 
inch  and  three  quarters  to  four  mches  square,  or 
diameter :  their  dimensions  and  forms  are  various. 
They  are  frequently  adorned  with  mouldings; 
they  are  placed  with  rails  on  stairs,  and  in  the 
fronts  of  galleries  in  churches.  BaUatert,  when 
eontinued  form  a  balustrade. 

This  ihoold  fint  haw  been  plukched  over,  and 

railed  abont  with  haiutign,  Carew. 

The  tenrMee  and  halmaradm  built  along  the  river,  are 

now  overgrown  with  roeee.  Bwk^^mnn^t  Tnietb. 

Here  is  a  viita,  there  the  doon  unfold, 

Balooniee  here  are  teluifred  with  gold. 

Dfydm's  Art  of  Poetry. 

Balvstradb,  ft.  f.;  from  baluster;  an  as- 
semblage of  one  or  more  rows  of  little  tuined 
pillars,  called  ballusters,  fixed  upon  a  terrace,  or 
we  top  of  a  buildmgy  for  separating  one  part 
from  another. 

BALUZE,  (Stephen)  a  French  writer,  bom  in 
1641,  and  educated  at  Toulouse,  where  he  was 
patronised  by  the  archbishop,  after  whose  death 
ne  was  appointed  librarian  to  M.  Colbert.  In 
1693  the  king  made  him  professor  of  canon  law, 
and  gave  him  a  pension,  with  the  post  of  direc- 
tor of  the  royal  college,  for  writing  the  lives  of 
the  popes  of  Avi^on ;  both  of  which  advantages 
he  soon  lost  in  the  fluctuation  of  court  parties ; 
having  inserted  some  offensive  notes  in  nis  Ge- 
nealogical History  of  the  house  of  Auvergne.  He 
is  much  more  famed  for  collecting  ancient  MSS. 
and  illustrating  them  with  notes,  than  for  his  own 
compositions.    He  died  in  1718. 

BALYUR,  or  Baliur,  a  sea-port  of  Africa, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Dancali,  about  fourteen  hours 
Journey  west  from  Babel-Mandel.  It  is  remark- 
able only  for  being  the  landing  place  of  the  Abys- 
sinian patriareh,  Alphonsus  Mendez,  with  his 
Jesnits  and  Portuguese,  April  3d,  1724. 

BALZAC  (John  Lewis  Guez  de),  bom  at  An- 
goulftme  in  1 695.  Voltaire  allows  him  the  merit 
of  having  given  numbers  and  harmony  to  the 
French  nrose,  but  censures  his  style  as  bombastic. 
Cardinal  Richelieu  gave  him  a  pension  of  2000 
livres,  with  the  titles  of  counsellor  of  state  and 
historiographer  of  France.  He  died  in  1654; 
and  was  buried  in  the  hospital  of  Notre  Dame 
des  Anges,  at  Angouldroe  to  which  he  bequeathed 
12,000  livres.  Besides  his  Letters,  he  wrote  a 
work  called  (Euvres  Diverses,  i.e.  on  various 
subjects ;  The  Prince ;  The  Christian  Socrates, 
&c. ;  and  many  other  pieces,  which  have  been 
published  in  two  volumes  folio. 

BAM,  Beam,  being  initials  in  the  name  of 
any  place,  usually  imply  it  to  have  been  woody ; 
frwn  the  Sax.  beam,  which  we  ?ise  in  the  same 
sense  to  this  day^^OtAton. 


BAMAH,  a  high  place  in  Jerusalem,  whei* 
there  was  an  idol  temple. 

BAMBA,  the  largest  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  Congo,  in  Africa.  It  is  situated  between  the 
rivers  Ambrix  and  Csanza ;  the  last  of  which  parts 
it  from  Pemba  on  the  east,  as  the  Ambriz  does  from 
the  province  of  Sogno  on  the  north.  Along  the  sea 
ooasts  it  extends  on  the  north  to  the  river  Lelunda ; 
and  on  the  south  to  the  Danda,  which  parts  it 
from  the  kingdom  of  Angola.  The  governors  of 
this  province  bear  the  tiUe  of  dukes,  and  are  al- 
most independent  of  the  king.  The  soil  is  rerj 
fertile,  ana  would  produce  sdl  the  necessaries  oif 
life  in  great  plenty,  were  the  inhabitants  indus" 
trious  in  its  cultivation.  The  sea  coasts  produce 
a  vast  quanti^  of  salt,  which  could  be  purified 
with  little  trouble.  The  fishery  of  the  zimbi.,  or 
little  sea-snail,  is  here  carried  on,  whose  sheU  is 
the  current  coin,  not  only  in  this  and  the  neigh- 
bouring kingdom,  but  also  in  the  most  distant 
parts  of  Africa.  Here  are  also  said  to  be  mines 
of  gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  copper,  tin,  and  iron, 
but  the  iibn  mines  alone  are  allowed  to  be 
worked.  Bamba,  the  capital,  is  thirty  leagues 
inland.  The  other  chief  towns  are,  Panza  or 
Penga,  in  a  plain  between  the  rivers  Ambriz  and 
Loze,  and  MosuUa  or  Marsoula. 

BAMBARAH.  an  ancient  city  of  Sinde,  in 
Hindostan,  supposed  to  have  b^  the  ancient 
Braminabad,  a  city  which,  in  the  tenth  century, 
was  the  residence  of  a  dynasty  of  Hindoo  princes, 
when  it  had  regular  bastions  (and  corresponding 
defences),  to  the  number  of  1400,  seventy  yards 


BAMBARRA,  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
powerful  kingdoms  of  central  Africa,  bounded 
on  the  west  by  Kaarta  and  Manding,  on  the 
south  by  Ludamar  and  Beeroo,  on  the  east  by 
Tombttctoo  and  Baedoo,  and  on  the  south  by 
Kong  and  Mamana.  It  is  generally  placed  be- 
tween IS""  &  IS""  N.  lat.  and  about  20^  W.  long. 
The  country,  though  in  some  parts  desert,  h  in. 
general  very  feftile,  and  often  reminded  Mr. 
Park,  he  tells  us,  of  the  finest  parts  of  Engand. 
Besides  the  usual  productions  of  this  part  of 
Africa,  it  yields  the  shea  tree,  the  kernel  of  which 
forms  a  species  of  vegetable  batter.  The  Niger 
traverses  it  from  west  to  east,  and  is  navigable  by 
canoes  through  the  whole  extent  of  Bainbarra. 
The  inhabitants  tan  sheep  and  goat  skins,  smelt 
iron,  are  pretty  good  smitns,  and  make  a  tolerar 
ble  sort  of  beer  of  durrah,  (sorghum  vulgare), 
and  the  lotus-berries,  (zyzyphus  lotus).  The 
land  about  ICabba  was  so  well  cultivated,  as  to 
remind  Mr.  Paric  of  England.  Their  language 
is  a  dialect  of  the  Mandingo.  Their  canoes  are 
large,  formed  of  two  trunlu  of  trees  joined  to- 
aether,  but  have  neither  sails  nor  masts.  Mr. 
Pdrk,  in  travelling,  passed  through  many  popu* 
lous  towns.  Sego,  tne  capital,  he  supposed  to 
have  30,000,  Sansanding,  10,000  or  11,000,  and 
Jenne  probably  more  inhabitants.  Baedoo  is 
tributary  to  the  king  of  Bambarra,  and  some 
accounts  represent  Tombuctoo  also  to  have  fiillen 
under  bis  dominion.  The  inhabitants  consist  of 
a  mixture  of  Moors  and  Negroes ;  and  though 
the  sovereign  is  a  Negro,  the  administration  of 
many  of  the  towns  is  in  Uie  hands  of  the  Moors. 
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commercial  of  the  two ;  but  their  character  is 
narsh,  severe,  and  intolerant ;  whereas  the  Ne- 
groes are  gentle  and  kind,  the  influence  of  which 
Mr.  Park  frequently  experienced.  The  slaves 
brought  from  Bambarra  are  the  most  valued  of 
any,  both  on  the  coast,  and  in  Barbary.  The 
trade  with  the  coast  is  carrie»l  on  by  slateas,  or  tra- 
yelling  m<%rchants;  that  with  BsUrbary  by  the 
Moors  from  across  the  desert,  either  directly  into 
Bambarra,  or  through  the  channel  of  Tombuo 
too  ;  and  althotigh  Bambarra  itself  does  not  pro- 
duce gold,,  it  is  the  medium  through  which  that 
of  Manding,  Kong,  and  Bambouk,  is  trans- 
mitted to  many  other  parts  of  the  continent.  Mr. 
Park  could  form  no  satisfactory  conjecture  of  the 
number  of  the  inhabitants  altogether.  The  name  of 
this  country  was  hardly  known  a  few  years  ago. 
Its  only  traces  in  history  are,  that  Mouette,  in  bis 
History  of  MeulyAichy,  (MCil^i  Rashld,)  tells 
us,  when  Sidi  Ali,  the  Moriibit,  who  had  reigned 
at  S(is,  was  obliged  to  fly  into  Nigritia,  he  took 
refuge  with  the  king  of  Bambarra,  and  raised  an 
army  of  negroes,  whom  he  led  into  the  empire  of 
Morocco.  This  enabled  Miil&  t  Ismail,  the  suo 
cesser  of  Rashld  (Archy)  to  make  the  conquest 
of  Tombuktii.  Thence  arose  the  influence  of  the 
Moors  over  the  Negro  countries.  Their  conver- 
sion to  Mahommedanism  is  probably  of  more 
modern  date.  Mungo  Park's  kind  reception  here, 
together  with  the  tresitment  Mr.  Docherd  expe- 
rienced, during  a  residence  of  several  months  on 
the  banks  of  the  Joliba,  inspires  the  hope  that 
we  might  establish  a  friendly  intercourse  between 
S^g6  and  the  coast  Mr.  O'Beime  was  sent,  in 
March  1820,  by  the  governor  of  Sierra  Leone  on 
t  mission  to  the  Alm&mi  (Im^)  of  Timb6,  and 
fomid  there  an  envoy  from  Dhaa,  king  of  S^g5, 
sent  to  apologize  to  the  governor  for  8ie  deten- 
tion of  Mr.  Docherd.  Lieutenant  Lang  of  the 
second  West  India  regiment,  offered  to  accom- 
pany this  envoy  back  to  S^g6 ;  and  the  envoy 
quitted  Sierra  Leone  for  FCitah  Jallon,  in  July 
t821 ;  but  the  final  result  of  these  measures  we 
have  not  learned. 

BAMBERG,  a  large  handsome  town  and  bi- 
shopric of  Franconia  in  Germany,  now  forms 
part  of  the  circle  of  the  Maine  and  of  Reizat,  in 
Bavaria.  It  was  formerly  imperial,  and  the 
bishop  was  director  of  the  circle  of  Franconia. 
He  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  an  archbishop,  im- 
mediately under  the  pope,  and  was  the  fourth 
among  the  spiritual  princes  of  the  empire.  In 
1007  the  emperor  Henry  II.  created  his  chan- 
cellor the  first  bishop  of  Bamberg,  and  the  succes- 
sion was  regolai  until  it  was  secularised  and  as- 
signed to  Bavaria  in  1803.  The  diocese  included 
1480  square  miles,  and  more  tiian  200,000  inha* 
bitants.  The  number  of  towns  was  nineteen. 
The  bailiwics  exceeded  fifty,  and  the  villages  and 
hamlets  were  estimated  at  1200.  The  whole  of 
Samberg,  including  the  secularised  convents,  is 
supposed  to  yield  about  £150,000  a  year  to  the 
crown  of  Bavaria.  The  country  produces  plenty 
of  com,  fruits,  and  liquorice,  and  the  manufac- 
tures of  chintz  and  iron  are  flourishing.  The 
town  has  an  university,  founded  in  1147 ;  and  is 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Maine  and 
JB«idnitK  It  is  in  part  surrounded  by  walls  and 
ditches     The  cathedraH  vith  its  four  towers  and 


rich  treasury,  the  abbey  of  St  Midiadsbeig^  die 
ten  monasteries  and  nunneries  (now  mostly  sup* 
pressed),  the  sixteen  churches,  the  fifteen  chapels, 
the  new  episcopal  residence  of  Petersburgh,  built 
by  bishop  Lotharius  in  1702,  the  tombs  of  the 
emperor  Henry  IL  and  his  wife,  of  Conrade  III 
ana  pope  Clement  IL,  are  all  worthy  of  regard 
A  Carmelite  monastery,  which  is  now  secularised, 
contained  a  library  of  14,000  volumes,  besides 
many  curious  manuscripts ;  and  valuable  collect 
tions  of  books  exist  in  the  cathedral  church  and 
in  the  abbey  of  St.  Michaelsberg.  This  last  esta> 
blishment  stands  on  a  hill,  and  commands  a  de- 
lightful prospect.  The  university  was  converted 
into  a  lyceum  in  1802.  This  place  is  noted  for 
its  abundant  vegetable  markets;  not  less  thaa 
400  market-gardeners  being  resident  here.  It  has 
been  laid  under  several  contributions  by  the  Rus- 
sians and  the  French.  It  is  supposed  to  contain 
20,000  inhabitants. 

Bamberg,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  situated  at  the 
foot  of  a  mountain,  in  long,  le"*  AO'  £.,  Ua.  49^ 
53'N. 

BAMBELE,  in  zoology.    See  Rutilus. 

BAMBO,  in  commerce,  an  East  Indian  mea> 
sure,  containing  five  English  pints. 

BAMBOCCIO,  a  celebrated  painter  of  con- 
versations, landscapes,  cattle,  &c.  was  bom  at 
I^ieren,  near  Naarden^  in  1613.  His  name  was 
Peter  Van  Laer;  but  in  Italy  they  gave  him  the 
name  of  Bamboccio,  on  account  of  the  uncommon 
shape  of  his  body,  the  lower  part  being  one-third 
part  longer  than  the  upper,  and  his  neck  so  short 
that  it  was  buried  between  his  shoulders.  He 
had,  however,  an  ample  amends  for  the  unseem- 
liness of  his  limbs,  in  the  superior  beauties  of  his 
mind ;  he  was  endowed  with  an  extensive  genius ; 
and,  indeed,  he  had  an  universal  taste  for  eveiy 
part  of  painting.    See  Van  Laer. 

BAMBOO,  an  Indian  plant  of  the  reed  kind. 
It  has  several  shoots  much  larger  than  our  ordi- 
nary reeds,  which  are  knotty,  and  separated 
from  space  to  space  by  joints.  The  importance 
of  this  plant  to  vast  regions  of  the  East,  maof  wdl 
.excuse  our  dwelling  on  some  modes  of  its  culture^ 
and  its  peculiarities. 

Botanists  ha?e  generally  ranked  it  with  cnhet 
reeds.  Linnaeus,  in  the  Systema  Naturs,  describes 
two  species,  under  the  genus  bambnsa,  which  is 
characterised  by  scales  three,  covering  the  spike* 
lets,  which  are  about  five  flowered ;  oUyx  Booe; 
corolla,  a  two  valved  glume ;  style  bifid ;  seed 
one.  But  Loureiro,  who  saw  it  in  its  own  eli- 
mate,  characterises  it  as  having  flowers  with  six 
stamina ;  panicle  diffiised,  with  imbricate  spike* 
lets;  branches  of  the  eulra  spiny;  calyx  one 
flowered.  We  aball  not  disouss  its  minuie  boift- 
nical  charactere,  as  it  is  the  practical  culttvatios 
and  great  utility  of  the  plant  to  which  we  would 
engage  the  reader's  attention. 

A  native  of  the  warmer  climates  only,  though 
often  growing  luxuriously  beyond  the  tropics,  the 
bamboo  rises  to  the  height  of  forty,  sixty,  or  ereo 
eighty  feet,  with  a  slender,  hollow,  shining,  stem. 
Many,  however,  are  only  twelve  or  fifteen  feet 
high ;  and  those  which  attain  the  greatest  height 
here  mentioned  are  rather  to  be  viewed  as  over- 
grown. The  stem  is  extremdy  slender,  some- 
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in  them  whidi  ue  fifty  feet  high,  attd  in  Others, 
beine  fifteen  or  eighteen  in  diameter ;  the  whole 
divided  into  joints  separated  by  knots  or  inter- 
nodes,  between  which  are  distances  var3ring  from 
a  few  inches  to  several  feet.    Alternate  branches 
'        spring  from  tiie  base  to  the  top ;  tvfaich,  with  the 
pointed  leaves  of  the  knots,  give.the  whole  tree 
'        a  most  elegant  appearance. 
'  It  will  sometimes  vegetate  three  or  four  inches 

'  in  a  single  dav,  and  it  has  been  seen  to  rise 
twenty  feet,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  wrist,  in  five . 
'  or  six  weeks.  Its  full  dimensions  are  frequently, 
dierefore,  attained  in  a  year ;  and  the  only  change 
'  afterwards,  is  greater  thickness  and  induration  of 
'  the  wood.  Towards  the  root  it  is  solid  and  com- 
'        pact ;  and  the  cells  of  the  stem  become  wider 

>  in  proportion  as  they  ascend.  In  Malabar  it  is 
said  to  bear  fruit  when  fifteen  years  old,  and  that 

^        it  then  dies. 

There  seem  to  be  several  species  which  have 

>  not  yet  been  recognised  by  svstematic  botanists. 
An  observer  of  the  bamboos  of  China,  in  general, 
considers  that  there  are  nine  species  or  varieties, 
and  an  observer  of  those  in  Cochin-China,  admits 

i        of  eight.    The  former  judges  the  difference  to 
consist,  first,  in  the  size  and  height,  for  there  is 
I        here  the  greatest  disparity  in  those  that  are  full 
t        grown ;  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  some,  if 
not  aU  species,  originally  spring  of  their  ultimate 
f        diameter,  which  receives  no  accession.   Secondly, 
(        the  distance  of  the  knots,  or  length  of  joint, 
which,  in  certain  species  of  full-grown  bamboo,  is 
[        only  four  inches,  while,  in  others  long  and  slen- 
t        der,  they  are  nine  or  ten  feet  asunder.    Thirdly, 
I         in  the  color  of  the  wood,  which  is  whitish,  yel- 
low, brown,  pale  blue,  or  speckled.    Fourthly, 
F         in  die  size  ana  form  of  the  knots,  some  swelling 
out  from  the  stem  above  and  below ;  some  en- 
circling it  like  a  cord ;  and  those  of  the  most  sin- 
gulair  kind,  which  do  npt  penetrate  within  to 
interrupt  the  tubular  part  of  the  bamboo.  Fifthly, 

>  by  the  surface  and  figure  of  the  intemodes  being 
channelled  or  covered  with  tubercles ;  and  a  kind 
'is  said  to  exist,  called  the  square  bamboo.    The 

,  varnished  sur&ce  is  also  of  different  quality. 
Sixthly,  the  substance  and  thickness  of  the  wood, 

,  which,  varying  without  any  relation  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  plant,  afford  sufficient  characteristics 

I         for  constitutmg  a  species.  The  wood  is  either  soft 

^         and  teiider,  or  very  hard  and  of  great  strength; 

,         and  the  stem  is  either  very  thin  and  hollow,  Or 

^  almost,  totally  filled  up  and  solid,  like  other  trees. 
But  elsewhere,  in  Bangalore  for  example,  this 
^lidity  is  not  ascribed  to  the  difference  of  spe- 
cies, but  to  the  tardiness  of  its  growth  in  stony- 
CBs.  Seventhly,  it  is  said  that  there  are  bam- 
entirely  devoid  of  branches,  however  old 
they  may  be;  while  others  protrude  as  they 
i^pring  from  the  earth.  Eignthly,  there  is  a 
great  difference  both  in  the  hue  and  figure  of  the 
leaves,  as  also  in  their  size;  they  are  bhiish,  ash- 
color,  reddish,  or  mottled.  Some  are  so  large 
as  to  make  good  fans.  Ninthly,  the  roots,  though 
knotty,  are  found  in  one  species  to  penetrate 
into  the  earth  like  a  tuft  of  filaments. 

This  plant  is  to  be  found  growing  wild  in  most 
parts  of  the  east,  and  is  resorted  to  as  occasion 

I    .      requires.    It  is  replarly  cultivated  in  plantations 
in  the  more  genial  climates,  and  preserved  in 


othcn  in  green-houses^  8tc.    It  succeeds  best  in 
tow  sheltered  spongy  grounds,  but  the  immediate 
contact  of  the  root  with  water  is  said  to  b^  fktal 
to  it.    They  propagate  it  by  shoots,  deposited  in 
pits  at  the  close  of  autumn  or  commencement  of 
winter,  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  deep;  and  if 
it  be  designed  to  obtain  bamboos  of  emsiderable 
size,  the  scyons  are  cut  over  as  tliey  springs  up. 
It  flourishes  but  in  large  pl^tatiohs,  as  the  plants 
yield  considerable  shelter  to  each  other  ih  their 
progress.    As  diey  run  from  the  ground  they  dre 
propped  up  and  trained  with  rods  of  a  prbper 
nei^t;  and  if  complete  plants,  are  cut  bver,  ih 
order  to  obtain  suitable  shoots,  which  are  chiefly 
sought  after.    This,  also,  makes  ^e  root  strike  odt 
and  take  a  secure  hold  of  the  ground.  The  planta- 
tion, in  rainy  seasons,  is  gen'eraHy  drained  by  a 
ditch,  as  it  decays  very  fast  in  too  damp  gtoimds. 
To  obtain  good  Bamboos,  it  n  not  uncommon  to 
t^e  a  vigorous  root  with  firm  wood,  and  txansplant 
it,  leaving  only  four  or  five  inches  above  the  joint 
next  the  ground.    The  cavity  is  then  filled  with  a 
mixture  of  hone-litter  and  sulphur.    Sometimes 
the  shoots  are  destroyed  at  an  early  stage  during 
three  successive  years ;  and  thbse  springing  in  the 
fourth  are  then  teid  to  resemble  the  parent  tree. 
The  earliest  shoots  of  this  plant  are  edible, 
and  arc  served  up  at  table  in  autumn  like  aspa- 
ragus; in  a  simihir  manner  with  that  vegeta- 
ble, also,  they  are  earthed  over  to  keep  them: 
they  a^e  also  salted  and  eaten  with  rice.    A 
fluid  of  gratefiil  taste  arid  odour  is  yielded  (torn 
the  hollow  joints  as  the  plant  grows  up,  afford- 
ing an   agreeable   beverage.     In    its    further 
progress  this  becomes  a   concrete   substance 
called    tabaxir    or    tabascbeer,    highly  valued 
for  its  medicinal  properties,  and  apparently  a 
species  of  siliceous  earai.    It  resists  the  impres- 
sion df  acids,  Is  indescructible  by  fire,  and  with 
alkalies  forms  a  transparent  glass.    A  decoction 
of  the  leaves  of  the  bamboo  is  recotnmended  in  the 
east  for  coughs  and-sore-thkoat ;  the  barkfo^  fever 
and  vomiting;  thebt^ds  as  a  diuretic;  and  a  com- 
pound of  the  root  with  tobacco-leaves,  betel-nnlt, 
and  oil,  forms  an  efficacious  oxntmedt.    Many 
of  the  poorer  classes  in  tiie   most   populous 
countries  subsist  entirely  upon  it  in  times  of 
scarcity.     The  Hindoos  eat  its  seeds  rotot^ 
mixed  with  honey  as  a  delicacy,  equal  quantities 
of  each  beine  put  into  a  hoUow  joint,  coated 
externally  wiSi  day. 

From  the  copious  draught  which  a  joint  of  the 
bamboo  naturally  yields,  miinkind  are  taught  its 
use  as  a  vessel  for  carrying  water,  and  in  some 
places  no  other  bucket  is  employed.  Many 
eastern  nations  build  their  houses  solely  of  tire 
bamboo-wood;  entire,  it  forms  their  posts  or 
columns;  split  up,  it  serves  for  floors  or  rafters; 
or,  interwoven  in  lattice-work,  it  is  employed 
for  the  sides  of  rooms,  admitting  light  and  air. 
The  roof  is  sometimes,  also,  of  bamboo,  fi>r 
which  two  of  its  species  are  described  to  be 
specially  adapted*;  and  when  split,  which  is 
accomplished  with  the  greatest  ease,  it  can  be 
formea  into  lath  or  planks.  Vessels  of  aU  kinds 
are  framed  out  of  it  likewise,  and  fitted  for  sea. 
The  hull  is  taken  from  the  stem ;  and  some  of  the 
strongest  plants  are  selected  for  masts  of  boats. 
In  Baigal,  a  boat  of  four'  or  five  tons  maybe 


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furnished  with  both  maat  and  yard  from  the  same 
bamboo,  at  the  cost  of  threepence;  and  the  masts 
of  larger  vessels  are  sometimes  formed  by  the 
union  of  several  bamboos  built  up  and  joined. 
Those  of  considerable  dimensions  are  used  in  the 
higher  yards  of  larger  ships,  for  which,  by  their 
great  strength  and  lightness,  they  are  well 
adapted. 

This  important  plant  is  also  employed  in  the 
construction  of  agncultural  and  domestic  imple- 
ments; and  in  all  materials  and  implements, 
reouired  in  fisberr,  with  the  exception  of  hooks 
ana  nets.  In  Thibet  bows  are  made  of  it,  by  the 
union  of  two  pieces  with  many  bands;  and  in  the 
same  country  also,  it  is  employed  for  pipes,  in 
transmitting  water,  for  several  miles,  to  reservoirs 
or  gardens.  A  single  joint  is  sufficiently  capacious 
to  serve  as  a  bucket;  and  in  some  places,  no 
other  is  used.  In  the  south-west  of  Asia,  a  species 
of  slender  growth  supplies  writing-pens  or  reeds. 
Baskets,  cages,  hats,  and  various  ornamental 
articles,  are  to  be  added  to  the  catalogue  of  its 
extensive  uses.  By  a  particular  process  in 
bruising  and  steeping  the  wood  or  iMirk,  also, 
a  paste  is  procured  that  is  made  into  paper.  In 
short,  as  it  has  justly  been  observed,  from  its 
▼ery  origin  until  its  decay,  it  never  ceases  to  pro- 
duce something  beneficial — all  that  composes  a 
bamboo  is  profitable,  of  whatever  species  it  may 
be.  The  artists  of  China  have  each  made  their 
choice,  and  in  the  works  they  produce,  show  the 
advantage  they  have  derived  ^m  it.  Its  uses 
are  so  numerous,  so  various,  and  so  beneficial, 
•that  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  how  China 
fOOuld  now  dispense  with  this  precious  reed.  It 
is  no  exaggeration  to  affirm,  tnat  the  mines  of 
4his  vast  empire  are  of  less  importance  to  it  than 
the  possession  of  the  bamboo. 

Bahboo,  in  botany,  the  trivial  name  of  a  spe- 
cies of  arundo.    See  Arumdo. 

Bamboo  Habit,  a  Chinese  contrivance  by 
which  a  person  who  does  not  know  how  to  swim 
may  easily  keep  himself  above  water.  The  fol- 
lowing account  of  it  is  taken  firom  a  letter  to  the 
author  of  die  Seaman's  Preservative.  <  In  the 
year  1730  I  was  passenger  in  a  ship  from  Bata- 
via  to  China,  burden  about  400  tons,  called  the 
Pridae,  Francisco  Xavier,  commander,  freighted 
by  the  English,  Chinese,  and  Portuguese.  Near 
the  coast  of  China,  we  met  with  one  of  those 
storms  called  atuifoon  (tau  song),  or  a  great  wind, 
which  carried  away  all  our  masts,  bowsprit  and 
judder ;  and  in  our  hold  we  had  six  feet  of  water, 
expecting  every  moment  the  ship  would  founder. 
We  consequently  were  consulting  our  preserva- 
tion ;  the  English  and  Portuguese  stooa  in  their 
shirts  only,  r«bdy  to  be  thrown  off;  but  the  Chi- 
nese merchants  came  upon  deck,  not  in  a  jacket, 
but  I  will  call  it  a  bamtxx)  habi^  which  had  lain 
ready  in  their  chests  against  such  dangers ;  and 
it  was  thus  constructed ;  four  bamboos  two  before 
and  two  behind  their  bodies,  were  placed  hori- 
zontally, and  projected  about  fwenty-eight 
inches.  These  were  crossed  on  each  side  by  two 
others^  and  the  whole  properly  secured,  leaving  a 
space  for  their  body ;  so  that  they  had  only  to  put 
it  over  their  heads,  and  tie  the  same  securely 
which  was  done  in  twp  minutes,  and  we  were  sa 
tisAed  they  could  not  possibly  sink.' 


'JjEyV,'^     Acantwoidootnsedy 
a,  n.     >say3  Johnson,  in  pure, 


BAMBCyOZLE,  V. 

Bambo'ozleb, 

Bambo'ozling.  3  or  grave  writings.  ~  To 
delude,  to  mislead,  to  cheat,  to  cozen,  to  deceive, 
to  beguile.  Synonymous  with  another  cant  term, 
to  fttonbug^  or  to  take  in. 

After  Nic  had  hmAoofiM  John  awhile,  John  called 
for  coanters.  Swift. 

There  are  a  set  of  fellows  they  eall  bsnteren  ud 
hamhooMUn,  that  play  aoch  tracks.  ArbmlhmL 

But,  Ays  I,  sir,  I  perceive  this  is  to  you  all  ham- 
hooMlimg;  why  you  look  as  if  you  were  Bon  Diego  to 
the  tune  of  a  thoosaad  pounds.  Tatter,  No.  3). 

BAMBRIDGE,  or  Bainbridgb  (Christo- 
pher), L.L.D.  arohbishop  of  York,  and  cardinal, 
was  bom  at  Hilton  in  Westmoreland,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  He  rose  gradually  from  being 
rector  .of  Alter,  prebendaiy  of  Salisbuiy,  dean  of 
York  and  Windsor,  &c.  lo  one  of  the  highest  dt(*- 
nitics  of  the  churoh.  In  1495  he  was  elect^i 
provost  of  Queen's  college.  In  1507  he  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Windsor,  and  next  year 
archbishop  of  York.  He  was  employed  in  dif- 
ferent emoassies  to  foreign  princes ;  particulariy 
to  the  emperor  Maximilian  1.,  Charles  VIII.  king 
of  France,  &c.  But  he  chiefly  distingoisbed 
himself  in  the  embassy  fiom  Heniy  VIII.  to  pope 
Julius  II.  who  created  him  a  cardinal,  with  the 
title  of  St.  Praxede,  in  1511,  and  appointed  him 
legate  of  the  eccfesiastical  army,  tnen  besieging 
^istia.  In  return,  our  new  cardinal  prevailed 
upon  Henry  VIII.  to  take  part  with  the  pope 
against  the  king  of  France.  There  are  extant  m 
Rymer*s  Fcedera,  two  letters ;  the  one  horn  caiw 
dinal  Bambridge  to  king  Henry  VIII.  respecting 
the  pope's  bull,  giving  him  the  title  o£  Defender 
of  the  Faith;  and  the  other  from  cardinal  Sini^ 
galli,  to  that  monarch,  acquainting  him  he  had 
delivered  the  instrument  to  cardinii  Bambridge. 
He  died  at  Rome  in  1514,  being  poisoned  by  a 
domestic,  in  revenge  for  his  having  strack  him. 

BAMBOROUOH,  or  Bambbouch,  a  parish 
and  castle  of  Northumberland,  on  the  sea  coast, 
five  miles  east  from  Belford,  and  329  north 
from  London.  It  was  once  a  ro^  borough,  and 
sent  two  members  to  parliament  The  castle 
stands  upon  a  rock,  almost  perpendicularly  to 
the  sea,  and  150  feet  above  its  level.  It  is  acces- 
sible only  on  the  south-east  side.  On  this  spot, 
according  to  historians,  stood  a  palace  of  the 
Northumbrian  kings,  built  by  Ina  in  559.  la 
the  reign  of  queen  Elisabeth^  Sir  John  Forster, 
warden  of  the  marches,  was  made  governor  of  it 
after  die  battle  of  Musselburgh ;  and  subsequently, 
to  his  great  credit,  bis  relative.  Crew,  bishop  of 
Durham,  purchased  and  bequeathed  it  to  dtt- 
ritableuses.  In  1757  the  trustees  of  this  diarity  re- 
paired the  great  tower,  and  formed  the  upper  build* 
ings  into  granaries,  for  the  sale  of  ooni  to  the 
poor,  at  a  cheap  rate.  A  constant  watdi  on  the 
top  of  the  tower  is  said  to  be  kept,  whence  signals 
are  made  when  any  vessel  is  discovered  in  dis- 
tress, and  boats  arc  able  to  put  oif  firom  Holy 
Island  when  none  from  the  land  can  pass  the 
breakers.  During  a  storm  horsemen  patrol  the 
coast,  to  the  extent  of  eight  miles,  from  sun-set 
to  sun-rise,  to  give  notice  in  case  of  shipwrecks 
to  the  castle,  and  w'nere  the  unfortunate  mariner 
finds  an  hospitable  asylum.    Upwards  of  thixCy 


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boats  are  alwajrs  in  readiness  for  this  ;i^od  work. 
At  the  expense  of  this  fund,  the  last  offices  are 
also  performed  over  the  bodies  of  such  persons 
as  may  be  cast  on  shore.  Within  the  castle 
walls  are  to  be  found  a  school,  a  valuable  library, 
an  infirmary,  which  receives  more  than  1000 
patients  yearly,  and  a  dispensary. 

BAMBOUCH,  or  Bahbtcb,  called  also  Ma- 
gog and  Hierapolis,  an  ancient  city  of  Syria,  not 
nr  from  the  Sejour,  and  fifty  miles  distant  firom 
Aleppo.  It  is  situated  in  a  valley,  watered  by  a 
stream  conveyed  by  aqueducts  to  the  town  from  a 
hill  twelve  miles  south,  and  in  some  parts  by  a 
channel  twenty  feet  under  the  earth.  The  an- 
cient town  was  surrounded  by  walls  above  thirty 
feet  high,  and  nine  feet  thick,  strengthened  by 
towers  at  the  distance  of  fifty  paces  from  each 
other ;  it  was  entered  by  four  gates  fifteen  feet 
wide,  defended  by  a  tower  on  each  side,  cased, 
as  thev  still  appear,  both  extecnally  and  inter- 
nally, by  hewn  stone ;  the  top  was  gained  by  a 
flight  of  steps  built  on  arches.  Various  remains 
of  the  structures  and  sculptures  of  different 
nations  and  dates  appear  here. 

BAMBOUK,  or  Bambuc,  a  country  of  Africa, 
which  the  Abbe  Raynal  states  to  be  situated  in 
the  interior,  under  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  de- 
gree of  north  latitude.  It  is  not  subject  to  a  parti- 
cular king;  but  governed  by  vilUge  lords, called 
fariros.  These  hereditary  and  independent  chie6 
are  obliged  to  unite  for  the  defence  of  the  state, 
when. it  is  either  attacked  as  a  conmiunity  or 
only  in  one  of  its  branches.  The  territory  of 
4his  aristocratical  state  is  dry  and  barren.  It 
produces  neither  maise,  rice,  nor  pulse.  The 
•insupportable  heat  it  is  subject  to,  proceeds  in 
part  from  its  being  surrounded  by  high  moun- 
tains, which  prevent  the  wind  from  refreshing  the 
air.  The  climate  is  as  unwholesome  as  it  is  dis- 
agreeable ;  vapors,  which  continually  issue  from 
the  bowels  of  a  soil  replete  with  minerals,  render- 
ing it  unfit  to  live  in,  especially  to  stransers.  Its 
gold  has  made  it  an  object  worthy  of  notice ; 
gold,  which  in  the  eves  of  the  covetous  man 
seems  to  compensate  for  all  tlie  evils  of  nature, 
though  in  reality  it  increases  them  Sensible 
and  judicious  merchants,  adds  this  author,  have 
chosen  to  limit  themselves  to  a  commerce  much 
more  important,  which  is  that  of  slaves. 

Almost  all  that  is  known  of  this  state  is  de> 
rived  from  a  Frenchman  named  Compagnon, 
who  passed  a  year,  and  a  half  there  in  the  l^gin- 
ning  of  the  last  century.  Labat,  Afric^ue  Occi- 
dentale,  iv<  5.  He  describes  it  as  divided  into 
three  provinces,  Bambouk  Proper,  Kincodon, 
and  Satadore,  each  of  which  abounds  with  gold, 
but  the  first  most  particularly.  The,  principal 
lepositories  are  at  Rakkon,  l^mayla,  Hambia, 
and  Hombadyria,  at  each  of  which  appears  a 
conical  hill  of  moderate  elevation,  eveiy  part  of 
which  contains  gold,  combined  with  earth,  sand- 
stone, lapis  lazuli,  &c.  Tliey  obtain  4he  metal 
by  di^ng  deep  pits,  and  delivering  the  eaith  to 
the  women,  who  cary  it  to  the  streams,  and  sepa- 
rate the  gold  by  the  simple  piocess  of  a^tation 
in  water,  after  the  manner  described  in  Mr. 
Park's  second  journey.  When  the  other  sub- 
stances are  bard,  the  whole  is  previously  pounded. 
Inose  pits  being  only  six  Met  square  often  fall 
Vjol,  IIL 


in,  and  bury  the  workmen.  Bambouk  appears  to 
be  the  main  source  of  that  laige  quantity  of  gold 
which  is  on  one  side  conveyed  down  the  Gambia 
and  Senegal,  and  traverses  the  desert  on  the  other 
into  Barlnry.  The  population  is  almost  entirely 
of  the  Mandingo  race.  It  is  remarkable,  how- 
ever, that  although  they  profess  Mahommedanism, 
no  marabout  or  priest  is  suffered*  to  reside  amongst 
them :  it  is  said  they  were  all  expelled  some  years 
since,  being  detected  in  a  conspiracy  to  seize  the 
government  It  is  also  said  that  they  are  very 
jealous  of  European  visitors;  and  that  the  Por- 
tuguese and  French  have  each  in  vain  endeavoured 
to  establish  themselves  here. 

BAMBYCE,  an  ancient  city  of  Parthia,  called 
also  Hierapolis :  fimious  for  the  rich  and  mag- 
nificent temple  of  Atergatis,  which  was  plundered 
by  Crassus. 

BAMEENY,  Vahani,  an  island  lying  off  the 
coast  (ff  Chittagong,  in  the  province  of  Bengal, 
formed  by  the  sediment  deposited  by  the  cnreat 
River  Megna.  It  is  twelve  miles  long  by  cuiout 
five  broad.  The  East  India  company  have  here 
an  extensive  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of 
salt,  of  which  they  retain  the  monopoly. 

BAMFF,  or  Banff,  a  county  of  Scotland,  com- 
prehending Strathdovem,  Boyn,  Ernie,  Strath- 
aven,  Balvenie,  and  part  of  Buchan,  extends 
fifty  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  thirty  in  breadth 
from  north  to  south.  On  the  south  it  is  separated 
from  part  of  Buchan  by  the  river  Ugie ;  on  the 
east  it  is  bounded  by  the  Deveron  and  ibe  Ger- 
man Ocean ;  on  the  west  by  the  Spey  and  the 
county  of  Moray ;  on  the  south-west  by  Badenoch 
and  the  Braes  of  Mar ;  and  on  the  north  by  the 
Moray  Frith.  The  face  of  the  country  is  agree- 
ably diversified  with  hills  and  dales,  woods  and 
rivers ;  and  exhibits  many  seats  and  plantations. 
The  air  is  pure,  the  climate  healthy,  and  the  soil 
fertile,  producing  plentiful  crops  of  com.  The 
pasture  grounds  feed  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses ; 
the  arable  lands  produce  plenty  of  com ;  while 
the  rivers  and  sea  supply  great  quantities  of  fish. 
The  manufactures  of  this  county  never  were 
considerable ;  and  those  of  yam  ana  cloth,  as  well 
as  the  cotton  manufitcture,  have  declined  of  late. 
Coarse  woollen  stufis  are  made  for  the  use  of 
private  families  and  tan-works ;  breweries,  rope 
works,  &f^  have  been  established  on  a  small 
scale.  The  principal  exports  of  Bamff  are  grain, 
fish,  butter,  cheese,  yam,  and  linen ;  while  the 
imports  are  flax,  hemp,  leather,  iron,  coals,  wood, 
ana  wine.  Various  minerals  bave  been  found  in 
different  parts  of  the  shire ;  and  a  piece  of  amber, 
as  large  as  a  horse,  was  once  cast  ashore  on  the 
beach.  Gordon  castle,  and  several  other  seats  of 
the  duke  of  Gordon  are  situated  in  this  county. 
It  sends  a  member  to  parliament.  Here  are  nu- 
merous remains  of  antiquity,  consisting  of  cairns 
and  tumuli,  exhibiting  the  triumphs  of  our  an- 
cestors over  the  Danes,  whose  sculls  they  have 
built  into  the  solid  walls  of  churches.  Also  the 
mins  of  several  forts,  castles,  and  monasteries. 
The  valued  rent  of  the  county  is  £79,400  Scots ; 
and  in  1811,  according  to  the  assessment  of  the 
property  tax,  the  real  gross  rent  of  the  lands  was 
£79,396  3s.  4d.,  and  of  the  houses  £5514.  2s. 
sterling. 

Bamff,  the  cnpital  of  the  county,  is  pleasantly 

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situated  on  the  south  side  of  a  hill,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Deveron.  A  fine  bridge  ol  seven  arches 
crosses  the  river.  It  has  several  good  streets ; 
of  which  that  with  the  towu-house  in  it,  adorned 
with  a  new  spire,  is  very  handsome.  This  place 
was  erected  into  a  borough  by  a  charter  from 
Robert  11.  dated  October  7th,  1372,  endo^ng  it 
with  the  same  privil^es,  and  putting  it  on 
the  same  footing  with  the  burgh  of  Aberdeen ; 
but  tradition  says  it  was  found^  in  the  reign  of 
Malcolm  III.  The  harbour  is  bad,  as  the  en- 
trance at  the  mouth  of  the  Deveron  is  very  un- 
certain, being  often  stopped  by  the  sands,  which 
are  continually  shifting  in  grett  storms ;  the  pier 
is  therefore  plac^  on  the  outside,  and  defended 
by  a  half-moon  battery  of  eig^t  guns.  Manu- 
factories of  thread,  cotton,  and  stockings,  axe 
carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  great 
quantities  of  salmon  ?je  annually  exported .  About 
Troop-head,  some  kelp  is  made ;  and  the  adven- 
turers pay  the  lord  ot  the  manor  £50  yearly  for 
the  liberty  of  collecting  tiie  materials.  Near  the 
•town  is  a  magnificent  seat  of  the  earl  of  Fife.  It 
lies  in  a  beautiful  plain  washed  by  the  Deveron, 
the  lofty  banks  of  which,  clotlied  with  wood  on 
the  opposite  side,  afford  a  delightful  contrast  to 
the  soft  vale  beneath. 

Bamff  has  two  fairs,  on  the  first  Tuesday  in 
February,  and  the  third  Tuesday  in  December, 
both  old  style.  Long.  2*»  15'  W.,  lat.  57*  35'  N. 
The  parish  is  about  six  miles  in  length,  and  two 
in  breadth.  The  sea  coast  is  bold  and  rocky.  A 
great  part  of  the  perish,  though  it  might  be  easily 
converted  into  arable  land,  is  occupied  in  pas- 
turage.   Population  about  3000. 

BAMIAN,  an  ancientcity  and  province  of  Asia, 
to  the  north-west  of  Cabul,  ten  days  journey 
from  Balkh.  It  is  remarkable  alike  for  having 
been  once  the  metropolis  of  Buddhism,  and  for 
its  dreadful  catastrophe,  when  taken  by  Jenghiz 
Khan  in  1221.  At  that  time  it  belonged  to  Sul- 
tan Jalallodin,  the  last  of  the  famous  Mahmud 
of  Gazoi's  race.  Jenghiz  was  about  to  attack 
Gazna,  that  prince's  capital,  but  was  stopped  by 
the  garrison  of  this  place,  which  he  had  hoped 
would  give  him  no  trouble.  In  this,  however, 
he  was  disappointed.  The  people  had  for  a  long 
time  expected  an  attack,  and  bad  therefore  ruined 
the  country  for  five  or  six  leagues  round,  while 
the  peasants  had  carried  away  the  stones,  and 
every  thing  that  could  be  of  use  to  the  besiegers. 
Accordingly  Jenghiz  Khan  having  erected  wooden 
towers,  and^  planted  his  engines  upon  them,  was 
obliged  to  suspend  his  operations,  till  millstones 
and  other  materials  could  be  brought  from  a  great 
distance.  The  walls  of  the  city  were  very  strong, 
so  that  the  engines  of  the  Moguls  made  little  im- 
pression ,  and  the  garrison,  making  frequent  and 
rurious  sallies,  cut  off  whole  squadrons  of  his 
troops,  and  frequent^  overthrew  his  towers  and 
engines.  This  so  exceedingly  chagrined  Jenghiz 
that  he  swore  to  be  revenged.  To  exasperate 
him  yet  &rther  a  young  prince,  his  grandson, 
was  accidentally  slam  in  Sie  siege.  At  last,  there- 
fore, by  the  numberless  multitude  of  the  Moguls, 
who  continued  their  attack  without  intermission, 
the  city  was  taken,  its  walls  had  been  ruined  in 
many  places,  and  the  bravest  soldiers  and  officers 
of  the  ffarrison  slain  in  its  defence.  The 
mother  of  the  young  phnce,  who  had  been  killed, 


entered  with  the  troops,  and  caused  the  tltrnattol 
every  one  of  the  inhabitants  to  be  cut,  we  an 
told»  without  exception,  and  even  gave  ordcra  to 
destroy  the  women  with  diild,  thai  not  an  infant 
mifi^t  be  left  alive  1  Furdier,  to  gratify  the  rage 
of  this  inhuman  monster,  the  buildings  were  all 
levelled  with  the  ground ;  the  cattle,  and  every 
living  creature,  destroyed;  insomudi  ^t  the 
hardened  Moguls  themselves  gave  this  place  the 
name  of  Maubalig,  or  the  unfortunate  city.  A 
castle  has  since  b^  built  out  of  its  ruins. 

The  place  now  appears  surrounded  with  grot- 
toes, or  caverns  (several  of  whidi  are  inhabited), 
excavated  from  an  insolated  mountain.  Many 
of  these  abound  with  carved  work  and  sculptures, 
and  the  remains  of  ancient  paintings.  Mr.  Wil- 
ford  (As.  Res.  vi.  462),  says  <  it  was  formerly 
called  Buddli  V&miyan,  <  the  most  beautiful  and 
excellent,'  (a  name  still  frequently  given  it  by 
the  followers  of  Buddha),  and  maliciously  cor- 
rupted by  the  Mussulmans  into  Bot-l^raiykn, 
Mdolatrous  B4miy^.'  It  has  been  called  by 
historians  the  Thebes  of  the  east ;  and  here  are 
two  colossal  statues,  seventy-five  feet  high,  hewn 
out  of  the  rock,  standing  in  alto  relievo  against 
the  wall  of  the  niches  in  which  they  are  enshrined. 
A  third,  of  less  colossal  dimensions,  being  only 
fifteen  cubits  high,  stands  at  a  small  distance. 
The  orthodox  say  ^ey  represent  B^ima  and  his 
family;  tile  Buddliisti  maintain  that  they  are 
Shiihkmi  and  his  disciples  SiM\k ;  while  the 
Mussulmans  affirm  that  they  are  no  other  than 
Adam  and  Eve,  in  the  shape  of  Cayfimans,  and 
his  consort  Between  these  opinions  it  would 
be  presumptuous  for  us  to  decide.  A  door,  be- 
tween the  legs  of  the  largest,  opens  into  a  temple 
still  served  by  a  few  Bmhmins.  The  province 
contains  several  villages,  and  decent  towns. 

BAMIER,  a  plant  common  in  EgypL  It  pro- 
duces a  pyramidal  husk,  with  several  eofmpart- 
ments,  ot  the  color  of  alemon,  and  filled  with 
musky  seeds.  The  husk  dressed  wtfh  meat  is  a 
wholesome  food,  and  of  a  very  agreeable  flavor. 
The  Egpytians  make  great  use  of  it  in  their 
ragouts. 

BAMMAK0O,  a  considerable  town  of  Bam- 
barra,  in  Africa,  situated  on  the  Niger,  at  the 
point  where  the  navigation  higher  upwards  is 
mtemipted  by  cataracts.  It  carries  on  a  great 
trade  in  salt  It  is  1 80  miles  south-west  of  Sego. 
Lone.  5**  48' W.,  lat  12**  50'  N. 

BAMOO,  a  province  on  the  north-east  frontier 
of  the  kingdom  of  Ava.  Also  a  town  situated 
on  the  river  Irrawaddy,  170  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
Ummerapora,  where  a  considerable  trade  is  car- 
ried on  with  the  Chinese. 

BAMORI,  a  village  in  Northern  Ilindostan, 
where  an  annual  fair  is  held,  to  exchange  the 
productions  of  the  mountaineers  and  the  inha- 
oitants  of  the  lovr  countries. 

BAMOTIi-BAAL,  one  of  the  towns  of  the 
tribe  of  Reuben,  whidi  seems  to  hare  had  a  tem- 
ple of  Baal  on  an  eminence;  lying  eastward, 
near  the  river  Amon,  and  the  territory  of  Moab. 
Jerome  calls  it  Bamoth,  a  city  of  the  Amorites, 
beyond  Jordan,  in  the  possession  of  the  sons  of 
Reuben.  Whether  it  was  the  same  with  that 
mentioned  in  Numbeisi  xxi.  is  doubtful,  but  it 
appears  to  have  been  the  place  of  encampment 
of  the  Israelites,  and  of  BaUaro's  first  station 


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whpro  he  had  the  first  view  of  the  rear  of  the 

^AMPFYLDE  (Sir  Charles  Warwick),  a 
baronet  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  distin- 
guished families  in  Devonshire.  He  sat  in  seven 
parliaments  for  the  city  of  Exeter,  was  well 
Known  upon  the  turf,  and  moved  in  the  first  cir- 
cles of  rashion.  He  received  his  death  from  an 
assassin  named  Morland,  whose  wife  had  lived 
in  his  service.  The  shocking  act  was  perpe- 
trated almost  at  his  own  door  in  Montague 
Square,  where  the  inurderer  vwdted  his  approach, 
and  after  a  short  conversation,  first  discnarged  a 
pistol  at  his  victim,  and  with  a  second  blew  out 
bis  own  brains.    April  19th,  1822. 

BAMPLASOY,  a  town  of  Lower  Siam,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Siam.  Long.  101«  36'  E.,  lat.  3° 
35' N. 

HAMPTON,  or  Bampton  in  the  Bush,  a 
market  town  and  parish  of  the  county  of  Oxford, 
situated  on  the  river  Isis.  It  has  a  spacious 
church,  a  charity  school  for  twenty  children,  and 
the  remains  of  an  ancient  castle.  Trade  and 
manufacture  are  carried  on  here  in  leather  articles 
to  a  considerable  extent.  Population  1232. 
Distant  ten  miles  from  Oxford,  and  sixty-nine 
and  a  half  W.N.W.  from  London. 

Bauptok,  a  market  town  and  parish  of  Eng- 
land, in  Devonshire,  situated  on  a  branch  of  the 
Exe  called  Batham,  or  Batherm,  where  the  Ro- 
mans are  supposed  to  have  had  artificial  hot- 
badis,  and  there  is  still  a  chalybeate  spring  in  the 
vicinity.  It  carries  on  a  small  manufacture  of 
serge  and  pottery.  John  de  Bampton,  a  Carme- 
lite monk,  who  first  read  Aristotle  at  Cambridge, 
and  died  in  1361,  was  a  native  of  this  town.  A 
battle  was  fought iiere  in  614  or  6?0,  between  the 
West  Saxons  and  the  Britons,  wherein  the  latter 
suffered  great  loss.  Population  1452.  Distant 
from  Tiverton  five  miles  north,  and  164  west  of 
London. 

BAN,  v,k.  n.  i      Germ,  banneny  bann.  A  word 

Ban'ntno.  1  exceedingly  various  in  its  appli- 
cations. Its  primary  meaning  seems  to  be  that 
of  a  public  proclamation ;  whether  the  matter  in- 
volved were  agreeable  or  otherwise.  It  generally 
signifies,  however,  proclamation  with  authority ; 
to  command,  or  to  forbid;  to  excommunicate, 
and  to  curse. 

I  bar  it  in  the  interest  of  my  wife ; 
Tift  she  it  subcontracted  to  tliis  lord. 
And  I  her  hosband  contradict  your  bam* 

ShakBpeare. 

Ah,  Glo'ster,  bide  thee  from  their  hateful  looks ; 
And  in  thy  closet  pent  up,  rue  my  shame. 
And  ban  thine  enemies,  both  mine  and  thine.         Id. 

Bold  deed  to  eye 
The  aacred  fruit, sacred  to  abstincace. 
Much  more  to  taste  it,  under  b<m  to  touch. 


To  drMT  her  neck  into  the  baiu. 


Mikon, 
Hudibra*. 


Shall  we  think  that  it  ba$9eih  the  work  which  they 
I'-ftTe  behind  them,  or  taketh  away  the  use  thereof? 

Hooker. 

Before  these  Moors  wrnt  a  Numidian  priest  bellow- 
ing oat  charms,  and  casting  serowls  of  paper  on  each 
side,  wherein  he  cursed  and  banned  t)io  Christians 

Knnflti. 


He  proceeded  so  far  by  treaty,  that  he  was  pxoffer- 
ed  to  have  the  imperial  ban  taken  off  Altapinus,  upon 
•ubmissioa.  HowelL 

Ban  op  the  Empire,  a  public  censure,  by 
which  the  privileges  of  any  German  prince  are 
suspended. 

Bak,  in  commerce,  a  sort  of  smooth  fine  mus- 
lin, which  the  English  import  from  the  Last 
Indies.  The  piece  is  almost  a  yard  broad,  and 
runs  about  twenty  yards  and  a  half. 

Banns  op  Marriage.  The  instrument  which 
publishes  the  bands  or  obligations  of  matrimony 
into  which  the  parties  enter,  to  the  end  that  if 
any  man  can  say  against  the  intention  of  the 
parties,  either  in  respect  of  kindred  or  otherwise, 
they  may  take  their  exception  in  tine.  And,  in 
the  canon  law,  'banna  sunt  proclamationes  sponsi 
et  sponss  in  ecclesiis  fieri  solite.'  Among  the 
variety  of  applications,  says  a  writer  in  the  Enw- 
clopsdia  Metropolitana,  all  deducible  from  its 
primary  meaning,  bcai  signified  a  solemn  assem- 
bly of  the  nobility,  to  attend  the  king  in  arms, 
summoned  by  proclamation.  To  be  put  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire,  in  the  ancient  German 
constitution,  was  to  be  interdicted  from  all  inter-' 
course  with  society.  The  imperial  ban  was  di- 
rected against  cities,  as  well  as  persons,  and  de  • 
prived  those  who  incurred  it  of  all  their  dignities 
and  privileges. 

BANAGHER,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  King^f 
County,  seated  on  the  Shannon,  over  which  it  has 
two  bridges.  It  is  about  fifteen  miles  south  of 
Athlone,  and  sixty-six  fix)m  Dublin. 

BANAGROTH,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  King's 
County,  Leinster. 

BANANA  TREE.    See  Musa. 

BANARES,  or  Benares  (Varanasi),  a  large 
district  or  zemindary  in  the  province  of  Allaha- 
bad, situated  principally  between  the  twen^- 
fourth  and  twenty-sixth  degrees  of  north  latitude. 
When  ceded  by  Asoph  ud  Dowlah,  the  Nabob 
of  Oude,  in  1775,  it  was  divided  into  six  and  a 
half  pergunnahs,  containing  an  aggregate  of 
1^,000  square  miles,  of  which  10,000  are  a  fer- 
tile and  richly  cultivated  flat,  on  both  sides  oi 
the  Ganges.  The  chief  districts  are  Benares, 
Gazypoor,  Jionpoor,  and  Chunar.  In  the  Insti- 
tutes of  Acber,  A.  D.  1583,  Abul  Fazel  describe? 
it  ^  follows ;  *  Sircar  Benares,  containing  eight 
mahals,  measurement  136,663  beegahs,  revenue 
8,169,3181  dams.— Seyurghal  338,184  dams. 
This  Sircar  furnishes  830  cavalry,  and  8400 
infantry.'  The  gross  revenue  in  1813  amounted 
to  4,562,707  rupees;  £570,338.  7s.  6d.  of  our 
money.  At  Chunar-gurTi,  Mirz4-piir,  and  Gh^i- 
pdr,  are  large  stone  quarries ;  at  which,  on  pay- 
ing a  moderate  duty,  any  one  may  work ;  and 
the  receipt  for  such  licenses  in  1816  amounted  to 
37,086  rupees,  or  £4635.  15*. 

The  atmosphere  of  this  province  is  severe,  and 
in  winter  renders  fires  indispensable;  but  for 
three  months  after  March,  becomes  so  heated  by 
the  setting  in  of  the  hot  winds,  as  to  destroy  all 
verdure,  and  would  jjrobably  prove  destructive 
to  all  European  artificial  grasses,  were  the  culti- 
vation of  them  introduced.  Garden-stuff  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  for  Europeans,  flax  for  oil,  grains^' 
and  sugar,  are  nevertheless  produced  b^  the  na- 
tivps  dirring  the  cold  season.    The  use  of  flax  as 

2  G2 


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an  article  of  clothing  is  not  here  understood. 
Kvery  held  of  barley  contains  a  mixture  of  grain 
or  peas ;  and  at  the  distance  of  six  or  ten  feet 
is  planted  a  beautiful  yellow  flowering  shrub, 
used  in  dyeing. 

The  principal  manufactures  ar^  plain  and 
flowered  muslins,  chiefly  made  in  the  northern, 
baf^  in  the  western,  and  sanaes  in  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  province.  Tissues,  brocades,  and 
ornamented  gauzes,  are  articles  of  general  manu- 
^cture,  from  the  Ganges  and  Goomty  to  the  Ca^ 
ramnassa  and  Soane.  The  apparatus  for  the  sugar 
manufactory  is  extremely  simple ;  a  stone  mortar 
and  wooden  pistem,  turned  by  two  bullocks, 
constitute  the  most  expensive  part  of  the  opera- 
tion ;  the  boiling  pots  are  of  common  earthen- 
ware ;  the  whole,  in  value,  not  exceeding  twelve 
rupees.  Salt  is  manufactured  at  Banares.  In- 
digo and  opium  are  annually  raised  and  exported 
from  many  parts  of  the.province. 

The  country  is  well  supplied  with  water,  and 
washed  by  several  noble  rivers  and  streams ;  of 
which  the  Ganges,  the  Goomty,  the  Caramnassa, 
and  the  Soane,  are  the  most  important ;  the  two 
latter  forming  Uie  natural  boundaries  of  the  pro- 
vince. The  space  from  Patna  to  Buxar,  Gazy- 
j^r,  Banares,  and  Mirzapoor,  presents  a  beau- 
tiful and  highly  fertile  country,  adorned  with 
numerous  clumps  of  mango-trees,  which  give  the 
whole  region  the  appearance  of  a  forest,  affording 
a  shady  retreat  for  cattle.  The  territory  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  above  Mirzapoor,  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Nabob  of  Oude,  and  exhibited  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  flourishing  state  of  the 
Banares  districts,  which  in  point  of  prosperity, 
perhaps  excel  all  others  in  India,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Burdwan  in  Bengal. 

The  population  of  the  province,  according  to 
the  census  taken  in  1801,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Marquis  Wellesley,  at  that  time  governor- 
general,  amounted  to  three  millions,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  Mahommedan  to  five  Hindoos. 
The  code  of  regulations  for  Bengal  has,  with 
very  little  alteration,  been  extended  to  Banares. 
The  Brahmins,  however,  from  the  great  venera- 
tion in  which  they  are  held  by  the  people,  are 
indulged  with  some  peculiar  privileges.  Tlie 
punishment  of  death  in  capital  offences  is  com- 
muted for  transportation,  and  the  process  against 
them  in  criminal  charges  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  Hindoos  of  a  lower  caste.  Several 
evil  practices  of  the  Brahmins  were,  nevertheless, 
at  the  same  time  suppressed ;  as,  the  holding  out 
the  threat  of  obtainmg  spiritual  vengeance  on 
their  adversaries  by  suicide ;  the  exposure  of  the 
life,  or  actual  sacrifice,  of  their  own  children,  or 
ne&j  relations ;  occurrences  which  are  now  sub- 
ject to  the  usual  course  of  criminal  law.  One 
tribe  of  Hindoos,  residing  in  the  province,  called 
Rajcoomars,  were  accustomed  to  destroy  their 
female  infants,  from  the  difficulty  experienced  in 
getting  them  suitably  married.  Mr.  Duncan, 
'9ie  resident,  prevailed  on  them  to  desist  from 
this  practice ;  and  the  observance  of  it  subjects 
the  offender  to  the  ordinary  punishment  of  murde^. 

The  most  remarkable  events  in  the  history  of 
this  pfovince  are  the  following : — Musuram,  the 
mndlhther  of  Cheit  Singh,  possessed  originally 
But  half  the  village  of  Gungapoor;  by  additions 


to  which;  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  zemindaiy, 
or  lordship,  of  Banares.  At  his  death,  in  174C, 
his  son  and  successor  Bulwant  Singh  ascended 
the  throne ;  and  afier  a  reign  of  thirty  years,  in- 
creased the  provincial  territories  to  their  present 
dimensions.  Cheit  Singh  Rijii  received  the 
zemindary  in  17B0;  but  firom  his  refractory 
conduct,  vns  expelled  the  province  by  Mr. 
Hastings,  within  one  year  after  his  aooession. 
He  lived  at  Gw41iy^  till  1810,  and  his  lands 
are  still  "held  by  a  collateral  branch  of  the  same 
family,  with  an  annual  profit  exceeding  ten  per 
cent,  on  the  revenue,  denved  from  them  by  the 
government.  Tennant,  J.  Grant,  Colebrooke, 
fifth  Reporty  Hamittofif  SfC. 

The  chief  towns  in  the  Banares  zemindaiy,  are 
Banares,  ib  Sanscrit,  Vkrk  Nash),  from  the  two 
streams,  Vkrk  and  Nashl.  It  lies  in  lat.  25''  30^ 
N.  and  long.  83^  £.,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  which  here  forms  a  fine  sweep  of  about 
four  miles  in  length.  Its  elevation  above  the 
water  is  evident  from  the  G*hats,  or  landing 
places,  compos^  of  large  stones,  to  the  height  of 
thirty  feet,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been 
erected  by  pious  Hindoos,  as  acts  of  public 
charity.  The  town  rises  like  an  amphitneatre 
^m  this  basis  on  the  external  curve  of  the  river, 
and  ma^  be  seen  at  once  from  the  opposite  shore, 
which  forms  an  extensive  level. 

The  great  narrowness  of  the  streets  gives  it 
the  ususd  appearance  of  an  Asiatic  town,  and  the 
houses,  which  are  six  stories  high,  close  to  eadi 
other  have  terraces  on  their  summits,  and  ex- 
tremely small  windows,  to  keep  them  cool  and 
prevent  inspection.  'The  opposite  sides  of  the 
streets  in  some  places  approach  to  each  other  so 
closely  as  to  be  united  by  galleries.  The  number 
of  houses  built  of  stone  and  brick,  are  stated  at 
12,000,  those  of  mud  at  16,000.  The  inhabitants 
are  more  than  600,000,  of  whom  one  tenth  are 
Mahommedans;  and  during  the  great  Hindoo 
festivals,  the  concourse  is  immense.  Ck^,  ot 
C4shl,  the  splendid,  as  the  Indians  commonly 
call  it,  is  one  of  the  most  sacred  places  in  the 
whole  of  India ;  the  country  for  ten  miles  round 
is  thought  holv  land,  and- the  famous  lingam,  sup- 
posed to  be  Siya,  or  Mah^-D66  himself,  in  a  state 
of  petrifection,  attracts  the  veneration  and  alms  of 
myriads.  The  representatives  of  this  invahiable 
relic  in  different  parts  of  the  city  are  said  to  be 
at  least  a  million,  and  one  pilgrim  b  repotted  to 
have  travelled  sixteen  times  from  Banares,  an- 
ciently C^,  to  Ram^swara  or  Ramisseran,  op- 
« posite  Ceylon.  Devout  Hindoos  come  to  end 
their  days  at  Banares,  the  same  as  pious  Jews  go 
to  die  at  Jerusalem :  and  so  ereat  is  the  holy 
sanctity  of  the  place,  that  to  die  there  is  suffi- 
cient to  preserve  even  beef-eating  Englishmen 
from  the  black  realms  of  the  Indian  Pluto, 
the  Hindoo  Pat&ia.  One  Englishman  the  Biab- 
mins  say  did  get  to  heaven  by  departing  this 
life  at  Banares,  and  his  meritorious  decease  is 
said  to  have  been  still  further  sanctified  by  the 
bequest  of  a  laree  sum  of  money  for  the  crectioD 
of  a  temple  under  the  direction  of  his  spiritual 
solicitor.  So  holy  is  this  celebrated  city  that 
many  foreign  Hindoo  Raiahs  have  vakeds  or 
delegates  residing  here,  who  perform  for  them 
the  requisite  sacrifices  and  ablutions. 


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Clisi,  the  ancient  name  of  this  city,  is  still  re- 
tained in  preference  to  its  modem  name  Banarea, 
although  mere  are  no  notices  concerning  it  in  the 
"works  of  ancient  geographers.  It  is  remarkable 
that  they  should  omit  this  celebrated  city,  and  at 
the  same  time  specify  Mathura  or  Mcthora  and 
Clisobara,  whicn  are  near  the  Jumna. 

Banares  is  regarded  as  the  ancient  s^t  of 
Brahminical  learning ;  and  within  the  last  cen- 
tuiy  the  moon  beams  of  science  have  in  some 
measure  relieved  the  intellectual  gloom  which 
lowered  upon  the  dark  hemisphere  of  tlie  inha^ 
bitants.  Jaya-Singlia,  R&j^  of  AmVh^r,  at  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century  erected  an  ob- 
servatory in  this  city.  (Philosophical  Transac- 
tions, vol.  Ixvii;  and  Asiatic  Kesearches.)  A 
college  has  also  been  erected  by  the  British 
government,  for  the  instruction  of  Hindoos 
in  their  own  literature;  but  the  influence  and 
prejudices  of  the  Brahmins  have  prevented  any 
considerable  diffusion  of  learning  among  the 
natives.  Reading  and  writing  are  however  taught 
here,  upon  a  plan  strongly  resembling  that  of 
some  modem  institutions  in  our  own  country. 
The  boys  are  collected  on  a  smooth  flat  of  sand, 
on  which,  with  the  finger  or  a  small  reed,  they 
trace  the  letters  in  the  sand,  and  learn  to  pro- 
nounce them  at  the  same  time. 

The  number  of  pious  foundations  in  Banares 
is  very  great.  Hindoo  temples  are  scattered  all 
over  the  city  and  the  surrounding  plain.  The 
principal  one  is  called  Visw^swar  or  Bis^sar, 
and  b  dedicated  to  Siva,  whose  sacred  relics 
it  contains.  Aurengzebe,  to  mortify  the  Hindoos, 
built  a  splendid  mosque  on  the  highest  ground 
of  the  city,  and  what  was  worse  than  all,  on  the 
sacred  mins  of  a  Hindoo  temple,  which  viras 
destroyed  to  make  room  for  it.  The  minarets  of 
this  edifice  command  an  extensive  view  of  the 
city,  and  open  some  of  the  finest  prospects  of  the 
surrounding  country.  • 

The  handsome  houses  of  the  English  exhibit 
an  unusual  nakedness  firom  the  want  of  trees ; 
but  this  in  India  is  absolutely  necessary,  from  the 
swarms  of  mosquito^  to  which  they  afford  a 
favorite  resort.  The  Rajah  resides  at  Ramna- 
gur  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  five  miles 
from  Banares.  In  this  city  are  upwards  of  8000 
houses  occupied  by  mendicant  Brahmins,  who 
have  nevertheless  considerable  properW  of  their 
own.  Europeans  in  this  place  a^  few,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  a  judge,  collector,  and  registrar, 
a  few  other  civil  servants  connected  with  the 
company's  establishment,  together  with  a  few 
private  merchants  and  planters. 

Banares  is  the  chief  mart  for  gems  and 
diamonds,  which  are  brought  principally  from  the 
Bundelcund  country.  Mercnants  and  bankers 
are  numerous  and  wealdiy,  arising  from  the  great 
trafHc  of  which  this  city  is  the  site.  The  land  is 
extremely  high  priced,  and  law  suits  respecting 
it  are  unceasinff.  The  division  of  the  court  of 
circuit  comprdiends  the  following  districts. 
1.  Mirzapoor.  2.  Allahabad.  3.  Bundelcund. 
4.  Juanpoor.  5.  Gooracpoor.  6.  City  of  Ba- 
nares. 

C^i  does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  to  the 
Greeks,  and  was  probably  subject  to  the  Hindoo 
sovereignty  of  Canoj.  In  the  year  1017  Sultan 
Mahmood  of  Ghizni  took  possession  of  it,  to- 


gether with  the  town  of  Casum  or  Casuma,  now 
Patna,  and  went  as  Bar  as  the  country  of  Ouga- 
nam  or  Unja,  west  of  the  Cossimbazar  river. 
The  following  year  he  overran  these  countries  a 
second  time,  and  penetrated  as  far  as  Kisraji, 
Cachlia  Raja,  or  Cooch  Bahar,  from  which 
period  the  Hmdoos  in  this  part  of  India  remained 
unmolested  by  the  Ms^ommedans  till  the  close 
of  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  was  .finally  in- 
cluded within  the  Mosul  empire.  In  1775 
Banares  was  ceded  by  Uie  Nabob  of  Audit  or 
Oude,  since  which  for  the  most  part  it  has  en- 
ioyed  uninterrapted  tranquillity ;  and  the  inha- 
bitants, are  fiilly  sensible  of  the  advantages  they 
derive  from  living  under  the  British  government, 
with  respect  to  the  security  of  their  persons  and 
property. 

On  the  14th  of  January,  Mr.  Cherry  the  resi- 
dent, and  three  other  English  gentlemen,  were 
treacherously  murdered  by  Vizier  AH,  the  de- 
posed Nabob  of  Oude,  and  spurious  son  of  the 
fate  Asoph  ud  Dowlah.  Mr.  Davis  would  also 
have  fallen  a  sacrifice  had  he  not,  from  the  top  of 
a  narrow  winding  stair^^ase,  on  the  flat  root  of 
the  house,  defended  himself  and  family  with  a 
short  spear  till  assistance  could  be  procured. 

The  travelling  distance  from  Banares  to  Cal- 
cutta by  Birbhoom  is  460  miles,  by  Moorsheda- 
bad  565,  from  Buxar  seventy,  Allatiabad  eighty- 
three,  Calpy  239,  Kanoge  259,  Bareily  345 
miles.  See  Lord  ValerUiay  third  Register,  Wil- 
fordf  and  Rennel. 

BANBURY,  a  borough  and  market  town  in 
the  hundred  of  that  name,  Oxon,  seventy-one 
miles  from  London;  containing  3400  inhabitants. 
It  stands  on  the  river  Charwell,  on  the  road  from 
Buckingham  to  Bridgenorth,  and  was  first  made 
a  borough  by  queen  Mary.  Its  privileges  were 
afterwaj^s  confirmed  and  enlarged  by  James  I. 
and  George  I.  It  is  now  governed  by  a  mayor, 
high  steward,  recorder,  six  buiigesses,  and  thirty, 
assistants;  has  a  town-clerk,  and  two  Serjeants* 
at-mace,  and  returns  one  member  to  parliament 
The  land  in,  this  neighbourhood  is  particularly 
fine  pasture,  and  the  town  was  noted,  in  Cam- 
den's time,  for  the  excellence  of  its  cheese,  as  it 
is  now  for  cakes  and  ale.  When  Holland  was 
employed  in  translating  the  Britannia,  Camden 
visited  the  printing-offce,  and  found  that  to  his 
own  observation,  Uiat  Banbury  was  famous  for 
cheese,  the  translator  had  added  cakes  and  ale. 
Thinking  this  remark  too  trifling,  he  changed 
the  last  word  into  zeal;  and  this  gave  much  un- 
intentional offence.  In  his  MS.  sopi^ement  to 
the  Britannia,  in  the  Bodleian  library,  is  the  fol- 
lovring  note:  *  Put  out  the  word  zeale  in  Ban- 
bury, where  some  think  it  a  disgrace,  when  as 
zeale  with  knowledge  is  the  greatest  grace  among 
good  Christians.'  In  the  adjacent  fields  Roman 
coins  have  often  been  discovered,  and  the  pyrites 
aureus,  or  golden  fire-stone.  A  castle  veas  built 
here  in  1125,  which  was  entirely  destroyed  in 
the  civil  wars  of  Charles  I,  Plush  is  taanuiac- 
tured  here,  and  the  trade  of  the  town  is  greatly 
enhanced  by  the  proximity  of  the  Thames  and 
Severn  canal.  Here  are  held,  annually,  seven 
fiurs :  those  for  hiring  servants  are  called  mop 
fairs.  The  church,  having  been  of  late  re- 
built, is  large  though  not  handsome.  Tlie 
market  on  Thursday  is  reckoned  the  best  iu  the 


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county  for  com,  cattle,  atid  all  kinds  of  pro- 
▼isions. 

BANC,  or  Benca,  in  law,  a  tribunal,  or  judg- 
ment-^seat:  Hence, 

Banc,  Common,  means  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas ;  and 

Banc,  King's,  the  Court  of  King's  Bench. 

BANC  A,  an  island  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  be- 
tween Sumatra  and  Borneo;  from  the  first  of 
which  it  is  separated  only  by  a  narrow  channel. 
It  is  celebratea  for  its  tin  mines,  the  annual  profit 
of  which  to  the  Dutch  is  estimated  at  £150,000. 
It  is  mountainous  and  woody.  There  are  seven 
mines,  which  give  employment  to  25,000  men, 
originally  a  Chinese  colony,  and  nominally  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  sultan  of  Palembang,  but 
in  reality  working  for  the  profit  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  company.  The  metallic  sand  is  said 
to  yield  70  per  cent.  Very  little  is  sent  to  Eu- 
rope ;  the  Cninese  are  very  skilinl  in  adulterating 
it.  This  island,  which  nad  been  captured  by 
our  forces  during  the  late  war,  with  roe  rest  of 
the  Dutch  possessions  in  the  East  Indies,  was 
ffi^en  up  at  the  peace  of  1814.  It  had  been 
formally  ceded  to  us  by  Najmu'dd)n,  sultan  of 
Palembang,  in  1812,  on  condition  of  his  being 
placed  ymdet  our  protection,  but  this  stipulation 
was  disregarded  by  the  Dutch  authorities  in  Java 
in  1818;  and  they  hacre  since  that  period  been 
at  war  with  the  sultan.  The  straits  of  Banca 
aflford  a  safe  passage  with  a  fitvorable  monsoon ; 
but  as  shoal  water  sometimes  occurs,  and  there 
are  occasionally  coral  reefs,  they  require  great 
care  and  attention  in  navigating  them.  The 
Banca  islands  in  2°  22'  S.  lat.,  and  105°  41'  £. 
long.,  afford  shelter  from  S.  W.  by  S.  to  N.  W. 
ivith  a  good  supply  of  water  and  fbel. 

Banca,  a  small  island  of  a  cluster  still  smaller, 
lying  off  the  north-east  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Celebes,  which  are  much  frequented  by  the  Ma- 
lay pirates.  Fish,  turtle,  and  miits,  are  plentifnl. 
Long.  125°  E.,  lat.  1°  50*  N. 

BANCAL,  an  East  Indian  weight,  containing 
16tJj  drams  Avoirdupois. 

BANC  ALIA,  oldlaw,Lat.cushions  for  benches. 

BANCALIS,  a  sea-port  town  on  the  east  coast 
of  Sumatra,  where  the  Dutch  have  a  settlement. 
It  lies  130  miles  west  of  Malacca. 

BANC  HI  (Seraphin),  archbishop  of  Angou- 
16me.  He  was  at  nrst  a  priest  of  the  Dominican 
order  at  Florence;  but  in  1593  one  Peter  Bar- 
nere,  a  hot-headed  fanatic,  having  communicated 
to  him  his  purpose  of  murdering  the  king,  Ban- 
chi  prudently  revealed  the  matter  to  a  nobleman, 
by  which  the  horrid  design  was  prevented  from 
being  executed.  He  was  rewarded  with  the 
archbishopric  of  Angoul^me.  He  afterwards  re- 
signed his  charge,  and  retired  to  St.  James's  mo- 
nastery at  Paris,  where  he  continued  till  his  death. 

BANC  HO,  or  Banquho,  thane  of  Lochaber, 
the  grandfather  of  Walter,  the  first  lord  high 
steward  of  Scotland,  and  the  progenitor  of  the 
royal  house  of  Stewart.  He  gained  several  great 
victories  over  the  Highlanders  and  Danes,  in  the 
reign  of  Donald  VII.  but  his  glory  was  tarnished 
by  joining  Macbeth  in  the  conspiracy  against 
•hat  monarch ;  and  he  was  murdered  by  the  ty- 
rant Macbeth  about  A.  D.  1046. 

l^ANCl  Jt's,  the  privilege  of  having  a  bench 


was  anciently  allowed  to  the  kins's  judgia  qii» 
summam  administrant  justitiam.  Inferior  courts, 
as  courts  baron,  hundred  courts,  &c.  were  not 
allowed  that  prerogative ;  and  even  at  this  day 
the  hundred  court  at  Freebridge,  in  Norfolk,  is 
held  under  an  oak  at  Gey-wood ;  and  that  of 
Woolfry,  in  Herefordshire,  under  an  oak  near 
Asbton,  in  that  county,  called  Hundred  oak. 

BANCK  (Peter  Vander),  an  engraver  of  con- 
siderable repute,  bom  at  Paris,  and  bred  under 
the  celebrated  Francis  de  Poilly.  He  came  over 
into  England  with  Gascar,  the  painter,  about 

1674 ;  and  married  the  sister  of Forester, 

Esq.  He  was  a  laborious  artist :  but  the  pay  he 
received  for  his  plates  being  by  no  means  ade- 
quate to  the  time  he  bestowed  upon  them,  he 
was  reduced  to  want ;  and,  retiring  from  busi- 
ness, sought  an  asylum  in  the  house  of  his  brother- 
in-law.  He  died  at  Bradfield,  and  was  buried 
in  the  church  in  1674;  leaving  his  widow  in 
possession  of  the  chief  part  of  his  plates,  which 
she  disposed  of  to  Brown,  a  print-seller,  to  great 
advantage,  and  left  an  easy  fortune.  His  cliief 
employment  was  engraving  portraits;  and  accord- 
ing to  Virtue's  account  of  him,  published  by 
Walpole,  he  was  the  first  in  England  who  en- 
graved them  on  so  large  a  scale.  Like  many  of 
Poilly*s  disciples,  his  great  merit  consists  in  the 
neat  management  of  the  mechanical  part  oC 
the  art. 

BANCO,  an  Italian  word,  which  signifies 
bank,  and  commonly  used  to  signify  the  bank  of 
Venice. 

BANCOOK^  a  town  in  the  kingdom  of  Siam, 
in  Asia,  with  a  fort,  which  was  once  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Fiench,  but  they  were  driven  irom 
it  in  1688.  The  houses  are  made  of  canes,  cover- 
ed with  palm  leaves,  and  the  inhabitants  go 
ahnost  naked.  It  is  forty  miles  south  of  the  city 
6f  Siam. 

BANCROFT  (Richard),  archbishop  of  Can- 
teibury,  was  bom  at  Famwordi,  in  Lancashire, 
in  1544,  and  studied  at  Cambridge,where  he  took 
his  degrees  of  B.  A.  M.  A.  and  D.  D.  After 
passing  successively  through  several  gradations  in 
the  church,  he  was,  in  1597,  appointed  bishop  of 
London.  In  1600  he  was  sent  by  queen  Eliza- 
beth to  settle  some  difference  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  the  Danes.  He  also  interposed  in  the 
disputes  between  the  secular  priests  and  the 
Jesuits,  and  furnished  arguments  to  the  former. 
In  1603  he  was  at  the  conference  at  Hampton 
Court,  between  the  bishops  and  the  Presbyterian 
ministers,  and  was  appointed  a  commissioner  for 
regulating  church  afiaiis.  In  1604  he  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  convocation,  and  soon 
after  elected  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  which 
was  confirmed  by  king  James  I.  His  last  pro- 
motion was  in  1610,  to  be  chancellor  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  which  he  did  not  long  enjoy, 
for  he  died  in  1612,  of  the  stone,  at  Lambeth. 

Bancroft  (John),  bishop  of  Oxford,  a  nephew 
of  the  above,  bom  in  Oxfordshire.  In  1592  he 
was  admitted  of  Christ  Church,  in  Oxford.  In 
1609  he  wa^  chosen  master  of  University  College, 
where  he  continued  above  twenty  years;  during 
which  time  he  was  at  a  great  deal  of  labor  as 
well  as  expense  to  recover  the  ancient  lands  be- 
longing to  that  found^on.  He  was  made  bishop 


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of  Oxford  in  1622,  and  he  bailt  the  palace  of 
Cuddesden  for  that  see.  He  died  in  1640,  and 
was  interred  in  the  church  of  Cuddesden. 

BAND',  V.  &  n.-\  Dut.  hendcy  Sax.  bandy 
Band' AGE,  f  Goth,  bandit  Celt,  ban*  A 
Bakd'or,  ^tie.     The  noun  upon  which 

Band'cr.  j  the  yerb  to  bapd  is  fomoedy 

is  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  to  bind.  To  tie, 
fasten, unite,  join,  yoke  together;  mutual  engage- 
ment; promise;  to  be  in  bonds  or  bondage;  to 
confederate  for  one  common  purpose.  Band,  in 
our  old  writers,  is  frequently  written  bende. 

With  a  bend  of  gold  taMtled, 
And  knoppoB  fine  of  gold  amiled.        Cbmtoer. 
The  botiler  ii  not  my  friend, 
Whiche  halhe  the  key  by  the  hgndg, 

Gower. 
Then  mong  it  were,  that  any  other  twaine 
Should  in  love's  gentle  band  combyned  bee, 
Bnt  those  whom  heaven  did  at  first  ordaine. 
And  made  out  of  one  modld  the  more  t'  agree. 


And  when  it  was  day,  ceitain  of  the  Jews  handed 
together,  and  bound  themselves  under  a  curse,  that 
they  would  neither  eat  nor  diink  till  they  had  killed 
Paul  Bibb.  Aett  ch.  xxiii.  ver.  12. 

Ybrke  and  his  htmden  proudly  pressed  in, 

MtrtCT  JOT  3tog%ttWtt9* 

Men's  hearts  are  growne  so  fidse,  that  most  are  loath 

To  trust  each  other's  words,  or  ha$»da,  or  oath  ; 
For  though  we  had  in  every  part  an  eje. 
We  could  not  search  out  all  hypocrisy. 

•    (Tmv^s  fPiOer. 
Like  Maia's  son  he  stoo4r 
And  shook  his  plumes,  that  heavenly  fragrance  fill'd 
The  circuit  wide,  strait  knew  him  all  the  bandt 
Oi  angels  under  watch  ;  and  to  his  state. 
And  to  his  message,  high  in  honour  rise.  UiUim, 

What  multitudes 
Were  bond^  to  oppose  his  high  decree.  Id. 

Now  strike  the  golden  lyre  again, 
A  louder  yet,  and  yet  a  louder  strain. 
Break  his  hmd*  of  sleep  asunder, 
.  And  rouse  him  like  a  rattling  peal  of  thunder. 

Drydm^ 

The  queen,  in  white  array,  b^ore  her  ftoml. 

Saluting  took  her  rival  by  the  hand.  id. 

On  a  sudden,  methought,  this  select  band  sprang 

forward,  with  a  resolution  to  climb  the  ascent,  and 

follow  the  call  of  thia  heavenly  musiek.  Ta/dar, 

Strait  the  three  handi  prepare  in  arms  to  join. 
Bach  ha$»d  the  number  of  the  sacred  Nine.       Pope 

He  took  his  lodging  at  the  mansion-house  of  a 
taylor's  widow,  who  washes,  and  can  cle^-starch  his 
hastdM.  Addison, 

Zzaik,  too,  had  a  place  among  the  rewt,  with  a  ban" 
doge  over  her  eyes ;  though  one  would  not  bave  ex- 
pected to  have  seen  her  represented  in  snow.  Id, 

Cords  were  fastened  by  hooks  to  my  bandt^u,  which 
the  workmen  had  girt  round  my  neck.  Sw^, 

Pride  in  their  port,  defiance  in  their  aye, 
I  sec  the  lords  of  human  kind  pass  by  ; 
Intent  on  hi^  designs,  a  thougl^tful  btmd. 
By  forms  unfashioned,  fresh  inm  naUxie's  hand. 
Fierce  in  their  ^tive  hardiness  of  soul. 
True  to  imagin'd  right,  above  control ; 
While  e'en  the  peasant  boasts  these  rights  to  scan. 
And  leaxns  to  venerate  himself  as  man. 

(hld9mA*M  TnmUer. 


Whib  her  snowy  h;in  !  - 
From  h^r  fair  brow,  her  golden  hair  uubiud. 
And  of  her  zone  unloose  the  silken  bands. 
More  passing  bright  unvcil'd  her  beauty  stands. 

Mrs,  Tighe. 

Pirate,  thou  know'st  me  not — ^hut  I  am  one 
Grateful  for  deeds  thou  hast  too  rarely  done  ; 
Look  on  me — and  remember  her  thy  h&nd 
Snatch'd  from  the  tame^,  and  thy  more  fearful  band. 

Bjfron. 

Band',  in  arcbitecture,  a  low  flat  moulding, 
otberwise  called  a/acc,  from/oscui. 

Band  is  also  the  denomination  of  a  military  or- 
der in  Spain,  instituted  by  Alphonsus  XI.  king  of 
Castile,  for  the  younger  sons  of  the  nobility,  who, 
before  their  admission,  must  serve  ten  years  at 
least,  either  in  the  army  or  at  court;  and  are 
bound  to  take  up  arms  for  the  catholic  fiuth 
against  the  infidels. 

Band  of  Pensioners,  a  company  of  120 
gentlemen,  who  r^eive  a  yearly  allowance  of 
£lOO  for  attending  on  his  majest}*  on  solemn 
occasions. 

Bands  of  a  Saddle  are  two  pieces  of  iron 
nailed  upon  the  bows  of  the  saddle,  to  hold 
the  bows  in  the  right  situation. 

BAN  DA  Islands^  a  group -of  islands  in  the 
Eastern  ocean>  about  130  miles  £.  S.  £.  from 
Amboyna.  They  strictly  include  ten  sepa- 
rate isles,  Banda  Neira,  BandaLantoir,  Pulo  Ay, 
Pulo  Rondo,  Pulo  Pisang,  Rosingen,  Crak% 
Capella^  Souangy,  and  Gonong  Apee,  the  last 
being  a  volcanic  islet,  rising  2000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  They  are  all  small;  Banda 
Proper,  or  Lantoir,  one  of  the  largest,  is  only 
about  eight  miles  long,  and  not  more  than  three 
broad ;  Neira,  another  of  the  most  considerable, 
does  not  contain  much  more  than  two-  or  three 
square  miles.  Their  rich  black  soil  makes  tbem 
generally  fertile  in  tropical  fruits ;  but  their  chief 
and  well  known  produce  is  nutmegs,  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  which  Neira,  Lantoir,  Pulo  Ay,  and 
Pulo  Rondo,  are  laid  out  in  parks  or  plantations. 
The  plant  attains  the  size  of^  a  pear-tree,  with  a 
leaf  resembling  that  of  the  laurel,  and  the  fruit, 
envelop^  in  a  membranaceous  covering  of  mace, 
is  contained  in  a  husk.  It  is  of  the  shape  of  a 
pear  when  ripe,  and  approaches  the  size  of  an 
apricot :  it  is  then  pullea  and  put  into  a  dryiner- 
house  or  kiln,  where  it  is  exposed  during  three 
months  to  a  slow  fire :  the  husk  or  shell  is  now 
broke,  and  the  nutmeg  instantly  placed  among 
lime,  to  prevent  the  attack  of  insects.  It  is  after- 
wards made  up  into  packages  of  200  pounds 
each,  for  exportation.  £ach  tree  produces  about 
ten  pounds  yearly,  and  an  oil  is  extracted  from 
the  unripe  and  damaged  fruit.  Nutmeg-trees 
require  incessant  care;  a  great  proportion  of 
them  are  barren,  a  defect  which  cannot  be  dis- 
covered before  the  twelfth  or  fourteenth  year. 
From  this  period  they  continue  bearing  until  the 
age  of  twenty,  four  years  after  which  they  perish. 
The  total  quantity  produced  in  the  four  islands. 
the  Dutch  would  never  suffer  to  be  ascertained. 
When  they  were  captured  in  1796,  a  half  year's 
crop  was  found  to  amount  to  81,618  pounds  of 
nutmeg,  and  23,885  pounds  of  mace.  Formerly 
the  average  sales  were  estimated  at  350,000 
pounds  of  nutmeg  annually,  and  100,000  pounds 


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of  mace.  For  many  of  the  necessaries  of  life 
these  islands  depend  upon  Java.  The  Dutch 
having  subjected  the  onginal  inhabitants,  were 
the  first  European  occupiers  of  the  Banda  idands. 
And  their  most  extraordinary  policy  was  to  cul» 
tivate  a  portion,  and  carefully  extirpate  the  trees 
in  all  the  other  islands.  This  was  obviously  a 
check  upon  the  population.  By  a  census  taken 
in  1796,  they  were  found  to  be  5763  ;  in  1814 
they  were  estimated  at  little  more  than  4000 ; 
about  three-fourths  of  whom  were  slaves.  The 
accounts  therefore  which  formerly  stated  them  at 
15,000  whites,  were  most  likely  exaggerated. 

The  seat  of  government  is  Neira,  where  there 
is  a  good  harbour,  and  two  fortresses,  public  ma^ 
gazines  and  storehouses,  for  the  produce  of  the 
numieg  plantations.  Garrisons  have  always  been 
maintained  in  these  fortresses ;  but  they  were  taken 
possession  of  by  Admiral  Rainier  in  1796,  with 
little  opposition.  .  Being  restored  to  the  Dutch 
by  the  peace  of  Amiens,  they  were  again  taken 
by  the  English  in  1810;  and  revertwl  to  their 
former  masters  at  the  general  peace  of  1814. 
The  latitude  of  these  islands  is  between  4°  and 
5*"  S.  and  the  longitude  about   130^  £. 

BANDALEER,  or  Bandeleer,  in  military 
afiairs,  a  large  leathern  belt,  thrown  over  Uie 
right  shoulder,  and  hanging  under  the  left  arm ; 
worn  by  the  ancient  musqueteers,  both  for  the 
sustaining  of  their  fire-arms,  and  for  the  carriage 
of  their  musket-charges,  which  being  put  up  in 
little  wooden  cases,  coaled  with  leatner,  were 
hung,  to  the  number  of  twelve,  to  each  ban- 
daleer. 

BANDALUSAN,  a  small  ishmd  in  the  East- 
ern Indian  sea,  near  the  south  coast  of  Mindanao. 
Long.  122*  58*  E.  lat.  T"  12'  N. 

BANDARRA  (Gonzales),  a  Portuguese  iaiia^ 
tic  of  the  sixteenth  century,  who,  pretending  to 
be  a  prophet,  raised  some  disturbance,  and  in 
1541,  maae  a  narrow  escape  from  being  burnt  for 
heresy,  by  the  inquisition.     He  died  in  1556. 

BAND'BOX,  n.  ».  From  band  and  box.  A 
slight  box  used  for  bands,  and  other  things  of 
small  weight. 

My  friends  are  suTprised   to  find  two   hcmUnxM 

among  my  books,  till  I  let  them  see  that  tbey  are 

lined  with  deep  eradition.  Adii$OH, 

With  empty  ha$»ihos  she  delights  to  range. 

And  feigns  a  distant  errand  from  the  'Change. 

Oai^i  Trinia, 

BAND'ELET,  II.  f .  Yx^handeleU  In  archi- 
tecture, any  little  band,  flat  moulding,  or  fillet. 

BANDELLO  (Matthew),  bishop  of  Agen,  was 
bom  at  Castelnovo,  in  the  Milanese^  about  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  first  a  Do- 
minican monk,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
writing  novels  in  the  manner  of  Boccacis.  When 
his  country  was  invaded  by  the  Spaniards  he 
went  to  France,  and  there,  in  1550,  obtained  the 
bishopric  of  Agen,  but  resigned  it  in  1555.  He 
died  m  1561.  The  best  edition  of  his  novels  is 
that  printed  at  London,  in  four  volumes,  4to. 
1740.  ' 

BANDEL^  a  sea-port  of  Japan,  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  the  island  of  Niphon.  Lonir.  131* 
45'  E.,  lat.  34^  46'  N. 


Ban  DEL  D*  Agoa,  a  sea-port  on  the  east 
coast  of  Afiica,  snpposed  by  Dr.  Vincent  to  be 
the  Zergi&  of  Ptolemy.  Long.  49""  E.,  lat  8 
20' N. 

Bandel  Caxts,  a  sea-port  on  die  east  coast 
of  Africa,  supposed  by  Vmoent  to  be  the  Opone 
of  Ptolemy.    Lat.  B**  15' N. 

Ban  DEL  Velho,  or  Old  Port,  on  the  coast 
of  Ajan,  supposed  by  Vincent  to  be  situated 
on  what  the  Periplus  calls  the  Little  Coast 
Gosselin  imagines  it  to  be  the  Rhapta  of  Ptolemy 
and  the  Periplus.  Fifty  miles  N.  N.  £.  of  Ma^ 
dasho. 

BANDEN,  a  hill  of  Scotland,  in  Fifeshire, 
which  commands  an  extensive  view  of  the  Strath 
of  Eden,  from  Kinross  to  St  Andrew's  Bay. 
The  remains  of  an  ancient  rampart  and  circum- 
vallation,  200  yards  in  diameter,  and  of  a  circu- 
lar form,  are  to  be  seen  upon  it. 

BANDER-ABASSL    See  Gombron. 

BANDERAS,  a  large  bay  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  on  the  west  coast  of  Mexico,  between 
Cape  Corientes  and  Tintoque  Point.  Lat  20** 
30' N. 

BANDER-CONGO,  a  small  sea-port  town  in 
Asia,  seated  on  the  east  side  of  the  Persian 
Gulf;  eighty  miles  west  of  Gombron;  and  190 
of  Bander- Abassi. 

BANDERET,  a  ceneial,  or  one  of  the  com- 
manders in  chief  of  the  forces.  Thb  appellatioo 
is  given  to  the  principal  commanders  of  the  troops 
of  the  canton  of  Berne,  in  SwiUeriand,  where 
there  are  four  banderets,  who  command  all  the 
forces  of  that  canton. 

BANDEROLL,  a  little  flag,  in  form  of  a  g»> 
don,  extended  more  in  length  than  in  breadlh, 
used  to  be  hung  out  on  die  masts  of  vessels,  &c. 

Band  Fish,  in  loology,  the  English  name  of 
the  cepola  rubescens. 

BANDL    See  Angola. 

BANDINELLI  (Baccio),  a  celebrated  sculp- 
tor- and  painter  of  Florence,  bom  in  1487. 
Hiough  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  in 
both  lines,  he  chiefly  excelled  in  sculpture ;  and 
his  group  of  the  Lacoon  is  much  admired.  He 
died  in  1559. 

BANDIT,  ».  -J     Ital.  ben  and  ^to.  It 

Band'itto,  n.  Sis  the  past  participle  of 

Band'itti  (plural).  3  dicere^  united  to  ban,  ex- 
communicated or  banished;  and  thus  signifies 
one  declared  to  be  banished.  An  exile  or  oat- 
law.  Banditti  are  not  only  outlaws,  but  robbers, 
who  commit  their  depredatirns  in  concert.  Men 
who  place  themselves  without  the  pale  of  society, 
that  they  may  commit  aggressions  upon  its  peace 
and  property. 

A  Romaa  sworder,  a&d  hm^itto  aUv«, 
Mnrder'd  8we«t  Tally. 

No  savage  fierce,  Imi^, 
WUl  dare  to  soil  her  vizgin  pnri^. 

Jut  aa  mach  fidelity  min^kt  be  expected  from  them 
in  a  common  canae,  as  there  n  among  n  titMp  of 
honeit,  mardering,  and  raviahiag  hitniUt.       Drydm. 

No  hanUt  fierce,  no  tyrant  mad  with  pride. 
No  cavemM  hermit,  rests  self-satiafyM.  Aps. 

Who  Are  they  who  can  be  said  to  be  govem'd  by 
laws  of  their  own  making  f  I  know  of  no  anch  per- 
sons ;  I  nerer  heard  or  read  of  any  such,  except,  per- 
haps,  among  pirates,  and  other  hamMtti,yfho,  tno^li^ 


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on  aH  laws,  divine  and  human,  xvfhae  to  be  goremed 
in  any  other  way  than  by  their  own  licentious  regu- 

BeaiHe. 


Bahditti.  Biydone,  in  his  Tour  through 
JSidhr,  informs  us,  that  in  the  eastern  part,  called 
Val  Demoni,  from  the  devils  that  are  supposed  to 
inhabit  Mount  Etna,  it  ^as  in  his  time  found 
altogether  impracticable  to  extirpate  the  banditti; 
there  being  numberless  carems  and  subterrans- 
ons  passages  round  that  mountain,  where* no 
troops  could  possibly  pursue  them :  besides  they 
"Were  known  to  be  perfectly  determined  and  reso- 
lute, never  failing  to  take  a  dreadful  revenge  on 
all  who  offended  them.  Hence,  the  prince  of  ViUa 
Franca  embraced  it,  as  the  safest,  wisest,  and 
most  political  scheme,  to  become  their  declared 
patron  and  protector.  Such  of  tKem  as  thought 
proper  to  leave  their  mountains  and  forests, 
though  perhaps  only  for  a  time,  met  with  en- 
couragement, and  a  certain  protection  in  his 
service,  where  they  enjoyed  his  confidence,  which 
in  no  instance  were  they  found  to  abuse.  They 
were  clothed  in  the  prince's  livery,  and  wore  a 
badge  of  their  order,  which  entitled  them  to  uni- 
▼enal  fear  and  respect  from  the  people.  The 
persons  of  those  whom  they  accompanied  were 
ever  held  sacred.  For  this  reason  travellers 
chose  to  hire  a  couple  of  them  from  town  to  town; 
and  many  thus  travelled  over  the  whole  island 
with  them  in  safety. 

Banditti  Island,  an  island  on  the  east- 
em  Indian  sea,  at  the  south  entrance  of  the 
straits  of  Lombhook,  about  twenty  miles  in  cir- 
cuit,   iong.  115*»  35'  E.,  lat.  8*  AC  N. 

Ban  Doo.  In  xoology,  a  name  of  the  canis 
molossus,  or  mastiff.  But  Dr.  Johnson  observes, 
that  the  original  of  this  word  is  veiy*^doubtful« 
Caius,  De  Canibus  Britannicis,  derives  it  from 
bandf  that  is,  a  dog  chained  up.  Skinner  inclines 
to  deduce  it  from  banOf  a  muraereri  May  it  not 
come  from  ban^  a  curse,  as  we  say  a  curst  cur ;  or 
rather  from  bmmdf  swelled  or  huge,  a  Danish 
word ;  from  whence,  in  some  counties,  'they  call 
a  great  nut  a  fton-nut.  A  kind  of  large  dog. 
Or  privy,  or  pext,  if  any  bin. 
We  hav«  great  taiirfoyt  will  tear  their  akin. 


The  tune  of  night  when  Tioy  was  aet  on  fire. 
The  time  when  acreeeh-owU  cry,  and  bmtdegt  howL 
8haktp§&r».  Hmr^  VI. 
Then,  Somerset  aaya,  aet  the  Umdog  on  the  bull. 

BANDON,  or  Bandon-b&idoe,  a  considerable 
borough  town  of  Cork,  in  Ireland,  situated  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name.  It  is  called  bv  the  Irish, 
Drohed  (the  bridge),  and  was  founded  by  the 
first  eari  of  Coik  in  1610.  The  walls  were  de- 
molished by  the  Irisli,  in  1689,  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  violence,  papists  were  long  pro- 
hibited from  residing  in  the  town.,  l&ndon 
principally  belongs  to  the  duke  of  Devonshire 
and  the  earl  of  fiSmdon.  It  returns  one  mem- 
ber to  the  imperial  parliament.  The  cotton 
manufactory  used  to  flourish  here,  and  great 
numbers  of  workmen  are  still  employed  on  linens, 
camlets,  and  woollens.  The  population  is  i0,179; 
distance  from  Cork  thirteen  miles:  from  Dub- 
lin, 113. 

BANDORA,  a  town  of  the  island  of  Sal- 


sette,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  peninsula  on  this 
side  the  Ganges. 

BANDORE,  a  musical  instrument  with  stringy, 
resembling  a  lute,  said  to  have  been  invented  in 
the  fourth  year  of  queen  Elizabeth,  by  John 
Rose,  a  citisen  of  London. 

BANDROL,    banderol,  Fr.     A  litde  flag, 
or  streamer ;  the  little  fringed  silk  flag  that  hangs  ' 
on  a  trumpet. 

BAND.UM,  or  Band,  is  used,  in  middle  age 
writers,  for  a  flag  or  banner. 

BANDURI  (Anselm),  a  learned  Benedictine, 
bom  at  Ragusa,  in  Dalmatia.  He  studied  in 
France,  and  applied  himself  princi|^ly  to  anti- 
quities. He  published.  The  Antiquities  of  Con- 
stantinople, two  volumes,  folio ;  and  Numismata 
Imperatorum  Romanorum,  a  Trajano  Decio  ad 
Paleologos  Augustos,  1718.  He  died  at  Paris  in 
1743. 

BAN'DY,v.,  fi.f.,&a4f.  Fr.  froiufer,  to  make 
crooked.  A  club  turned  round  at  bottom  for 
strikii^  a  ball  at  play;  hence  to  bandy  is  to  beat 
to  and  fro  from  one  to  another,  to  agitate,  to  toss 
about,  to  give  and  take  reciprocally,  to  contend 
as  at  some  game,  in  which  each  strives  to  drive 
the  ball  his  own  way. 

The  ihoothig  itan,  • 

Which,  in  an  eye*bright  evening,  aeem'd  to  frdl. 
Are  nothing  bat  the  balls  they  loae  at  toidfr. 

Bnw§r'»  Lmgm,  vu  6w 
They  do  oumingly,  from  one   hand  to  anodier, 
lii%  the  service  like  a  tennis-ball.  Spmmr. 

Do  yon  fcawrfjf  looks  with  me,  you  rascal  f 

oMAJk^peaiw* 
No  simple  man  that  sees 
This  fiMtiooa  hamdgittg  of  their  frtvooritea, 
Bnt  that  he  doth  preaage  some  ill  event.         14, 
Had  ahe  affections  and  warm  youthful  blood. 
She  would  be  as  swift  in  motion  as  a  ball. 
My  words  wonld  fcawdjf  her  to  my  sweet  love. 
And  his  to  me.  /dL 

Could  set  np  grandee  against  grandee. 
To  squander  time  away  and  ftmd^ ; 
Made  lords  and  commoners  lay  sieges, 
'       To  one  another's  privileges.  Hmdibrat. 

They  now  begun 
To  spur  their  living  engines  on ; 
For  as  whipp'd  tops,  and  handed  balls. 
The  learn'd  hold,  are  animals  ; 
So  horses  they  affirm  to  be. 
Mere  engines  made  by  geometry.  Id 

And  like  a  ball,  btm^*d  'twist  pride  and  wit. 
Rather  than  yield,  botii  sides  the  prise  will  quit 


This  hath  been  so  handud  amongst  us,  that  one  can 
hardly  miss  books  of  this  kind.  Xedba. 

Ever  since  men  have  been  united  into  governments, 
the  endeavonn  alter  universal  monarchy  have  been 
Isiidisrf  among  them.  Swifi, 

He  that  is  employed,  has  no  leisure  to  move  in  the 
little  disputes  and  quarrels  which  trouble  the  peace 
of  the  mind,  and  which  are  chie6y  kept  up  and  hm^ 
ditd  to  and  fro  by  those  who  have  nothing  else  to  do. 

What  vigorous  arm,  what  repereussive  blow, 
~       '    the  mighty  globe  still  to  and  fro. 


She  calls  it  witty  to  be  rude. 
And  placing  raillery  in  railing, 
Wfll  tell  aloud  your  greatest  fruling; 
Nor  make  a  scruple  to  expose 
Your  AoN^leg,  or  crooked  nose.        Sw^k* 


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BAN 

Hie  iy»Urfi«ii«  had  a  one-eyed  btmd^4egg9d  prince  *, 
such  a  person  woald  have  made  but  an  odd  figure. 

CoUier. 

Bavdv  Legs,  are  legs  distorted,  turning 
titber  inward  or  outward  on  either  side ;  arising 
from  some  defect  in  the  birth,  or  imprudence  in 
the  nurse,  endeavouring  to  make  a  emld  stand  or 
walk  before  his  leg^  were  strong  enough  to  sus- 
tain the  weight  of  his  body.  See  Vau^us. 
BANE',  V.  &n.-)  Sax;  bona,  a  murderer, 
Bane'ful,  > according  to  Dr.  Johnson; 

Bane'fulness.  3  but  it  may  be  referred  to  the 
Goth,  ftmifoi,  ulcers,  sores,  wounds^  or  to  bane, 
destruction,  death.     To  poison,  to  render  poi- 
sonous, to  destroy ;  to  cause  destruction  or  ruin. 
For  in  his  hunting  hathe  he  swiche  delite. 
That  it  is  alle  his  joye  and  appetite. 
To  ben  himself  the  grate  hart's  Aom.       Ckemeef. 
Help  me,  ye  hfutefiM  byrds !  whose  shrieking  sound 
Is  signe  of  dreary  death,  my  deadly  cries 
Most  mthfolly  to  tunei  fijpcMfr. 

Another  righteous  doom  I  saw  of  gveedy  gain, 
Whh  busy  cares  such  treasaws  oft  pi«eerved. 
Are  to  their  kwe.  iBsrf  ofAapny. 

The  country  people  use  kitchen  physiek,  and  common 
experience  tells  us,  that  they  IWe  freest  ftom  all 
manner  of  infiimities  that  make  least  use  of  apothe- 
caries' ^ysiek.  Many  are  pTertbiown  by  preposte- 
rous use  qI  \i»  and  thereby  get  their  hone,  that  might 
otherwise  have  escaped. 

BurUm'i  Anatomy  of  MelanehQig. 
Lest  Rome  herself  be  hcMO  unto  herself. 
And  she  whom  mighty  kingdoms  court'sy  to> 
Like  a  forlorn  and  desperate  cast  away. 
Bo  shameful  execution  on  herself.  Shahtpeaty, 

Begone,  or  else  let  me.     Tis  bane  to  draw  the.  same 
air  with  thee*  ^^»  Jonton, 

All  good  to  me  becomes 
Bmno';  but  in  heaVn  much  worse  would  be  my  state. 

Iflftofi. 
They  with  epeed 
Their  course  through  thickest  constellaitaons  htild. 
Spreading  their  bane.  Id. 

Insole^xcy  must  be  repressed,  or  it  will  be  the  bane 
of  the  Christian  religion.  ,  Booker, 

Who  can  omit  the  Oracchi,  who  declare 
The  Scipios'  worth,  those  \hunderbolts  of  war. 
The  double  bane  of  CarAage  ?  Dryden. 

False  religion  is,  in  its  nature^  the  greatest  hane 
and  destruction  to  government  in  the  worid.       'South, 
For  voyaging  to  learn  the  direful  art. 
To  taint  with  deadly  drugs  the  barbed  dart; 
Observant  of  the  gods,  and  sternly  just, 
llus  refus'd  t'  impart  the  hantfui  trust         Pep*. 
Thus  am  I  doubly  arm'd  ;  my  death  and  life. 
My  hane  and  antidote,  are  both  before  me. 
This  in  a  moment  brings  me  to  my  end  \ 
But  that  informs  me  I  shall  never  die.  AdSmon. 

Thy  sins  are  of  so  Inmefyd  a  nature,  that  they  poison 
even  the  blood  of  Cltrist  unto  thee. 

Sopkint  9  Sertneni* 
Then  would'st  thou  steer,  where  fortune  spreads 
the  sails? 
Go  flatter  vice,  for  seldom  flattery  fails. 
Soft  through  the  ear  the  pleasing  bane  distils; 
Delicious  poison !  in  perfumes  it  kills !  Broome, 

O  ba$ie  of  good,  seducing  cheat. 
Can  man,  weak  man,  thy  power  defeat?       Gay. 

Beneath  the  gloomy  covert  of  a  yew. 
That  Uints  the  grass  with  sickly  sweaU  of  dew ; 
No  verdant  beauty  entertains  the  sight. 
But  Aone/W  hemlock,  and  cold  aconite.       Qarth. 


BAN 

When  it  is  now  clear  beyond  all  dispute,  that  the 
criminal  is  no  longer  fit  to  live  upon  the  earth,  but 
is  to  be  exterminated  as  a  monster,  and  a  hane  to 
human  society^  the  law  sets  a  note  of  infamy  upon 
him,  and  puts  him  out  of  its  protection.  Bheketane. 
So  gentle  life's  descent. 

We  shut  our  eyes,  and  think  it  is  a  j^ain  ; 

We  take  faff  days  in  winter  for  the  spring ; 

And  turn  ear  blessings  into  hane.  Yemag. 

But  quiet  to  quick  bosoms  is  a  hell. 
And  there  hath  been  thy  htme.  Bgnn, 

Ba»e  Berkies,  a  name  given  to  te  suetsa 
spicata,  or  herb  Christopher. 

Banewort,  n.  «.  From  bane  and  wort.  A 
plant,  the  same  with  deadly  nightshade. 

BANG',  ».&n.  Dut  biengeler,  to  beat  with 
sticks,  clubs,  &c.  Swed.  &na,  to  strike.  A 
northern  provincialism,  to  beat.  To  beat,  or 
strike,  to  hit  hard ;  to  give  repeated  heavy  blows. 
Figuratively  applied  to  speech ;  thus  to  iBftgne- 
bang,  is  to  scola,  and  overpower  o^rs  by  viru- 
lent noisy  abuse. 

The  desperate  tevipest  hath  so  bot^d  the  TiMb, 

That  their  designment  halts.  Shakipeart, 

You  should  accost  her  with  jests  fire-new  from 
the  mint;  you  should  have  bat^  the  youth  into 
dumbness.  Id, 

I  am  a  bachelor.^-That's  to  say,  they  are  fools  that 
marry ;  youll  bear  me  a  bang  for  that.  id. 

With  many  a  stiff  twack,  many  a  bnny^ 
Hard  crab-tree  and  old  iron  rang.  Atdftras^ 

I  heard  several  bangt  or  buffets,  as  I  thought,  given 
to  the  eagle  that  held  the  ring  of  my  box  in  his  beak. 

Sm^*e  OnlMeer. 

He  having  got  some  iron  out  of  the  earth,  put  it 
into  his  servant's  hands  to  fence  with,  and  bony  one 
another.  Xeoftf. 

Formerly  I  was  to  be  bnt^  beoanse  I  was  too 
•trong,  and  now,  because  I  am  too  weak,  to  resist ;  I 
am  to  be  bron|^  down  whca  too  rich,  and 
when  too  poor. 

But,  dear  MJr.  Bi^keMtaff,  conviMa  'em.  tbait 
haish  and  irregular  sound  is  BotluniBony;  •• 
is  ba9^fuig  a  cvahion,  oratosy,  2M«r. 

BANGALOOR,  or  Banoai/>br,  a  Ibrtresb  in 
the  peninsula  of  Hindostan,  sev^iiy^fbfiir  miles 
from  Seringapatam,  the  eapttal  of  4he  Mysore. 
Hyder  AH  constructed  the  fort  there,  which  Tippoo 
Saib  destroyed,  as  useless  against  Europeans. 
Here,  however,  be  buih  a  palace,  and  taid  out 
extensive  gardens.  It  is  a  good  place  tor  trade, 
especially  in  the  betel-nut,  black-pepper,  and 
sandal  wood.  Woollen  cloths,  &c.,  and  a  kind 
of  strong  silken  stuff,  are  manxifectured  here. 
Bangaloor  was  annexed  to  the  Mysore  in  1797, 
was  taken  by  assault,  under  lord  ComwaHis,  and 
plundered  by  the  army. 

BANGASSI,  a  large  fortified  town  of  Footer 
doo,  in  Africa.    Long.  €*»  45'  W.,  lat,  15*»  lor  N. 

BANGERMOW,  a  considerable  town  of  Hin- 
dostan,  in  the  province  of  Oude.  Long.  tO" 
25'  E.,  lat.  26^  48*  N. 

BANGEY,  a  cluster  of  small  islands  m  Ae 
Molucca  passage.  Long.  124*  15'  E^  lat 
1°  45'. 

BANGIUS  (Peter),  a  SwediA  divittB,^bom  at 
Helsingborg  in  1633.    He  became       '; 
theology  at  Abo,  where  he  continued  thirtjr-two 
years;  and  in  1683,  obtained  the  bishopric  of 


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NVyborg.  He  died  in  1696,  leaving,  besides 
other  works,  an  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Swe- 
den ;  and  a  Treatise  on  Sacred  Chronology. 

Bangius  (Thomas),  a  Danish  divine,  bom  in 
1660,  he  was  professor  of  divinity,  philosophy, 
and  Hebrew,  at  Copenhagen ;  and  distinguished 
himself  as  an  elegant  Latin  writer,  on  the  origin 
of  languages,  and  other  subjects.  He  also  pub- 
lished a  Hebrew  lexioon.    He  died  in  1661. 

BAN'GLE,  V.  a.  To  waste  by  litde  and  little ; 
to  squander  ouelessly ;  a  word  now  used  only  in 
conversation. 

Batwitt  hop«  snd  fear — betwixt  ftiUing  m,  falling 
out,  &e.  we  biigb  aw«y  our  beet  dayi,  befool  out  out 
times.  Bmion*$  Anatomy  of  Melmchokf. 

If  we  hangU  away  the  legacy  of  peace  left  ut  by 
Christ,  it  is  a  sign  of  our  want  of  regard  for  him. 

JhOyofMm, 

Baj^gle  Ears^  an  imperfection  in  a  horse,  re- 
medied in  the  following  manner: — Place  his  ears 
'  in  such  a  manner  as  you  would  have  them  stand ; 
bind  them  with  two  little  boards  so  last  that  they 
cannot  stir,  and  then  clip  away  all  die  empty 
wrinkled  skin  close  by  the  head. 

BANGLOR,  a  town  in  the  Mysore  territory, 
twenty  miles  south-east  from  Bangaloor. 

BANGOR,  an  episcopal  city  of  Caernarvon- 
shire in  North  Wales.  In  ancient  times  it  was 
so  considerable,  that  it  was  called  Bangor  the 
Great,  and  defended  by  a  strong  castle ;  but  it  is 
now  a  small  place ;  the  principal  buildings  be- 
ing the  cathedral,  the  bishop's  palace,  and  a 
free  school.  The  see  is  of  gr^  antiquity.  The 
church  is  dedicated  to  St.  Daniel,  who  was  bishop 
about  A. D.  516;  but  for  near  580  yearaafto^ 
wards,  there  is  ho  certainty  of  the  name  of  his 
successors.  Owen  Glendower  greatly  defaced 
the  cathedral  church ;  but  bishop  Dean  repaired 
it  again.  This  see  met  with  a  still  more  avari- 
cious ravager  than  Owen  Glendower,  in  the  per- 
son of  Bishop  Bulkeley ;  who  not  only  alienated 
many  of  the  lands  belonging  to  it;  but  even 
sold,  it  is  said,  the  bells  of  the  chuirch.  This 
diocese  contains  the  whole  of  Caernarvonshire, 
except  five  parishes,  the  whole  of  Anglesey,  and 
part  of  the  shires  of  Denbigh,  Merioneth,  and 
Montgomery ;  in  which  are  107  parishes,  whereof 
thirty-six  are  impropriated.  It  has  three  arch- 
deaconries, viz.  Bangor,  Anglesey , and  Merioneth; 
of  which  the  two  first  are  commonly  annexed  to 
the  bishopric  for  its  heiXxx  support.  The  pre- 
late is  a  suffragan  to  the  metropolitan  see  of  Can- 
terbury. The  present  cathedral  was  built  during 
various  parts  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  com- 
prises a  choir,  nave,  transepts,  two  aisles,  and  a 
quadrangular  tower  at  the  west  end.  The  ex-r 
treme  length  from  east  to  west  is  214  feet. 

The  town  of  Bangor  is  in  a  narrow  valley 
between  ridges  of  rock.  It  has  a  fine  opening 
to  the  Menai,  and  consists  of  one  well-built 
street.  A  chain-bridge  has  lately  been  opened 
over  the  Menai  strait,  which  connects  the  main 
land  with  Anglesey.  The  population  in  1821 
^as  3579.  The  new  harbour  was  made  by  the 
late  Dr. Warren,  bishop  of  Bangor;  the  en- 
trance of  the  strait  is  aifiicult  for  ships  of  bur- 
den, except  at  bigb  water.  Bangor  has  a  market 
on  Wednesday,  and  three  fairs,  5th  April,  25th 
June,  and   25th  October.     Lat.  53''  20'.,  long. 


4^  lO'  W.  236  miles  north-west  from  London, 
by  Oswestry,  and  244  by  Aberconway. 

Bangor,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Down,  on  the  south  shore  of  Carrickfeq^ 
Bay.  Before  the  Union,  it  sent  members  to 
parliament. 

Bjlngor,  Iscoed,  a  parish  in  the  hundred  of 
May  lor,  Flint,  eleven  miles  west  from  Whit-* 
church,  Salop,  where  formerly  stood  one  of  the 
most  ancient  and  extensive  monasteries  in  Eng- 
land, in  which  1200  monks  were  destroyed  hf 
Bthelfrid.  No  traces  of  the  structure  remain; 
but  here  is  an  elegant  ancient  bridge  of  five 
arches.  The  meadows  in  the  neighbocuhood  are 
so  rich  in  pasture,  that  they  have  been  let  for 
eight  or  nine  pounds  per  acre,  per  annum. 

Bangor,  a  township  of  the  United  States,  in 
Hancock  county,  distnct  of  Maine,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Penobscot,  280  miles  north-east  of 
Boston. 

BANGORI,  a  town  of  the  peninsula  of  Ma- 
lacca. 

BANGORIAN  Controverst,  so  called  fihom 
Dr.  Hoadly,  bishop  of  Bangor.  It  arose  from  a 
sermon  preached  by  him  bSore  his  majesty  king 
George  I.  at  the  royal  chapel,  St.  James's,  on. 
Sunday,  March  31, 1717.  Mr.  Belshara,  in  his 
Memoirs,  vol.  i.p.  174,  gives  the  following  ac- 
count of  this  controversy.  *  As  the  foundation 
of  this  famous  discourse,  the  bishop  chose  the 
declaration  of  Christ  to  Pilate :  My  kingdom  is 
not  of  this  worid :  and  the  direct  and  undis- 
guised object  of  it  was  to  prove  that  the  king- 
dom of  Cluist,  and  the  sanctions  by  which  it  is 
supported,  were  of  a  nature  wholly  intellectual 
and  spiritual ;  that  (he  church,  taking  the  term  in 
its  most  unlimited  signification,  (Ud  not,  and 
could  not,  possess  the  slightest  degree  of  audiority 
under  any  commission,  or  pretended  commission, 
derived  from  man;  that  the  church  of  England, 
and  all  other  national  churches,  were  merely  civil 
or  human  institutions,  established  for  the  pur- 
pose of  difiusing  and  perpetuaiting  the  knowledge 
and  belief  of  Christianity,  which  contained  a 
system  of  truths,  not  in  ^their  nature  differing 
from  other  truths,  except  by  their  superior  weight 
and  importance,  and  which  were  to  be  inculcated 
in  a  manner  analogous  toother  truths ;  demand- 
ing only  from  their  more  interesting  import, 
propoitionably  higher  degrees  of  care,  attention, 
and  assiduity  in  the  promulgation  of  them.  It 
is  scarcely  to  be  imagined,  in  these  times,  widi 
what  degree  of  fiadse  and  malignant  rancor,  these 
plain,  simple,  and  rational  principles  were  at- 
tacked by  the  zealots  and  champions  of  the 
church.  See  Hoadly.  On  the  meetmg  of 
the  convocation,  a  committee  was  appointed  to 
examine  this  fiimous  publication,  and  a  repre- 
sentation was  quickly  drawn  up,  in  which  a  most 
heavy  charge  was  piused  upon  it,  as  tending  to 
subvert  all  government  and  discipline  in  the 
church  of  Christ ;  to  reduce  this  kingdom  to  a 
statejof  anarchy  and  confusion;  to  impugn  and 
impeach  the  royal  supremacy  in  matters  eccle- 
siastical, and  the  autnority  of  the  legislature  to 
enforce  obedience  in  matters  of  religion,  by  se- 
vere sanction.  A  sudden  stop,  however,  was 
put  to  these  disgraceful  proceedings,  by  royal 
prorogation;   and  from  tliai  period  the  convoca- 


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tion  has  never  been  convened,  but  as  a  matter  of 
mere  form,  and  for  the  purpose  of  being  again 
prorogued.  The  controversy  which  then  com- 
menced was  carried  on  for  several  years,  with 
great  ability  and  animation  on  the  part  of  the 
bishop,  aided  by  various  excellent  pens,  though 
opposed  by  men  whose  learning  and  talents 
gave  an  artificial  lustre  to  bigotry  and  absurdity. 
No  controversy,  however,  upon  the  whole,  ever 
more  fully  and  completely  answered  the  purpose 
intended  by  it.  The  obscurity  in  which  this 
subject  had  been  long  involved,  was  dissipated; 
the  public  mind  was  enlightened  and  convmced ; 
church  authority,  the  chimera  vomiting  flames, 
was  destroyed ;  and  the  name  of  Hoadly  will 
be  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation,  with 
increase  of  honor,  of  esteem,  and  grateful  vene- 
ration.' 

BANGUE,  a  species  of  opiate,  much  used 
throughout  the  east,  for  drowning  cares  and  in- 
spiring ioy.  By  the  Persians  it  is  called  beng ; 
by  the  Arabs,  esscar,  corruptly  asseral,  and  as- 
fiarth;  by  the  Turks,  bengitie,  and  vulgarly  mas- 
tack  ;  by  European  natundists,  bangue  or  bange. 
It  is  the  leaf  or  a  kind  of  wild  hemp,  growing  in 
the  countries  of  the  Levant,  and  differs  little, 
either  as  to  the  leaf  or  seed,  from  our.  hemp,  ex- 
cept in  size.  Some  have  mistaken  it  for  a  spe- 
cies of  Althea.  There  are  various  manners  of 
preparing  it;  Olearius  describes  the  method 
used  in  Persia.  Mr.  Sale  tells  us,  that,  among 
the  Arabs,  the  leaf  is  made  into  pills  or  con- 
serves. But  the  most  distinct  account  is  given 
bj  Alexander  Maurocordato,  counsellor  and  phy- 
sician of  the  Ottoman  Porte,  in  a  letter  to  vVe- 
delius.  According  to  this  author,  bangue  is  made 
of  the  leaves  of  wild  hemp,  dried  in  the  shade, 
then  ground  to  powder ;  put  into  a  pot  wherein 
butter  has  been  kept ;  set  in  an  oven  till  it  be^ns 
to  torrify  ;  then  taken  out  and  pulverised  again ; 
thus  to  be  used  occasionally,  as  much  at  a  time 
as  will  lie  pn  the  point  of  a  knife.  Such  is  the 
Turkish  bangue.  Bangue  in  reality,  is  a  succe- 
daneum  to  wine,  and  is  therefore  much  used  in 
tliose  countries  where  Mahommedanism  is  esta- 
blished. 

BANGUEY,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas, 
lying  off  the  north  coast  of  Borneo,  and  separated 
by  a  channel,  three  miles  wide,  from  the  island 
or  Balambangan.  It  is  about  twenty-three  miles 
in  length,  by  eleven  in  breadth,  and  its  shores 
are  frequented  by  abundance  of  turtle.  Long. 
lir'25'E.,  lat.  ns'N. 

BANIAK,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas,  off  the 
west  coast  of  Sumatra,  opposite  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Sinkell.  It  is  one  of  a  cluster,  and  b  about 
seventeen  miles  in  length,  by  seven  in  average 
breadth.  It  is  known  l«y  a  peaked  hill,  resembling 
a  sugar-loaf.  Sea  slug,  or  biche-de-mar  is  ol:^ 
tained  here.  The  inHabitants  are  of  the  Maruwi 
race,  but  speak  a  language  peculiar  to  them- 
selves. Long.  96**  48'  E.,  lat.  2**  IC  N. 

BANIALUCH,  or  Bakjaluka,  a  city  of 
European  Turkey,  the  capital  of  Bosnia,  upon 
the  frontier  of  Cioatia,  on  the  rivgr  Verbas. 
The  houses,  which  amount  to  3000,  ta^  meanly 
built,  and  the  suburbs  are  chiefly  inhabited  by 
Gred^    Long.  18*  20*  E.,  lat.  44<»  20*  N. 

BANIAN  Days,  in  marine  languaffe,  a  term 


among  sailors,  for  those  days  in  which  they  have 
no  flesh  meat  It  seems  to  be  derived  from  the 
practice  of  the  people  mentioned  in  the  next 
article. 

Bakiaws  is  sometimes  taken  as  a  name  for  a 
religious  sect  ih  the  empire  of  the  Mogul,  and 
sometimes  extended  to  all  the  idolaters  of  India, 
as  contradistinguished  from  the  Mahommedans : 
in  which  sense.  Banians  include  the  Brahmins 
and  other  castes.  At  other  times  it  is  restrained 
to  a  peculiar  caste  or  tribe  of  Indians,  whose 
office  or  profession  is  trade  and  merchandise; 
in  which  sense  Banians,  signifying  bankers, 
stand  contradistinguished  firdm  Brahmins,  Cut- 
tery,  and  Wyse,  the  three  other  castes  into  which 
the  Indians  are  divided.  The  four  castes  are  ab- 
solutely separate  as  to  occupation,  relation,  mai^ 
riage,  &c.  though  all  of  the  same  religion ;  whidi 
is  more  properly  denominated  the  religion  of  the 
Brahmins,  who  make  the  ecclesiastical  tribe,  than 
of  the  Banians,  who  make  the  mercantile.  The 
proper  Banians  are  called,  in  the  Shaster,  or 
Dook  of  their  law,  by  the  name  of  Shuddery; 
under  which  are  comprehended  all  who  live 
after  the  manner  of  merchants,  or  that  deal  and 
transact  for  others,  as  brokers ;  exclusive  of  the 
mechanics  or  artificers,  who  make  another  caste. 
These  Banian^  have  no  peculiar  sect  or  religion, 
unless  it  be,  that  two  of  the  eight  general  pre- 
cepts given  by  their  legislator,  Bremaw^  to  the 
Indian  nation,  are,  on  account  of  the  piofieasion 
of  the  Banians,  supposed  more  immediately  to 
relate  to  them,  viz.  those  which  enjoin  veracity  in 
their  words  and  dealings,  and  avoiding  all  prac- 
tices of  circumvention  in  buying  and  selling. 
Some  of  the  Banians,  quitting  their  profession, 
and  retiring  from  the' world,  commence  religious, 
assume  a  peculiar  habit,  ahd  devote  themselves 
more  immediately  to  God,  under  the  denomina- 
tion of  Vertea.  These,  though  they  do  not 
hereby  change  their  caste,  are  conunonly  reckoned 
as  Brahmins  of  a  more  devout  kind ;  as  monks  in 
the  Romish  church,  though  frequently  not  in 
orders,  are  reputed  as  a  more  sacred  order  than 
the  regular  clergy.  Gemelli  Carreri  divides  the 
Banians  into  twenty-two  tribes,  all  distinct,  and 
not  allowed  to  marry  with  each  other.  Lord 
assures  us  they  are  divided  into  eighty-two  castes 
or  tribes,  correspondent  to  the  castes  or  divisions 
of  the  Brahmins  or  priests,  under  whose  discipline 
they  are,  as  to  religious  matters,  though  the 
generality  of  the  Banians  choose  to  be  under  the 
direction  of  the  two  Brahmin  tribes,  the  Vimlna- 
granaugers  and  Vulnagranaugers.  The  Banians 
are  represented  as  great  f/ucton,  by  whom  most 
of  the  trade  of  India  is  managed ;  in  this  respect 
equal  to  the  Jews  and  Armenians,  and  not  be- 
hind either,  in  point  of  skill  and  experience,  in 
whatever  relates  to  commerce.  Nothing  is 
bought  but  by  their  mediation.  They  seem  to 
claim  a  kind  of  jusdivinum  to  the  administration 
of  the  traffic  of  the  nation,  grounded  on  their 
sacred  books,  as  the  Brahmins  do  to  that  of  reli- 
gion. They  are  dispersed,  for  this  purpose, 
through  all  parts  of  Asia,  and  abound  in  Persia, 
particularly  at  Ispahan  and  Gombroon,  where 
many  of  them  are  extr«nely  rich,  yet  never 
above  acting  as  brokers.  But  it  has  been  justly 
said  by  a  late  writer,  that  the  name  Banian  was 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BAN 


461 


BAN 


originally  given  by  Europeans  to  almost  all 
Hindoos;  and  that  generally  what  we  read  of 
their  peculiar  tenets,  their  abhorrence  for  meat, 
&c.  is,  in  lact,  the  practise  of  all  conscientious 
Hindoos.       « 

Banian  Tree.    See  jFicus. 

BANICA,  a  town  in  the  island  of  Hispaniola, 
forty  miles  south-east  of  Cape  Fran9ois.  Also 
the  name  of  a  small  river  in  tae  same  island. 

BANJAR  Massin,  or  Bagnar  Messin,  a 
town  and  district  of  Borneo,  on  a  river  of  the 
same  name,  which  falls  into  the  sea  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  island.  The  district 
produces  diamonds,  gold  dust,  iron,  canes,  and 

Sepper,  the  last  of  which  is  its  staple  commo- 
ity.    Gold  is  obtained  here  in  bars,  and  the 
I         country  is  celebrated  for  the  quality  of  its  steel. 
The  imports  are  slaves,  birds'  nests,  nutmegs,  and 
I         tortoise  shells,  which  are  all  re-exported  from 
t         Borneo.    The  rajah,  or  sovereign,  formerly  re- 
sided at  a  place  called  Cagu-Tangie,  or  Uota- 
[         Tengah,  but  he  directed  a  city  to  be  built  at 
Martapura,  whither  he  transferred  his  abode  in 
1 771 ,  changing  the  name  of  Martapura  to  Bunire 
i         Kintjana.    His  power  is  considerable.    A  Dutch 
t         commercial  establishment  on  the  banks  of  the 
I         river,  at  the  end  of  the  village  of  Baniar  Massin, 
(         called  Tatas,  consists  of  an  octagonal  fort,  sur- 
TOi^nded  by  palisades,  with  bastions  towards  the 
I         river  side ;  it  was  built  in  1709.    They  had,  by  a 
I         previous  treaty  in  1648,  compelled  the  king  to 
relinquish  for  their  benefit  the  whole  pepper 
,         trade.    The  king  has,  in  return,  been  protected 
,         by  the  Dutch  from  the  unsettled  predatory  tribes 
,  in  his  neighbourhood.     In  the  beginning  of  the 

I         seventeenth  centurv,  an  establishment  was  at- 
,         tempted  here  by  the  English  East  India  Com- 
,         pany,  but  the  settlers  were  resolved  to  abandon 
\         the  place.    During  the  late  war,  however,  the 
,         Dutch  fort  was  occupied  by  the  British.    The 
town  of  Banjar  Massin  formerly  stood  eighteen 
miles  up  the  river,  but  has  been  transferred  six 
miles  lo^er  down.     It  consists  of  about  300 
houses.    Long.  114^  55'  E.,  lat  3"  S. 
I  BANIASS,  or  Panaas,  anciently  Cssarea 

Philippi,  a  village  of  Syria,  near  the  source  of  a 
river,  which  has  been  commonly  supposed  to  be 
the  Jordan.  This  stream  rises  near  a  remarkable 
.gro^^o  in  a  rock,  on  the  declivity  of  which  are 
seen  some  ancient  Greek  inscriptions  to  Pan  and 
the  nymphs  of  the  fountain.  The  vestiges  of  a 
flourishing  ciw  are  still  to  be  seen ;  but  there  are 
no  remains  of'^tbe  temple  which  Herod  the  Great 
erected  .in  honor  of  Augustus.  The  fort  of 
Baniass,  built  in  the  time  of  the  caliphs,  stands 
on  the  summit  of  a  lofty  mountain.  Around  is 
an  agreeable  country,  but  pantliers,  bears,  wolves, 
and  hysnas,  are  numerous.  There  as  also  great 
abundance  of  game.  Distant  two  leagues  west 
of  the  lake  Phiala,  or  Birkel-«1-Ram. 

BANIER  (Anthony),  licentiate  in  Uiws,  mem> 
ber  of  the  academy  of  inscriptions  and  belles 
lettres,  and  ecclesiastic  of  the  diocese  of  Cler- 
mont, in  Auvergne ;  died  in  November  1741, 
aged  69.  He  is  principally  celebrated  for  his 
translation  of  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,  with 
remarks  and  explanations,  which  was  published 
in  1 739,  at  Amsterdam,  in  folio,  ornamented  with 
coppei-plates,  by  Picart;  and  reprinted  at  Paris, 


^738,  in  2  vols.  4to;  and  for  his  Mythology 
explained  by  History,  a  work  full  of  the  most 
important  information,  and  printed  at  London  in 
1741,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

BANILLIA,  in  the  materia  medica,  a  name 
used  by  some  for  the  vanillia,  or  vanilloes,  used 
in  making  the  scented  chocolate. 

BANISERLIE,  the  capital  of  Dentila,  in 
western  A&ica.  It  is  a  Manommedan  town. 
BANISH,  ^  See  Ban.  Sax. /orfr^rjierf, 
Banish'er,  fa  banished  nan.  In  Fr^  ban- 
Banish'iient,  1  fu'r,  Germ,  bannen^  to  put  out 
Ban'nition.  3  of  a  community  l^  a  nan  or 
civil  interdict,  which  was  formerly  either  eccle- 
siastical or  civil.  BanUhmetUf  cxt/e,  and  eipul- 
tion,  all  include  the  idea  of  exclusion  or  coercive 
removal,  but  in  other  respects  they  differ.  Bo- 
nUhmeni  follows  from  a  aecree  of  justice ;  esile, 
either  by  the  necessity  of  circumstances  or  an 
order  of  authority ;  banUhmeni  is  a  disgraceful 
punishment  inflicted  by  tribunals  upon  delii>- 
quents ;  esUe  is  a  disgrace  incurred  without  dis- 
honor; exi/e  removes  us  from  our  country; 
banishment  drives  us  from  it  ignominiously. 
Banishment  and  espulnon^  both  mark  a  disgrace- 
ful and  coercive  exclusion.  But  banishment  is 
authoritative,  the  public  act  of  government; 
expidmn  is  the  act  of  a  private  individual,  or  a 
smalt  community.  Bamshment  always  supposes 
a  removal  to  a  distant  spot,  to  another  land ;  es-^ 
pulsion  never  reaches  beyond  a  particular  house 
or  society.  Banishment  and  expulsion  are  like- 
wise used  in  a  figurative  sense,  although  exile  is 
not :  in  this  sense  btmishmeni  marks  a  distant  and 
entire  removal ;  expulsion  a  violent  removal ;  we 
banish  that  which  it  is  not  prudent  to  retain ;  we 
expel  that  which  is  noxious.  Hopes  are  banished 
from  the  mind  when  every  prospect  of  success 
has  disappeared ;  fears  are  vanished  when  they 
are  altogether  groundless;  envy,  hatred,  and 
every  evil  passion  should  be  expelled  from  the 
mind  as  disturbers  of  its  peace ;  harmony  and 
good-humor  are  best  promoted  by  banishing  finom 
conversation  all  subjects  of  difference  in  rdigion 
and  politics ;  good  morals  reouire  that  every  un- 
seemly vrord  should  be  expelled. 

This  is  thy  mortal  fof*,  this  is  Arcite» 
That  fro  thy  lond  is  baniihed  on  his  hed. 
For  which  he  hath  deserved  to  be  ded. 

Chaucer. 

Plato  made  it  a  great  sigae  of  an  intemperate  and  • 
corrupt  commonwealth,  where  lawyers  and  physicians 
did  ahoimd ;  and  the  Komans  distasted  them  so  much 
that  they  were  baaMied  out  of  their  city,  as  Pliny  and 
Celsus  relate,  and  for  600  years  not  admitted. 

Burton**  Anatomy  of  Mdameholjf, 

Oh,  £are  thee  well  I 
Those  evils  thou  repeat'st  upon  thyself 
Have  hanish'd  me  from  Scotland.        SkaJupeare. 
Marius  then  fetching  a  deep  sigh  from  his  heart, 
gave  him  this  answer, '  Thou  shalt  tell  Sextilins,  that 
thou  hast  seen  Cains  Marius,  hamtkoi  out  of  his  coun- 
try, sitting  amongst  the  ruins  of  the  dty  of  Carthage.' 

North,  Phttarch. 

They  refused  to  do  it  (take  the  oaths),  and  wen 
upon  Utat  condemned  to  perpetual  hamthment,  as  men 
that  denied  allegiance  to  Uie  king,  and  by  this  an 
engine  was  found  out  to  battisk  as  many  as  they 
pleased.  Biihep  Burnet's  Own  Tttnet, 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


4f>2 


BANK. 


As  I  hxve  your  express  orders  not  to  restore  any 
person  who  has  been  sentenced  to  banithmem,  either 
by  myself  or  others ;  so '  I  have  no  directions  wilh 
respect  to  those,  who  having  been  bamthtd  by  sone 
of  my  predecessors  in  this  government,  have  by  them 
also  been  restored.  MeUnatk't  PUngf 

Every  professor  do  continue  in  his  office  during 
life,  unless  in  case  of  such  misbehaviour  as  shall 
amount  to  barmition  by  the  university  statutes. 

*        Blachttone**  dmunetUariei. 
Thus  I  alone,  where  all  my  freedom  grew. 
In  prison  pine,  with  bondage  and  restraint ; 
And,  with  remembrance  of  the  greater  grief. 
To  bamiih  the  less,  I  find  iby  chief  eeiiof. 

Earl  of  Suarvy. 
Then  came  the  autumne,  all  in  yellow  elad. 
As  thoi^;h  he  joyed  in  his  plentious  store. 
Laden  with  fruits  that  made  him  laugh,  full  glad 
That  he  had  btuusht  hunger,  which  to  fore 
Had  by  the  belly  oft  him  pinched  sore  ; 
Upon  his  head  a  wreath  that  was  enrol'd 
With  ears  of  come  of  every  sort  he  bore. 
And  in  his  hand  a  sicl^e  he  did  holde. 
To  reap  the  ripen'd  fruit  the  which  the  earth  had  yold. 
8pemer*s  Faerie  Queene. 
If  sweet  content  is  banith'd  from  my  soul. 
Life  grows  a  burthen  and  a  weight  of  woe. 


Joy  to  that  happy  pair. 
Whose  hopes  united  baniA  our  despair. 

it(Kneu» 
JBonuA  business,  bamih  sorrow. 
To  the  gods  belongs  to-morrow.         Cowley, 


It  is  for  wicked  men  only  to  dread  God,  and  to  en- 
deavour to  baeSA  the  thoughts  of  him  out  of  their 
jnittds.  TiUoUmi, 

Successless  all  her  soft  caresses  prove. 
To  banUh  from  his  breast  his  country's  love. 

Pope, 

BANISTER  (John),  a  physician  and  surgeon 
in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  was  educateid  at 
Oxford,  where,  says  Anthony  Wood,  he  studied 
logic  for  a  time ;  but  afterwards  applied  himself 
solely  to  physic  and  surgery.  In  1573  he  took 
the  degree  of  M.  B.  and,  obtaining  a  licence  from 
the  university  to  practise,  settled  at  Nottingham, 
where  he  lived  many  years  in  great  repute,  and 
wrote  several  medical  treatises.  His  works  were 
collected  and  published  in  1633,  4to. 

Banister,  me  same  with  Baluster. 

BANISTERIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
trigynia  order,  and  decandria  class  of  plants, 
ranking  in  the  natural  method  under  the  twenty- 
third  order,  trihilatae.  The  calyx  is  quinque- 
partite,  with  nectarious  pores  on  the  outside  of 
the  base  ;  the  petals  are  roundish  and  ungulaled ; 
ait  seeds  are  three,  widi  membranaceous  wings. 
There  are  seven  species,  all  natives  of  warm 
<»untries,  but  possessing  no  remarkable  pro- 
perties. An  American  and  West  Indian  genus, 
containing  twenty-four  species,  has  been  figured 
and  described  in  Cavanilles,  '  Monadelphise 
classis  dissertationes  decem.' 


BANK. 


BANK',  V.  k  n.  Junius  derives  this  word 
from  the  Dutch  banckcy  which  signifies  to  beat, 
to  strike,  as  the  waves  perpetually  strike  against 
the  shores  of  the  sea,  and  the  current  of  the  river 
presses  against  its  sides.  Skinner  is  content,  as  is 
Johnson,  with  the  Ang.-Sax.  banc,  tumulus. 
Wachter  has  banc,  a  hill,  mound,  heap,  and  any 
eminence,  or  rising  place.  It  is  transferred,  he 
adds,  to  all  eminent  or  rising  places  for  sitting 
or  lying,  as  banks  of  oars  were  not  on  the  same 
level  in  ancient  ships,  but  seats  raised  above  one 
another.  It  may  thus  be  applied  to  any  thing 
raised  to  confine  a  current  of  water;  to  any 
mound  or  elevation  designed  as  a  barrier  to  pro- 
tect or  defend  from  the  incursions  of  warriors ; 
or  to  facilitate  the  subjugation  of  forts  and  cities ; 
and  to  the  raised  table  or  counter  of  merchants, 
traders,  or  money-changers.  To  bank  is  to  con- 
fine or  surround  with  banks;  to  throw  up  em- 
bankments. On  the  authority  of  Steevens,  the 
commentator  on  Shakspeare,  it  has  been  suggests 
ed,  that  to  bank  may  mean  to  sail  along  the 
banks. 

They  besieged  him  in  Abel  of  Bethmaachah,  and 
they  cast  up  a  bank  against  the  city  ',  and  it  stood  in 
the  trench.  Samuel. 

When  it  was  day  they  knewe  not  the  lande,  but 

they  spyed  a  certayne  hauen  with  a  banke,  into  which 

they  wers  minded  (if  it  were  possible)  to  thrust  in 

th|B  ship.  Bible,  1651. 

Have  I  not  heard  these  islanders  shout  out 

*  Vive  ie  roy,'  as  I  have  battli^d  their  towns  T 

Shakspeaire, 


Have  you  not  made  an  universal  shout. 
That  Tyber  trembled  underneath  his  bank?  U, 

Richmond,  in  Devonshire,  sent  out  a  boat 
Unto  the  shore,  to  ask  those  on  the  banke. 
If  they  were  his  assistanU.  /d. 

How  sweet  the  moon-light  sleeps  upon  this  &adb/ 
Here  will  we  sit,  and  let  the  sounds  of  musick 
Creep  in  our  ears  ;  soft  stillness,  and  the  nighty 
Become  the  touches  of  sweet  harmony.  id. 

That  strain  again,  it  had  a  dying  fall ; 
O,  it  came  o'er  my  ear  like  the  sweet  south 
That  breathes  upon  a  batUk  of  violets ; 
Stealing  and  giving  odour.  Id. 

Plac'd  on  their  banke  the  lusty  Trojans  sweep 
Neptune's  smooth  face,  and  cleave  the  yielding  deep. 

Waller. 

Mean  time  the  king  with  gifts  a  vessel  stores. 

Supplies  the  baitke  with  twenty  chosen  oan. 

That  banke  of  oars  were  not  in  the  same  plane,  but 

raised  above  one  another,  is  evident  from  descriptions 

•f  ancient  ships.  AHieikmee. 

A  brook  whose  stream  so  great,  so  good. 

Was  ^ov'd,  was  honour'd  as  a  flood  ; 

Whose  banke  the  Muses  dwelt  upon.       Craeham. 

Tis  happy  when  our  streams  of  knowledge  flow 

To  fill  their  banke,  but  not  to  overthzow.     "^ 


O  early  lost!  what  tears  the  river  shed. 
When  the -sad  pomp  along  his  hanke  was  led ! 

Pepe. 

Amid  the  clifls 
And  burning  sands,  that  tedl  the  shnbby  vales. 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BANK. 


4G3 


My  haMki  they  dMfoMiished  witfa  beet, 

WhoM  muiWor  inWies  one  t»  iksep. 
My  grottos  mxt  shaded  wkh  tnes. 

And  my  halb  ave  wfalbe  «ver  with  theep. 
I  leldom  have  met  with  a  kiae. 

Such  health  do  my  foontaina  bestow. 
My  fountains  all  boidered  with  moss. 

Where  the  hare-bells  and  violets  grow. 


An  intercoarse  of  commerce  and  langoage  was  gra- 
dually established  between  the  opposite  hank$  of  the 
Danube,  and  affcer  Dacia  became  an  independent 
atate^  it  often  proved  the  firmest  barrier  of  the  empire 
against  the  invasions  of  the  savages  of  the  north. 

Gibbom. 

On  every  hank,  and  nnder  every  shade, 
A  thousand  youths,  a  diousand  damsels  play'd ; 
Some  waatottly  were  tripping  in  a  ring. 
On  the  soft  border  of  a  gnshhtg  spring. 

Sir  WiUkmJimea, 

la  it  owing  to  Christianicy,  or  tb  the  want  of  it,  that 
tke  bamht  of  the  Nile,  whose  constantly  renewed  fer- 
tility is  not  to  bo  impaiMd  by  neglect,  or  destroyed 
by  the  ravages  of  war,  serve  only  fcrthe  scene  of  a 
ferocious  anarchy,  or  fivrthe  supply -of  unceasing  hos^ 
tilities  ?  Arfey. 

Bank',  v.  A;  n.  *1     ^  commercial 

Bamk'ee,  /  application  of  the 

Bame'rupt,  t;.,  n,  s^  &  at^.  >  former  word.   In 
Ban&'rvptcv,  ithis  sense,  bank 

Bavk'erout,  v.  &  h,  J  is  a  receptacle  for 

money,  and  to  bank  is  to  deposit  money  in  such 
receptacle.  Bankrupt  is  of  more  general  appli- 
cation, extending  to  persons  who  are  dealers  in 
any  commodity,  or  who  cany  on  any  trade  or 
business,  it  is  derived  from  ttie  Fr.  httnqwrcute^ 
or  the  ital.  haneoroUo.  It  signifies  one  whose 
bench  or  table  has  been  broken ;  that  is,  whose 
debts  exceed  his  means  of  payment.  The  Bank" 
rupt  laws  accurately  define  this  species  of  ofibnce 
or  misfortune. 

But  natheless  I  toke  unto  oat  dame. 
Your  wif  at  home,  the  same  gold  again 
Upon  your  bmehe,  she  wote  it  wel  certain. 
By  oertain  tokenee  that  I  ean  hire  tell.    Cktmeer. 
He  hadde  openly  preached  in  the  temple,  he  had 
overthrown  the  baitker^8  tables,  and  drieven  oute  of  the 
temple  too.  8k  Thomas  Mart's  Works, 

Periutt  gathered  together  a  power,  neither  in  num- 
ber nor  in  hardiness  contemptible ;  but  in  their  for- 
tunes, to  be  feared,  being  kmkrupU,  and  many  of 
them  felons.  Baoon. 

Wherefore  do  you  look 
Uoon  that  poor  and  biokea  flunik'n^  theft  f 

Skaktpmra.  Am  90H  Uko  U. 
Ross.  The  earl  of  Wiltshiio  hath  the  realm  in 
^  farm. 

WILLOD6HBY.  The  king's  grown  bat»krupt,.lik»  a 
broken  man.  Id,  lUchard  II, 

Dainty  bits 
Make  rich  the  ribs,  but  bankerout  the  wits.  *  Id. 
Unless  we  had  rather  think  both  moral  and  judi- 
cial, full  of  malice  and  deadly  purpose,  conspired  to 
let  the  debtor  Israelite,  the  seed  of  Abraham,  run  on 
upon  a  bankrmet  score,  flattered  with  insufficient  and 
ensnaring  dischavges. 

JfJUofi.  DootriHB,  8fe.  of  Dworee. 
This  dopie,  be  pens  a  prodamatien  stout. 
In  rescae  of  the  bamkar^s  bastkoroui,  MarveB. 

The  money  of  widows  and  orphans  employed. 
And  iha.bmkors  quite  broke.  Id- 


GoNZ.  There's  the  quintessence. 
The  soul  and  grand  elixir  of  my  wit. 
For  he  (according  to  his  noble  nature) 
Will  not  be  known  to  want,  though  he  do  want. 
And  will  be  hamknpiad  so  much  the  sooner. 
And  make  the  soblobt  of  our  scorn  and  laughter. 

Beaunoat  smd  Fletckar. 
By  powerful  channs  of  gold  and  silver  led. 

The  Lombard  banktrs,  and  the  'change  to  waste. 

Vrjt/dm. 

Whole  droves  of  lenders  crowd  the  banker*s  doom. 
To  call  in  money.  Id, 

In  vain  at  court  the  bankmpt  pleads  his  oanse. 

His  thankless  country  leaves  him  to  her  lasrs. 

Ptpa* 
Or  at  some  baatker's  desk,  liae  many  more. 

Content  to  tell  that  two  and  two  make  four. 

His  name  had  stood  in  city  annals  fair. 

And  prudent  dullness  mark'd  him  for  a  may'r. 

Ckurcka, 

Here  is  again  discovered  the  inhabitant  of  Cheap- 
side,  whose  head  cannot  keep  his  poetry  unmingled 
with  trade.     To  hinder  that  intellectual  bankn^fftcjf, 
whseh  he  affects  to  fear,  he  will  erect  a  bank  for  wit. 
Joknsom's  Lifs  of  BUsckmora, 

By  an  aet  of  insolvency  all  pexaons  who  are  in  too 
low  a  way  of  dealing  to  bo  bankrupts,  or  not  in  a  mer- 
cantile state  of  life,  are  discharged  from  all  suits  and 
imprisonments,  by  delivering  up  all  their  estate  and 
effects.  Blackstom, 

That  banknqHcjf,  the  very  apprehension  of  which 
is  one  of  the  causes  assigned  for  the  &11  of  the  mo- 
narchy, was  the  capital  on  which  the  French  republic 
opened  her  traffic  with  the  world.  Bwke. 

.  Had  every  particular  banking  company  always  un- 
derstood, and  attended  to  its  own  particular  interest, 
the  circulation  never  could  have  been  overstocked 
with  paper  money.  amith't  Wealth  of  Nations, 

^1.  BANK,  Bankers,  Banking.  The  term 
bank  has  two  distinct  significations;  one  in  refer- 
ence to  commerce,  implying  a  place  of  deposit  or 
store-house;  the  other  relating  to  geography  and 
rural  economy,  implying  an  elevation  of  the  earth, 
either  natural  or  artificial ;  and  either  below  or 
above  the  surfitce  of  the  water,  in  rivers  as  well 
as  in  the  ocean.  It  is  further  a  technical  term 
in  law;  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  law, 
when  sitting  in  judgment  collectively,  are  said  to 
sit  in  bank,  barque,  or  banco.  See  Jurispru- 
dence. It  is  also  a  military  term,  denoting 
an  elevation  of  earth  within  the  parapet  of  a  for- 
tification, generally  between  two  and  three  feet 
high,  or  more,  according  to  the  height  of  the 
parapet;  being  about  four  feet  and  a  half  lower 
than  the  top  of  the  parapet,  three  feet  broad, 
ascended  at  intervals  by  steps,  by  which  the  gar- 
rison get  up  to  fire  on,  or  to  observe  the  proceed- 
ings of,  the  besiegers. 

,  2.  We  will  now  proceed  in  tiie  endeavour  to 
illustrate  the  term  bank,  in  conjunction  with 
bankers  and  bankyig,  as  referable  to  commerce,  by 
showing,  1st,  the  probable  origin  or  derivation  of 
the  term;  2nd,  the  origin  or  rise,  and  nature  of 
hanking  institutions ;  3rd,  their  progress,  practice, 
and  present  state,  throughout  the  commercial 
world;  and  4th,  their  influence  and  effect  on  the 
social  and  moral  rehttions,  and  condition  of 
mankind. 

3.  Bank,  in  its  present  application  as  a  com- 
mercial term,  appears  to  have  had  its  origin  in 


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464 


BANK. 


Italy,  where,  in  the  in&ncy  of  Euiopeaik  oora- 
merce,  the  Jews  were  wont  to  assemole  in  the 
market-places  of  the  principal  cities  and  towns, 
seated  on  benches,  ready  to  lend  money ;  first  on 
the  reputation  and  written  bond  or  acknowledg- 
ment, singly  or  jointly,  of  borrowers;  but  (as 
will  be  more  fully  shown  hereafter),  as'  there  is  in 
the  lending  and  borrowing  of  money  an  immuta- 
ble tendency  to  demoralise  and  derange  society, 
confidence  and  reputation  soon  became  mere  bye- 
words;  and,  instead  of  bonds  and  written  obliga- 
tions, money  was  only  lent  upon  the  security  of 
commodity  or  produce,  by  which  localised 
places  of  deposit  or  storing  became  necessary; 
and  hence,  banking,  in  its  origin,  bore  an  ana- 
logy to  our  present  system  of  pawubroking; 
while  the  term  bank  is  supposed  to  ha^e  been 
derived  from  the  benches  and  tables  in  the  nuir- 
ket-places,  at  which  the  money-lenders  used  to 
transact  their  business;  tlie  Italian  word  banco, 
signifying  a  bench,  derived  probably  from  the 
Greek  word  rpaircCa,  signifying  both  a  bench 
and  a  table,  as  does  aUo  the  Spanish  word 
banco;  in  reference  to  which  the  money-lenders 
obtained  the  name  of  benchers  or  bankers;  the 
Jews  of  Lombardy  being  among  the  first  people 
!n  Western  Europe  who  carried  into  practice  the 
principle  of  lenaing  money  on  the  security  of 
commodity ;  their  repositories  partially  obtained 
the  name  of  Lombara-houses. 

4.  The  Lombards  were  a  Scandinavian  tribe, 
who  first  figure  in  history  about  the  year  378 ;  but 
it  was  not  till  568  that  they  established  themselves 
in  Italy;  at  which  period  they  made  Pavia  the 
capital  of  their  kingdom.  It  must  have  been, 
therefore,  subsequent  to  this  period  that  bank- 
ing institutions  assumed  any  tning  like  a  perma- 
nent character.  Lending  and  borrowing,  how- 
ever, appear  to  have  prevailed  an  all  ages,  or  \oiag 
before  the  intervention  of  money,  to  facilitate  the 
interchanj^  of  commodities;  and  in  all  ages,  as  in 
the  present  day,  appears  to  have  been  productive 
of  extortion  and  social  derangement:  see  the 
Mosaic  code,  Exodus,  ch.  xxii.  v.  14  and  22, 
and  Deuteronomy,  ch.  xxiv,  v.  6  and  10,  and  by 
the  narrative  of  St  Matthew,  ch.  xxi,  v.  12,  it 
will  be  seen  that  tables  in  the  market  or  public 
places  were  in  use  in  his  day,  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  money-lenders. 

5.  The  restless  disposition  of  the  Lombards 
tended  to  excite  a  spirit  of  activity  and  enterprise 
througliout  all  the  Italian  states;  by  which  the 
people  of  those  countries  became  the  merchants 
or  distributors  of  the  products  of  Asia  over  all 
the  western  and  northern  parts  of  Europe.  It 
was  towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  after 
the  Mahommedans  had  obtained  possession  of 
Egypt,  that  the  chief  depdt  of  the  products  of 
the  east  was  transferred  from  Alexandria  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  afterwards  to  Venice,  that  com- 
merce began  to  resolve  itself  into  a  more  regu- 
lar system  than  had  ever  before  been  practised,  and 
a  methodical  and  demonstrative  oraer  of  keeping 
accounts  was  devised  and  adopted.  See  Book- 
keeping.  This,  in  the  progress  of  time,  elicited 
rew  ideas  on  the  economy  of  payment;  and 
uitout  the  middle  of  the  twelftn  century  the 
blink  of  Venice,  so  long  celebrated  throughout 
tlie  commercial  world^  and  which  may  be  r^;ard- 


ed  as  the  foundation  of  the  piesent  system  of 
banking,  was  established;  and  nad  the  operations 
of  the  bank  of  Venice  been  confined  to  the  legi- 
timate object  of  facilitating  commercial  inter* 
change,  its  socialising  capabilities  would  hare 
rendered  it  worthy  of  the  celebrity  it  so  long 
enjoyed;  but,  whilst  the  principles  of  its  eco- 
nomy are  entitled  to  the  highest  admiration, 
it  seems  to  have  been  established  in  tyranny, 
with  a  view  to  political  aggrandisement,  and 
throughout  the  whole  course  (m  its  career  to  hare 
been  perverted  to  the  worst  of  purposes. 

6.  It  was  tlie  desolating  system  of  the  cru- 
sades, and  not  the  socialising  principle  of  facili- 
tating commercial  interchange,  which  gave  rise  to 
the  bank  of  Venice.  The  first  cmsade  embaiked 
from  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  under  the  auspi- 
ces of  Pope  Urban  the  Second,  in  1095;  and 
from  the  ascendancy  and  infiuence  which  the 
Venetians,  by  theic  extensive  commercial  inter- 
course, had  then  acquired  over  every  part  of  - 
Western  Asia  and  Europe,  they  became  the 
principal  agents  of  the  crusaders,  as  well  for  the 
wealthy  individuals  who  embarked  in  those  chi- 
valrous exploits  as  for  the  several  governments 
to  which  they  respectively  belonged.  The  fruits 
of  extortion,  so  likely  to  result  from  such  a  sys- 
tem, excited  the  cupidiw  and  avarice  of  the 
Venetian  senate,  whicn  led,  in  1176,  aome  say  in 
1157,  to  the  establishment  of  the  bank,  under 
the  authority  and  pretended  guarantee  of  the 
state,  the  crusading  agency  previously  having 
rested  exclusively  with  individuals. 

7.  The  original  subscription  fund  of  the  bank  of 
Venice  was  2,000,000  Venetiaa  dncats,  equal  to 
£433,333 ;  but,  by  a  solemn  edict  of  the  senate^ 
the  whole  trading  community  of  the  lepuhhe 
were  oompelled  to  deposit  their  money  m  As 
bank,  with  which  a  credit  was  opened  equal  to  the 
deposit  made,  which  could  only  be  nade  avail- 
able for  transfer,  so  that  not  only  the  subscribed 
capital  but  also  the  aggregate  amount  of  the  <lep<>- 
sits  resolved  themselves  into  a  national  debt,  'nie 
whole  amount  of  the  intrinsic  money,  subscribed 
and  deposited,  having*  been  applied  by  the  8e> 
nate  towards  aiding  the  views  of  the  crusaders, 
and  other  external  purposes,  an  ideal  capital, 
or  mere  denomination  of  amount  was  thus 
created  to  adjust  the  operations  of  commeicial 
interchange. 

8.  Whether  the  transfers  at  the  bank  in  die 
early  period  of  its  establishment  required  jp«f- 
sonal  attendance,  as  is  the  case  in  transferring 
the  national  debtrstock  at  the  bank  of  England 
in  the  present  day;  or  whether  effected,  on 
written  orders  corresponding  to  the  checks  in  the 
present  English  practice  of  banking ;  does  net 
appear :  but,  be  tnat  as  it  might,  derangements 
in  the  social  economy  of  the  state  soon  ensued; 
the  agio  or  difierence  between  the  current  money, 
and  transferable  amount  at  the  bank,  attained 
the  rate  of  thirty  per  cent.^  Yet  such  was  die 
insidious  and  illusive  nature' of  the  bank  system, 
that  the  bank  increased  in  popularity  in  propor- 
tion to  the  extent  of  the  derangement  which 
ensued ;  die  inconvenience  frequently  occasioned 
in  the  minor  transactions  of  comment  as  well 
as  on  occasions  of  citizens  or  strangers  requiring 
money  to  defray  the  expenses  of  foreign  iounevs^ 


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BANK. 


466 


iied  ill  iUe  cotjne  of  time  to  the  bank  paying  out 
money.  Yet  such  was  t))e  influx  of  money, 
which  the  crasading  annaments  brought  from  all 
pans  of  western  Europe,  that  after  the  system 
of  making  payments  in  money  was  practised, 
liie  deposits  always  exceeded  the  demands* 

9.  At  a  later  period,  when  the  Venetians  them- 
selves turned  crusaders  against  the  Turks,  the 
subscription-fund  of  the  bank  was  increased  to 
5,000,000  of  ducats;  the  whole  of  which  was 
made  use  of  by  the  senate,  to  aid  them  in  their 
operations  of  warfare ;  and,  as  previously  ftated^ 
throughout  the  whole  period  of  its  career,  it  was 
made  an  instrument  ol  aggression  in  aid  of  poli- 
lical  aggrandisement:  yet  such  was  the  fortuity 
of  circumstances,  and,  for  several  centuries  having 
no  rivalry,  its  integrity  does  not  appear  ever  to 
have  been  questioned ;  the  derangements  occa- 
sioned by  the  fluctuation  of  the  agio  led  ulti- 
mately to  an  edict  of  the  senate,  fixing  it  at 
twenty  per  cent.,  at  which  rate  it  continued  up 
to  the  period  of  the  extinction  of  the  republic  in 
t797,  see  Venice. 

10.  In  the  fourteenth  oentuiy  the  Genoese 
began  to  rival  the  Venetians  in  their  commerce, 
and  in  1345  a  bank  was  established  at  Genoa; 
but  the  more  &vorable  local  position  of  Venice 
retained  for  it  an  undiminished  political  impor- 
tance, and  although  the  Genoese  were  very 
successful  in  their  commercial  career,  their  bank, 
relatively  to  that  of  Venice,  was  an  insignificant 
establishment ;  it  ne? ertheless  was  enabled,  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  to  advance  considerable  sums 
to  Spain,  and  other  governments;  but  in  1751  it 
was  deemed  insolvent  to  a  very  considerable 
amount,  and  in  1 798  the  establishment  was  finally 
dissolved  and  broken  up  by  Buonaparte. 

1 1.  No  further  progress  appears  to  have  been 
made  in  the  fonmilion  of  banking  institutions, 
until  after  the  discovexv  by  the  Portuguese,  in 
1 497,  of  the  passage  to  Asia  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
liope;  and  even  then,  more  than,  a  century 
elapsed  before  another  bank  was  established. 
It  was  at  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  Amsterdam  had  become  the  chief 
mart  of  European  commerce,  that  a  bank  was 
established  in  that  city  in  1609 ;  and,  as  the  cir- 
cumstances which  led  to,  and  the  conduct  which 
dictated,  the  fbrmatioo  of  this  bank,  «)pear  to 
have  been  purely  commercial  and  social,  void  of 
all  speculative  and  politioBl  influence,  and  its 
economy  essentially  different  from  either  those 
of  Venice  or  London,  it  merits  the  most  ample 
elucidation  of  the  details  of  its  system  on  our 
part,  and  the  utmost  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
enquiring  reader. 

12.  Banking,  in  its  economy,  resolves  itself 
into  thiree  distinct  orders  of  practice,  viz.  1.  of 
deposit,  transfer,  and  agency;  2.  of  discount, 
simply ;  and,  3.  of  discount  and  circulation  :  a 
banking  establishment  may,  therefore,  be  formed 
for  carrying  on  either  any  one  of  these  orders  of 
practice  separately,  or  two,  or  all  collectively ; 
and  either,  and  all  of  them  are  liable  to  be  made 
instruments  of  oppression  by  partial  application, 
or  by  perversion  to  impolitic  and  bad  purposes : 
a  more  ample  elucidation  of  the  details  of  each 
order  of  practice  will  appear  hereafter  (see 
section  14.),  the  analysis  being  exhibited  in  this 

Vol.  111. 


place,  that  the  distinctive  character  of  the  bank 
of  Amsterdam  may  be  the  better  understood. 

13.  The  circumstances  which  gave  rise  to  the 
establishing  of  the  bank  of  Amsterdam,  were  the 
great  variety  of  clipped  and  debased  coins  which 
its  extensive  commerce,  at  the  close  of  the  six- 
teenth and  commencement  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  brought  into  that  city.  The  constant 
variations  of  value  of  these  coins  occasioned  con- 
tinual disputes  and  inconveniences  in  the  adjust- 
ment of  payments,  more  especially  so  in  the 
payment  of  foreign  bills  of  exchange ;  to  obviate 
these  disputes  and  inconveniences,  it  was,  that 
the  bank  was  established  in  1607,  on  the  legiti- 
mate and  social  principle  of  deposit,  transfer,  and 
agency ;  the  security  of  the  deposits  being  gua- 
ranteed by  the  corporation  of  tne  city,  by  whom 
its  managers  were  appointed,  and  who  thereby 
constituted  themselves  the  agents  of  the  establish- 
ment; the  expenses  of  which,  and  its  n^nage- 
ment,  being  defrayed  by  fees  on  opening  of 
accounts,  transfers,  &c.  This  system  or  practice 
of  banking,  it  will  be  seen,  requires  no  sub- 
scribed or  fixed  capital. 

14.  The  bank  or  Amsterdam  received  coins  of 
all  descriptions  at  a  fixed  value,  according  to 
their  weignt  and  fineness,  deducting  an  amount 
equal  to  the  expense  of  coinage  into  the  standard 
coin  of  Hollana ;  not  tliat  the  various  coins  so 
paid  in  should  be  converted  into  standard  coins, 
out  that  a  credit  should  be  placed  on  the  bank 
books  to  such  an  amount,  aAer  the  seignorage 
and  fees  had  been  deducted;  the  amount  so 
credited  then  constituted  bank-money.  It  was 
in  the  next  place  enacted,  that  all  payments  of. 
600  guilders,  s=  to  £52.  lOs.,  in  amount,  and 
upwards,  whether  on  internal  or  foreign  account, 
should  be  made  in  bank  money ;  and  as  these 
regulations  immediately  occasioned  an  agio  or 
diierence  of  value  between  baok-money  and 
currint  mon^,  it  as  immediately  became  com-, 
pulsoiy  on  the  part  of  every  man  of  business 
either  to  open  an  account  at  the  bank,  or  to  sub- 
ject himself  to  the  caprice  of  a  fluctuating  agio, 
to  enable  him  to  make  his  payment  through  the 
medium  of  those  who  had  an  account. 

15.  The  distinction  between  the  practice  of 
the  banlfr  of  Amsterdam  and  the  bank  of  Venice, 
is  this,  viz.  That  the  bank  of  Venice  appropriated 
its  subscribed  capital,  as  well  as  part  of  its  de- 
posits, to  extemsl  purposes,  and  created  an  ideal- 
sum  by  means  of  transfers  to  a  corresponding 
amount,  whereby  to  adjust  the  internal  payments 
of  the  public ;  whibt  the  bank  of  Amsterdam 
retains  its  deposits  within  the  walls  of  its  own 
establishment ;  and  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the 
practice  of  the  bank  of  England,  that  will  be 
found  to  present  additional  features  of  practice 
deserving  the  utmost  possible  attention,  as  well 
in  reference  to  a  comparison  with  the  practice  of 
the  banks  of  Venice  and  of  Amsterdam,  as  for  the 
influence  and  effects  of  its  own  operations  upon 
the  general  interests  of  the  country  at  large. 

16.  In  addition  to  the  transactions  of  the  bank 
of  Amsterdam,  as  detailed  in  sect.  14,  the  bank 
also  gives  credit  on  its  books  upon  deposits  of 
gold  and  silver  bullion,  at  the  rate  of  five  per 
cent,  below  the  mint  price  of  the  bullion.  In 
making  these  deposits,  which  are  made  more  for 

2  H 


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466 


BANK. 


safe  keeping,  and  the  riew  of  reserving  them  fer 
articles  of  merchandise,  than  for  convei^sion 
into  coin,  the  bank  grants  a  recipice,  receipt,  or 
warrant,  entitling  the  holder  to  take  out  the  bul- 
lion again  at  any  time  within  six  months,  upon 
-  transferring  to  the  bank  an  amount  of  bank  mo- 
ney equal  to  that  for  which  credit  had  been 
given  in  its  books  when  the  deposit  was  made, 
and  upon  paying  one-fourth  per  cent,  for  the 
keeping,  if  the  deposit  was  in  silver,  and  one- 
half  per  cent,  if  it  was  in  gold ;  llie  recipice  ex- 
pressing, (hat  in  default  oi  soch  payment,  upon 
the  expiration  of  the  term  of  six  months,  the  be- 
i^fit  of  the  recipice  becomes  forfeited  to  the 
bank,  while  the  amount  credited  against  the  de- 
posit resolves  into  bank-money ;  leaving  a  profit 
to  the  bank  proportionate  to  the  difference  be- 
tween five  per  cent,  below  the  mint  price,  and  tiie 
value  of  the  bullion  in  the  market. 

17.  This  species  of  deposits  are,  in  the  first 
instance,  more  generally  made  when  the  mercan- 
tile price  of  bullion  is  so  far  below  the  mint 
price  as  to  become  an  article  of  speculation,  and 
the  profits  to  the  bank  upon  this  branch  of  its 
business  are  considerable,  by  the  forfeiture  of 
some  of  the  Tecipioes ;  but  more  particulariy  so 
from  the  fi«quent  renewals.  The  creditors  of  the 
bank,  in  bank-money,  and  the  holders  of  reci- 
pices,  are  vegafded  by  the  bank  as  two  distinct 
classes  of  creditors :  hence  the  creditor  in  bank- 
money,  having  no  recipice,  cannot  draw  out  bnl- , 
lion  without  first  going  to  market  to  buy  aTeoipice, 
nor  can  the  holder  of  a  recipice  draw  out  his 
bullion,  in  the  event  of  his 'having  sold  the  bank- 
money  assigned  to  him  on  making  the  deposit, 
without  first  going  into  the  market  lo  repuvchase 
bank  money,  and  reassigning  lihe  same  to  theibank. 

18.  in  a  city  of  extensive  and  complicated 
commercial  interchange,  like  Amsterdam,  these 
regulations  of  the  bank  necessarily  occasion 'coiv- 
tinued  demandsfor  both  bank-money  and  bullion, 
and  gave  rise  to  a  system  of  jobbing  and  trick, 
precueiy  similar  to  the  jobbing  and  tricking  in 
time  bargains  upon  the  stock  exchange  in 
London ;  and  at  one  period  the  agio  was  wont 
to  fluctuate  from  eight  to  ten  per  cent.  To  keep  it 
within  certain  bounds,  however,  the  bank  of 
Amsterdam  resolved  at  all  times  to  grant  100  of 
bank  for  105  of  current  money ;  or  rather  to  sell 
bank-monev  at  an  agio  of  5  per  cent.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  resolution,  the  sigio  was  prevented 
ever  exceeding  that  rate;  and  the  fiuctootion  now 
seldom  exceeds  9|  per  cent,  between  \\  and  4. 

10.  In  addition  to  the  seignoiage  dedncted  on 
first  opening  an  account  with  the  bank  in  monev, 
see  sect.  14,  a  fee  of  ten  guilders,  =  to  17s.  6a., 
is  also  charged;  and  for  every  renewed  account, 
3  guilders  3  stivers;  for  every  transfer,  5  sa- 
vers, =  3d.  j^  of  a  penny,  and  in  order  to  dis- 
courage a  multiplicity  of  small  transactions,  if 
the  transfer  is  tor  less  than  300  guilders,  the 
charge  is  six  stivers;  for  neglecting  to  balance  ac- 
counts regularly  twice  a-year,  a  fine  of  twenty- 
five  guilders  is  exacted;  and  in  case  of  attempting 
to  overdraw  an  account  a  fine  of  3  per  cent,  on 
the  sum  so  attempted  to  be  overdrawn  is  also 
levied,  in  addition  to  setting  aside  the  order. 
These  several  fees,  fines,  and  deductions  for 
seignorage,  together  with  the  profits  which  occa- 
sionally arise  by   the   sale  of  bank-nx)ney,  to 


maintain  an  equilibrium  in  the  agio,  and  the  for- 
feiture of  bullion  recipices,  produce  a  considera- 
ble revenue  to  the  city,  over  and  above  what 
suffices  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  establish- 
ment. Public  utility,  however,  and  not  revenue, 
was  the  original,  and  up  to  this  time,  has  continued 
the  ruling  object  of  Hie  establishment,  and  the  re- 
venue derived  fit>m  it  is  the  natural  result  of  its 
invariable  rule  of  practice,  nhich,  whether  the 
best  that  can  be  devised  or  t  ot,  its  certainty  aod 
impartiality  has  obtuned  for  it  the  sanction  and 
<sonfidence  of  all  who  have  been  concerned  in  it. 

20.  How  fiff  the  system  or  practice  of  the 
bank  of  Amsterdam^  approximate  to  perfection 
or  utility  will  more  fully  apjsear  as  we  proceed 
to  illnstmte  the  various  prao^es  of  banking  in 
England,  and  in  other  jMtfts  of  the  world.  The 
direction  of  the  bank  of  Amsterdam  is  vested  in 
four  reigning  burgo-^nasters  (aldermen),  who  are 
changed  every  year.  Each  new  set  of  burgo- 
masten,  on  induction  to  liheir  chso^,  are  con- 
ducted to  the  bank,  inspect  the  deposits,  com- 
pase  them  with  the  books,  and  acknowledge  the 
same  upon  oath,  delivering  it  over  at  the  end 
of  the  ^ear  widi  the  same  formal  solemnity  to  the 
set  which  succeeds ;  and  highly  to  the  credit  of 
the  corporate  body  of  the  city  of  Amsterdam, 
both  in  its  oollective,  and  in  its  individual  capa- 
city, in  reference  to  the  direction  of  the  bank, 
not  only  has  no  mahremition  been  proved,  bat 
DO  imputation  ever  brought  against  them ;  nor 
have  the  politiod  convnlsions,  by  widefa  Holland 
has  at  times  been  surrounded,  and  in  which  it 
has  been  mvolved,  ever  induced  the  bank  to 
•wepve  from  the  strict  rale  of  its  eetablished  regu- 
kuions ;  and  such  has  ever  been  llie  confidence 
in  the  integrity  of  its  Erector,  that  it  has  at 
times  been  the  depositary  of  the  money  treasure 
of  the  opulent  individuals  of  surrounding  states. 

21.  Of  ihe  extent  of  the  deposits  of  ihe  bonk 
of  Amsterdam  at  different  periods,  the  informa- 
tion k  very  imperfect ;  it  may,  at  times,  probably, 
have  amounted  to  a  sum  equal  to  fire,  six,  or 
seven  millions  sterling,  and  probably  more,  hot 
on  an  average  they  probably  have  not,  at  past 
periods,  nor  do  not  at  the  present  time,  exceed 
three  to  four  millions,  or  from  forty  to  fifty 
millions  of  guilders. 

22.  As  commerce  extended  itself  over  the 
north  of  Europe,  banking  institutions  were  es- 
tablished in  diflerent  pavts  of  Oermany^  but  there 
were  none  that  obtained  any  great  celebrity, 
except  those  of  Hamburgh  and  Nnremburg. 
That  of  Hamburgh  was  established  in  1619,  on 
principles,  and  for  objects,  not  vseiy  dissimilar 
to  those  of  Amsterdam,  viz.  those  of  deposit, 
transfer-agency  and  public  utility.  Instead  of 
coin  the  deposits  are  made  in  silver  bullion  of  a 
given  fineness,  ^against  wbich  credits  are  opened, 
either  for  transfer,  or  for  withdrawing  die  bulboa 
at  pleasure,  subject  only  to  a  trifling  charge  for 
deposit,  or  safe-keeping.  The  general  practice 
of  the  bank  of  Hamburg  is  less  formal,  and  more 
simple,  than  that  of  Amsterdam ;  and  has  been 
produ6tive  of  great  advantage  to  the  city,  and 
nas  maintained  an  unsullied  integrity.  The  ex- 
penses of  its  management  have  been,  and  still 
continue  to  be,  defrayed  by  fees,  or  transfers,  *cc 
similar  to  those  of  Amsterdam.  It  was  plunderec 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  its  deposits  by  the 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BANK. 


467 


French  geiMral,  Daroiuty  in  1813^  a  part  of 
which  were  restored  l^  the  Bourbon  government 
at  the  peace  of  1815. 

23.  In  1635  the  bank  of  Rotterdam  was 
established,  under  regulations  sonevhaft  difierent 
in  detail  from  those  ctf  either  Amsterdam  «r  Ham- 
buig,  but  upon  the  principle  of  deposits,  transfer, 
and  i^ncy. 

24.  About  the  sixth  or  seventh  decenary  of  the 
seTenteenth  century,  an  individual  of  the  name  of 
Pabnshut,  in  Stockholm,  established  a  bank  for 
the  purposes  of  exchange,  discount,  and  oirottla- 
tion ;  that  is,  he  bought  and  sold  bills  of  exdiange, 
lent  money  at  interest,  and  issued  notes,  which 
became  a  cireul&ting  medium,  or  token  of  inter- 
change, £»  the  amount  d)ey  represented;  na- 
turally enough,  altbou^^  Palmsaat  originally 
poss^sed,  relatrrelv,  great  resousces,  derange- 
ment and  embarrassment  soon  overtook  him,  but 
inflate  with  his  notions  of  ideal  wealth,  he  ap- 
plied to  the  king,  Charles  XL,  whom  heimduoM 
to  become  his  patron  in  the  lormation  of  a  royal 
bank,  which,  under  Pabbshut's  directions,  soon 
obtained  a  general  confidence ;  and,  in  1688, 
the  direction  was  transferred  to  the  assembly  of 
the  states  of  the  kingdom,  the  king  declaring 
himself  and  his  anccessors,  protectors  of  the 
bank,  but  renouncing  all  interference  in  the  dis- 
posal of  the  money.  The  states  being  thus 
declared  guanmtees,  proprietors,  and  directors, 
under  the  regulations  which  they  established,  the 
bank  became  a  bank  of  deposit,  discount,  and 
circulation.  Depositors  were  allowed  interest  at 
the  rate  of  6  per  cent. ;  and  the  deposits,  together 
with  notes  of  circulation,  appropriated  to  dis- 
counts, on  collatend  secnrities,  at  the  rate  of  8 
per  cent.  The  kiag^f  revenues  were  ate  depo>- 
sited  at  the  bank  ftee  of  interest.  The  institution 
immediately  became  popular,  and  all  who  had 
surplus  money,  in  every  part  of  the  kingdom, 
poured  it  into  the  bank,  so  that,  by  the  close  <n 
the  oentwy,  the  interest  on  deposits  had  been 
proeressively  reduced  Irom  6  to  2  per  cent,  and 
on  discounts  from  8  to  3  per  cent 

25.  Like  all  institutions  founded  on  specula- 
tive principles,  the  bank  of  Stockholm  was  aoon 
destined  to  experience  a  leverae.of  fortune,  and 
to  become  an  instrument  of  political  perversion. 
The  chivalrous  emloits  of  Charles  XIL  led  to 
such  a  drain  .of  the  intrinsic  resources  of  the 
bank,  during  the  four  years,  1714 — 1717,  the 
period  of  the  king's  residence  in  Turkey,  after 
the  battle  of  Pultowa,  and  when  the  corrupt 
and  profligate  Goertz  was  minister  of  finance, 
that  the  revenues  •usually  deposited  with  the 
bank,  were  unequal  to  diamrge  even  the. in- 
terest much  less  contribute  towuds  any  repay- 
ments. This  dilapidation  of  the  resonroes,  and 
credit'  of  the  bank,  led  to  the  mortgaging  of  other 
revenues  of  the  crown,  and  a  declaration  on  the 
part  of  the  king,  that  no  fiuther  drain  should  be 
made  upon  the  bank  until  its  resources  and  credit 
were  fully  reatorwl :  these  measures  produced  a 
prtial  reaction  in  favor  of  the  credit  of  the 
l>ank ;  but  it  proved  only  temporary,  until  an 
expedient  of  tne  minister  Goerts  unexpectedly 
diverted  all  the  disposable  wealth  of  the  kingdom 
into  the  bank. 

26.  Whilst  the  declaration  and  resolve  of  the 


king  to  restore  the  resources  and  credit  of  the 
bank  were  adhered  to,  it  deprived  Goertz  of  the 
adequate  lunds  to  carry  on  his  political  in- 
trigues, and  to  supply  the  king  with  soflScient 
means  to  maintain  his  regal  importance ;  under 
these  circumstances,  he  resorted  first  to  fines  and 
penalties,  and  ultimately  to  a  species  of  confis- 
cation, by  demanding  all  the  plate,  jewels,  and 
coin  in  me  kingdom  Co  be  placed  at  his  disposal, 
for  which  he  gave  copper  tokens,  representing 
ninety-six  times  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  metal, 
(patper  money  in  effect)  This  measure  led  all 
wose  who  possessed  such  disposable  means  to 
confide  in  tne  rc^td  pledge,  rather  than  yield  to 
the  exaction  of  Goerts.  And  tiiey  consequently 
in  secret  conveyed  all  their  treasure  to  the  bank. 
Goertz,  chagrined  at  being  thus  disappointed,  ap- 
plied to  the  king  and  advised  him  to  seize  all  the 
treasure  deposiled  in  the  bank ;  but  the  king 
refiised  lo  comply,  and  prohibited  Goertz  from 
e^en  making  mr  proposal  on  the  subject,  con- 
trary to  the  pleage  which  he  had  solemnly 
made.  ^ 

27.  This  decision  of  the  long  reinstated  con* 
ifidenoe  in,  and  fully  re-estabhshedy  the  resources 
and  ciedit  of  the  bandc,  so  that  on  the  declaration 
of  war  against  Russia,  in  f  741 ,  the  bank  presented 
the  king  with  a  donation  of  100,000  Swedish 
silver  dollars,  equal  to  about  7600,  and  sup- 
plied another  500,000  dollars,  as  a  loan  without 
interest,  and  subseqnentiy  to  that  period  it  fre- 
quenUy  advanced  considerable  sums  to  tiie 
crown,  and  to  die  board  of  msnafiK^tures  under 
the  guarantee  of  the  stetcs. 

28.  The  resourees  and  credit  of  the  bafdL 
being  thus  re-established,  it  was  divided  into 
two  departments,  iane  and  toear«<,  or  loain,  and 
exchange  banks;  the  foimer  corresponding  in 
its  practice  with  tiie  praqtioe  originally  estab- 
lished in  Lombardy,  (see  sect.  8.)  and  precisely 
similar  in  principle  to  the  practice  of  pawn- 
broking  in  England  at  the  pitsent  day.  Whilst 
the  practice  of  the  wexel  or  eaofaange  bank,  is 
that  of  deposit,  discount,  and  oiroulation.  The 
(loan  bank  lends  moo^  on  gold  and  silver  bul- 
lioo,  copper,  and  its  own  stook,  to  tiieir  foM 
value,  at  the  rate  of  three  per  cent,  and  on  tiire^ 
fourths  of  the  value  of  iron,  at  the  same  rate  of 
interest ;  and  on  l|mds  and  houses  at  the  rate  of 
six  per  cent,  four  for  interest,  and  two  as  a 
sinking  fund,  until  the  whole  sum  advanced  is 
repaid.  Jewels  were  at  one  time  advanced 
upon,  but  the  bank  having  once  been  defrauded  if 
a  considerable  oxtent  by  them,  resolved  nevei 
again  to  make  advances  on  those  articles. 

29.  The  wexel  or  exchange  bank  receives 
money  on  deposit,  for  which  it  allows  two  per 
cant,  and  issues  notes,  with  which,  together  with 
its  deposits,  it  discounts  bills  of  exchange*;  this 
practioe,  which  is  the  one  originally  pursued  by 
Palmshut,  (see  sect.  24.)  involves  ruk,  and  leads 
to  certain  loss ;  the  issuing  of  notes,  having  no 
intrinsic  value,  sustains  the  loss  as  lonjr  as  the 
notes  retain  confidence ;  but  when  ihat  fails,  de 
rangement  necessarily  ensues,  all  this  befell  the 
wexel  or  exchange  bank  of  Stockholm,  within 
the  short  space  of  twenty-five  years ;  and  in  1766 
the  bank  was  on  the  verge  of  bankruptcy  and 
final  dissolution,  when,  by  the  interference  ef  the 

2H2 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


468 


BANK. 


states,  a  loan  of  three  millions  of  rix  dollars, 
equal  to  about  £700,000,  was  raised  to  liquidate 
the  excess  of  notes  in  circulation ;  since  the 
period  of  1766  successive  re^^ulations  have  been 
resorted  to,  to  preserve  the  credit  of  the  bank, 
and  a  committee,  composed  of  a  certain  number 
of  persons  from  each  of  the  three  states  of  the 
kingdom,  viz.  the  nobles,  clergy  and  burgheis, 
has  been  appointed,  to  inspect  triennially  the 
general  state  of  the  bank  and  its  accounts. 

30.  Under. the  guardianship  of  the  States,  the 
wexel  bank  of  Stockholm  retains  its  place  among 
the  other  institutions  of  the  kingdom,  but  it  has 
no  importance  externally,  nor  does  the  extent  of 
its  operations  equal  the  operations  of  several  pri- 
vate banking  establishments  in  some  of  the  pro- 
vincial towns  in  England ;  it  is  the  various  kinds 
of  practice  of  banking,  however,  and  not  the 
extent  of  the  operations,  which  most  demand 
attention ;  and  on  that  ground  it  is,  that  the  bank 
of  Stockholm  has  here  been  enlarged  upon,  much 
beyond  what  the  extent  of  its  operations  would 
otherwise  have  rendered  necessary. 

31.  Bank  of  England. — We  now  come,  in 
order  of  time,  to  treat  of  the  bank  of  England ; 
an  establishment,  whether  considered  with  respect 
to  the  magnitude  of  its  operations,  or  its  influence 
upon  the  social  relations  of  mankind,  without 
a  parallel  in  history ;  and  from  the  period  of  its 
foundation,  but  more  especially  since  the  period 
of  1793,  it  has  become  so  interwoven  with  the 
government,  and. the  collective  interests  of  the 
nation,  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  treat  of  one, 
without  entering  largely  into  the  details  of  the 
other.  We  will  endeavour,  however,  to  confine 
our  elucidation  of  the  bank,  as  far  as  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  government  and  the  nation,  as 
much  as  possible  within  the  limits  of  those  cir- 
cumstances of  the  nation,  in  which  the  character 
and  interests  of  the  bank  have  been  more  imme- 
diately involved. 

32.  Although  by  its  peculiar  constitution,  and 
tejms  of  its  charter,  as  well  as  in  all  the  details 
of  its  practice,  the  bank  of  England  appears  to  be 
an  independent  trading  company,  ana  although 
its  operations  combine  all  tne  various  kinds  of 
practice  in  banking  (except  the  original  one,  of 
lending  money  on  pledges,)  viz.  exchange,  de- 
posit, transfer,  discount,  agency,  and  circulation, 
and  each  and  all  of  these,  oii  a  more  extended 
scale  than  ever  was,  or  perhaps  ever  will  be, 
practised  in  any  otner  establishment,  it  is,  and 
ever  has  been,  from  its  foundation,  materially 
connected  with  all  the  financial  operations  ot 
the  government,  and  partakes  therefore  far  more 
of  a  political  than  of  a  commercial  character.  This 
indeed  has  been  considered  by  some  writers 
raid  financiers  an  alarming  excrescence  ot^  both 
our  commercial  and  political  systems.  But  we 
proceed  to  illustrate  the  progress  of  its  career. 

33.  It  appears  to  the  writer  of  this  paper 
that  instead  of  desirableness  and  necessity 
dictating  its  origin,  and  instead  of  being  founded 
like  the  bank  of  Amsterdam  (see  sect.  It)  on 
the  broad  and  social  basis  of  public  convenience 
and  public  utility,  the  origin  of  the  bank  of 
England  was  a  mere  project,  which  fortuitous 
circumstances  alone  have  hitherto  protected 
in    an    unexpected    manner      The     original 


Projector  of  this  memorable  institution  wsis  a 
[r.  W.  Paterson,  who,  after  numerous  applications 
on  the  subject  to  the  privy  council,  at  length 
succeeded  in  the  the  year  1693,  in  obtaining 
its  consent  to  the  project,  and  an  act,  5th  and 
6th  William  and  Mary,  c.  20,  for  granting  to 
their  Majesties  severa^  rates  and  duties  upon 
tonnage  of  ships  and  vessels,  and  upon  beer,  ale, 
and  other  liquors,  for  securing  certam  recom- 
pences  and  advantages  in  the  said  act,  mentioned 
to  such  persons  as  shall  voluntarily  advance  the 
sum  of  £1,500,000  towards  carrying  on  the  war 
against  France  !  Section  19th  of  &e  said  act, 
enacts  that  '  Their  Majesties  may  make  commis- 
sioners take  subscriptions  for  £1,200,000.  The 
sum  of  £100,000  to  be  annually  appropriated  to 
the  subscribers  ;*  and  by  section  20th  it  was  fur- 
ther enacted  that,  'Their  Majesties  may  appoiat 
rules  for  transferring,  and  make  the  subocnbers  a 
corporation  by  the  name  of  '  The  governor  and 
company  of  the  bank  of  England.' ' 

34.  Under  the  authority  of  the  aforesaid  act, 
subscriptions  were  immediately  entered  into,  and 
before  the  1st  of  Jan.  1694,  the  whole  sum  was 
subscribed,  and  on  the  27th  of  July,  in  that 
year,  the  charter  of  incorporation  was  executed, 
its  duration  being  limited  to  eleven  years,  viz. 
firom  the  1st  of  August,  1694,  to  the  1st  of  August, 
1705,  after  which  date  the  corporation  was  deter- 
minable upon  twelve  months  notice,  and  repay- 
ment of  the  £1,200,000  advanced.  At  this  time 
(1694),  the  rate  of  interest  was  6  per  cent,  per 
annum  ;  but  by  the  terms  of  the-contract  for  the 
above  £1,200,000,  the  corporation  were  to  receive 
8  percent,  per  annum,  and  £4000  per  annum  for 
management,  or  trouble  of  transferring  and  ap- 
portioning ihe  interest  among  the  numerous 
subscribers. 

35.  Such  were  the  circumstances,  and  such 
the  origin  of  the  bank  of  England,  neither  of 
which  it  will  be  seen  bear  any  analogy  to  the 
circumstances  and  origin  of  the  banks  of  Venice, 
Amsterdam,  Hamburgh,  or  Stockholm ;  but  before 
we  proceed  further  in  exhibiting  the  progress  of 
the  bank  of  England,  it  may  be  well  to  show 
what  the  state  and  practice  of  banking  in  Eng- 
land was,  prior  to  the  formation  of  that  establish- 
ment ;  and  when  the  circulating  medium  of  the 
country  was  exclusively  metallic.  At  an  early 
period  of  England  carrying  on  an  external  com- 
merce, when  she  received  from  Holland  and 
Germany  almost  every  species  of  manu&cture  ia 
exchange  for  grain  and  wool,  and  other  produc- 
tions of  the  soil  and  mines,  England  then  had 
her  loan  banks,  or  Lombard  houses,  for  lending 
money  on  pledges  (see  sect.  3),  hence  the  etymo- 
logy of  Lombard-street,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Koyal  Exchange,  in  London.  At  a  more  recent 
period  the  goldsmiths  became  the  bankers,  first, 
merely  as  places  of  deposit  or  safe  keeping,  and 
aftenrads  for  discount ;  and  for  more  than  a 
century  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  bank  of 
England,  and  circulation  of  paper  money,  the 
goldsmiths  held  the  same  rank  and  importance 
in  commerce,  and  exercised  similar  functions,  as 
the  private  bankers  do  at  the  present  day.  Bat 
the  establishment  of  the  bank  of  England  did  not 
merely  divert  the  transactions  of  private  deposit 
and  discotint  into  new  duionels,  oat  it  will  be 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BANK. 


469 


seen,  as  we  proceed,  that  it  had  the  effect  of 
changing  the  whole  social  economy  of  the 
statp 

36.  The  Bank  of  England  being  established, 
the  charter  directed  that  its  management  should 
be  vested  in  a  governor,  deputy  governor,  and 
twenty-four  directors,  to  be  elected  by  the  holders 
of  the  stock,  a  clear  possession  of  £500  of  which 
for  six  months  constitutes  a  Qualification  to  vote, 
the  qualification  of  a  director  being  the  possession 
of  £2000  of  the  stock,  of  a  deputy  governor, 
£3000  of  do.  and  of  a  governor  £4000  of  do. 
So  far  as  we  have  here  described  the  transactions 
of  the  Bank  of  England,  it  seems  confined  to  the 
mere  raising  of  a  loan  of  £1,200,000,  for  the  use 
of  goyemment,  at  8  per  cent,  per  annum,  and 
which  was  in  (act,  the  foundation  of  the  Funding 
System,  or  National  Debt;  to  prevent  enlarging 
upon  which  here,  see  each  of  those  subjects  under 
their  respective  heads,  and  in  conjunction  with 
them  see  also  Ci  aculating  Medium,  Exch  ai^ge, 
Bills  of.  Exchequer  Bills,  Money,  Paper 
Money,  and  Tallies.  Of  the  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  the  practice  of  the  Bank  of  England, 
in  deposit,  transfer,  discount,  and  circulation, 
during  the  early  period  of  its  establishment,  but 
little  seems  to  be  known;  and,  indeed,  for 
some  time,  its  transactions  seem  to  have  been 
very  much  confined  to  trading  in  the  government 
securities,  and  notes  of  its  own  circulation.  At 
the  Exchequer,  then,  as  is  still  the  case,  accounts 
were  kept  by  tallies,  similar  to  accounts  of  bakers 
in  those  pans  of  the  country  where  the  weight  of 
the  loaf  varies,  and  the  money  price  remains 
fixed ;  notches  are  cut  in  a  piece  of  stick,  to  de- 
note so  many  loaves  of  biread,  the  stick  is  split, 
the  buyer  holding  one  part  and  the  seller  the 
other,  so  with  the  accounts  of  money  at  the 
Exchequer  of  enlightened  England,  at  the  period 
of  establishing  the  Bank  of  England,  and  so  the 
practice  continued  in  1826. 

37.  The   first    and    second  years    after    the 
establishment  of  the  Bank,  these  Tallies  were  a 
trading  and  speculating  commodity,  as  stock  and 
exchequer  bills  are  at  the  present  day,  and  such 
was  the  state  of  the  credit  of  the  nation  at  that 
time  that  the  tallies  were  at  a  discount  of  20  to  40 
per  cent,  against  the  sealed  notes  of  the  Bank, 
and  the  notes  of  the  bank  at  a  discount  of  20 
per  cent,  against  the  standard  coin  of  the  realm. 
With  the  view  of  equalising  these  disparities  of 
value  between  the  bank  and  national  securities, 
and  the  standard  coin  of  the  realm,  an  act  was 
passed  in  1 697,  8  and  9  Will.  3  cap.  20,  empower- 
ing the  Bank  to  receive  subscriptions  ror  the 
enlargement  of  their  stock,  four-fifths  in  tallies, 
and  the   remaining  fifth   in  Bank  notes.    The 
amount  of  tallies  ingrafted  under  this  act  was 
£l  ,001 ,1 7 1 . 1  Of .  subject,  like  the  original  subscrip- 
tion to  an  interest  of  8  per  cent,  per  annum,  and 
the  charter  was  extended  to  the  1st  of  Aug.  1710. 
In  1708,  another  act  was  passed,  7  Ann.  cap.  7, 
under  which  the  bank  further  lent  the  govern- 
ment the   sum  of  £400,000  vrithout  interest ; 
thereby  reducing  the  interest  on  £1,600,000  to 
6  per  cent.     The  Bank  at  this  time  held  Exche- 
quer bills  to  the  amount  of  £1,500,000,  which, 
with  an  arrear  of  interest  of  £275,027. 17f .  lO^d., 
were  cancelled  (funded)  at  the  rate  of  6  pi^r 


cent,  per  annum.  For  these  acts  of  condescension^ 
the  charter  of  the  Bank  was  extended,  to  Aug.  1, 
1732,  and  the  company  authorised  to  take  in 
subscriptions,  to  double  their  capital.  In 
1709  a  call  of  15,  and  in  1710  a  further  call  of 
10  per  cent,  was  made,  and  in  1713  another  act 
was  passed,  12  Ann.  cap.  11,  extending  the  char- 
ter, to  Aug.  1, 1742,  then,  as  before,  determinable 
after  twelve  months  notice,  and  repayment  by 
the  government,  of  all  sums  borrowed. 

38.  In  1717  another  act  was  passed,  3  Geo.  I. 
ch.  8,  authorising  the  funding  of  a  further  amount 
of  exchequer  bills  of  £2,000,000,  at  five  per  cent, 
per  annum;  to  which  rate  the  interest  on 
£1,775,027  was  also  reduced  after  midsummer 
1718.  In  1722,  by  another  act,  8  Geo.  I,  cap.  21, 
the  bank  was  authorised  to  purchase  stock  of  the 
South  Sea  Company  to  the  amount  of  £4,000,000, 
which  stock  bore  an  interest  of  five  per  cent,  per 
an.  but  was  reduced  to  four  per  cent,  after  mid- 
summer 1729.  To  effect  this  purchase  the  capi- 
tal was  increased  £3,400,000;  and  in  1727,  pur- 
suant to  the  act  of  1  Geo.  II,  cap.  8,  £1,000,000 
of  the  £1,775,027.  17s.  lO^d,  funded  in  1708, 
at  six  per  cent,  was  paid  off,  and  the  interest 
on  the  £2,000,000,  funded  in  1717,  reduced 
from  five  to  four  per  cent,  and  under  the  autho- 
rity of  the  same  act ;  in  1728,  £1,750,000  was 
further  advanced  to  government  at  an  interest  of 
4  per  cent ;  and,  iu  &e  following  year,  pursuant 
to  the  act  of  2  Geo.  II,  cap.  3,  the  remainder  of 
the  £1,775,027.  17s.  lO^d-  funded  in  1708, 
together  with  £500,000  of  the  amount  funded 
in  1717,  was  paid  off  by  the  government;  who 
borrowed,  under  the  authority  of  the  said  act, 
the  sum  of  £1,250,000,  at  an  interest  of  4  per 
cent,  per  annum  from  midsummer  1729. 

39.  In  1738  another  act  was  passed,  11  Geo. 
II,  cap.  27,  authorising  the  paying  off  a  further 
portion  of  the  bills  fiinded  in  1717,  to  the  amount 
of  £1,000,000;  and  in  1742,  by  the  act  of  15 
Geo.  II,  cap.  13,  £1,600,000  was  advanced  to 
government  without  interest,  on  condition  of  tlie 
bank  being  authorised  to  increase  their  capital 
stock,  and  the  charter  being  extended  to  Aug.  1, 
1764.  The  capital  stock  was  accordingly  in- 
creased £840,004.  5s.  4d.  The  pretension  set 
up  in  reference  to  this  £1,600,000,  was  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  rate  of  interest  on  the  original 
£1,200,000,  and  the  £400,000  advanced  in 
1708;  by  the  receipt  of  which  latter  sum  the 
interest  on  the  £1,600,000  was  reduced  to  6  per 
cent. ;  and,  by  the  receipt  of  a  corresponding  sum 
without  interest,  it  made  the  interest  on  the 
£3,200,000  equivalent  to  3  per  cent  But  this 
seeming  reduction  in  the  rate  of  interest  is  a  delu- 
sion ;  for,  however  anomalous  it  may  at  first  seem, 
as  the  rate  of  interest  progressively  became 
reduced  from  8  to  3  per  cent,  the  pressure  of  the 
exaction  on  the  people,  as  will  clearly  appear 
hereafter,  progressively  and  virtually  incres^ed. 
So  far,  therefore,  from  the  £1,600,000  being 
entitled  to  be  regarded  as  a  boon  to  the  public, 
it  appears  to  us  as  neither  more  nor  less  than  a 
bribe  to  reconcile  an  unsuspecting  people  to  an 
extension  of  the  charter. 

40.  In  1746  another  act  was  passed,  19  Geo. 
II,  cap.  6,  authorising  the  fiinding  of  exchequer 
bills,  issued  in  anticipation  of  the  tax  on  license 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


470 


BANK 


for  retaiUng  spifilaoui  liquors,  to  the  amount  of 
£986,800,  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent,  per  annum, 
and  for  authorising  the  bank  to  increase  their 
capital  stock  10  per  cent  which  was  done  in 
pursuance  diereof.  The  total  sum  adTanced  by 
the  bank  to  the  government,  now  amounted  to 
£11,686,800,  and  3ie  capital  on  which  the  stock- 
holders divided  was  £10,780,000.  Of  the  amount 
advanced  to  government  £3,200,000,  (see  preced- 
ing section)  vras  at  an  interest  of  3  ner  eent. ;  part 
of  the  bills  funded  in  1717  remainea  at  5  per  cent, 
and  the  remainder  at  4  per  gent. ;  in  reference  to 
which,  in  1749  an  act  was  passed,  28  Geo.  II, 
cap.  1,  determining  that  from  Christmas  1750  the 
interest  on  the  whole  £8,486,800  shouki  be  re- 
duced to  3^  per  cent,  and  from  Christmas  1757 
it  should  ^Ttner  be  reduced  to  the  same  rate  as 
the  £3,200,000,  viz.  3  per  cent.  Fifteen  years 
now  elapsed  vnthout  any  change  in  the  terms  of 
the  charter,  or  accounts  with  the  government, 
when  in  1764,  pursuant  to  the  act  of  4  Geo.  Ill, 
cap.  25|  the  bank  advanced  £1,000,000  for  two 
years  without  interest,  and  gave  bonus  to  the 


exchequer  of  £110,000,  for  the  eztoision  of  their 
charter  to  the  1st  of  August  1786. 

4  J .  In  1781,  pursuant  to  an  act  passed  that  year, 
the  charter  was  further  extended  to  the  1st  of 
Angust  1612,  and  £862,400  more  added  to  the 
capital  stock,  in  return  for  the  loan  of  £2,000,000 
for  three  yeam  at  3  per  cent.;  and  in  1800,  pur- 
suant to  an  act  of  48  Geo.  Ill,  the  charter  was  fur- 
ther extended  to  the  1st  of  August,  1833,  on  con- 
dition of  advancing  £3,000,000,  for  the  service  of 
the  year  1800,on  exchequer  bills,  to  be  discharged 
without  interest  in  1806.  Such  vras  the  state  of 
the  bank  of  England  in  1800  in  reference  to  its 
permanent  advances  to  the  government  and  ex- 
tent of  its  permanent  capital,  which  we  will  here 
briefly  recapitulate.  In  the  session  of  parliament, 
1822,  a«  account  of  the  total  amount  of  debt  due 
to  the  bank  of  England,  distingui^ing  funded 
from  unfimded,  the  periods  when  contracted  for, 
&c.  &c.  was  laid  before  the  house  (paper  No. 
190),  which,  up  to  the  period  of  1746,  will  be 
seen  to  correspond  with  the  amounts  pienousty 
enumerated,  vis: 


Aimoft 


1694 
1697 
1708 

1717 
1722 
1728 
1729 
1742 
1746 


Paid  off  in 
1707 
1728 
1729 

1738 


Acts. 


5W.&M. 
8&9Wm. 
7  Anne, 


c.20 
c.  19 
c.    7 


3  Geo.  I. 

8 

1  Geo.  II. 

2 

15 

19 


c.  8 
C.21 
c.  8 
c.  3 
C.13 
c.   6 


Original  Subscription     .... 

Ingrafted  Tallies 

Exchequer-Bills  cancelled  .  •  . 
Advanced  without  interest  .  .  . 
Exchequer-Bill*  cancelled  .  .  . 
Transfer  tnfOk  South-Sea  Company 

Advanced 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Exchequer-Bills  cancelled  .    .    . 
Total  Sum  advanced     .    .    . 


Ingrafled  Tallies .    .    . 

Part  of  £1,775,028        

Remainder  of  ditto        

And  part  of  £2,000,000  of  1717 

Further  part  of  £2,000,000  of  1717 

Nett  amount  of  permanent  Debt  in  1746,  and  as  1 
it  stood  up  to  1816      .    > S 


£1,200,000 
1,001,171 
1,775,028 

400,000 
2,000,000 
4,000,000 
1,750,000 
1,250,000 
1,600,000 

986,800 


£1,001,171 

1,000,000 

775,028 

500,000 

1,000,000 


£15,963,999 


4^76,199 


£11,686,800 


42.  In  1816  a  further  advance  vras  made  of 
£3,000,000 ;  and  in  1823  a  contract  was  entered 
into  for  the  bank  to  advance  the  government  the 
sum  of  £l3/)89,419,  in  thirteen  irregular  instal- 
ments, between  the  4th  of  April,  1823,  and  the 
6th  of  July,  1828,  in  consideration  of  an  annuity  of 
£585,740  for  44  years,  from  the  10th  of  Oct  1823. 
The  first  of  these  transactions  resolves  itself  into 
a  bonus  to  the  bank  equivalent  to  from  £7,000,000 
to  £8,000,000 ;  the  latter  being  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent a  contingent  transaction,  may  prove  disad- 
vantageous to  the  public  to  the  extent  of  from 
five  to  ten  or  fifteen  millions,  and  under  any 
circumstances  that  can  possibly  occur  is  equiva- 
lent to  another  bonus  to  the  bank  of  at  leasf 


£2,000,000.  The  first  tmnactkn  is  siaaple  and 
conclusive,  and  will  be  seen  to  involve  motal  as 
well  as  pecuniary  features,  demanding  tbe  very 
serious  consideration  of  the  public.  The  other 
is  one  of  tbe  most  complex  and  equivocal 
ttansactiofns  which  the  whole  histoiy  of  British 
financiering,  with  all  its  profligacy  and  tortuosity, 
exhibits  since  the  commenoenienf  oi  war  in 
1793.  A  more  circumstantial  accomit  of  tbe 
nature  of  both  transactions  vrill  be  fbfltnd  in  Aeir 
order  of  time  further  on. 

In  die  mean  time,  ihe  following  is  a  reca- 
pitulation of  the  augmentations  of  capital,  on 
which  dividends  were  made  to  the  propiietoit 
of  stock,  viz. 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BANK. 


471 


Anno. 

i  1694 
1697 
1708 
1709 
1710 
1722 
1742 
1746 
1781 


Original  Subscription 
Ingrafted  Tallies  .  . 
Doubled  .... 
Call  of  15  per  cent.  . 
Ditto  of  10  per  cent 
Additional  Subscriptions 
Ditto  Ditto  . 

CaH  of  10  per  CenL 
Augmented      .    .    . 


Augmentadon. 

£1,200,000 

1,001,171 

2,201,172 

656,204 

501,449 

3,400,000 

840,004 

980,000 

862,400 


Aggregate. 

£1,200,000 
2,201,171 
4,402,343 
5,058,547 
5,559,996 
8,959,996 
9,800,000 
10,780,000 
11,642,400 


43.  And  the  foUowtng  shows  the  rate  and  amount  of  dividends,  per  annum,  at  di£ferent  periods, 

up  to  1807,  vix. 


1694—1696 
1697—1707 
1708—1729 
1730—1741 
1742—1746 
1747—1752 

1753 

1754—1763 
1764—1766 
1767—1760 
1781—1787 
1788—1806 
1807—1815 
1816—1823 
1824—1826 


Rateptr 


3  ye«rs 

11  T 

22  

12  

5  

6  . 

10  

14  

7 

19  

9  

8  

3  


8 

9 

9to 

6& 

6& 

5 

41  &  5 

4* 

5 

H 

6 

7 

10 

8 


5* 


(actual) 

(estimated) 
(actual) 


divided. 


£96,000 
198,105 
450,000 
520,200 
563,000 
539,000 
512,050 
485,100 
539,000 
592,900 
698,544 
814,968 
1,164,240 
1,455,300 
1,164,240 


44.  Thus,  as  stated  in  sect.  39,  it  is  seen,  that 
whilst  the  bank  affects  to  lend  the  public  its 
money  at  3  per  cent,  per  annum,  the  public, 
since  1807,  have  virtually  been  taxed  at  tne  rate 
of  10  per  cent,  to  the  extent  of  £1,164,240  per 
annum  ;  nor  is  this  all,  for,  by  a  return  made  to 
parliament  in  the  session  of  1819  (Paper,  No. 


347),  in  addition  to  the  above  exorbitant  exac- 
tion, resulting  from  the  illusive  and  peculiarly 
involved  nature  of  the  transactions  of  the  govern- 
ment with  the  bank,  it  appears  that  the  following 
sums  were  divided  amoi^  the  siodt-holders  as 
bonuses,  viz. 


Anno. 

Amount. 

June,    1799 
May,    18QI 
Nov.     1802 
Oct.      1804 

—  1805 

1806 

10    percent,  on  the  £11,642,400     ... 
5    on            ditto        .... 

£1,164,240 
582,120 
291,060 
582,120 
582,120 
582,120 

5    '               on             ditto        .... 

5    on             ditto        .... 

5    on             ditto        .... 

Total  as  Bonus    .    .    . 

£3,783,780 

And  profuse  as  all  this  may  seem  in  favor  of  the 
holders  of  bank-stock,  and  oppressive  as  it  must 
be  to  the  public,  it  sinks  into  comparative  insig- 
nificance when  oompared  with  the  transactions 
of  1816  and  1823,  tne  nature  of  which  shall  be 
elucidated  by  and  by;  it  seeming  first  desirable 
to  take  a  retrospective  view  of  the  transactions 
of  the  bank,  inaependent  of  its  permanent  ad- 
vances and  augmentation  of  its  permanent  ca- 
pital. 

45.  By  the  stat.  of  6  Anne,  cap.  22,  it  was 


enacted, '  for  securing  the  credit  of  the  Bank  of 
£ngland,  that  no  other  banking  company  in 
England  should  consist  of  more  than  six  per- 
sons, empowered  to  issue  bills  or  notes  payable 
on  demand,  or  for  any  time  less  than  six  months.' 
And  the  act  of  15  Geo.  II.  cap.  13,  which  ex- 
tended the  privileges  of  the  charter  to  1764,  also 
enacted,  Uiat  the  acts  of  7  and  12  Anne,  and  all 
all  other  acts  for  determining  the  corporation, 
should  be  void;  and  that  the  governor  and  com- 
pany of  the  bank  should  remain  a  body  corpo- 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


472 


BANK. 


rate  and  politic  for  ever,  subject  to  such  restric- 
tions and  regulations  as  were  contained  in  the 
acts  and  charters  then  in  force,  and  by  the  same 
statute  it  was  also  liirther  enacted,  ^  that  persons 
forging,  counterfeiting,  or  altering,  any  bank- 
note, bill  of  exchange,  dividend,  warrant,  or  any 
bond  or  obligation,  under  the  company's  seal, 
or  any  indorsement  upon  it,  or  knowingly  utter- 
ing the  same,  shall  suffer  death,  without  benefit 
of  clergy ;'  and  further,  *  that  the  company's 
senrants  breaking  their  trust  to  the  company,  shall 
also  suffer  death,  as  a  felon,  without  benefit  of 
clergy/  The  same  statute  also  further  enacts, 
*  that  when  at  a  court  of  directors  of  the  bank, 
neither  the  governor  nor  deputy  shall  attend  in 
two  hours  i^r  the  time  appointed  for  business, 
then  any  thiiteen  or  more  of  the  directors  may 
choose  a  chairman  for  the  time  for  the  despatch 
of  business,  and  that  such  court  shall  be  as  valid 
as  if  either  the  governor  or  deputy-governor  had 
duly  attended/ 

46.  As  stated  in  sect.  36,  the  information  is 
imperfect  as  to  the  extent  of  the  transactions  of 


the  Bark  of  England  in  deposit^  transfer,  dis- 
count, and  circulation,  durii^^  the  earlier  period 
of  its  establishment ;  nor  does  it  appear  that  the 
notes  of  the  bank  were  ever  at  a  discount  against 
the  standard  coin  of  the  realm  after  1697,  until 
1798.  In  addition  to  the  monies  permanently 
advanced  to  the  government,  it  was  the  practice 
of  the  bank  to  advance  money  in  anticipation  of 
the  land  and  malt  taxes;  and  to  make  other 
temporary  advances  on  exchequer-bills  and  other 
floating  securities ;  we  have  not  been  able  to  ob- 
tain any  circumstantial  account  of  the  extent  of 
these  advances  at  an  earlier  date  than  1777; 
from  which  period  an  account  of  advances  by 
the  bank  to  government  on  land,  malt,  exche- 
quer-bills, and  other  securities,  on  the  25th  of 
February  on  each  of  the  twenty  years  preceding 
the  25th  of  February,  1797,  was  laid  before  par- 
liament, vide  Appendix,  second  Report  of  the 
Select  Committee  on  the  Expediency  of  the  Bank 
resuming^  Cadi  Payments,  1819.  Comxnons  re- 
print, fol.  31 5y  of  which  die  following  is  a  copy. 


On  the 

25t]i  Feb. 

Und  mnd  Malt. 

Exchequer-Bills. 

IVeasory-BilU. 

Total, 

1777 

£4,912,000 
5,251,000 

£2,500,000 
2,500,000 

£7,412,000 
7,753,760 

1778 

£2760 

1779 

5,682,000 

2,769,000 

15,664 

8,466,664 

1780 

5,613,000 

3,104,400 

33,582 

8,750,982 

1781 

5,517,000 

262,230 

49,541 

8,188,841 

1789 

5,659,000 

4,289,050 

43,628 

9,991,678 

1783 

4,962,000 

4,662,200 

4871 

9,629,071 

1784 

3,901,000 

3,641,000 

23,853 

7,565,853 

1785 

3,102,000 

3,900,000 

28,200 

7,030,200 

1786 

2,307,000 

4,303,200 

24,672 

6,634,872 

1787 

2,809,000 

4,334,200 

1696 

7,144,896 

1788 

2,636,000 

4,707,400 

4299 

7,347,699 

1789 

2,92i3,0OO 

5,000,200 

20,235 

7,948,435 

1790 

2,882,000 

5,006,500 

20,468 

7,908,968 

1791 

3^334,000 

6,247,100 

22,878 

9,603,978 

1792 

2,802,000 

6,636,600 

26,999 

•9,839,338 

1793 

2,698,000 

5,939,600 

52,359 

9,066,698 

1794 

2,915,b00 

4,777,600 

717,175 

8,786,514 

1795 

4,291,000 

4,329,000 

2,117,491 

11,114,230 

1796 

5,536,000 

5,265,000 

540,991 

11,718,730 

•  The  totals  in  tmeh  of  the  five  last  years  include  £376,739  lent  oat  of  the 

interest. 


unclaimed  dividends,  without 


47.  The  earliest  account  of  the  unount  of 
bank-notes  in  circulation  which  we  have  been 
able  to  obtain  is  the  following,  which  was  deli- 
vered to  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  18th  of 
March,  1797,  and  exhibits  the  amount  of  notes 
in  circulation  on  the  25th  of  February,  in  ^ch 
of  the  ten  years,  1787—1796,  vix. 

t787 £8,688,570 

1788 9,370,350 

1789 9,905,240 

1790 10,217,360 

1791  11,699,140 

1792 11,349,810 

1793  11,493,125 


1794 10,699,520 

1795      .     .     .     ,       •  .       13,539,160 
1796 11,030,110 

As  we  are  now  approaching  a  most  important 
period  in  the  historir  of  the  transactions  of  the 
Bank  of  England,  it  will  be  well  for  the  earnest 
enquirer  after  truth  to  bear  in  mind,  that  te 
notes  in  circulation  up  to  the  period  of  1797, 
were  convertible  into  gold  on  demand,  at  die 
rate  of  77f .  tO^d.  per  oz. ;  and  when  the  above 
statement  is  compared  with  the  preceding  one,  of 
the  amount  of  the  temporary  advances  to  the 
government,  and  the  following  one,  of  the 
amount  of  cash  and  bnllion  in  hand,  and  bills 


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discounted,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  issue  of  notes 
appears  to  have  been  regulated  more  in  reference 
to  the  amount  of  the  temporary  advances  to  the 
government,  than  to  the  means  of  paying  them 
in  gold  on  demand,  as  will  be  seen  by  rfie  follow- 
ing statement  of  die  amount  of  cash  and  bullion 


on  handy  notes  in  circubtien,  bills  discounted 
aod  advances  to  government,  on  an  average  in 
the  months  of  March,  June,  September,  and 
December,  in  each  of  ihe  five  years,  1793 — 
1796,  viz. 


Cmah  and  Bullion 

BUh  DiMoonted. 

Average  of  Notet 

Average  of  Advanca 

1 

on  hand. 

in  Cireolation. 

to  Government. 

1793 

March        .     . 

£3,508.000 

£4,817,000 

£11,963,820 

£8,735,200 

June     .     .     . 

4,412,000 

5,128,000 

12,100,650 

9,434,000 

September .    . 

6,836,000 

2,065,000 

10,938,620 

9,455,700 

December 
1794 
March.     .     . 

7,720,000 

1,976,000 

10,967,310 

8,887,500 

8,608,000 

2,908,000 

11,159,720 

8,494,100 

June 

8,208,000 

3,263,000 

10,366,450 

7,735,800 

September 

8,096,000 

2,000,000 

10,343,940 

6,779,800 

7,768,000 

1,887,000 

10,927,970 

7,545,100 

1795 

March  .    .     . 

7,940,000 

2,287,000 

12,432,240 

9,773,700 

June     .    .    . 

7,356,000 

3,485,000 

10,912,280 

10,879,700 

September 

5,792,000 

1,887,000 

11,034,790 

10,197,600 

December 

4,000,000 

3,109,000 

11,608,670 

10,683,100 

1796 

March  .     .    . 

2,972,000 

2,820,000 

10,824,150 

11,351,000 

June     .     .    . 

2,582,000 

3,730,000 

10,770,i00 

11,269,700 

September 

2,532,000 

3,352,000 

9,720,440 

9,901,100 

December 
1797 

2,508,000 

3,796,000 

9,645,710 

9,511,400 

February  26   . 

1,272,000 

2,905,000 

8,640,250 

10,672/490 

48.  By  the  above  statement,  it  is  seen,  that 
with  £8,640,250  of  notes  in  circulation  on  the 
25th  of  February,  1797,  £1,272,000  value  of 
gold  only  remained  in  the  bank,  whilst  the  de- 
mand for  gold  continued  daily  to  increase; 
under  which  circumstances,  on  the  22d  of  Fe- 
oniary,  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  privy 
council  to  investigate  the  affairs  of  the  bank, 
which  committee,  on  the  26th  of  the  same 
month, reported,  that  the  total  assets  of  the  bank, 
exclusive  of  the  £11,686,800  permanent  debt  of 
the  government  (see  secL40, 41),  was  £l  7,597,298; 
whilst  the  whole  of  the  demands  upon  the  bank 
amounted  to  only  £13,770,390,  leaving  a  dear 
balance  in  its  favor  of  £3,826,903,  exclusive  of 
the  permanent  debt  due  from  the  government. 
Upon  this  report,  the  privy  council  instantlv  is- 
sued an  order  prohibiting  the  directors  of  the 
bank  from  issumg  any  more  cash  (specie)  in 
payment,  until  the  sense  of  parliament  on  the 
subject  was  obtained.  From  the  statement  of 
£13,770,390  being  the  amount  of  demands  upon 
the  bank,  and  £8,640,250  being  the  amount  of 
notes  in  circulation,  as  per  statement  in  the  pre- 
ceding section,  it  appears  that  ihe  demands  of 
depositors  and  otner  creditors  mi^t  have 
ammmted  to  £5,130,140 ;  and  in  like  manner, 
£17,597,298  being  the  whole  of  the  assets,  and 
£10,672,490  thereof  consisting  of  claims  on  the 
government,  £2,905,000  in  bills  discounted,  and 
£1,272,000  in  specie,  it  leaves  £2,727,808  to  be 
assigned  to  some  specified  items;  including,  no 
duubt    the  bank  premises    and  probably  some 


other  property  in  iief,  in  houses  or  lands,  &c.  &c. 
The  transactions  and  state  of  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, as  detailed  in  this  section,  bring  its  his- 
tory down  to  that  eventful  and  important  period 
when  the  peculiar  nature  of  its  connexion  with 
the  government  first  openly  developes  itself.  To 
obtain  a  more  comprehensive  and  distinct  view 
of  the  subject,  the  reader  will  do  well  to  refer,  to 
the  journals  and  proceedings  of  parliament  for  the 
^ear  1797,  and  to  examine  the  subject  attentively, 
m  relation  to  the  nature  and  amount  of  the 
loans,  and  extent  of  the  revenue  and  expenditure 
of  the  government  at  that  period,  as  exhibited  in 
Mr.  Marshall's  Statistical  Illustrations  of  the 
Finances,  Revenues,  &c.  &c.  of  the  British  Em- 
pire. See  also  the  articles  Funding,  Loans, 
Sinking  Fund,  and  Revenue,  in  the  subsequent 
parts  of  this  work. 

49.  It  was  on  a  Sunday  evening  that  the  order 
of  the  privy  council,  adverted  to  in  the  preced- 
ing section,  was  transmitted  to  the  bank,  and 
on  Monday  morning  the  following  notice  was 
published  by  the  directors  of  that  establishment, 
viz. 

«  Bank  of  England,  February  27, 1797. 

'  In  consequence  of  an  order  of  his  majesty's 
privy  council,  notified  to  the  bank  last  night,  a 
copy  of  which  is  hereunto  annexed, 

'  The  goyemor,  deputy-governor,  and  directors 
of  the  BbldDl  of  England,  think  it  their  duty  to 
inform  the  proprietors  of  the  bank-stock,  as  wpH 
as  the  public  at  large,  that  the  general  concerns 
of  the  bank  are  in  the  most  afBuent  and  flourish- 


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ing  sitnation,  and  luch  as  to  preclude  every 
doubt  as  to  the  security  of  its  notes. 

<The  directors  mean  to  oontinue  their  usual 
discount  for  the  accommodation  of  the  commer- 
cial interest,  paying  the  amount  in  bank  notes ; 
and  the  diviaend  warrants  will  be  paid  in  the 
same  manner. 

(Signed)        *  Francis  Martin,  Sec.' 

50.  The  consternation  of  the  public  at  this  notifi- 
cation was  extreme,  but  as  a  proof  of  the  secret 
workings  and  illusive  nature  of  the  system,  a 
meeting  was  held  the  same  day  at  the  mansion 
house,  at  which  the  lord  mayor  (Watson),  presi- 

'  ded,  when  the  following  iBsolution  was  unani- 
mously agreed  to,  viz.  'lliat  we  the  undersigned, 
being  highly  sensible  how  necessary  the  preser- 
vation of  public  credit  is  at  this  time,  do  most 
readily  hereby  declare,  that  we  will  not  refuse  to 
receive  bank  notes  in  payment  of  any  sum  of 
money  to  be  paid  to  us;  and  we  will  use  oar 
utmost  endeavours  to  make  all  our  payments  in  the 
same  manner.'  This  singular  specimen  of  sub- 
serviency to  speculative  expediency  was  signed 
by  the  lord  mayor  and  all  present,  and  ultimately 
obtained  upwards  of  3000  signatures.  We  will 
not  here  enquire  what  portion  of  their  names 
have  since  been  exhibited  on  the  bankrupt  or 
other  lists  of  insolvency ;  but  we  must  regard  the 
conseqences  to  have  been  the  degradation  of  an 
alarming  portion  of  the  total  population  of  the 
kingdom  to  the  rank  of  paupers,  with  all  the 
consecutive  concomitants  of  demoralisation  and 
crime. 

51.  On  the  same  day  (27th  Feb.),  a  message 
was  delivered  from  the  king  to  both  houses  of 
parliament,  to  the  following  effect,  viz.  '  That  an 
unusual  demand  of  specie  having  been  made 
from  different  parts  of  the  countiy,  on  the  metro- 
polis, it  had  been  found  necessary  to  make  an 
order  of  council  to  the  directors  of  tne  bank,  pro- 
hibitins:  the  issuing  of  any  cash  in  payment,  till 
the  seuse  of  parliament  could  be  taken  on  the 
subject.'  In  the  upper  house,  Lord  Grenville, 
who  was  then  secretary  of  state  for  the  foreign 
department,  moved,  *That  the  communication 
from  his  Majesty  should- be  taken  into  consider- 
ation the  foUowiug  day,*  when  in  pursuance  of 
the  motion,  after  much  circumlocution,  Lord 
Grenville  stated  that  he  had  two  motions  to  sub- 
mit to  the  consideration  of  their  Lordships,  first, 
'That  a  humble  address  be  presentea  to  his 
Majesty,  to  return  thanks  for  his  gracious  com- 
munication, and  to  assure  his  Majesty  that  he 
might  rely  with  the  utmost  confidfence  on  the 
wisdom  of  parliament,  to  call  forth,  in  case  of 
necessity,  the  extensive  resources  of  the  king- 
dom.' This  was  agreed  to,  nemine  contradicente. 
The  other  motion  was  for  'The  appointment  of  a 
select  committee  of  nine  lords,  to  examine  and 
report  on  the  outstanding  debts  against  the  bank, 
the  state  of  the  funds  for  discharging  the  same; 
the  cause  that  rendered  the  order  of  council 
necessary,  and  which  might  justify  the  members 
of  that  house  for  taking  the  proper  steps  for  the 
confirmation  and  continuance  of  that  measure.' 
This  motion  gave  rise  to  considerable  discussion,. 
in  which  the  Duke  of  Bedford  moved  as  an. 
amendment,  *  To  leave  out  all  that  part  which 


related  to  the  committee  reporting  th^  dpinkm 
on  the  continuance  of  the  measure.'  In  support 
of  which  amendment,  the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne 
said,  '  That  noble  Lords  would  do  him  the  jus^ 
tice  to  recollect,  that  not  one  session  had  ^^^ssed 
over,  since  the  fatal  commencement  of  the  war  in 
1793,  in  which  he  had  not,  to  use  a  vulgar  but 
strong  expression,  bored  their  Lordsbins  with  his 
prophetic  admonitions,  and  proceedea  to  iilos- 
trate  the  nature  of  public  credit,  by  saying,  that 
it  was  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  wl^t  the 
soul  of  man  was  to  his  body.  It  was  pare  soul: 
it  was  immaterial  in  itself  and  yet  it  was  that 
which  gave  to  substance  its  functions.  It  was  not 
property,  for  no  branch  of  the  body  could  call  it 
Its  own.  It  was  not  the  king's  credit,  nor  was  it 
the  credit  of  parliament ;  it  was  public  credit, 
which  did  not  look  to  security  alone  as  its  basis, 
but  which  always  connected  security  with 
punctuality.' 

52.  The  shock  which  had  been  given  to  public 
credit,  the  noble  marquis  stated,  proceeded  from 
deep,  progressive,  and  accumulated  causes; 
causes  which  all  diinktng,  all  honest  men,  had 
long  deplored,  and  which  had  grown  to  a  head 
unclQr  the  unhappy  and  ill-requited  confidence 
which  had  so  fatally  been  placed  in  tbe  king*s 
ministers.  In  endeavouring  to  ascertain  toe 
causes  that  had  brought  on  the  dilemma,  one 
cause  was  manifest;  the  inordinate  increase  of 
expenses,  of  places,  and  establishments,  in  eveiy 
comer  of  the  empire,  which  had  grown  to  a 
height  beyond  every  thing  that  tbe  mind  could 
previously  have  conceived ;  it  was,  said  the  noble 
marquis,  incredible  and  scandalous ;  the  increase 
of  fees,  of  salaries,  of  places  and  pensions,  of 
new  boards  of  commission,  and  new  appoint- 
ments of  all  kinds,  had  not  only  served  to  open 
all  the  gates  of  waste  and  profusion,  but  to  beat 
down  and  destroy  all  the  checks  of  control,  and 
all  the  means  of  correction.  Waste  and  extrava- 
gance had  been  systematised ;  one  scene  of  abuse 
countenanced  and  protected  another,  and  all  the 
comers  of  the  earth  were  witnesses  to  tbe  ruiooos 
waste  of  the  treasures  of  the  British  people.  In 
this  strain,  with  unabated  ardor,  dia  the  noUe 
marquis  continue  to  depict  the  fata)  eoaseqnenocs 
whicli  must  inevitably  ensue  from  the  continn- 
ance  of  such  a  system,  and  concluded  a  most  pa- 
triotic appeal  to  the  British  parliament,  by  call- 
ing upon  his  compeers  to  mark  his  prophecy,  and 
not  to  disdain  his  counsel,  while  yet  in  time,  for 
said  his  Lordship,  if  you  attemjyt  to  make  bank 
notes  a  legal  tender,  then  credit  will  perish.  They 
may  go  on  for  a  time,  but  their  end  is  certain 
rain.  The  earnestness  and  force  of  tfus  appeal 
drew  the  Lord  Chancellor  from  his  seat,  to  state, 
'That  he  had  deprecated  the  ideaof  ibrchag  bank 

Saper  into  circulation,  by  making  it  a  legal  ten- 
er,  and  he  would  take  upon  himself  to  sary,tliat 
it  then  had  never  been  conceived,  that  it  would 
be  wise  or  pradent  to  make  bank  notes  a  legal 
tender.  After  which,  their  lordships  dividfd  on  the 
amendment  of  the  dwke  of  Bedford ;  twelve  fttfr 
and  seventy-eight  against  it.  Albr  which  tbe 
original  motion  for  a  committee  of  enquiry  was 
carried  without  a  division, 

53.  Similar  proceedint^  took  place  in  the 
common?  on  the  sn-Tie  day,  where,  in  reply  to 


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some  observations  by  Mr.  Fox,  Mr.  Pitt  stilted 
that  perceiving  some  suspicions  were  entertained 
that  the  measure  adopted  for  succouring  public 
credit,  was  designed  to  be  permanent,  he  assured 
the  house,  'That  nothing  could  he  farther  from  his 
intention.'  An  amendment  similar  to  that  of  the 
duke  of  Bedford,  in  the  lords,  was  moved  in  the 
commons  by  Mr.  Sheridan,. which  was  rejected 
by  244  against  eighty-4ix,  when  the  original  mo- 
tion 'for  a  committee  was  carried  without  a 
division.  On  tiie  6th  of  March  the  lords'  com- 
mittee reported  to  the  house  that  it  was  necessary 
to  '  conunue  and  confinn  the  measares  already 
taken,  for  sudi  lime,  and  under  such  limitations 
and  restrictions,  and  with  such  power  of  discon- 
tinuing the  same,  as  to  the  wisdom  of  parliament 
might  seem  expedient.'  And  thus  a  system  of 
paper  money,  without  reference  to  any  standard, 
either  of  value  or  quantity,  was  established,  the 
duration  and  progress  of  which  vnll  appear,  as 
the  elucidation  of  the  transactions  of  the  bank 
is  here  farther  proceeded  in. 

54.  On  the  re^assembling  of  parliament  in 
November  of  the  same  year  (1797),  the  commit- 
tee of  secre^,  appointed  to  ^enquire  into  the 
expediency  of  continuing  the  restriction  on  the 
bank,  reported,  that  the  total  assets  of  the  bank, 
exclusive  of  the  £11,686,800  of  permanent  debt 
due  from  the  government  on  the  11th  of  Novem- 
ber, was  £21,418,640  (see  sect.  48  for  the  amount 
on  the  25th  February  preceding),  and  that  the 
total  amount  of  outstanding  demands  was 
£17,578,910,  leaving  a  balance  on  that  date  in 


favor  of  the  bank  of  £3,839,730.  The  report 
further  stated  that  the  advances  of  government 
had  been  reduced  to  £4,258,140,  and  that  the 
casAi  and  bullion  in  the  bank  had  increased  to 
nearly  £6,500,000  or  upwards,  or  five  times  its 
amocmt  on  the  February  preceding ;  all  this  be- 
ing true,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  discounts  of 
commercial  bills  must  have  been  increased  in 
the  proportion  of  about  £8,000,000  against 
£2,905,000,  the  amount  in  February,  but  it  will 
seem,  on  reflection,  and  on  comparison  with  the 
advances  to  the  government,  as  exhibited  in  the 
appendix  at  the  conclusion  of  this  article,  that 
the  whole  report  was  a  singular  misrepresenta- 
tion of  the  fects  of  the  case,  to  answer  the 
purposes  of  the  moment;  at  all  events,  it  will  be 
seen  that  both  the  temporary  advances  to  the 
government,  and  issue  of  notes,  progressively 
increased  from  the  close  of  the  year  1797 
up  to  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802-3,  and 
the  following  statement  exhibits  the  progress  and 
duration  of  that  restriction,  which  the  Lord 
Chancellor  in  the  Lords,  and  the  finance  minis- 
ter  in  the  Commons,  so  solemnly  declared  was 
to  be  only  temporary. 

55.  The  first  act  passed,  relating  to  the  subject 
was  dated  the  3d  March,  1797,  37  Geo.  Ill,  cap. 
28,  authorising  the  issuing  of  notes  for  £l  and 
£2  each ;  the  amount  of  such  notes  in  circulation 
on  the  26th  August  of  that  year  was  £934,015; 
for  the  progressive  increase  of  their  circulation 
see  appendix. 


ACTS    RELATING   TO   RESTRICTION. 


Year  of  Reign. 


Date  of  Act 


Purport  and  Duration. 


37  Geo.  III.  cap.  45. 
—        —        —  91. 

38  —         —  1. 

42  —        —  40. 

43  —        —  18. 


44        --        — 


1. 


3d  May,  1797. 1 
22d  June, 1 

30th  Nov. ( 

30th  April,  1802. 
28th  Feb.  1803.  \ 

15th  Dec. ] 


Indemnity  for  order  in  council,  and  to  continue 
during  the  following  month  of  June. 

Extended  to  one  month  after  the  meeting  of  the 
next  session  of  parliament. 

Further  extended  to  one  month  after  the  ratifi 
cation  of  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace,  which 
took  place  on  the  25th  March,  1802. 

Further  extended  to  1st  March,  1803. 

Still  further,  to  six  weeks  after  the  meeting  of  the 
next  session  of  parliament. 

Again,  to  six  months  after  the  ratificaUon  of  a 
definitive  treaty  of  peace. j 


This  brings  the  history  of  the  restriction  down 
to  a  most  interesting  and  important  period  of  its 
operation ;  so  far,  it  is  imporunt  to  understand, 
that  notwithstanding  the  introduction  of  paper  as 
a  circulating  medium,  gold  at  the  rate  of  77s. 
lO^d.  per  ounce  continued  to  be  the  legal  stand* 
ard  of  value,  and  such  was  the  incongruity  of 
British  legislation  at  this  period,  that  whilst 
landlords  and  other  creditors  were  authorised  by 
law  to  enforce  payment  in  gold,  the  acts  previ- 
ously enumerated  precluded  the  gold  from  being 
had,  wherewith  either  to  pay  rents,  or  make  any 
other  payments ;  such  however  was  the  insidious 
workiog  of  the  system,  that  up  to  the  period  of 
1809  no  derangement  in  the  social  economv  of 
the  state,  resulting  from  such  incongruity  of  le- 
gislation was  perceptible. 


56.  In  1800  foreign  gold  coin  commanded 
about  5s.  to  7s.  per  ounce  more  than  its  equiva- 
lent value  to  British  coin ;  but  the  short  peace  of 
1801-2  occasioned  a  cessation  of  demand,  and  the 
price  again  became  merely  nominal.  From 
March,  1804,  to  October,  1805,  standard  gold 
sold  at  £4  per  ounce ;  and  from  October,  1805, 
to  February,  1809,  no  price  was  anoted  ;  in  the 
meantime,  however,  aU  the  gold  coin  of  the 
realm  had  gradually  disappeared  (for  the  quan* 
tity  coined  in  each  year  smce  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.  in  1663,  see  Statistical  Illustrations, 
folio  47,  and  the  article  Mint  in  a  subsequent 
part  of  this  work),  partly  for  internal  purposes  of 
manufacture  and  ornament,  and  partly  in  aid  of 
the  external  purposes  of  the  war;  not  directly 
and  openly  for  thul  purpose,  but  the  excess  of 


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bills  drawn  by  the  commissariat  and  other  agents 
of  the  government,  on  account  of  the  expenses  of 
the  W9J  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  occasioned 
the  bills  to  be  drawn  at  a  discount  of  10  to 
15  or  20  per  cent,  and  at  such  depreciation,  in- 
stead of  being  left  to  operate  as  mere  extraneous 
equivalents  of  commercial  exchange,  they  became 
an  object  of  speculation  against  bullion,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  standard  price  of  gold  in  England. 

57.  To  render  the  circumstances  of  this  very 
interesting  and  important  period  of  the  bank 
restriction  act  somewhat  more  intelligible  to  such 
readers  as  are  not  practically  familiar  with  the 
complicated  involutions  of  exchanges,  it  may  not 
be  irrelevant  to  state  (taking  the  mint  of  France 
as  the  means  of  illustration),  that  according  to  the 
mint  regulations  of  England  and  France,  twenty- 
five  francs,  twenty  centimes  in  France  are  equal 
to  £l  in  England ;  but,  in  consequence  of  the 
excess  of  bills  above  adverted  to,  in  May,  1809, 
the  £l  English  in  France  would  not  obtain  more 
than  twenty  francs;  consequently,  as  lon|[  as  gold 
could  be  obtained  in  England  at  the  mint  price 
of  77s.  lOJd.  per  ounce,  it  yielded  a  profit  in 
France  of  upwards  of  20  per  cent,  against  tliat 
rate  of  exchange,  but  such  a  disparity  of  value,  as 
might  naturally  be  expected,  excited  a  spirit  of 
speculation  and  competition,  which  raised  the 
price  of  gold  to  a  premium  equal  to  the  discount 
on  the  bills.  So  that  in  May,  1809,  gold  com- 
manded £4.  lis.  per  ounce;  this  disparity  be- 
tween the  mint  and  trading  price  of  gold  excited 
an  universal  hubbub  in  every  part  of  the  country, 
and  in  February,  1810,  a  committee  of  parlia- 
ment was  appointed  to  enquire  into  the  cause  of 
the  high  price  of  bullion,  and  to  take  into  con- 
sideration the  state  of  the  circulating  meditlm, 
and  of  the  exchanges  between  Great  Britain  and 
foreign  parts.  This  committee  sat  from  the  22d 
of  February  to  the  25th  of  May,  during  which 
time  it  took  the  opinions  of  thirty  different  per- 
sons, whose  trading  transactions  and  influence 
were  thought  to  be  such  as  qualified  them  to 
tiirow  much  light  on  the  subject ;  but  whether 
ignorant  of  the  combination  of  causes  that  did  in 
reality  produce  the  disparity  of  value,  or  whether 
selfish  motives  led  them  to  conceal  their  better 
judgment,  certain  it  is,  that  although  much  in- 
teresting matter-of-fact  information  is  here  and 
there  interspersed  through  different  parts  of  the 
evidence,  as  a  whole,  it  is  completely  destitute 
of  every  thing  like  a  solution  to  the  question 
proposed.  In  proof  of  this  conclusion  see  article 
Exchange,  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  work ; 
and  in  proof  of  the  futility  of  the  labors  of  the 
committee,  and  of  the  frivolousness  of  the  evi- 
dence in  a  general  sense,  bullion  continued 
gradually  to  advance,  and  the  exchanges  pro- 
gressively to  depreciate,  until  on  the  18lh  Sep- 
tember, 1812,  gold  commanded  £5.  lis.  per 
ounce. 

58.  Such  an  extreme  disparity  of  value  had 
previously  excited  every  species  of  contrivance 
to  collect  gold,  and  was  beginning  to  lead  to 
tuch  general  derangements  in  the  internal  econo- 
my of  the  state,  in  selfish  and  avaricious  indivi- 
duals availing  themselves  of  the  point  of  law,  which 
authorised  them  to  demand  ana  enforce  payment 
iu  gold,  in  cases  where  by  the  nature  of  the  obli- 


gation, payment  in  current  money  only  was 
implied,  that  on  the  24th  July,  1811,  an  act  was 
passed,  51  Geo.  III.  cap.  127,  to  make  the  bank 
of  England  notes  a  legal  tender  in  all  payments, 
which  by  the  act  of  the  38  Geo.  III.  cap.  1.  (30th 
Nov.  1797),  were  only  so  in  private  transactions, 
after  having  been  accepted  as  such,  but  which 
were  ordered  to  be  received  as  cash  by  all  the 
collectors  of  taxes  and  duties.  The  title  of  the 
act  for  making  the  bank  of  England  notes  a  legal 
tender,  in  conjunction  with  a  consideration  of 
the  circumstances  which  led  to  it,  is  curious,  and 
deserves  attention.  It  is  as  follows,  viz.  '  For 
making  a  more  effectual  provision  for  preventing 
the  current  gold  coin  oi  the  realm  from  being 
paid  or  accepted  for  a  greater  value  than  the 
current  value  of  such  coin ;  and  for  preventing 
any  note  or  bill  of  the  governor  and  company  of 
the  bank  of  England  from  being  received  for  any 
smaller  sum  than  the  sum  therein  specified;  and 
for  staying  proceedings  upon  any  distress  by 
tender  of  such  notes.'  To  continue  in  force  till 
the  25th  of  March,  1812,  and  no  longer. 

59.*  By  another  act  in  the  following  session, 
52  Geo.  III.  cap.  50.  dated  5th  May,  1812,  the 
preceding  act  was  extended  to  three  months  after 
the  commencement  of  the  next  session  of  parlia- 
ment, and  no  longer;  and  by  53  Geo.  Hi.  cap. 
5,  22d  Dec.  1812,  further  extended  to  25th 
March,  1814 ;  and  by  54  Geo.  III.  cap.  52,  4th 
May,  1814,  to  as  long  as  restriction  continues; 
54  Geo.  III.  cap.  19,  18th  July,  1814,  restric- 
tion extended  to  25th  March,  1815;  55  Geo.  III. 
cap.  28,  23d  March,  1815,  further  extended  to 
5th  of  July,  1816;  56  Geo.  III.  cap.  40,  21st 
May,  1816,  still  further  to  5th  of  July,  1818; 

58  Geo.  III.  cap.  37,  28th  May,  1818,  again  to 
5th  of  July,  1819;  59  Gee.  III.  cap.  23,  6di 
April,  1819,  restriction  extended  indefinitely; 

59  Geo.  III.  cap.  49,  2d  July,  1819,  restriction 
limited  to  1st  of^May,  1823 ;  and  in  the  interim 
the  bank  empowered  to.  exchange  bullion  in 
quantities  of  not  less  than  sixty  ounces  for  their 
notes,  between  the  1st  of  February  and  1st  of 
October,  1820,  at  any  rate  between  81s.  and  79s. 
6d.  per  ounce;  and  from  the  1st  of  October, 
1820,  to  the  1st  of  May,  1821,  at  any  rate  be- 
tween 79s.  6d.  and  77s.  lO^d.  per  ounce;  and 
from  the  1st  of  May,  1821,  to  1st  of  May,  1823, 
at  77s.  10|d.  per  ounce ;  when  gold  coin  again 
became  a  general  circulating  medium,  and,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  statement  at  the  conclusion 
of  this  article,  the  £l  and  £2  notes  of  the 
bank  of  England  were  withdrawn  from  circu- 
lation, and  to  meet  this  change  in  the  circulating^ 
medium  in  the  years  1821  and  1822,  gold  to  the 
amount  of  £14,877,547  was  coined  at  the  roinu 
Such  is  the  history  of  the  bank  restriction  act, 
which  in  February,  1797,  was  in  both  houses  of 
parliament  so  solemnly- declared  to  be  only  a 
temporary  measure,  but  which  continued  through 
a  period  of  twenty-six  years. 

60  Preparatory  to  returning  again  to  a  gold 
circulating  medium,  a  committee  was  appointed 
in  each  house  of  parliament,  in  1819,  to  enquire 
into  the  state  and  affairs  of  the  bank,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  expediency  of  the  resumption  of  cash 
pf^yments,  when,  after  taking  the  opinion  of  about 
thirty  persons,  the  act  of  2d  July,  1819, 59  Geo. 


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477 


III.  cap.  49.  was  resolved  upon,  and  in  the 
course  of  the  enauiry  on  the  31st  of  March, 
1819,  the  hank  exhibited  the  following  account 
of  the  state  of  their  affairs,  viz.  'That  the  whole 
of  the  claims  upon  them  on  that  date  amounted 
to  £33,948,560,  of  which  £24,710,770  was  notes 
ii^  circulation,  and  £9,237,790  in  deposits  and 
other  debts,  against'  wliich  their  assets  in  cash 
and  bullion,  bills  discounted,  and  government 
securities,  amounted  to  £39,179,750,  leaving  a 
balance  in  favor  of  the  bank  to  the  amount  of 
£5,231,190,  exclusive  of  the  £11,686,800,  per- 
manent debt  of  the  government,  as  exhibited  in 
sect.  41,  and  £3,000,000  added  in  1816.'  Flat- 
tering as  all  this  may  seem  on  a  superficial  view 
of  the  subject,  and  confident  as  opinion  generally 
was,  of  the  country  having  escaped  the  peril,  so 
earnestly  warned  of  by  Lord  Lansdowne,  in  sect^ 
51,  a  short  period  only  elapsed  before  the  effects 
of  the  system,  spectre-like,  returned  in  a  more  ter- 
rific form  than  ever.  Preparatory  to  the  return 
to  cash  payments*  in  1823,  through  the  years 
1821  and  1822,  the  bank  had  progressively 
diminished  the  issue  of  its  notes  from  an  average 
of  £22,550,000  in  December,  1820,  to  an  aver- 
ageef  £16,393,000  in  December,  1822;  a  depres- 
sion in  the  money  value  of  all  the  products  of 
industry,  without  any  parallel  since  the  com- 
mencement of  the  war  in  1793,  followed  this 
diminution  of  circulating  medium.  But  the 
ordeal  of  the  experiment  of  paying  gold  on  de- 
mand having  been  got  over,  the  cupidity  of 
avarice  again  began  to  operate,  and  notwith- 
standing the  accession  to  the  circulating  medium 
of  the  £14,877,547  of  gold  coined  in  the  years 
1821  and  1822,  the  bank  again  showed  a  dispo- 
sition to  force  its  notes  into  circulation,  so  far, 
that  instead  of  gold  supplying  the  place  of  paper 
for  six  weeks  preceding  the  5th  of  January,  1825, 
the  bank  of  England  notes  in  circulation  again 
exceeded  an  average  of  £20,000,000 ;  and  those 
ofcountry  bankers  had  increased  from  £4,293,1 64 
in  1822,  to  £6,724,069  in  1824,  and  £8,755,307 
in  1825. 

61.  The  facility  of  raising  money  among  indi- 
viduals, which  this  redundancy  of  circulating 
medium  afforded,  gave  rise  to  an  extent  of  spe- 
culation, far,  very  far,  exceeding  the  notable 
South  Sea  and  other  adventures  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  preceding  century.  (See  the  article 
CoMPAW Y,  in  a  subsfxjuent  part  of  this  work,  for 
an  elucidation  of  the  extent  and  consequences  of 
the  folly  at  both  periods.)  Towards  the  month 
of  September,  however,  the  speculations  generally 
began  to  be  considered  equivocal  in  their  results ; 
the  first  perceptible  shock  to  what  is  technically 
termed  credit,  was  experienced  on  the  24th  of 
October,  in  the  suspension  of  payment  of  one  of 
the  most  eminent  commercial  establishments  in 
London,  or  the  commercial  world  (Mr.  S.  Wil- 
liams, an  American).  After  this,  a  month  passed 
away  in  gloomy  suspense,  till  on  the  25th  of 
November  an  extensive  banking  establishment  at 
Plymouth  (Sir  W.  Elford,  Bart,  and  Co.)  was 
the  next  evidence  of  the  unsoundness  and  im- 
policy of  the  paper  money  system.  This  failure 
strengthened  the  doubts  of  the  stability  of  others, 
and  suspicion  falling  on  all  the  banking  establish- 


ments in  the  west  of  England,  it  produced  in 
London  such  a  demand  for  gold,  as  excited  ap^ 
prehensions  for  the  consequences  to  which  it 
might  lead ;  in  the  meantime  the  bank  of  Eng- 
land had  been  progressively  narrowing  its  issues, 
till  the  amount  at  the  end  of  November  was 
reduced  again  to  £17,500,000.  On  the  9th  of 
December  the  suspension  of  payment  was 
announced  of  an  extensive  banking  establishment 
at  York  (Messrs.  Wentworth,  Chaloner  and  Co.), 
having  branches  at  three  or  four  other  towns  in 
the  county,  and  their  own  house  of  agency  in 
London;  consternation  now  became  general,  and 
the  directors  of  the  bank  of  England,  who  had, 
as  we  contend,  contributed  to  bring  on  the  de- 
rangement, by  the  fietcility  which  they  afforded  to 
get  their  notes  into  circulation,  in  discounting 
three  and  four  months  bills  at  4  per  cent,  per 
annum,  now  as  suddenly  took  steps  which  acce- 
lerated the  derangement.  On  the  13th  of  Decem- 
ber the  following  notice  was  issued,  viz. : — 
Bank  of  England. 

*  Resolved— -That  from  and  after  tl;c  13t!i 
instant,  no  bills  or  notes  will  be  discounted 
under  5  per  cent,  per  annum.' 

62.  This  notification  added  considerably  to  the 
consternation :  an  extensive  private  banking 
establishment,  deemed  one  of  the  most  reputable 
in  London,  had  previously  suspended  its  pay* 
ments,  and  on  the  following  morning  two  others 
were  reduced  to  the'  same  alternative ;  it  would 
be  difficult,  and  at  all  events  it  would  exceed  due 
limits  here,  to  describe  the  dismay  and  confusion 
that  now  prevailed ;  and  with  the  view  of  endea- 
vouring to  allay  the  ferment,  a  public  meeting 
at  the  Mansion  House,  as  on  the  memorable  27th 
of  February,  1797,  took  place  on  the  13th  of 
December,  1825,  when  about  700  signatures 
were  obtained  to  the  following  resolutions :  viz. 

'1.  That  the  unprecedented  embarrassments 
and  difficulties  under  which  the  circulation  of 
the  country  at  present  labors  are  mainly  to  be 
attributed  to  a  general  panic,  for  which  there 
are  no  reasonable  grounds;  that  this  meeting 
has  the  fullest  confidence  in  the  means  and  sul^ 
stance  of  the  banking  establishments  of  the 
capital  and  the  country,  and  they  believe  that 
the  acting  generally  upon  that  confidence  would 
relieve  all  those  symptoms  of  distress  which  now 
show  themselves  in  a  shape  so  alarming  to  the 
timid,  and  so  fatal  to  those  who  are  forced  to 
sacrifice  their  property  to  meet  sudden  demands 
upon  them,  which  it  is  no  imputation  upon  their 
judgment  and  prudence  not  to  have  expected. 

^  2.  That  it  having  been  stated  to  this  meeting, 
that  the  directors  of  the  bank  of  England  are 
occupied  with  the  remedy  for  a  state  of  things  so 
extraordinary,  this  meeting  will  refrain  from  any 
interference  with  the  measures  of  the  directors  of 
the  bank,  who,  they  are  satisfied,  will  do  their 
duty  towards  the  public. 

*  3.  That  having  the  firmest  confidence  in  the 
stability  of  the  public  credit  of  the  country,  we 
declare  our  determination  to  support  it  to  the 
utmost  of  our  power. 

<  4.  That  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  meeting  that 
declarations  of  a  similar  description  with  the 


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present,  in  the  country  towns,  where  the  hanking 
establishments  may  appear  to  deserve  them,  may 
be  productive  of  mucli  benefit  in  restoring  gene- 
ral confidence/ 

63.  Although  it  was  generally  believed  that 
the  bank  of  Engliind  bad  been  drained  of  nearly 
the  whole  of  its  stock  of  gold,  during  the  memo- 
rable week  between  the  lOth  and  18th  of  Decem- 
ber; yet  on  an  average  of  the  five  weeks  between 
the  latter  date  and  the  22d  of  January,  1826,  the 
issue  of  bank  of  England  notes  hsid  been  in- 
creased to  £25,310,000.;  and  thai  this  lavish  ex* 
perimental  issue  did  not  lead  to  the  necessity  of 
again  resorting  to  a  restriction  Act,  was  owing 
entirely  to  circumstances  not  at  all* contemplated 
in  the  deliberations  which  led  to  the  increased 
issue  of  notes,  and  which,  in  fact,  seem  to  have 
been  issued  with  very  little  calculation  on  the 
consequences  to  which  they  might  lead. 

64.  Notwithstanding  4lie  declaration  at  tiie 
Mansion  House,  on  the  13th  of  December,  that 
the  embarrassments  and  difficulties  under  which 
the  circulation  of  the  country  then  labored,  were 
mainly  to  be  attributed  to  a  general  panic,  for 
which  there  were  no  reasonable  grounds;  accord- 
ing to  a  return  laid  before  the  House  of  Com- 
mons on  the  27th  of  February,  1826;  in  the 
interval  of  the  end  of  October,  1825,  and  that 
date,  fifty-nine  banking  establishments,  com- 
prising 144  partners,  had  been  declaied  bank- 
rupt, about  twenty  others  insolvent,  and  every 
succeeding  week  continued  to  add  firom  seventy 
to  100  merchants,  manufacturers,  and  traders,  to 
the  bankrupt  list,  and  thousands  to  the  lists  of 
insolvency ;  whilst  half  a  million  of  fiuniiies  in 
the  several  manufacturing  districts  were  driven 
to  the  verge  of  starvation,. in  C9nsequenoe  of  the 
destruction  of  confidence,  anii  suspension  of 
commercial  operations,  which  the  uncertain  isane 
and  uncertain  value  of  the  circulating  medium 
in  great  part  occasioned. 

65.  Having  now  brought  the  history  of  the 
bank  of  England  fiom  fhe  time  of  its  foundation 
down  to  the  period  of  this  sheet  going  to  press, 
in  May,  1826,  in  reference  to  its  circulation,  we 
will  now  proceed  to  bring  down  its  history  from 
sect.  44,  in  reference  to  its  agency  and  connexion 
with  the  government.  Sect.  34  shows  that  it 
originated  in  the  raising  of  a  loan  of  £1,200,000 
for  the  use  of  the  government,  at  an  interest  of 
8  per  cent  per  annum,  and  £4000  per  annum 
for  agency;  and  that  that  transaction  was,  in 
fact,  the  foundation  of  the  fimding  system,  which 
has  led  to  an  extent  and  pressure,  of  taxation 
without  any  parallel  in  the  history  of  society, 
and  which  the  bank  of  England  has  been  the 
main  instrument  inoocadoning.  Sect  42  shows 
fhe  progress  of  the  advances  made  by  the  bank 
to  the  government  up  to  1781 ;  which  advances, 
in  addition  to  the  interest,  were  all  subject  to  a 
charge  for  agency ;  as  was  also  all  other  sums 
raised  by  lottery,  or  borrowed  by  the  govern- 
ment from  individuals  during  the  war,  from 
1702  to  1713,  the  total  sum  then  amounting  to 
£52,145,363.  The  terms  of  agency  up  to  1726 
had  varied  according  to  circumstances,  at  which 
time  it  was  fixed  at  £360  per  million,  afterwards 
increased  to  £562.  10s.  per  million;  after  the 
peace  of  Versailles  in  1782,  when  the  total  sum 


amounted  to  £249,000,000,  the  terns  w^re  n- 
duced  to  £450  per  million,  at  which  rate  it  con- 
tinued up  to  1807,  when  it  was  reduced  to  £340 
per  million,  on  £600,000,000.,  and  £300  for 
every  million  above  that  sum;  during  the  exac- 
tion of  the  property  tax,  the  bask  received  at  the 
rat^  of  £1250  per'million,  oh  such  portiops  of 
the  tax  as  were  paid  in  to  the  bank  direct,  and 
£805. 15s.  10<2.  per  million  OB  about  £600,000,000 
paid  in  on  accoimt  of  loans  between  the  Ist  of 
February,  1793,  and  the  5th  of  January,  1833; 
these  several  charges  (including  £4000  to  £6000 
per  annum  for  management  of  lotteries),  and 
most  of  which  charges  are  likely  to  contimie,  at 
all  events  up  to  the  period  of  the  continuance  of 
the  charter  in  1833,  ainoe  the  commencement  of 
the  present  century,  haveaveiaged  aboui  £275,000 
per  annum. 

66.  Independently  of  the  above  species  of 
agency,  sufa^t  to  specific  diarges,  the  whole  re» 
oeipt  of  taxes  of  Great  Britain  passes  through 
the  Bank  of  England,  which,  since  1803,  hm 
averaged  upwar&  of  £50/K)0,000  per  annum; 
upon  this  branch  of  its  agency  the  oank  makes 
no  direct  change,  but  as  each  separate  depart- 
ment, paymaster,  or  accountant  of  the  govein- 
ment,  upwards  of  fifty  in  number,  has  its  se- 
parate aoconnt  at  the  bank,  and  each  holding  a 
provision  for  the  progress  of  its  paymenls,it 
leaves  a  permanent  balance  in  the  bands  of  the 
bank  of  nom  fonr  to  seven  miUioos  per  annum, 
and  during  several  of  the  last  years  of  the  war 
from  ten  to  fifteen  millions  per  annum.  The 
following  is  a  statement  of  the  amount  in  each  of 
the  eight  years  1818— '1825  aoeondtag  to  returns 
made  annually  to  pariiaaunt,  vis. 


Year*. 

Maximum. 

Minimmn. 

the  Year. 

1818 
1820 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

8,852,078 
5,861,631 
7,096,874 
7,690,046 
8,305,174 
10,359,773 
9,239,024 

5,709,487 
2,246,598 
2,302,591 
2,867,851 
3^698,764 
5,000,12/ 
3,197^90 

7/)l9,071 
3,713,441 
3,920,157 
4,107,853 
5,526,635 
7,222,187 
5,347,314 

67.  By  means  of  these  balances,  deposits  of 
individuals,  and  the  circulation  of  its  notes  (and 
the  drcula^on  of  its  notes,  be  it  remembered, 
creates  the  means  of  the  balances  and  depo- 
sits), the  bank  discounts  the  bills  of  indi- 
viduals, makes  the  teniporaiy  advances  to  go- 
vernment on  interest,  and  buys  exchequer  bills 
and  other  government  securities,  bearing  interest ; 
all  these  it  is,  in  addition  to  the  specific  cbaige 
of  £275,000  per  annum  specified  in  sect  65,  and 
3  per  cent  on  the  £14,686,800  snecified  in 
sect  41,  that  enables  the  directors  of  the  bank  U 
divide  the  enormous  amount  of  £1,455,300  per 
annum  among  the  holders  of  the  £14,553,000  of 
stock,  as  specified  in  sect.43.  This  profuse  di- 
vidend occasions  the  nominal  £lOO  of  stock  on 
the  bank  books,  to  be  saleable  for  transfer  pro- 
portionate  to  the  current  rate  of  interest,  be  it 
3,  4,  or  5  per  cent  per  annum.    Hence,  on  the 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BANK. 


470 


lOth  of  MftT,  1816,  £100  of  node  command^ 
£268,  and  this  leads  qs  to  an  eliiddadon  of  the 
tranaactian  adyerted  to  in  vect.  42.  In  1816  the 
directois  of  the  bank  ofifered  to  lend  the  govern- 
ment a  further  sum  of  £3,000,000  during  the 
contmaaoce  of  their  charter,  at  the  moderate 
rate  of  interest  of  3  per  cent,  per  annum,  the 
current  rate  then  being  about  £4.  5s.  per 
cent. ;  and  such  was  the  blindness,  as  the  writer 
of  this  paper  regards  it,  of  the  government  at 
that  time,  that  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
actually  held  it  up  in  parliament  as  one  of  the 
most  disinterestea  acts  of  kindness  and  genero- 
sity of  a  pnbHc  body  that  he  had  ever  known : 
but  the  reader  should  mark  the  sec^uel. 

68.  There  was  another  proposition  connected 
wkh  the  transaction  on  the  part  of  the  directors 
of  the  bank,  to  the  following  purport,  viz.  That 
they  should  be  empowered  to  add  25  per  cent, 
to  their  then  permanent  capital  of  £11,453,330. 
This  being  complied  with,  what  did  the  trans- 
action amount  to  ?  Certainly  to  empower  the 
then  holders  of  bank  stock  to  levy  a  contribu- 
tion of  from  £7,000,000  to  £8,000,000  O"  the 
public  for  their  own  exclusive  benefit,  be'^use 
no  new  subscription  was  called  for,  nor  was  the 
£3,000,000  purported  to  be  lent,  the  property 
of  the  bank,  out  simply  a  reduction  of  the  ba- 
lances of  the  public  money,  which  the  bank  held 
as  the  agent  of  the  public ;  which  by  this  act 
they  were  empowered  to  convert  either  into  a 
marketable  commodity  at  from  £262  to  £220  for 
every  £l00,  or  to  retain  it  as  a  permanent  ac- 
cession of  capital  equivalent  thereto. 

69.  Another  transaction  between  the  bank  and 
the  government,  equally  disadvantageous  to  the 
public,  took  place  in  1823,  act  of  4  Geo.  IV. 
cap.  22.  This  act,  which,  under  the  title  of  Mili- 
tary and  Naval  Pension  Bill,  was  nrtually  an 
act  to  raise  money  for  the  purpose  of  sustaining 
a  sinking  frind^  granted  an  annuity  to  the  bank 


of  £585,740  for  forty-fbur  yem,  from  the  5th  of 
April,  1823,  in  consideration  of  the  bank  paying 
to  the  government  the  sum  of  £13,089,419  in 
thirteen  irregular*  instalments  between  the  5th  of 
April,  1823,  and  the  5th  of  July,  1828.  As  the 
actual  result  of  this  transaction  depends  upon 
the  rate  or  terms  at  which  the  £13,089,419  or 
a  corresponding  sum,  may  be  expended  in  the 
purchase  of  3  per  cent,  stock,  prior  to  the  pay- 
ment of  the  last  instalment,  we  are  of  course  (in 
May,  1826)  precluded  from  stating  with  accuracy 
the  precise  extent  of  its  disadvantage  to  the 
public.  But,  according  to  one  (the  eighteenth) 
of  a  series  of  resolutions  on  the  state  of  the 
nation,  submitted  to  the  consideration  of  par* 
liameot,  by  Mr.  Hume,  on  the  4th  of  May,  1826, 
it  appears  that  £6,917,569  of  the  amount  re- 
eeivea  up  to  the  6th  of  January,  1626,  had  been 
expended  at  a  rate  equivalent  to  £7,858,188  of 
3  per  cent,  stock,  whilst  the  equivalent  of  3  per 
cent,  stock  given  for  that  portion  of  the  amount 
was  £9,476,110,  consequently  a  bonus  to  the 
bank  equal  to  £1,617,922  of  3  per  cent,  stock; 
but,  by  mathematically  correct  working  of  the 
transaction'  in  1824,  when  the  3  per  cent  stock 
was  at  95,  and  assuming  that  rate  for  the  ex- 
penditure of  the  remainder  of  the  instalments 
then  to  be  paid,  the  result  would  have  been  on 
the  10th  of^  October,  1828,  a  cancelling  of  per- 
petual annuity  to  the  amount  of  £365,880,  leaving 
an  excess  of  £219,852  per  annum,  payable  for 
38i  years,  equivalent  to  an  annuity  in  perpetuity 
of  £146,962;  and  supposing  from  the  date  of 
the  last  instalment  in  1828,  3  per  cent,  stock 
should  recede  to  60,  or  the  rate  of  mterest  become 
permanent  at  5  per  cent,  per  annum,  the  excess 
of  the  annuity  of  £219,852  for  38  J  years,  would, 
at  the  expiration  of  that  period,  be  equal  to 
£29,381,900  of  3  per  cent,  stock,  or  an  annuity 
in  perpetuity  of  J&81,457,  consequently  a  dis- 
advantage to  the  public  to  that  extent  for  ever. 


70.  The  following  is  a  Statement  of  the  Income  of  the  Bank  at  the  period  of  this  article  going 

to  press. 


Interest  on  the  £14,686,800  permanent  Debt  of  the  Government,  at  3  per  cent 

Annuity  for  44  years,  from  5th  of  April,  1823    .     • 

Charge  for  transfer  of  the  Puiolic  Funds,  and  Payment  of  the  Annuities,  about 
Interest  on  Notes  in  circulation,  say  £20,000,000,  at  an  average  of  4  per  cent. 


Total 


From  which  the  following  charges  and  liabilitiee  must  be  deducted,  viz. 


Salaries  nf  about  1000  Clerks 

Stationary,  Coals,  Candles,  and  House  Expenses 

Repair  of  Buildings,  Taxes,  &c 

Composition  for  Stamps  ' 

Loss  on  Bills  Discounted        

Law  Expenses,  Gratuities,  &c 


Net  Income 


£250,000 
50,000 
20,000 
50,000 
50,000 
20,000 


£440,604 
585,740 
275,000 
800,000 


£2,101,344 


440,000 


£1,661,344 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


480 


BANK. 


Being  upwards  of  11  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of 
stock  constituting  the  permanent  capital  annually 
divided  upon,  against  which,  however,  £5,000,000 
of  the  loan  of  1823,  for  which  the  annuity  of 
£585,740  was  obtained,  remains  to  be  paid  up ; 
but,  if  the  resources  of  the  bank  have  hitherto 
been  such  as  to  enable  it  to  advance  the 
£8,000,000  without  entrenching  more  than  2 
per  cent  upon  its  profuse  income,  but  little 
doubt  remains  that  it  will  be  able  to  fulfil  the 
contract  without  any  further  entrenchment,  and 
if  so,  the  whole  annuity  then  remains  clear  income 
for  the  remainder  of  the  period,  viz.  38^  years. 
The  amounts  deducted  from  the  gross  income  are 
entirely  assumed,  there  being  no  authentic  data 
before  the  public  on  the  subject,  they  probably 
exceed  the  actual  expenses. 

71 .  In  the  preceding  view  of  the  total  income 
of  the  bank,^no  notice  is  taken  of  interest  on  the 
temjporary  advances  to  the  government,  nor  of 

Sronts  by  discounting,  nor  of  interest  that  may 
e  derived  from  the  balances  held  by  the  bank, 
due  as  well  to  depositors  as  to  the  government ; 
because  the  first,  that  is,  the  temporary  advances 


to  the  government  wholly,  and  the  odiers  pai^ 
tially,  merge  in  the  aggregate  amount  of  interest 
derived  from  the  circulation  of  its  notes. 

72.  In  addition  to  the  Bank  of  England  there 
are  about  seventy  private  banking  establishments 
in  London,  for  the  purposes  of  deposit,  transfer, 
and  discount  only ;  and  about  700  others,  spread 
over  the  several  counties  of  England  and  Wales, 
and  thirty-two  in  Scotland ;  the  greater  portion 
of  which  circulate  their  own  notes,  in  addition 
to  acting  as  banks  of  discount,  deposit,  and 
transfer.  But  as,  at  the  period  of  this  article 
going  to  press,  proceedings  are  pending  in  par- 
liament which  threaten  a  change  in  the  banking 
system,  calculated  to  change  these  arrange- 
ments entirely,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the 
article  Circulating  Medium,  in  a  subse- 
quent part  of  this  wofk,  for  a  continuation  of 
the  history  and  practice  of  banking  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  in  France, 
America,  British  India,  New  Sodtii  Wales,  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  See  also  Savings' 
Bank,  under  the  head  Savings. 


73.    STATEMENT. 


Years. 


1792 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1800 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1810 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

1820 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 


Bank  Notes  and  Bank  Post  Bills  in  circu- 
lation on  the  25th  or  26th  February. 


BankNotes ; 

of  £5  and  \    Bank 

upwards.  |Post  Bills. 


10,394,106 
10,780,643 
10,079,165 
12,968,707 
10,266,561 
8,167,949 
10,856,188 
10,576,510 
13,106,368 
12,975,006 
12,038,970 
11,796,424 
12,054,943 
11,403,290 
11,994,350 
12,274,629 
13,746,598 
12,730,999 
13,650,592 
15,110,688 
14,523,049 
14,567,267 
15,632,250 
16,394,359 
15,307,228 
17,538,656 
19,077,951 
16,549,270 
15,393,770 
15,766,270 
15,178,490 
15,749,980 
17,469,210 


755,703 

647,738 

618,759 

570,456 

643,133 

474,615 

551,549 

607,907 

723,600 

954,982 

803,499 

820,039 

848,894 

1,029,580 

725,786 

724,485 

742,671 

944,727 

907,620 

1,133,419 

1,059,854 

1,034,882 

1,091,242 

1,184,459 

1,336,467 

1,376,416 

1,838,600 

1,602,390 

1,401,200 

1,606,820 

1,609,620 

1,747,160 

2,246,040 


^  -op 


1,442,348 
1,451,728 
1,406,708 
2,647,526 
2,616,407 
2,960,469 
4,673,515 
4,801,596 
4,428,360 
4,206,230 
4,103,785 
4,338,951 
5,871,069 
7,140,726 
7,415,294 
7,7p5,322 
8,371,923 
9,094,552 
9,036,374 
8,143,506 
7,362,492 
7,276,590 
6,689,130 
6,451,520 
1,384,360 
692,110 
491,370 

1,559,756 


Total. 


11,149,809 
11,428,381 
10,697,924 
13,539,163 
10,909,694 
8,601,964 
12,850,085 
12,636,145 
15,236,676 
16,577,514 
15,458,876 
15,576,932 
17,577,352 
17,234,466 
17,148,446 
17,205,344 
18,593,054 
18,014,677 
20,429,281 
23,384,833 
22,998,197 
23,307,471 
25,095,415 
26,673,370 
25,680,069 
27,058,578 
28,879,043 
25,947,637 
23,484,100 
23,824,610 
18,172,470 
18,189,450 
19,736,986 
21,060,145 
23,673,737 


Total  on 

the  25th  or 

26th  of 

August. 


11,006,969 
10,838,214 
10,628,220 
11,458,382 
9,531^35 
10,568,216 
12,191,025 
13,259,873 
14,735,378 
14,970,321 
16,887,113 
17,035,959 
17,323,994 
16,296,178 
19,072,893 
20,034,112 
17,365,266 
19,357,241 
24,446,175 
23,793,115 
23,482,910 
24,024,869 
28,979,876 
27,024,049 
27,075,854 
30,099,908 
26,602,837 
25,657,610 
24,533,160 
20,327,753 
18,142,700 
19,582,348 
20,293,326 
19,290,570 


Amount  of  Debt  due  to 
Bank  fromOovemment. 


On  25th 
or  26th  of 
February. 


10,968,306 
10,529,828 
10,816,867 
13,118,013 
12,717,239 
10,181,862 

9,807,814 
10,082,739 
13,201,639 
15,289,439 
14,284,239 

9,595,939 
11,715,239 
17,202,739 
14,663,339 
13,763,539 
14,364,939 
15,400,139 
15,017,839 
18,068,439 
22,551,739 
25,893,939 
24,484,039 
28,032,739 
19,865,039 
26,373,570 
28,035,523 
23,727,720 
23,005,204 
16,641,620 
14,188,200 
14,969,554 
15,600,780 
19,679,288 
18,724,246j 


On  25th 

or  26th  of 

August. 


11,684,484 
11,851,388 
8,737,806 
13,460,144 
10,454,614 
7.145,134 
9,444,976 
8,986,439 
12,899,239 
11,948,539 
13,552,339 
13,635,239 
15,304,439 
11,745^39 
14,445»339 
13,665,399 
15,077,539 
16,009,399 
17,680,739 
22,696,239 
21,957,639 
25,731,239 
25,814,539 
24,955,839 
27,222,845 
28,300,209 
28,087,860 
25,546,230 
20,826,447 
17,214,325 
15,450,958 
15,319,316 
15,884,468 
18,261,100 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BANKS. 


480* 


Baiu»,  Satikos".  These  admirable  insti- 
tutions form  a  striking  feature  in  the  moral  his- 
tory of  modem  Britain.  In  former  times  every 
charitable  institution  was  exclusively  a  subscrip- 
tion of  the  rich  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor :  these, 
roost  happily,  like  their  kindred  Friendly  Socie- 
ties, are  composed  of  contributions  from  among 
the  poor,  co-operating  for  their  own  benefit,  and 
conscious  that  U)ey  are  promoting  primarily  their 
own  interest.  The  success  of  these  plans  has- 
been  surprising,  considering  the  peculiar  crisis 
at  which  they  have  originated — that  of  unques- 
tionable distress  and  nressure  on  all  ranks  (espe- 
cially the  middle  and  lower  ranks)  of  society ; 
to  say  nothing  of  the  spirit  of  undue  dependence 
engendered  in  this  country  by  the  poor  laws. 

The  eccentric  but  philanthropic  Jeremy  Butham 
was  the  first,  we  believe,  who  invited  the  public 
attention  to  a  distinct  banking  system  for  the 
poor.  He  proposed  to  establish  what  he  calls 
a  Frugality  Bank,  so  fiir  back  as  the  year  1797, 
in  Young*s  Annals  of  Agriculture.  The  scheme 
involves  more  than  the  mere  deposit  of  money, 
and  has  never,  as  we  understand,  been  acted 
upon ;  but,  like  most  of  his  projects,  it  contains 
many  useful  hints,  and  may  do  good  by  rebound. 
The  wants  to  which  it  was  by  him  designed  te 
operate  as  a  remedy  were :— 

1 .  Want  of  physical  means  of  safe  custody, 
such  as  lock-up  places ;  thence,  danger  of  depre- 
dation, and  accidental  loss. 

2.  Difficulty  of  opposing  and  never-yielding 
resistance  to  the  temptations  afforded  by  the  in- 
struments of  sensual  enjoyment,  where  the  means 
of  purchasing  them  are  constantly  at  hand. 

3.  Want  of  the  means  of  obtaining  a  profit  by 
the  savings  of  the  poor,  or  the  use  of  them  in 
portions  adapted  to  their  peculiar  exigencies. 

4.  Want  of  a  set  of  instructions  and  mementos 
constantly  at  hand,  presenting  to  view  the  seve- 
ral exigencies,  dr  sources  of  demand  for  money 
in  store,  aod  the  use  of  pr<)viding  it. 

He  next  proceeded  to  sketch  the  properties 
which  appeared  to  him  to  be  desirable  in  a  sys- 
tem of  rrugality  banks,  commensurate  to  the 
whole  popuktion  of  the  self-maintaining  poor. 
These  were, 

1.  Fund,  solid  and  secure. 

2.  Plan  of  provision  all-oomprehensive. 

3.  Scale  of  dealing  commensurate  to  the  pecu- 
niary fkcultiet  of  each  customer. 

4.  Terms  of  dealing  sufficiently  advantageous 
to  the  customer. 

5.  Places  of  transacting  business  suitable  ; 
vie.  in  point  of  vicinity,  and  other  conveniences. 

6.  Mode  of  transacting  business  accommo- 
dating. 

T.  Mode  of  operation  prompt. 

8.  Mode  of  book-keeping  clear  and  satis&ctory. 

In  1803  the  well-known  authoress  Mrs.  Pucilla 
Wakefield  projected  the  first  bank  that  was  ever 
actually  instituted  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  at 
Tottenham.  In  the  Reports  of  the  Society  for 
Bettering  the  Condition  of  the  Poor,  vol.  iv.,  it 
is  said,  *  for  the  purpose  of  providing  a  safe  and 
convenient  place  of  deposit  for  the  savings  of 
laboFers,  servants,  and  other  poor  persons,  a  cha- 
ritable establishment  has  been  lately  formed  at 
Tottenham  in  the  county  of  Middlesex.     It  is 


guaranteed  by  six  trustees,  who  are  gentlemen 
of  fortune  and  responsibility,  most  of  them  pos- 
sessing considerable  landed  property.  This  ren- 
ders it  as  safe  and  certain  as  institutions  of  this 
kind  can  be,  and  insures  it  from  that  fluctuation 
of/ value  to  which  the  public  funds  are  liable. 
The  books  are  kept  by  a  lady,  and  never  opened 
but  on  the  first  Monday  in  every  month,  either 
for  receipts  or  payments.  Any  sum  is  received 
above  !«.,  and  five  per  cent,  is  given  for  every 
20<.  that  lies  twelve  kaleoder  months;  every 
person  so  depositing  money  being  at  liberty  to 
recal  it  any  uay  the  books  are  opened ;  but  no 
business  is  tran.«acted  at  any  other  time.  The 
money  so  collected  is  divided  equally  between 
the  six  trustees.  For  every  additional  £100  a 
new  trustee  is  to  be  chosen ;  so  that  a  trustee 
can  only  risk  his  proportion  of  £100.  None  but 
the  laboring  classes  are  admitted  to  this  benefit ; 
and  there  is  no  restriction  as  to  place  of  resi- 
dence. 

'  Oifservatiom, — ^These  few  simple  rules  are  all 
that  have  hitherto  been  found  necessary  for  tlie 
establishment  of  ^is  charity.  It  is  not  sufficient 
to  stimulate  the  poor  to  industry  unless  they  can 
be  persuaded  to  adopt  habits  of  frugality.  The 
season  of  plenty  should  provide  for  the  season 
of  want,  and  the  gains  of  summer  be  laid  by 
for  the  rigors  of  winter.  Bat  it  must  be  obvious 
how  difficult  it  is  for  even  the '  sober  laborer  to 
save  up  his  money,  when  it  is  at  hand  to  supply 
the  wants  that  occur  in  his  fiimily.  For  those  of 
intemperate  habits,  ready  money  is  a  very  strong 
temptation  to  the  indulgence  of  those  pernicious 
propensities.  Many  would  try  to  make  a  little 
hoard  for  sickness  or  old  age,  but  they  know  not 
where  to  place  it  without  danger  or  inconve- 
nience. They  do  not  understand  how  to  put 
money  in,  or  to  take  it  out  of  the  bank ;  nor  will 
it  answer  for  small  sums,  either  in  point  of  trou- 
ble or  of  loss  of  time.  The  same  causes  fre- 
quently occasion  thoughtless  servants  to  spend 
all  their  vrages  in  youth,  and  in  consequence  to 
pass  their  old  age  in  a  workhouse.* 

In  1807  the  Rev.  Henry  Duncan,  minister  of 
West  Colder,  in  Scotland,  established  in  his 
parish  a  similar  institution,  which  he  described 
in  a  pamphlet  that  exhibits  his  accurate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  difficulties  and  encourage- 
ments of  these  schemes. 

*  Those  who  are  at  all  acquainted  with  the 
history  of  friendly  societies,'  he  well  observes, 
*  must  be  aware  that  they  owe  much  of  their 
popularity  to  the  interest  excited  among  the  lower 
orders,  by  the  share  to  which  each  of  the  mem- 
bers is  admitted  in  the  management  of  the  insti- 
tution. The  love  of  power  is  inherent  in  the 
human  mind,  and  the  constitution  of  friendly 
societies  is  calculated  to  gratify  this  natural 
feeling.  The  members  find,  in  the  exercise  of 
their  functions,  a  certain  increase  of  personal 
consequence,  which  interests  their  self-love  in 
the  prosperity  of  the  establishment.  Besides,  by 
thus  having  constantly  before  their  eyes  the  ope- 
ration of  the  scheme,  in  all  its  details,  they  are 
more  forcibly  reminded  of  its  advantages ;  and 
not  only  induced  to  make  greater  efforts  them- 
selves for  obtaining  these  advantages,  but  also 
to  persuade  others  to  follow  their  example.  Hence 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


481" 


BANKS. 


it  happens  tnat  a  great  number  of  active  and 
jealous  supporters  of  the  institution  are  always 
to  be  found  amongst  the  members  of  a  friendly 
society,  who  do  more  for  the  success  of  the  estab- 
lishment than  can  possibly  be  effected  by  the 
benevolent  exertions  of  individuals  in  a  higher 
station.'  Mr.  Duncan  therefore  fonnd  it  expe- 
dient to  give  the  contributors  themselves  a  share 
in  the  management  of  the  institution ;  and  that 
share  was  well  chosen.  The  contributors  in  a 
body  were  not  fit  to  be  the  acting  parties ;  but 
they  were  fit  to  choose  those  who  should  act. 

*  A  general  meeting  is  held  onoe  a  year,  oon- 
sisting  of  all  the  members  who  have  made  pay- 
ments for  six  months,  and  whose  deposits 
amount  to  £l.  By  this  meeting  are  chosen  the 
court  of  directors,  the  committee,  the  treasurer, 
and  the  trustee,  the  functionaries  to  whom  the 
executive  operations  are  confined :  and  by  the 
annual  meeting  also  are  reviewed  and  controlled 
the  transactions  of  the  past  year,  with  power  to 
reverse  the  decisions  of  the  committee  and  court 
of  directors ;  and  to  make  new  laws  and  regula- 
tions, or  alter  those  already  msfie.  The  society 
consists  of  two  sorts  of  members,  the  ordinary, 
and  the  extraordinary  and  honorary.  The 
general  meetings  alone  have  the  power  of  elect- 
ing honorary  members;  but  the  bank  trustee, 
the  lord-lieutenant  and  vice-lieutenant  of  the 
county,  the  sheriff-depute  and  his  substitute,  the 
members  of  parliament  for  the  county  and  burgh, 
the  ministers  of  the  parish,  with  certain  magis- 
trates of  the  town,  are  honorary  members  ex  offi- 
cio; and  there  are  certain  regulated  subscrip- 
tions or  donations,  of  no  great  amount,  which 
constitute  the  person  paying  them,  ipso  facto,  an 
extraordinary  or  honorary  member.  From  this 
list  of  honorary  and  extraordinary  members  the 
ciioice  of  functionaries  by  the  general  meeting 
is  annually  to  t>e  made,  provided  a  sufficient 
number  of  them  should  be  disposed  to  accept  of 
the  oihces  designed ;  if  not,  from  such  of  the 
ordinary  members  as  make  deposits  to  the 
amount  of  not  less  than  £2  129.  in  the  year.  De- 
posits are  received  in  sums  of  1«.,  bear  interest 
at  the  amount  of  £l ;  and  are  always  payable  at 
compound  interest  on  a  weeks'  notice. 

In  1814  the  first  Edinburgh  bank  for  savings 
wos  founded  on  a  modification  of  the  above  plan. 

The  bank  for  savings  at  Liverpool  was  estab- 
lished in  the  year  1 81 3,  by  the  Society  for  Better- 
ing the  Condition  and  Increasing  the  Comlbrts'of 
the  Poor,  in  the  Town  and  Neighbourhood  of 
liverpool.  '  This  establishroent  was  suggested,^ 
says  one  of  the  managers,  <  by  the  numerous  in- 
.  stances  which  had  come  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
society,  in  which  the  industrious  had  lost  thoir 
savings  from  the  failure  of  the  persons  in  whose 
hands  they  were  placed^  The  committee  were 
anxious  to  hold  out  every  possible  inducement 
to  the  lower  ordersi  for  depositing  their  surplus 
earnings,  consistent  with  a  proper  prudence  and 
caution.  Many  gentlemen  were  of  opinion  that^ 
in  such  a  town  as  Liverpool,  five  per  ^ent.  might 
at  all  tiroes  be  obtained  on  good  security;  and 
as  the  society  had  an  office  and  clerk  of  their 
own,  where  and  by  whom  the  deposits  might  be 
received,  without  any  additional  expense,  it  was 
determined  that  five  per  cent,  should  be  the  rate 


of  interest  given.    However  no  sum  was  to  bo 
entitled  to  Uiat  interest  till  it  had  been  in  tha 
fund  for  one  year  at  least;  if  taken  out'  before 
that  period  four  per  cent,  only  was  to  be  allowed. 
The  bank  continued  under  these  regulations  till 
the  beginning  of  1815,  at  which  period  above 
£900  were  deposited  in  it  We  had  plaeed  £300 
upon  mortgage,  and  the  remainder  was  vested  in 
the  navy  five  per  cents,  at  such  prices  as  to  yield 
more  than  five  per  cent.    When,  however,  vre 
found  that  the  fund  was  likely  to  increase  to 
a  very  considerable  extent,  and  that,  as  we  were 
personally  responsible  for  the  money,  we  should 
always  be  liable  to  the  sudden  fiuctuation  of 
stock,  and  might,  upon  any  sudden  disaster, 
have  a  run  upon  us,  which  would  compel  us  to 
sell  out,  perhaps  at  a  considerable  loss,  it  was  de- 
termined in  future  to  limit  the  receipts  into  the 
Mechanics  Fund  to  £5  for  one  individual,  and  to 
establish  a  higher  bank,  under  the  name  of  the 
Provident  Institution,  into  which  the  depositors 
might  remove  their  money  when  it  reached  tbat 
sum  (£5) ;  and  where  it  might  be  allowed  to  ac- 
cumulate to  any  amount.    The  principle  of  the 
bank  is,  that  every  person  becomes  a  proprietor 
of  stock  to  the  amount  of  his  deposit,  and  shaQ 
receive  the  interest  annually,  after  deducting  ooe- 
twentieth  for  the  necessary  expenses  of  manage- 
ment.    This  one-twentieth,  together  with  the 
farthings,  which  are  not  paid,  is  reserved  for  the 
above  purpose;  and,  should  any  surplus  remain 
at  the  end  of  five  years,  it  is  to  be  divided  amongst 
the  then  existing  proprietors.   One  or  more  even 
pounds  will  be  at  any  time  received ;  but  the 
fractions  of  pounds  must  always  accumulate  in 
the  lower  fund.   By  this  means  we  have  reduced 
the  Mechanics'  Fund  to  about  £450 ;  the  re- 
mainder has  been  transferred  to  the  Provident 
Institution,  and  about  £l200  have  been  depo- 
sited in  addition  to  it  since  July  last.' 

We  need  not  add  to  these  abstracts  any  ac- 
count of  the  almost  numberless  Saving  Banb 
now  existing  in  the  country.  Their  principle 
is  fiimiliar  to  all  classes,  and  information  on  the 
subject  is  so  easy  of  access  that  we  do  not  think 
it  right  to  occupy  our  space  with  any  observa- 
tions of  our  own.  The  government  have  acted 
the  part  which  became  them  as  to  these  institu- 
tions, and  have  afforded  them  the  sanction  and 
security  which  were  essential  to  their  permanence 
and  prosperity;  and  the  public  mind  has  caoght 
the  impulse  to  such  an  extent  as  is  likely  to  give 
them  a  lasting  and  universal  establishment 

We  make  but  two  concluding  remarks:— I. 
One  of  the  great  advantages  of  tne  saving  bank 
over  the  friendly  society  is  that  it  has  the  benefit 
of  survivorship.  If  the  contributor  to  a  saving 
bank  dies,  the  whole  o*f  his  contribution  remains 
to  his  fiimily.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  member 
of  a  benefit  society  dies,  the  whole  of  his  pro- 
perty, except  the  sums  ordinarily  allowed  to  ti>e 
widow,  and  sometimes  to  his  children,  is  lost 
to  his  family. 

2.  Another  great  advantage  of  saving  banks  over 
benefit  societies,  constituted  as  tliese  last  ordi- 
narily have  been,  is,  that  the  benefit  societie.> 
have  been  the  prolific  source  of  contention  and 
immorality ;  whereas  the  scheme  of  saving  banks 
appears  liable  to  no  such  abuse. 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


B  A  ^^  R  R  U  P  T  S. 


481 


B  ANK  AFALET,  a  game  of  cards  played  thus : 
after  cutting  the  card&  into  as  many  parts  as  there 
are  players,every  man  lays  what  money  he  chooses 
on  his  card ;  and  according  to  the  value  of  his 
card,  above  or  below  those  of  the  other  game- 
sters, the  dealer  wins  or  loses.  .The  ace  of  dia- 
monds is  the  best  card ;  the  ace  of  hearts  next ; 
the  ace  of  clubs  after  it;  then  the  ace  of  spades  ; 
and  so  of  the  rest  of  these  suits  in  order,  accord- 
ing to  their  rank.  The  cheat  depends  on  secu- 
ring an  ace,  or  such  other  sure  winning  card ; 
which  are  known  to  the  sharper  by  some  secret 
mark. 

Bankers,  in  antiquity,  were  called  argentarii, 
and  nummularii;  by  the  Greeks  rpairc&rai,  coX- 
XvjSirat,  and  opyvpa/uMjSoi.  Their  chief  business 
was  to  put  out  the  money  of  private  persons  to  in- 
terest: they  had  tlieir  boards  and  benches  for 
this  purpose  in  all  the  markets  and  public  places, 
'Where  they  took  in  the  money  from  some,  to  lend 
it  to  others.  The  Romans  had  two  kinds  of 
"bankers,  though  their  office  was  much  more  ex- 
tensive than  that  of  the  bankers  among  us,  theirs 
being  that  of  public  officers,  in  whom  were  united 
the  Amctions  of  a  broker,  agent,  banker,  and  no- 
tary ;  managing  the  exchange,  taking  in  money, 
assisting  in  buying  and  selling,  and  drawing  the 
writings  necessary  on  all  these  occasions. 

Bankers,  in  bricklaying,  pieces  of  timber 
•whereon  bricks  are  cut.  V:\e  banker  is  six  feet 
•long  or  more,  according  to  the  number  of  men 
to  work  at  it,  and  nine  or  ten  inches  square;  it 
is  to  be  laid  on  two  piers  of  timber,  three  feet 
«igh  from  the  floor. 

Bankers,  in  the  court  of  Rome,  are  persons 
authorised,  exclusively,  to  solicit  and  procure  by 
their  correspondents  at  Rome,  all  bulls,  dispen- 
sations, and  other  acts  despatched  at  the  ]^pal 
dataiy,  or  in  the  legateship  of  Avignon.  They 
were  common  in  all  the  cities  of  France  that  bad 
a  parliament,  or  a  presidial  before  the  revolution ; 
and  were  erected  into  a  regular  and  hereditary 
office,  by  an  edict  in  1673.  They  owed  their 
ori<Tin  to  the  Guelphs,  who  took  shelter  at  Avig- 
non, and  in  other  cities  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  pope,  in  the  time  of  the  civil  wars  of  Italy. 
But  the  beavy  extortions  they  practised  towards 
their  clients,  soon  rendered  them  odious,  and  oc- 
•casioned  several  denominations  of  reproach,  as 
eoarcini,  caturcini,  caursini,  corcini,  &c.  from  the 
city  Cahors,  the  native  place  of  pope  John  XXII. 
in  whose  pontificate  they  were  in  their  highest 
power. 

Bankers,  in  seamens'  language,  vessels  em- 
ployed in  the  cod-fishery  on  the  bulks  of  New- 
foundland. 

Banking,  in  architecture,  the  making  of 
banks  to  oppose  the  force  of  the  sea,  rivers,  or  the 
like,  and  secure  the  land  from  being  overflowed 
thereby.  With  respect  to  the  water  which  is  to 
be  kept  out,  this  is  called  banking ;  with  respect 
to  the  land,  which  is  thereby  to  be  defended,  em- 
banking. 

BANKALA,  an  island  in  the  eastern  seas,  off 
the  coast  of  Celebes,  about  twenty  miles  in  cir- 
cumference.    Long.  122**  51'  E.,  lat  2**  30*  S. 

BANKAPOUR,  or  Bancafoor,  a  fortress  of 
l^indo^tan,  in  the  Mysore,  now    dismantled. 
Vol  III. 


Distant  108  miles  N.  W.  of  Seringapatam,  and 
sixty  S.  W.  of  Bednore. 

BANKINSKOI,  a  town  of  Siberia,  in  the  envi- 
rons of  Lake  Baikal.  Long.  117°  14'  £.,  la(. 
51*»  11'  N. 

BANKMORE,  a  sand  bank  in  the  Irish  Sea, 
one  mile  south  of  Pontaferry  harbour,  in  the 
county  of  Down. 

BANKODANG,  a  small  island  in  the  Eastern 
Indian  sea.    Long.  118*'  2'  E.,  hit.  5"  12'  S. 

BANKOSSEI,  a  town  of  Lower  Siam,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  gulf.  Distant  seventy  miles  south 
of  Juthia.    Long.  100°  38'  E.,  lat.  13°  12'  N. 

Bankrupts,  Laws  respecting.  The  title  of 
the  first  English  statute  on  this  subject,  34  Henrv 
VIII.  cap.  4,  which  is  said  to  be  <  against  such 
persons  as  do  make  bankrupt,'  is  a  literal  translation 
of  the  French  idiom,  qui  font  banque  route.  The 
3d  of  Elizabeth  followed,  all  of  the  provisions 
of  which  were  incorporated  in   1  Jac.  I. 

A  bankrupt,  according  to  these  statutes,  was  con- 
sidered as  a  criminal  or  offender,  1.  Jac.  I.  c.  15. 
sect.  17 ;  but  at  present  the  laws  of  bankruptcy 
are  regarded  as  calculated  for  the  general  benefit 
of  trade,  and  being  founded  on  broader  views  of 
humanity  and  justice,  confer  some  privileges  not 
only  on  the  creditors,  but  also  on  the  b^rupt 
himself :  on  the  creditors^  by  compelling  the  bank- 
rupt to  give  up  all  his  effects  to  mcir  use,  without 
any  concealment;— and  on  the  debtor,  by  ex* 
empting  him  from  the  rigor  of  other  parts  of  the 
law,  whereby  his  person  might  be  confined  at  the 
discretion  of  his  creditor,  though  in  reality  he  lias 
nothing  to  satisfy  the  debt;  and,  together  with 
the  liberty  of  his  person,  affording  him,  on  cer- 
tain conditions,  some  pecuniary  provision  for  bis 
future  maintenance.  In  this  respect  our  legislar 
tures  seems  to  have  attended  to  the  example  of 
the  Roman  law.  We  mean  not  the  terrible  law 
of  the  XII  tables ;  whereby  creditors  miglit  eut 
the  debtor's  body  into  pieces,  and  each  of  them 
take  his  proportionable  share :  if  indeed  that 
law,  de  debitore  in  partes  secando,  is  to  be  un- 
derstood in  so  barbarous  a  light;  nor  do  we  mean 
those  less  inhuman  laws  (if  they  may  be  called 
so,  as  their  meaning  is  indisputably  certain),  of 
imprisoning  the  debtor's  person  in  chains,  subjectr 
ing  him  to  stripes  and  hard  labor  at  the  mercy 
of  hii  creditor ;  and  sometimes  selling  him,  his 
wife,  and  children,  to  perpetual  foreign  slavery 
trans  Tiberim ;  an  oppressionwhicb  produced  so 
many  popular  insurrections,  and  secessiona  to  tha 
mons  sacer.  Laws  e(|ue]ly  barbarous  are  quoted  by 
Blackstone,  as  exisuog  in  P^gu,  and  the  adjacent 
countries  of  the  East,  where  the  creditor  is  entitled 
to  dispose  of  the  debtor  himself,  and  likewise  of, 
or  appropriate,  his  wife  and  children :  though  in* 
deed  by  doing  so,  the  debt  is  understood  to  be 
discharged.  But  we  mean  the  law  of  cession  in- 
troduced by  the  Christian  emperors;  whereby, 
if  a  debtor  ceded  or  yielded  up  all  his  fortune  to 
his  creditors,  he  was  secured  from  imprisonment, 
*  omni  quoque  corporuli  crudatu  semoto.'  For, 
as  the  emperor  justly  observes,  '  inhumanum 
erat  spoliatum  fbrtunis  suis  in  solidum  damnari.' 
Thu!i  fiur  was  just  and  reasonable ;  but,  as  the  de- 
parting from  one  extreme  is  apt  to  produce  its 
opposite,  we  find  it  afterwards  enactea,  that  if  the 

21 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


482 


BANKRUPT. 


Maotf  Wy  any  ttii4brMeeft  aocitel^  wu  raduMd 
to  low  circumstaDces,  and  ^noold  ywear  thai  Im 
had  Dot  sufficient  teft  to  pay  hi»debt«»  be  should 
not  be  compelled  to  cede  or  gi«e  ap  eyen  thai 
which  he  had  Id  his  possession;  a  law  which, 
under  a  false  aotion  of  humaDity,  teems  to  be 
fertile  ofperjuiy^  ahiuiidrty,  and  kijosticeb  The 
laws  of  England,  more  wisely,  have  steered  be- 
tween these  extremes :  providing  at  once  fl^nst 
the  inhamanity  of  the  creditor,  who  is  not  suf- 
fered to  coafrne  an  honest  bankrupt  after  his 
effects  are  delivered  Mf ;  and  at  the  same  tame 
taking  care  that  all  his  just  debts  shall  be  paid^ 
so  £ir  as  the  eflecU  will  extend.  But  still  they 
sore  cautious  of  encouraging  prodigality  and  ex- 
travAffanoe  by  this  indulgence  to  debtors :  and 
therefore  they  allow  the  benefit  of  the  laws  of 
bankruptcy  to  none  but  actual  traders ;  since  that 
Mt  of  men  are,  generally  speakings  the  only  per- 
sons liable  to  accidental  losses,  and  to  an  inabi- 
lity of  paying  their  debts,  widumt  any  fault  of 
their  own.  If  persons  in  other  situations  of  life 
fun  in  debt  wittioat  the  power  of  payment,  they 
fDQSt  take  the  cons6(|uences  of  their  own  indis^ 
cretioa,  even  though  they  meet  with  suddea  ao* 
cidents  that  may  reduce  tfaeif  foi;tuiies ;  for  thft 
law  holds  it  to  be  an  unjustifiable  practice,  for  any 
person  but  a  trader  to  encumber  himself  with 
debts  of  any  coiisideraliie  value.  If  a  gentleman, 
or  one  in  a  liberal  profession,  at  the  time  of  con- 
tracting his  debts,  has  a  sufficient  fund  to  pay 
them,  l^e  delay  of  payment  is  h  species  of  dist 
honesty,  and  a  temporary  injustice  to  his  creditor ; 
and  if,  at  such  a  time,  he  has  not  sufficient  fund, 
the  dishonesty  and  iojustioe  is,  the  gMates.  Hit 
oannot,  therefore,  mnmrar,  if  he  sufier  the  pu- 
niahment  which  be  has  voluntarily  drawn  upon 
himself.  But  in  mercantile  transactions,  the 
oase  is  far  otherwise.  Trade  cannot  be  carried 
on  without  mutual  credit  on  both  sides ;  the  con- 
tracting <rf  debts  is  therefore  here  not  only  iusti- 
iiable  but  necessary.  And  if  by  aocideDlel 
calamities,  as  by  the  loss  of  a  ship  in  a  tiempesi, 
the  failure  of  brother  traders,  oc  by  the  non-pay- 
ment of  persons  out  of  trade,  a  merchant  or 
trader  becomes  incapable  of  discharging  his  o^rn 
d^ts,  it  is  his  miafinrtune  and  not  his  feult^  Such 
is  tiie  spirit  of  oue  law :  which  has  been  rendered 
more  simple  in  the  mode  of  itS:  execution  of  late 
by  the  comprehensive  statute  6  Geo.  IV.  cap.  16. 
which,  repealing  the  greater  part  of  the  former 
statutes  on  this  subject,  dictates  a  line  of  practice 
which  Biay  be  conveniently  considered  under,  1. 
Who  may  become  bankrupts.  2.  What  is  an 
act  of  bankouptcy.  3.  Proceedings  thereon  up 
to,  and  inchasive  of  the  meetings  of  creditors.  4. 
£flBCts  to  the  bankrupt  and  his  creditors* 

I.  J^ertofu  wKo  tna^  become  bankrt^t9  are  d}e- 
fined  lo  be«  all  bankers,  brdkets,  and  persotis 
using  the  traSle  or  profession  of  a  scrivener,  re- 
ceiving other  men's  monies  or  estates  into  their 
trust  or  custody,  and  persons  insuring  ships  or 
their  freight,  or  other  matters,  against  penis  of 
the  sea,  warehousemen,  wharfinger,  packers, 
builders,*  carpenters,  ^ipwrights,  victuallers, 
keepesB  of  inns,  taverns,  hotels,  or  coffee-houses, 
dyers,  printers,  bleachers,  fullers,  calenderers, 
.  cattle  or  sheep  salesmen,  awi  all  persons  using 
the  trade  of  merchandise  by  way  of  bargaining, 


exofaaffe^  t^axtenqg,  commission,  consignment, 
or  otherwise,  in  gross  or  by  retail ;  and  all  per- 
«ons  who,,  either  for  themselves  or  as  agents  or 
fiictors  for  others,  seek  their  living  by  buying 
and  selling,' or  by  buying  :uid  letting  for  hire,  or 
by  the  workmanship  of  goods  or  commodities, 
shall  be  deemed  traders  liable  to  become  bank- 
rupt :  Provided  that  no  farmer,  graiier,  common 
laborer,  or  workman  for  hire,  receiver-general  of  tlie 
taxes,  or  member  of  or  subscriber  to  any  Incorpo- 
rated commercial  or  trading  companies,  establish- 
ed by  charter  or  act  of  parliament,  shall  be  deemed, 
as  such  a  trader,  liable  to  become  bankrupt. 

II.  An  act  of  banjcryptcif  is  committed.  1. 
*.  If  any  trader  shall  depart  this  realm,  or  beiog 
out  of  this  realm  shall  remain  abroad,  or  de- 
part from  his  dwelling-house,  or  otherwise  ab- 
sent himself,  or  begin  to  keep  his  house,  or  sufier 
himself  to  be  arrested  for  any  debt  not  due,  or 
yieU  himself  to  prison,  or  suffer  himself  to  be 
outlawed,  or  procure  himself  to  be  arrested,  or 
his  goods,  money,  or  chattels,  to  be  attached,  se- 
questered, or  taken  in  execution,  or  make  or 
cause  to  be  made,  either  within  thi^  realm  or 
elsewhere,  any  fraudulent  grant  or  oonveyanoe 
of  any  of  his  lands,  tenements,  goods,  or  chattels, 
or  make  or  cause  to  be  made  any  fraudulent 
surrender  of  any  of  his  copyhold  lands  or  tene- 
inent9»  ov  make  or  cause  to  be  made  any  fraudu- 
lent gift,  delivery,  or  transfer  of  an^  of  his  goods, 
or  chiitteU;  every  such  trader  doing,  sufferiof^ 
procuring,  executing,  permitting,  making,  or 
eansiog  tp  be  iqade  any  of  th^  acis,  deeds,  or 
matters  aforesaid,  with  intent  to  defeat  or  delay 
his  creditors,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  thereby 
committed  an  act  of  bankruptcy. 

2.  9ut  where  any  trader  shall  execute  any 
Qonveyance  or  assignment,  by  deed,  to  a  trustee 
or  trusteeSj  of  all  his  estate  and  effects  for  the 
benefit  of  all  tho  creditors  of  such  trader,  the 
execution  of  such  deed  shall  not  be  deemed  an 
act  of  bankruptey,  unless  a  commission  issue 
against  such  trader  withiu  six  calender  months 
from  the  execution  thereof  provided  that  such 
deed  shall  be  executed  by  every  such  trustee 
within  fifteen  days  after  the  execution  thereof  by 
the  said  trader ;  and  that  the  execution  by  such 
tr^er  and  by  every  such  trustee  be  altered  by 
an  attorney  or  solicitor;  and  that  notice  be 
given  within  two  months  after  the  execution 
thereof  by  such  trader  in  the  London  Gazette, 
and  two  London  daily  newspapers ;  or  in  case 
the  trader  does  not  reside  within  forty  miles  of 
London,  in  the  London  Gaaette  and  in  one  Lon- 
don daily  newspaper  and  one  provincinl  news- 
paper, published  near  to  such  trader's  residence ; 
such  notice  containing  ibe  date  and  ea^ntion  of 
such  deed,  and  the  name  and  place  of  abode 
respectively  of  every  such  trustee,  and  nf  snoh 
attorney  or  solicitor. 

3.  Other  acts  of  bankruptcy  aie  lying  in  prison 
fi>c  debt  twenty-one  days;  esoapiog  out  of  prison 
or  custody ;  or,  which  is  the  most  novel  and  im- 
portant feature  'Of  this  act, — If  anv  trailer  shall 
file  in  the  office  of  the  Lord  ChanoeUoff*s  aecretary 
of  bankrupts,  a  declaration  in  writing  attested  by 
an  attorney  or  solicitor,  tha^  he  is  insolvent,  or 
unable  to  meet  his  engagements,  the  seoretary  of 
bankrupts  or  his  dep^^v  i^  then  to  aim  a  incuKi* 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BANKRUPT. 


483 


randum  that  such  declaration  hath  been  filed, 
which  is  authority  for  the  printer  of  the  London 
Gazette  to  insert  an  adTertisement  of  such  decla- 
ration therein ;  and  every  such  declaration  shall, 
after  the  advertisement  inserted,  become  an  act 
of  bankruptcy  committed  by  such  trader  at  the 
time  when  such  declaration  was  filed:  but  no 
commission  can  issue  thereupon,  unless  it  be 
mied  out  within  two  calender  months  next  after 
its  insertion,  nor  unless  such  advertisement  shall 
have  been  inserted  in  the  London  Gazette  within 
eight  days  after  such  declaration  was  filed ;  and 
no  docket  can  be  struck  upon  such  act  of 
bankru^vtcy  before  the  expiration  of  four  days 
next  aner  insertion  of  such  advertisement,  in 
case  such  commission  is  to  be  executed  in  Lon- 
don, or  before  the  expiration  of  eight  days  next 
after  such  insertion,  in  case  such  commission  is 
to  be  executed  in  the  country. 

A  further  provision  upon  this  point,  and  which 
seems  desijl^ned  to  encourage  a  settlement  of  in- 
solvents* affairs  in  this  vray  is,  That  no  commis< 
sion  under  which  the  adjudication  shall  be 
grounded  on  the  act  of  bankruptcy  being  the 
filing  of  such  declaration,  shall  be  deemed  in- 
▼alia  by  reason  of  such  declaration  having  been 
concerted  or  agreed  upon  between  the  bankrupt 
and  any  creditor  or  other  person. 

If  any  trader  having  privilege  of  parliament 
£ttdl\  commit  any  act  of  bankruptcy,  a  €ommi$« 
sion  of  bankrupt  may  issue  against  him,  and  the 
commissioners  and  all  other  persons  acting  under 
such  commission,  may  proceed  thereon  in  like 
manner  as  against  other  bankrupts,  only  such 
person  shall  not  be  subject  to  be  arrested  or  im- 
prisoned during  his  privilege,  except  in  cases 
made  felony  by  this  act. 

III.  Froceedings  hereupon.  •!.  The  Lord 
Chancellor  has  power  upon  petition  stating  to 
him  in  writing  that  any  trader  has  committed 
any  act  of  bankniptcy,  by  any  creditor  or 
creditors  of  such  trader ;  if  one  being  a  credi- 
tor for  £100,  if  two  for  £1^0,  and  if  three 
being  creditors  for  £200 ;  by  commission  under 
the  great  seal,  to  appoint  such  persons  as  to 
him  shall  seem  fit,  to  have  full  power  and 
audiority  to  take  such  order  and  direction,  vrith 
Ihe  body  of  the  bankrupt,  as  herein  after  men- 
tioned, as  also  with  all  his  lands,  tenements,  and 
hereditaments,  botii  within  the  realm  and  abroad, 
^Rdiich  lie  shall  have  in  his  own  right  before  he 
became  bankrupt,  as  also  with  all  such  interest 
in  any  such  lands,  tenements,  and  hereditaments 
as  sach  bankrupt  may  lawfully  depart  with  all, 
«nd  wkh  all  his  money,  fees,  offices,  annuities, 
goods,  chattels,  wares,  merchandise,  and  debts, 
wheresoever  they  may  be  found  or  known,  and 
to  make  sale  thereof,  &c.  for  satisfaction  a/id 
payment  of  the  creditors. 

Xbe  petitioning  creditor  must  prosecute  a 
commission  at  his  own  costs,  until  the  choice 
of  assignees ;  or  the  commissioners  may  appoint 
temporary  assignees.  Any  creditor  or  creditors 
whose  debt  or  debts  is  or  are  sufficient  to  entitle 
him  or  them  to  petition  for  a  commission  against 
all  the  |>artners  of  any  firm,  may  petition  tor  a 
commission  against  one  or  more  partners  of  such 
fioDy  and  every  comimssion  issued  upon  sudi 
i  tbtU  be  \'alid  although  it  does  not  in- 


clude all  the  partners  of  the  firm,  and  in  e%ery 
commission  against  two  or  more  persons  it  shaii 
be  lawful  for  Ihcf  Lord  Chancellor  to  supenede 
such  commission  as  to  one  or  more  of  such  pei^ 
sons,'  and  the  validity  of  such  commission  snail 
not  be  thereby  affected  as  to  any  person  as  to 
whom  such  commission  is  not  ordered  to  be  su- 
perseded, nor  shall  any  snch  person's  certificate 
be  thereby  affected.  Auxiliary  commissions  for 
the  proof  of  debts  or  examination  of  witnessea 
may  also  be  issued  by  the  chancellor.  But  the 
examinations  are  to  be  annexed  to  the  original 
commission. 

2.  The  commissioners  take  oath  impartialLy 
and  honestly  to  execute  theif  office;  and  they 
take  a  fee  of  twenty  shillings  for  every  meeting  and 
for  the  signature  of  eveiy  deed  and  conveyance, 
and  the  bankrupt's  certificate.  The  fiist  duty  is, 
upon  proof  made  before  them  of  the  petitioning 
creditor's  debt  or  debts,  and  of  the  trading  and 
act  or  acts  of  bankruptcy  of  the  perwo  or  per- 
sons against  whom  such  commission  is  issued, 
to  adjudge  such  person  or  persons  bankrupt. 
Then  the  commissioners  ^  shall  forthwith  cause 
notice  of  such  adjudication  to  be  given  in  the 
London  Gazette,  and  shall  ther&y  appoint 
three  public  meetings  for  the  bankrapt  to  sur- 
render and  conform,  the  last  of  which  meetings 
shall  be  on  the  forty-second  day  hereby  limited 
for  such  surrender.'  No  commission  shall  abate 
by  reason  of  a  demise  of  the  crown,  and  (if  by 
reason  of  the  death  of  commissionen,  orjbr  aay 
other  catise,  it  becomes  necessary)  any  commis- 
sion may  be  renewed,  but  only  half  the  foes 
usually  paid  upon  obtaining  commissions  shall 
be  paid  for  the  same ;  and  if  any  bankrupt  shall 
die  after  adjudication,  the  commissioners  may 
proceed  in  the  commission  as  they  might  have 
done  if  he  were  living. 

3.  The  messenger  of  the  commissioners  may 
break  open  the  bankrupt's  doon,  &c.  and  seize 
upon  his  body  or  property ;  and  if  the  bankrupt 
be  in  prison  or  in  custody,  it  shall  be  la\rful  for 
the  person  so  appointed  as  aforesaid  to  seize  any 
property  (his  necessary  wearing  apparel  only  ex^ 
cepted)  in  the  custody  or  possession  of  such 
bankrupt,  or  of  any  other  person,  in  any  prison 
<^  place  where  such  bankrupt  is  in  custody. 
But,  in  ordinary  cases,  the  messenger  proceeds 
quietly  to  enter  on  the  bankrupt's  premises,  and 
take  possession  of  his  goods.  The  commissioners 
are  empowered  to  summon  persons  suspected  of 
having  Dankrupt'«  property  in  their  hands,  &c.; 
and  compel  them  to  produce  books^  &c.  under 
pain  of  being  committed  to  prison  without  bail, 
fhey  may  even  summon  the  bankrupt's  wife. 
And  the  concealment  of  his  effects  subjects  other 
parties  to  a  fine  of  £lOO. 

4.  At  the  three  several  meetings  appointed  by 
Ae  commissioners,  and  at  every  other  meeting  by 
diem  appointed  for  proof  of  debts  (whereof,  and 
of  the  purport  whereof,  ten  days  notice  shaU 
have  been  given  in  the  London  Gazette),  every 
creditor  of  the  bankrupt  may  prove  his  debt  by 
his  own  oath ;  and  all  bodies  politic  and  public 
companies  incorporated  or  authorised  to  sue  or 
bring  actions,  either  by  charter  or  act  of  paiw 
liament,  may  prove  by  an  agent,  provided  sucfa 
agent  shall  in  his  deposition  swear  that  be  is  soen 

2  I  2 


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484 


BANKRUPT. 


ag«nt«  and  that  he  is  authorised  to  make  such 
proof;  and  if  any  creditor  shall  live  remote  from 
the  place  of  the  meeting  of  the  commissioners, 
he  may  prove  hy  affidavit,  sworn  before  a  master 
in  chancery,  ordinary  or  extraordinary ;  or  if  such 
creditor  shall  live  out  of  En^^land,  by  affidavit 
sworn  before  a  magistrate  where  such  creditor 
shall  be  residing,  and  attested  by  a  notary  public, 
British  minister,  or  consul :  and  no  creditor  shall 

Say  any  contribution  on  account  of  any  such 
eot ;  provided,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the 
said  commissioners  to  examine  upon  oath,  either 
by  word  of  mouth  or  by  interrogatories  in  writing, 
every  person  claiming  to  prove  a  debt  under  the 
said  commission,  or  to  require  such  further  proof, 
and  to  examine  such  other  persons  in  relation 
thereto,  as  they  shall  think  fit.  Bond  fide  credi- 
tors are  admitted  to  prove  a  debt  notwithstanding 
any  secret  act  of  bankruptcy,  before  it  was  con- 
tracted, and,  as  special  debts,  the  commissioners 
may  oider  six  mouths  wages  of  servants  or  clerks 
to  be  paid  in  full ;  but  of  more  than  six  mohths* 
wages,  the  residue  must  be  proved  as  an  ordinary 
debt;  and  debts  not  payable  at  the  time  of  the 
bankruptcy  may  be  proved,  deducting  rebate  of 
interest;  and  tne  actual  interest  due  on  bills  of 
exchange,  &c.  at  the  date  of  the  commission. 
Sureties  and  persons  liable  for  the  debts  of  bank- 
rupts can  only  prove,  after  having  paid  such 
debts.  The  value  of  annuities,  however,  may 
be  calculated  and  proved ;  but  other  debts  con- 
tingent at  the  time  of  the  bankfuptcy,  are  pro- 
vable aflter  the  happening  of  the  contingency. 
The  commissioners  may  convey  the  personal 
estate,  debts  due  to  the  bankrupt,  and  all  his 
property  to  the  assignees. 

5.  At  the  second  meeting  appointed  by  the 
commissioners,  or  any  adjournment  thereof,  the 
assigLees  of  the  bankrupt's  estate  and  effects  are 
chosen ;  and  all  creditors  who  have  proved  debts 
under  the  commission  to  the  amount  of  ten 
pounds  and  upwards  entitled  to  vote  in  such 
choice ;  and  also  any  person  authorised  by  letter 
of  attorney  from  any  creditor  or  creditors,  upon 
proof  of  the  execution  thereof,  either  by  affidavit 
sworn  before  a  master  in  chancery,  ordinary  or 
extraordinary,  or  by  oath  before  the  commission- 
ers viva  voce ;  and  that  the  commissioners  having 
power  to  reject  any  person  so  chosen  who  shall 
appear  to  them  unfit  to  be  such  assignee,  and 
upon  such  rejection  a  new  choice  of  another  as- 
signee or  assignees  shall  be  made.  And  a  joint 
creditor  is  entitled  to  prove  under  a  separate 
commission,  for  the  purpose  of  voting  in  the 
choice  of  assignees. 

'6.  If  any  person  against  whom  any  conmnis- 
3ion  has  been  issued,  or  shall  hereafter  be  issued, 
whereupon  such  person  hath  been  or  sh§ll  be 
declarea  bankrupt,  shall  not,  before  three  of  the 
clock  upon  the  forty-second  day  after  notice 
thereof  in  writing  to  be  left  at  the  usual  place  of 
a'  ode  of  such  person,  or  personal  notice  in  case 
such  person  be  then  in  prison,  and  notice  given 
in  the  London  Gazette  of  the  issuing  of  the  com- 
mission, and  of  the  meetings  of  the  commis- 
sioners, surrender  himself  to  them,  and  sign  or 
subscribe  sudi  surrender,  and  submit  to  be  exa- 
mined before  them,  from  time  to  time,  upon 
oath,  or,  being  a  Quaker,  upon  solemn  affirma- 


tion ;  or  if  any  such  bankrupt  upon  i 
nation  shall  not  discover  all  his  real  or  pencmal 
estate,  and  how  and  to  whom,  upon  whatt  consi- 
deration,  and  when  he  disposed  of,  assigniKl,  or 
transferred  any  of  such  estate,  and  aU  books, 
papers,  and  writings  relating  thereunto  (except 
such  part  as  shall  have  been  really  and  bon&  fioe 
befove  sold  or  disposed  of  in  the  way  of  his  trade, 
or  laid  out  in  the  ordinary  expense  of  his&mily) ; 
or  if  any  such  bankrupt  shall  not  upon  such  ex- 
amination deliver  up  to  the  commissioners  all 
such  part  of  such  estate,  and  all  books,  papers, 
and  writings  relating  thereunto,  as  be  in  hb  pos 
session,  custody,  or  power,  (except  the  -necessaiy 
wearing  apparel  of  himself,  his  wife  and  chii- 
dren);  or  if  any  such  bankrupt  shall  remove, 
conceal,  or  embezzle  any  part  of  such  estate,  to 
the  value  of  £lO  or  upwards,  or  any  bookj  of 
account,  papers,  or  writings  relating  thereto, 
with  intent  to  defraud  his  creditors,  every  sack 
bankrupt  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  felony,  and 
be  liable  to  be  transported  for  life,  or  for  such 
term,  not  less  than  seven  years,  as  the  court  be- 
fore which  he  shall  be  convicted  shall  adjudi^ 
or  shall  be  liable  to  be  imprisoned  only,  or  im- 
prisoned and  kept  to  hard  bbor  in  any  common 
gaol,  penitentiary  house,  or  house  of  correction, 
for  any  term  not  exceeding  seven  years.  But 
the  lord  chancellor,  or  the  commissioners  have 
power,  as  often  as  they  shall  think  fit,  from  time 
to  time,  to  enlarge  the  time  for  the  bankrupt  sur- 
rendering himself,  so  as  every  such  order  be 
made  six  day  J  at  leftst  before  the  day  on  which 
such  bankrupt  was  to  surrender  himself;  and  aa 
allowance  is  to  b^  made  to  the  bankrupt  for  his 
maintenance,  out  of  his  estate,  until  he  smdl  have 
passed  his  examination.  The  bankrupt  shall  also 
be  free  from  arrest  or  imprisonment  by  any  cre- 
ditor in  coming  to  surrender;  and  after  stidt 
surrender  during  the  said  for^-two  days,  and 
such  fiiidier  time  as  shall  be  allowed  him  for 
finishing  his  examination,  provided  be  was  not  in 
custody  at  the  time  of  such  surrender;  and  i£ 
such  bankrupt  shall  be  arrested  for  debt,  or  <m 
any  escape  warrant  in  coming  to  surrender,  or 
shall  after  his  surrender  be  so  arrested  within  the 
time  aforesaid,  he  shall,  on  producing  the  sum- 
mons under  the  hands  of  the  oommiisioneffs  to 
the  officer  who  shall  arrest  him,  and  giving  such 
officer  a  copy  thereof^  be  immediately  discharged ; 
and  if  any  officer  shall  detain  any  such  bankrupt 
after  he  shall  have  shown  his  summons  to  him, 
so  signed  as  a£>resaid,  such  officer  shall  forfeit 
to  such  bankrupt,  for  his  own  use  the  sum  of  £S, 
for  every  day  he  shall  detain  such  bankrupt,  to 
be  recovered  by  action  of  debt  in  any  court  of 
record  at  Westminster,  in  the  name  of  such  bank- 
rupt, with  full  costs  of  suit 

IV.  The  effects  of  the$e  promiom  wUk  regard 
to  the  bankrupt  and  his  creditors  are,  1.  All  pre- 
vious conveyances  of  property,  made  whila  he 
was  insolvent,  become  void  (except  upon  mar- 
riage of  his  children  or  for  some  valuable  consi- 
deration). 

2.  He  is  no  longer  entitled  to  leases,  or  ^ree- 
ments  for  leases,  nor  liable  for  rents  or  cove- 
nants ;  but  his  assignees  may  elect  to  abide  by 
or  abandon  a  lease  or  agreement,  and  execute 
all  powers  previously  vested  in  bankrupts.     But 


Digitized  by 


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BANKRUPT. 


485 


alt  conrvyaaces  by,  and  all  oontncU  and  other 
doings  and  transactions  by  and  with  any  bank- 
rnpt,  bonft  fide  made  and  entered  into  more  than 
two  calendar  months  before  the  date  and  issuing 
of  the  commission  against  him,  and  all  execu" 
tions  and  attachments  against  the  lands  and  tene- 
ments or  goods  and  chattels  of  such  bankrupt, 
bon&  fide  executed  or  levied  more  than  two  ca- 
lendar months  before  the  issuing  of  such  commis- 
sion, shall  be  valid,  notwithstanding  any  prior 
«t  of  bankruptcy  by  him  committed ;  provided 
the  person  or  persons  so  dealing  with  such  bank- 
rupt, or  at  whose  suit  or  on  whose  account  such 
execution  or  attachment  shall  have  issued,  had 
not  at  the  time  of  such  conveyance,  contract, 
dealing,  or  transaction,  or  at  the  time  of  execut- 
ing or  levying  such  execution  or  attachment,  no- 
tice of  any  prior  act  of  bankruptcy  by  him  com- 
mitted :  payments  made  by  and  to  the  bankrupt 
without  notice,  are  valid,  notwithstanding  an  act 
of  bankruptcy.  And  no  person  or  body  corpo- 
rate, or  public  company,  having  in  his  or  their 
possession  or  custoay  any  money,  goods,  wares, 
merchandises,  or  effects  belonging  to  any  bank- 
rapt  shall  be  endangered  by  reason  of  the  pay- 
ment or  deliveiv  thereof  to  the  bankrupt  or  his 
order;  provided,  such  person  or  company  had 
not  at  the  time  of  such  aelivery  or  payment,  no- 
tice that  such  bankrupt  had  committed  an  act  of 
bankruptcy. 

3.  Every  bankrupt  who  shall  have  duly  sur- 
rendered and  conformed  himself  to  the  laws  in 
force  concerning  bankrupts  at  the  time  of  issuing 
the  commission  against  him,  shall  be  discharged 
from  all  debts  due  by  him  when  he  became  bank- 
rapt,  and  from  all  claims  and  demands  provable 
under  the  commission,  in  case  he  shall  obtain  a 
certificate  of  such  conformity,  so  signed  and  al- 
lowed, and  subject  to  such  provisions  as  herein- 
after directed;  but  no  such  certificate  shall 
release  or  discharge  any  person  who  was  partner 
with  such  bankrupt  at  the  time  of  his  bankruptcy, 
or  who  was  then  iointly  bouiMl,  or  had  made  any 
joint  contract  with  such  bankrupt.  Such  certifi- 
cate shall  be  signed  by  four-fifths  in  number  and 
value  of  the  creditors  of  the  bankrupt,  who  shall 
have  proved  debts  under  the  commission  to  the 
amount  of  twenty  pounds  or  upwards,  or  after 
six  calendar  months  from  the  last  examination  of 
the  bankrapt,  then  either  by  three-fiflhs  in  num- 
ber and  value  of  such  creditors,  or  by  nine- 
tentbs  in  number  of  such  creditors,  who  shall 
thereby  testify  their  consent  to  the  said  bank- 
rupt's discharge  as  aforesaid ;  and  no  snch  cer- 
tificate shall  be  such  discharge,  unless  the 
commissioners  shall  in  writing,  under  their 
hands  and  seals,  certify  to  the  Lord  Chancellor 
that  such  bankrupt  has  made  a  full  discovery  of 
his  estate  and  effects,  and  in  all  things  conformed 
as  aforesaid,  and  that  there  does  not  appear  any 
reason  to  doubt  the  truth  or  fulness  of  such  dis- 
covery, and  also  that  the  creditors  have  signed  in 
manner  hereby  directed,  and  unless  the  bcmkrupt 
make  oath  in  writing  that  such  certificate  and 
coRS^t  were  obtained  without  fraud,  and  unless 
such  oertificate  shall,  after  such  oath,  be  allowed 
by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  against  which  allowance 
any  of  the  creditors  of  the  bankrupt  iftay  be  heard 
before  the  Lord  Chancellor.    But  the  commis- 


sioners shall  not  sign  any  certificate  unless  they 
shall  have  proof,  by  affidavit  in  writing,  of  the 
signature  ot  the  creditors  thereto,  or  of  any  per- 
son thereto  authorised  by  any  creditor,  and  of 
the  authority  by  which  such  person  shall  have 
so  signed  the  same ;  and  if  any  creditor  reside 
abroad,  the  authority  of  such  creditor  shall  be 
attested  by  a  notary  public,  British  minister,  or 
consul ;  and  every  such  affidavit,  authority,  and 
attestation,  shall  be  laid  before  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor, with  the  certificate,  previous  to  the  allow- 
ance Uiereofl 

Any  contract  or  security  made  or  given  by 
any  bankrupt  or  other  person  unto  or  in  trust  for - 
any  creditor,  or  for  securing  the  payment  of  any 
money  due  by  such  bankrupt  at  his  bankruptcy, 
as  a  consideration  or  with  intent  to  persuade  such  * 
creditor  to  consent  to,^  or  sign  such  certificate, 
shall  be  void,  and  the  money  thereby  secured  or 
agreed  to  be  paid  shall  not  be  recoverable,  and 
the  party  sued  on  such  contract  or  security  may 
plead  the  general  issue,  and  give  this  act  and  the 
special  matter  in  evidence.  And,  finally,  any ' 
bankrupt  who  shall,  after  this  certificate  shall 
have  been  allowed,  be  arrested,  or  have  any  ac- 
tion brought  against  him  for  any  debt,,  claim,  or 
demand,  hereby  made  provable  under  the  com- 
mission against  such  bankrupt^  shall  be  dis- 
charged upon  common  bail,  and  may  plead  in 
general  that  the  cause  of  action  accrued  before 
he  became  bankrupt,  and  may  give  this  act  and 
the  special  matter  in  evidence,  and  such  bank- 
rupt's certificate,  and  the  allowance  thereof,  shall 
be  sufficient  evidence  of  the  trading,  bankruptcy, 
commi.<«sion,  and  other  proceedings  precedent  ta 
the  obtaining  such  certificate ;  and  if  any  such 
bankrupt  shall  be  taken  in  execution,  or  detained 
in- prison  for  such  debt,  claim,  or  demand,  where 
judgment  has  been  obtained  before  the  allowance 
of  his  certificate,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any  judge* 
of  the  court  wherein  judgment  has  been  so  ob- 
tained, on  such  bankrupt's  producing  his  certifi- 
cate, to  order  any  officer  who  shall  have  such/ 
bankrupt  in  custody  by  virtue  of  such  execution, 
to  discharge  such  bankrupt  without  exacting  any. 
fee,  and  such  officer  shall  be  hereby  indemnified 
for  so  doing. 

It  is  nevertheless  provided  that  if  any  person 
who  shall  have  been  so  discharged  by  such  certifi-^ 
cate  as  aforesaid,  or  who  shall  have  compounded 
with  his  creditors,  or  who  shall  have  been  dis- 
charged by  any  insolvent  act,  shaH  be  or  become 
bankrupt,  and  have  obtained  or  shall  hereafter 
obtain  such  certificate  as  aforesaid,  unless  his 
estate  shall  produce  (after  all  charges)  sufficient 
to  pay  every  creditor  under  the  commission  fif- 
teen shillings  in  the  pound,  such  certificate  shall 
only  protect  his  person  from  arrest  and  imprison- 
ment, but  his  future  estate  and  effects  (except  his 
tools  of  trade  and  necessary  household  furniture, 
and  the  wearing  apparel  of  himself,  his  wife  and 
children),  shall  vest  in  the  assignees  under  the 
commission. 

A  scale  of  allowance  on  the  other  hand  is 
made  for  every  bankrupt  who  shall  have  ob- 
tained his  certificate,  if^  the  net  produce  of  his 
estate  shall  pay  the  creditors  who  have  proved 
under  the  commission  ten  shillings  in  the  pound; 
in  which  case  he  shall  be  aUowed  five  per  cent. 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


486* 


BANKRUPT. 


out  of  such  prodttcey  to  be  paid  Uira  by  the  as- 
signees,  pronded  such  allowance  shall  not  exceed 
four  hundred  pounds;  and  every  bankrupt,  if 
such  produce  shall  pay  !fttch  cfeditors  twelve 
shillings  and  sixpence  in  the  pound,  shall  be  al- 
lowed and  paid  as  aforesaid  seven  pounds  ten 
shillings  per  cent.,  provided  such  allowance  shall 
not  excecn  five  hundred  pounds ;  and  every  bank- 
nipt,  if  such  produce  shall  pay  suoh  creditors 
fifteen  shillings  in  tiie  pound  or  upwards^  shall 
be  allowed  and  paid  as  afor^aid  ten  pounds  per 
cent.,  provided  such  allowance  shall  not  exceed 
six  hundred  pounds ;  but  if  such  produce  shall 
not  pay  such  creditors  ten  shillings  in  thepound^ 
such  bankrupt  shall  only  be  allowed  and  paid  so 
much  as  the  assignees  and  commissioners  shall 
think  fit,  not  exceeding  three  pounds  per  eent 
and  three  hundred  pounds. 

As  to  the  important  point  of  making  dividends, 
the  commissioners  shall,  not  sooner  than  four 
nor  later  than  twelve  calendar  months  from  the 
issuiug  the  commission,  appoint  a  public  meeting 
(whereof  and  of  the  purport  whereof)  they  shall 
pn^e  twenty-one  days  notice  in  the  Ijondon 
Gazette),  to  make  a  dividend  of  the  bankrupt's 
estate,  at  which  meetii^g  all  creditors  who  have 
not  proved  their  debts  shall  be  entitled  to  prove 
the  same;  and  the  said  commissioners  at  such 
meeting  shall  order  such  part  of  the  net  produce 
of  the  bankrupt's  estate  in  the  hands  or  the  as* 
spaces,  as  they  shall  diink  fit,  to  be  forthwiA 
divided  amongst  such  creditors  as  have  proved 
debts  under  the  commission,  in  proportion  to 
their  respective  debts,  and  shall  make  an  order 
for  a  dividend  in  writing  under  their  hands,  and 
shall  cause  one  part  of  such  order  to  be  filed 
afflongM  the  proceedings  under  the  commission, 
and  shall  deliver  another  part  thereof  to  the  a»* 
sfgnees,  which  order  shall  contain  an  accoutit  of 
the  time  and  place  of  making  such  order,  of  the 
amount  of  the  debts  proved,  of  the  money  r^ 
maining  in  the  hands  of  the  assignees  to  be  di* 
vided,  of  how  much  in  the  pound  is  then  ordered 
to  be  paid  to  every  creditor,  and  of  the  money 
allowed  by  the  commissioners  to  be  retained  by 
the  assignees,  with  their  reasons  for  allowing  the 
same  to  be  so  retained;  and  tlie  assignees,  in 
pursuance  of  such  order  (and  without  any  deed 
of  distribution  made  for  that  purpose),  shall  forth- 
with  make  such  dividend,  and  shall  take  receipts 
io  a  book  to  be  kept  for  that  purpose  from  each 
creditor,  ibr  the  dividend  received  by  such  credi- 
tor; and  such  order  and  receipt  shall  be  a  dis- 
charge to  every  such  assignee  tor  so  much  as  he 
shall  pay  pursuant  to  sndi  order ;  and  no  divi^ 
dend  shall  be  declared,  unless  Uie  accounts  of 
the  assignees  shall  have  been  first  so  audited  as 
aforessio,  and  such  statetnent  delivered  by  them 
upon  oath  as  aforesaid. 

No  creditor  having  security  for  his  debt,  or 
having  made  any  atttichment  in  London,  or  any 
other  place,  by  virtue  of  any  custom  there  used, 
of  the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  bankrupt,  shall 
receive  upon  any  such  security  or  attachment 
more  than  a  rateable  part  of  such  debt,  except  in 
respect  of  any  exeeiHi6n  or  extent  served  and 
levied,  by  seisure  upon,  or  any  mortgage  of  or 
lien  upon  any  part  of  the  property  of  such  bank- 
fnpt  before  the  banknlptcy;  provided  that  no 


creditor,  tliough  for  a  valuable  consideration, 
who  shall  sue  out  execution  upon  any  judgment 
obtained  by  default^  confession,  or  nil  dicit,  shall 
avail  himself  of  such  execution  to  the  prejudice 
of  other  fair  creditors,  but  shall  be  paid  rateable 
with  such  creditors. 

If  the  bankrupt's  estate  shall  not  have  been 
wholly  divided  upon  the  first  dividend,  the  com- 
missioners shall,  within  eighteen  calendar  months 
afier  the  issuing  of  tHe  commission,  appoint  a 
public  meeting  (whereof,  and  of  the  purport 
whereof,  they  shall  give  twenty-one  days  notice 
in  the  London  Gazette),  to  make  a  second  divi- 
dend  of  the  bankrupt's  estate,  when  all  creditoi? 
who  have  not  proved  their  debts  may  prove  the 
same ;  and  the  commissioners  at  such  meetins", 
after  taking  such  audit  as  herein-before  directeo, 
shall  order  the  balance  in  the  hands  of  the  as- 
signees to  be  forthwith  divided  amongst  such  of 
the  creditors  as  shall  have  proved  their  debts ; 
and  such  second  dividend  ^all  be  final,  unless 
any  action  at  law  or  suit  in  equity  be  depending, 
or  any  part  of  the  estate  be  standing  out,  not  sold 
or  disposed  of,  or  unless  some  other  estate  or 
effects  of  die  bankrupt  shall  afterwards  come  to 
the  assignees,  in  which  case  they  shall,  as  soon 
as  may  be,  convert  such  estate  and  effects  into 
money,  and  within  two  calendar  months  after  dw 
same  sliall  be  so  converted^  divide  the  same  in 
manner  aforesaid. 

Lastly,  if  any  assigtiee,  under  any  commission 
of  bankrupt,  shall  have,  either  in  his  own  hands 
or  at  any  banker's,  or  otherwise  subject  to  his 
order  or  disposition,  or  to  hb  knowledge  in  the 
hands  of,  or  in  the  order  and  disposition  of  him- 
self and  any  co-assignee  or  co-assignees,  or  of 
any  or  either  of  them,  any  unclaimed  dividend 
or  dividends,  amounting  in  the  whole  to  the  sum 
of  fifty  pounds,  and  shall  not  within  six  months 
after  this  act  shall  have  taken  effect,  or  two 
calendar  months  after  the  expiration  of  one  year 
after  the  declaration  and  order  of  payment  of 
such  dividend  or  dividends  made  by  the  com- 
missioners, either  pay  to  the  creditor  or  creditors 
entitled  thereto,  or  cause  a  certificate  thereof  to 
be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  Lord  Chancellor's 
secretary  of  bankrupts,  containing  a  full  and  true 
account  of  the  name  or  names  of  the  creditor  or 
creditors  to  whom  such  unclaimed  dividend  or 
dividends  is  or  are  respectively  due,  and  of  the 
amount  of  such  dividend  or  dividends  respec- 
tively (such  account  being  signed  by  the  assignee 
or  assignees  rendering  the  same,  and  attested  by 
the  solicitor  to  the  commission,  or  the  solicitor 
to  the  assignee  or  assignees  signing  the  same), 
such  assignee  or  assignees  shall  be  charged,  in 
account  with  the  estate  of  the  bankrupt,  interest 
lipon  such  unclaimed  dividend  or  dividends,  to 
be  computed  froip  the  time  that  sucb  certificate 
Is  hereby  directed  to  be  filed,  at  the  rate  of  five 

rnds  per  centum  per  annum,  for  such  time  as 
shall  thenceforth  retain  the  same,  and  also 
such  further  sum  as  the  commissioners  shall 
think  fit,  not  exceeding  in  the  whole  twenty 
pounds  per  centum  per  annum ;  and  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  or  the  said  commissioners,  naay  order 
the  investment  of  any  unclaimed  divid<mds  in 
the  public  funds,  or  in  any  govemmeot  security, 
for  or  on  aoc<tamt  of  the  creditors  entitled,  and 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BANKS. 


4R7 


•tAjecl  U>  sadi  order  as  the  Lord  Ghano«lkNr 
inay  think  fit  to  make  tt^pectiiig  the  same,  who, 
if  he  shall  think  fit,  may,  after  the  same  shall 
have  remained  unclaimed  for  the  space  of  three 
yean  from  the  declaration  of  such  dividends  by 
the  commissioners,  order  ibe  same  to  be  divided 
amongst  and  ^id  to  the  other  creditors,  and  Che 
proof  of  the  creditors  to  whom  such  dividends 
were  allotted  shall  horn  thencefotth  be  considered 
ad  void  as  to  the  same^  bal  renewable  as  to  any 
fatirre  dividends,  to  place  them  pari  passu  with 
the  odier  creditom,  but  not  to  disturb  any  divi- 
dends which  shikll  htfve  been  previously  made. 

We  have  thus  fully  staled  the  general  pro- 
visions of  the  lane  act,  as  «sefiil  to  all  persons 
cormected  with  tvade;  moie  minttte  provisions 
wilt  oC  course  engage  the  attenlien  aad  require 
the  aid  of  professional  men. 

BANKS,  Cape,  the  north-east  point  of  Bo- 
tatay  Bay,  on  the  east  coast  of  New  Holland. 

Banks'  Island,  an  iskmd  of  New  Zealand, 
off  the  nortb-east  coast  of  Tavai  Poenamraoo. 
Il  is  aboot  sixty  mikes  in  ciroumfefence,  and  suf- 
ficiently high  to  be  visible  at  the  <tistance  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  leagues.  It  is  barren  but  inha- 
bited. Distant  fifteen  miles  from  Tavai  Poe- 
tiammoo.  The  south  pesnt  lies  in  long.  186''  30* 
W.,  Inlitade  43^  sr  ft.  Aleo,  an  island  in  the 
Nohh  Fadfic,  near  the  west  coast  of  North 
America,  abomt  sifxtf  miles  long,  and  five  broad. 
Long.  «9*  45'  to  130^  10  W^  lat  60*»  30'  N 
Bakks'  PeiRT,  ft  harbour  on  the  north-wi 
coast  of  America,  south-east  finom  Cape  Edge- 
cumbe,  and  northnwest  from  Sea  Otter  Sound. 

Banks  (Sir  John),  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Common  Pleas,  in  the  leign  of  Charles  I^  was 
bom  at  Keswick,  in  Cumberland,  in  1589.  Ue 
studied  at  Oxford,  but  took  no  de^^ee:  applying 
fo  fbe  )aw,  his  «siraordinary  reputation  in  that 
profession  soe*  veeoiBmended  him  to  the  king, 
who  made  fahn  attoitiey  to  the  piinee  in  1629 ; 
knighted  him,  and  appointefl  iiim  attorn^ 
gencMl  in  1634 ;  lord  ciHef  justice  in  1640 ;  and 
a  member  of  the  privy  council  in  1642.  In 
these  perilous  times,  he  discharged  the  duties  of 
bis  important  and  arduous  offices  with  very  ge- 
neral approbation.  Bat  at  last  lost  his  pefra- 
larity,  by  declaring  firom  the  bench,  in  the  eura- 
mer  circuit,  that  the  actions  of  Essex,  Man- 
chester, and  Waller,  were  treasonable ;  and  the 
Commons  voted  him  a  traitor.  Meantime  bis 
lady,  being  w4th  her  fiunily  at  his  seat  at  Corfe 
CasUe,  in  the  isle  of  Purbeck,  was  summoned  to 
surrender  by  the  friends  of  the  parliament;  but 
refused,  though  she  had  then  only  hvt  men  in 
the  castle,  and  sustamed  a  siege,  by  William 
Earl,  with  not  move  than  forty  men.  At  last  lady 
Banks  was  relieved  by  the  arrival  of  lord  Caernar- 
von with  a  body  of  hone.  Sir  John  continued 
with  the  king  at  Oxford  till  1644,  when  be  died. 
Banks  ^John),  an  finghsh  omthor,  bam  at 
Sunning,  in  BeiMMre  in  1709.  He  was  bred 
a  weaver  at  Reading,  but  gave  up  that  business 
and  went  io  London,  where  be  became  a  book- 
seller. Not  succeeding  ia  this,  he  p«bli4hed 
-various  tracts,  particularly  a  <CTitical  Reriewof 
Ihe  Life  of  Olfvet  Cromwell,  which  met  with 
a  favorable  reception.     lie  died  in  1761. 

Bavks  (Thomas),  an  eminent  English  sculptor. 


was  bom  in  178^,  and  was  son  of  Mr.  William 
BanksL  steward  of  the  duke  of  Beaufort,  illc 
was  educated  with  Kent,  the  well-known  archi- 
tect of  that  period ;  but  afterwards,  showing  a 
preference  for  sculpture,  studied  it  at  the  Royal 
Academy  with  great  success,  and  was  elected  to 
be  sent  as  one  of  its  students  to  Italy.  Here  he 
executed  several  good  pieces,  particularly  a* 
basso-relievo  of  Camctacus,  in  the  possession  of 
the  duke  of  Buckingham;  and  a  Cupid  catching 
a  butterfly,  which  was  afterwards  purchased  by 
the  empress  Catharine.  He  went  from  Italy  to 
Russia,  where  he  staid  two  years,  and  returned  to 
his  own  country  to  acquire  both  fame  and  for- 
tune. Among  his  works  are  a  colossal  statue 
exhibitiug  Achilles  mourning  the  loss  of  Briseis, 
in  the  h^l  of  the  British  Institution;  and  the 
monument  of  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  in  Westminster 
Abb^.  Mr.  Banks  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy  not  long  after  his  return 
from  Russia,  and  finished  his  useful  life  in 
February  1805. 

Bakcs  (Sir  Joseph),  the  late  celebrated  natu- 
ralist, was  the  son  of  William  Banks,  Esq.  of 
Revesby  Abbey,  Lincolnshire,  *  where  he  vraS 
bom  in  1743.  He  received  his  education  at 
Eton  and  Oxford,  where  he  continued  till  the 
death  of  his  father.  In  1765  he  made  a  voyage 
to  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  researches  relative  to  natural  nistonr; 
and  in  1763  embarked  with  his  friend^  Dr.  Co- 
lander, in  the  first  voyage  round  the  world  made 
by  the  great  captain  Cook.  In  the  course  of 
this  expedition  Mr.  Banks,  in  traversing  the 
locks  ot  Terra  del  Fuego,  narrowly  ^cap^  pe> 
rishing  from  intense  cold.  In  consequence  of  a 
misunderstanding  with  captain  Cook,  he  did  not 

{'oin,  as  he  intended,  in  tne  expedition  of  1772; 
tut  the  same  year  undertook  a  voyage  to  th^ 
Western  Isles  of  Scotland  and  to  Ice^hud,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  made  important  additions  to  our 
knowledge  of  those  regions.  About  this  time  he 
received  the  compliment  of  a  diploma  of  LL.  D. 
from  his  alma  mater.  In  1778  he  was  made  a 
baronet  and  elected  president  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. Some  unpleasant  dissentions,  which 
arose  in  the  society  not  long  after,  were  almost 
the  only  circumstances  which  occurred  to  inter- 
rupt his  tranquillity.  These,  however,  subsided, 
and  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  amongst 
sci€!rititic  associates,  and  the  prosecution  of  r^ 
searches  connected  with  natural  history.  His 
house  was  always  open  to  the  leamecl  world. 
He  died  June  19, 1820,  at  his  seat  at  Spring 
Orove,  Middlesex.  The  published  writings  ^ 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  are  neither  numerous  nor  im- 
portant. They  consist  of  papers  in  the  Philoso- 
phical Transactions,  Uie  Archeologia,  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Horticultural  Society,  and  other 
periodical  works ;  and  a  small  tract,  entitled  A 
khort  Account  of  the  Causes  of  the  Diseases  in 
Com,  callkl  by  Farmers  the  Blight,  the  Mildew 
and  the  Rust,  with  plates.  Loudon,  1803,  4ta 
This  impression  was  only  for  private  distribution ; 
but  an  edition  in  8vo.  was  published  in  1805. 
Sir  Joseph  possessed  a  noble  library  of  works  on 
natural  history,  of  which  an  admirable  cataloghe, 
in  five  vols.  8vo.  was  compiled  by  his  librarian 
Mr.  iJryandcr. 


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Basks-Brae,  a  hill  of  Scotland,  in  Renfrew- 
shire,  on  the  south-west  border  of  the  parish  of 
Kilbarchan,  beautifully  adorned  with  plantations. 

BANKSIA,  in  entomology,  a,  species  of  pa- 
pilio,  (nymph),  with  angulated  wmgs;  brown 
above,  with  a  yellowish  disk.  Fabricius.  It  is  a 
native  of  New  Holland,  and  the  papilio  ismene 
of  Cramer. 

Banksia,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  monogy- 
nia  order,  and  tetandria  class  of  plants.  The 
amentum  is  scaly,  the  coit>lla  consists  of  four 
petals.  The  antnere  are  in  the  cavity  of  the 
folds  and  sessile;  the  capsule  is  bivalyalar;  and 
the  seed  is  solitary,  and  bipartite.  There  are 
four  principal  species,  viz.  1.  B.  dentata;  2.  B. 
ericcefolia ;  3.  B.  integnfolia ;  4.  B.  serrata ;  all 
natives  of  New  Holland.  See  Mr.  Brown's 
Transactions  of  the  Lintfeean  Society^  vol.  x. 
p.  202;  and  Commentaries  to  the  Hortus  Kew- 
ensis,  vol.  i^  p.  213. 

Banksu  Abyssinica,  a  beautiful  Abyssinian 
tree,  so  named  by  Bruce. 

BANKSII,  a  species  of  scarabsusmelontha; 
described  by  Fabricius,  from  a  specimen  in  the 
museum  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  The  head  and 
thorax  are  black;  wmgK:ases  villose,  and  legs 
testaceous ;  abdomen  short  and  retuse. 

Banksii,  a  species  of  cimex  (reduvius),  that 
inhabits  India.  It  is  rufous  above,  with  black 
wings;  abdomen  deep  black;  border  rufous. 

Banksii,  a  species  of  chrysomela  that  inha- 
bits Calabria.  It  is  brassy  above,  beneath  tes- 
taceous. 

Bakksii,  a  species  of  cerambyx  (lamia),  that 
is  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  of  a 
grayish  color ;  thorax  slightly  spined ;  wing-cases 
speckled  with  ferruginous,  and  marked  with  two 
cinereous  bands. 

BANLEUGA,  Bamleu,  or  Bannileuga,  in 
writers  of  the  middle  age,  the  territory  within 
which  the  jurisdiction  of  municipal  magistrates, 
or  ordinanr  judges  of  a  city,  town,  or  the  like, 
is  confined :  so  called,  because  within  this  tract 
they  make  their  proclamations,  prohibitions,  and 
other  acts  of  justice  and  policy,  comprised  under 
.the  name  of  ban  or  bannum. 

BAiNMORE,   EiLAN   Nan,   Gael.  i.e.  the 
island  of  great  women;  the  ancient  name  of  the 
.island  of  Eigg. 

BANN,  from  the  Brit,  ban,  i.e.  clamor,  a 
proclamation,  public  notice,  command,  or  prohi- 
bition. 

Bamn,  in  ancient  jurisprudence,  denoted 
proscription  or  banishment  for  a  crime  proved ; 
oecause  anciently  published  by  sound  of  trumpet; 
or,  as  Vossius  thinks,  because  those  who  did  not 
appear  at  the  above-mentioned  summons,  were 
punished  by  proscription.  Hence,  to  put  a 
prince  under  the  bapn  of  the  empire,  is  to  de- 
clare him  divested  of  all  his  dignities.  The 
sentence  denotes  an  interdict  of  ail  intercourse 
and  offices  of  humanity  with  the  offender;  the 
form  of  which  seems  taken  from  that  of  the  Ro- 
mans, who  banished  persons  by  forbidding  them 
the  use  of  fire  and  water.  Sometimes  also  ci- 
ties were  put  under  the  imperial  bann;  that 
is,  stripped  of  their  rights  and  privileges.  The 
word  also  denotes  a  pecuniary  mulct,  or  penalty. 


laid  on  a  delinqaent  for  offending  against  a  bum. 

Bamn,  in  military  affairs,  a  proclamation 
made  in  the  army  by  beat  of  drum,  sound  of 
trumpet,  &c.  requiring  the  strict  observance  of 
discipline,  either  for  the  declaring  a  new  officer, 
or  punishing  an  offender. 

Bann,  a  river  of  Ireland,  descending  from 
the  north  of  the  mountains  of  Moume,  and  flow- 
ing north-west  into  th^  Longh  Neagh :  again  is- 
suing from  the  north  side  of  that  l^e,  it  passes 
Coleraine,  and  enters  the  sea  a  few  miles  east  of 
Lough  Foyle.  Its  course,  including  the  lough, 
is  about  seventy  miles;  and,  with  die  canal  of 
Newry,  which  joins  it  to  ^e  Irish  sea,  it  makes 
the  north-east  portion  of  Ireland  a  peninsula. 

Bann,  or  Bann  us,  a  title  anciently  given  to 
the  governor  or  viceroy  of  Croatia,  Dalmate, 
and  Sclavonia. 

Bann,  Episcopal,  bannus  episcopaUs,  s 
mulct  paid  to  tlie  bishop  by  those  guilty  of  sa- 
crilege and  other  crimes. 

Bann  of  Harvest,  or  Vintage,  &,c.  in  the 
ci-devant  French  customs,  imported  a  piohibitioa 
to  reap,  or  gather  the  grapes,  without  tne  leave  of 
the  lord. 

Banns  of  Marriage  are  solemn  notices  of 
matrimonial  contracts,  made  in  the  parisWhurch 
before  marriage ;  that  if  there  be  any  objectioos 
to  either  party  as  to  prior  engagements,  &c. 
there  may  be  an  opportunity  of  midung  them. 

The  publication  of  banna,  popularly  called 
asking  in  the  church,  was  intended  to  prevent 
clandestine 'marriages  :  but  a  licence  may  be  ob- 
tained for  the  marriage,  and  then  this  ceremony 
is  omitted :  but  ministers  are  not  to  celebrate 
matrimony  between  any  penons  without  a  li- 
cence, except  the  banns  have  been  first  pub- 
lished tliree  several  times  upon  pain  of  suspen- 
sion, &c.  The  use  of  matnmonial  banns  is  said 
to  have  been  first  introduced  in  the  Gallican 
church,  though  something  like  it  obtained  even 
in  the  primitive  times:  and  it  is  this  thatTer- 
tullian  is  supposed  to  mean  by  trinundina  pro- 
mulgatio.  The  council  of  Lateran  first  extexMled 
and  made  the  usage  general.  By  the  ordinance 
of  Blois,  no  person  could  validly  contract  mar- 
riage, without  a  preceding  proclamation  of  three 
banns;  nor  could  any  person  whatever  be  ex- 
empt except  for  the  two  last. 

Banns,  Papal,  solemn  anathemas,  or  excom- 
munications, attended  with  curses,  &c. 

BANNAGIi£R,orBANAGHER,  a  town  of  Ire- 
land, in  King's  county,  Leinster,  on  the  Shan- 
non, fifteen  miles  south  of  Athlone. 

BANNALEC,  a  town  of  Brittany,  France, 
department  of  Finisterre,  arrondissement  of 
Quimperl^,  the  head  of  a  canton ;  has  4700  in- 
habitants. It  is  four  miles  fiom  Rosrporden 
and  six  from  Quimperl^. 
,  BANNALIS  MoLA,  or  Bannal  Mill,  a  kind 
of  feudal  service,  whereby  the  tenants  of  a  dis- 
trict are  obliged  to  cany  their  com  to  be  ground 
at  a  certain  mill,  or  to  be  baked  at  a  certain 
oven,  for  the  benefit  of  the  lord.  This  in  Scot- 
land is  called  thirUge. 

BANN  EC,  an  island  in  the  English  channel, 
near  the  coast  of  France.  Long.  4**  66.  W.,  lau 
48*  25'  N. 


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BAlTOER,  -^  Fr.  hanrnercy  Ital.  bandar  ban" 
Ban'nered,  Idieray  Ger.  banner,  Swed.  baner, 
Ban'nebet,  rDut.  baniere.  In  old  Sax.  ban- 
Ban'nerol.  j  segn  is  the  ensign  or  banner. 
Prom  btmdvOf  signwn;  bandvjan,  significare. 
Sannerolf  or  more  properly  banderol,  is  deriyed 
from  banderolUy  Fr.  Spenser  writes  it  bannerall ; 
and  the  old  Fr.  is  banneralU.  The  banner, 
bandroU,  or  bansegn,  is  probably  the  sipi  of 
union,  which  fietstened  to  a  pole,  may  be  furled 
and  unfurled  at  pleasure,  like  a  roll  of  canvass 
or  silk  ;  and  which  armies  and  other  bodies  of 
men  elevate  as  a  -  standard,  which  distinguishes 
the  party  and  cause  which  they  have  espoused, 
or  the  common  purpose  to  which  they  have 
bound  diemselves.  *  We  find  (say  the  writers 
in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica),  a  multiplicity 
of  opinions  concerning  the  etymology  of  the  word 
banner ;  some  deriving  it  from  the  Latin  bandum, 
a  band  or  flag ;  others  from  the  word  bann^  to 
summon  the  vassals  to  appear  in  arms ;  others 
again  from  the  German  ban,  a  field  or  tenement, 
because  landed  men  alone  were  allowed  a  ban- 
ner ;  and  finally,  there  are  some  who  think  it  is  a 
corruption  of  panniere,  from  pannus,  cloth ;  be- 
cause banners  were  originally  made  of  cloth. 
liift  ye  ap  a  batmer  upon  the  high  mountaiot. 

Itaiah 
Then  lo  tryamphe '.  0  great  beaatie's  queen. 
Advance  the  baimer  of  thy  conqaeit  hie. 

Spetuer. 
Prom  France  there  comes  a  power  who  already 
Have  lecret  spies  in  some  of  our  best  ports. 
And  are  at  point  to  shew  their  open  banner. 

SfULHtptom, 

All  in  a  moment  through  the  gloom  were  seen 

Ten  thousand  bamten  rise  into  the  air. 

With  orient  colours  waving.  HiUon, 

A  gendeman  told  Henry,  that  Sir  Richard  Croftes, 

made  banneret  at  Stoke,  was  a  wise  man  ;  the  king 

answered,  he  doubted  not  that,  but  marvelled  how  a 

fool  could  know.  Camden, 

King  Oswald  had  a  ban$terol  of  gold  and  purple  set 

over  his  tomb.  /d. 

Philip  Augustus,  and  Richard  the  First,  are  the 

only  kings  of  France  and  England  who  have  fought 

under  the  same  bamten.  Gibbon, 

Banner,  in  heraldry,  such  a 
flag  is  borne  as  a  charge,  in 
coats  of  arms,  and  when  open 
and  flying  is  called  *  the  banner 
disveloped,*  as  '  the  field  is  Ju- 
piter, inree  banners  disveloped, 
m  bend  Sol,'  which  are  said  to 
have  been  the  arms  of  the  king- 
dom of  Baldachia. 

Banner  of  Denmark, 
Banner,  was  a  ^mouo  map^ical  standard,  taken 
from  the  Danes  by  Alfred  the  Great,  in  spite  of 
its  miraculous  powers  and  properties,  which  are 
thus  described  by  Sir  John  Spelman.  *  It  was 
a  banner  with  the  image  of  a  raven  magically 
wrought  by  the  three  sisters  of  Hungar  and 
Hubba,  on  purpose  for  their  expediiion,  in  re- 
venge of  their  father  Lodebroch*s  murder,  made, 
they  say,  almost  in  an  instant,  being  by  them  at 
once  begun  and  finished  in  a  noontide;  and  be- 
lieved by  the  Danes  to  have  carried  great  fk- 
tali^  with  it,  for  which  it  was  highly  esteemed 
by  them.    It  is  pretended,  that  bong  carried  in 


or  the    Danish 


battle,  towards  good  succe^  it  wottld  always 
seem  to  clap  its  wings,  and  make  as  if  it  would 
fly;  but  towards  the  approach  of  mbhap,  it 
would  hang  down  and  not  move  !* 

The  Banner  op  France  was  the  largest  and 
richest  of  all  the  flags  borne  by  the  ancient 
kings  in  their  military  expeditions.  St.  Mar- 
tin's cap  was  in  use  600  years  as  the  banner  of 
France;  it  was  made  of  taifety,  painted  with  the 
image  of  that  saint,  and  laid  one  or  two  days  on 
his  tomb  to  prepare  it  for  use.  This  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  &mous  auriflamma,  or  oriflamme. 
About  the  year  1100  was  introduced  a  more 
pompous  apparatus;  the  mode  of  which  was 
borrowed  from  Italy.  The  banner-royal  was 
fastened  to  the  top  of  a  mast,  or  some  small  tree 
planted  on  a  scaffold,  borne  on  a  chariot  drawn 
by  oxen,  covered  with  velvet  housings,  decorated 
with  devices,  or  cyphers  of  the  reigning  prince. 
At  the  foot  of  the  tree  was  a  priest,  who  said 
mass  early  every  morning.  Ten  knights  mounted 
guard  on  the  scaflbld  night  and  day,  and  as 
many  trumpets  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  never 
ceased  flourishing  to  animate  the  troops.  This 
cumbrous  machine  continued  in  use  about  130 
years.  Its  post  was  in  the  centre  of  the  army. 
And  here  the  chief  feats  were  performed  to  carry 
off  and  defend  the  royal  banner :  for  there  was 
no  victory  without  it;  nor  was  an  army  reputed 
vanquished  till  they  had  lost  this  banner. 

Banneret,  from  banner.  A  knight  made  in 
the  field,  with  the  ceremony  of  cutting  ofl*  the 
point  of  his  standard,  and  making  it  a  banner. 
They  are  next  to  barons  in  dignity ;  and  were 
anciently  called  by  summons  to  parliament.  It 
is  also  the  name  of  an  oflicer  or  magistrUe  of 
Rome  towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  people  of  that  city,  and  throughout 
the  territory  of  the  church,  during,  the  disputes  of 
the  antipopes,  had  formed  a  kind  of  republican 
government,  where  the  whole  power  was  lodged 
in  the  hands  of  a  magistrate,  called  senator,  and 
twelve  heads  of  quarters  called  bannerets,by  rea- 
son of  the  banners  which  each  raised  in  his  district. 
Bannerets,  an  ancient  order  of  knights,  or 
feudal  lords ;  who,  possessing  several  large  fees, 
led  their  vassals  to  battle  under  their  own  flag  or 
banner,  when  summoned  thereto  by  the  king. 
They  are  also  called  in  ancient  writers  milites, 
vexilliferi,  and  vexillarii,  bannerarii,  bannarii, 
banderisii,  &c.  There  are  two  kinds  of  knights, 
great  and  little;  the  first  whereof  were  called 
bannerets,  the  second  bachelors ;  tlie  first  com- 
posed the  upper,  the  second  the  middle  nobility. 
The  banneret  was  a  dignitary  allowed  to  march 
under  his  own  flag,  whereas  the  bachelarius  eques 
followed  that  of  another.  To  be  qualified  for  a 
banneret,  one  must  be  a  gentleman  of  £&mi1vy  and 
must  have  a  power  to  raise  a  certain  number  of 
armed  men,  with  estate  enough  to  subsist  at  least 
twenty-eight  to  thirty  men.  This  must  have 
been  very  considerable  in  those  days ;  because 
each  man,  besides  his  servant,  had  two  horsemen 
to  wait  on  him  armed,  the  one  with  a  crossbow, 
the  other  with  a  bow  and  hatchet.  As  he  was 
not  allowed  to  be  a  baron  who  had  not  above 
thirteen  knights'  fees,  so  he  was  not  admitted  to  be  a 
banneret  if  he  had  less  than  ten.  The  order  of  ban- 
neret, according  to  Spelman,  was  a  middle  one, 
bptween  a  baron  and  a  simple  knight;  called 


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sometimes  aIbo  vexillarim  minor,  to  distinguish 
him  fi^m  the  greater,  that  is  from  the  baron,  to 
whom  alone  properly  belonged  the  jus  vexiUi,  or 
privilege  of  the  »qnare  flag.    Heftce  the  banneret 
was  also  called  bannecetas,  qfuasi  bait»  minor ;  a 
void  frequetitly  used  by  Emglish  writers  in  the 
same  sense  as  banneret  was  by  the  French,  though 
neither  of  them  occur  befoire  the  time  of  Edward 
II.    Some  will  hare  bannerets  to  ha?e  originally 
been  persons  who  had  some  portion  of  a  barony 
assigned  them ;  and  enjoyed  it  under  the  title  m 
baro  proximus^  and  that  with  the  same  prerogfr* 
ttves  as  the  baron  himself.    Some  again  find  the 
origin  of  banner;^  in  France,  others  in  Brittany, 
others  in  England.    These  last  attribute  the  insti- 
tution of  bannerets  to  Conan^  lieutenant  of  Max- 
imus,  Who  commanded  iSbe  Roman  legions  in 
England  under  Ae  empire  of  Grattan  in  383. 
This  general,  say  they,  revolting,  divided  EogUuid 
into  forty  cantons,  and  in  these  cantons  distri*" 
buted  forty  knifl^^  to  whom  he  gave  a  power 
of  assembling^  on  occasion,  under  theif  several 
banners,  as  many  of  the  eflbctive  men  as  were 
found  in  their  respective  districts :  whence  they 
are  called  bannerets.    However  this  be,  it  appears 
from  Froissard,  Sec.  that  anciently  such  of  the 
military  men  as  were  rich  enough  to  raise  and 
subsist  a  company  of  armed  men,  end  had  aright 
to  do  so,  were  called  bannerets.     Net,  however, 
that  these  qualifications  rendered  them  knights, 
bttt  only  bannerets ;  the  appellation  of  knight 
being  only  added  tiiereto,  because  they  were  sim* 
pie  knights  before.    Bannerets  were  second  to 
none  but  knights  of  tiie  garter.    They  w«re  repu- 
ted the  next  degree  below  the  nobili^,  taking 
precedence  next  to  the  knights  of  the  bath»  and 
were  allowed  to  bear  arms  with  supporlefs,  which 
hone  else  may  tmder  the  degree  of  a  baron.    In 
France,  it  is  ^aid,  the  dignity  was  hereditary,  but 
in  England  it  died  witii  the  person  who  gained 
it    The  order  dwindled  on  ibe  institution  of 
baronets    bv  king  James  I.,  Sir  John  Smith 
made  so  after  l^gehill-figbl,  lor  rescuing  the 
standard   of  King  Charles  1,  being  the  last 
banneret,  until  the  late  Sir  William  Erskine, 
t>n  his  return  firom  the  continent  in  1764,  was 
made    a   knight-banneret   in    Hyde    Park   by 
bis  late  Majesty,  in  consequence  of  his  dis^ 
tinguished  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Enudorff. 
But  he  was  not  acknowledged  as  such  in  this 
country,  although  he  was  invested  with  the  order 
between  the  two  standards  ofthe  fifteenth  regiment 
of  light  dragoons,  becauae  the  ceremony  lud  not 
take  phK«  where  the  engagement   happened. 
Captain  Troilope  of  the  R^al  Navy  was  another 
knight-biinneret,  created  by  Geo.  HI.,  after  lord 
Duncan's  victory  at  CaoMperdown^  but  as  this 
involved  some  heraldic  difficulties  on  points  of 
precedency,  and  there  was  some  apprehension 
of  jealousy  on  the  part  of  baronets,  tne  practice 
was  discontinued.    In  Switserland  the  banneret 
was  a  civil  officer  like  the  Gonfalonier  in  some 
of  the  It^ian  republics;  and  at  Lausanne  the 
title  was  ootiferrea  on  those  magistrates  who  had 
the  privilege  of  caivying  the  banner  of  that  city 
at  the  oonfederadon  of  tbe  cantons. 

The  fbrm  of  creating  bannerets  was  on  a  day  of 
battle ;  the  candidate  presented  his  flag  to  the  king 
or  general,  who  cutting  ofi*  the  train  or  skirt 


thereof  and  making  it  a  squaee,  returned  it  again, 
the  proper  banner  of  bannerets^  ^ho  are  oeace 
sometimes  called  knights  of  the  square  fl^^. 
There  seems  to  have  been  bannerets  created 
either  in  a  different  manner,  or  by  others  than 
the  sovereign;  since  King  James,  in  the  patent 
of  baronets,  gives  them  precedence  to  all  knights 
bannerets,  except  such  as  are  created  by  the 
king  himself  in  the  field ;  which  implies,  either 
that  there  are  some  of  this  order  created  out  of 
the  field,  or  by  inferior  persons. 

Bannerol,  more  properly  Banderol*  from 
handeroUy  Fr.  a  little  flag  or  streamer. 

BAN'NIAN,  »,  t.  1.  A  man's  undress,  or 
morning  gown,  such  as  is  worn  by  the  Bannians 
in  the  East  Indies.  2.  A  native  of  India ;  now 
usually  applied  to  a  Gentoo  servant  employed  in 
managing  the  commercial  affairs  for  Englishmen. 

Bannian-Dat,  in  common  pariance,  a  day 
of  self-denial ;  of  shifts  and  expedients ;  derived 
probably  from  sacred  or  &st-day. 

Bannian-Tree.  a  sacred  fig-tree,  growini?  in 
India,  called  by  our  old  herbalists  *  (he  arched 
Indian  fig-tree;*  from  the  various  branches  of 
which  grow  little  sprigs  downwards,  till  thay 
reach  the  ground,  take  root,  as  Milton  has 
observed. 

And  daughtflrs  gnrbw 
About  the  mother  tree,  a  pillar'd  shade. 
High  o'er-arch'd,  and  tehoiog  itaiki  Ixiiffeea. 

BANNIANS.    See  Banians. 

BANNIER  (John),  a  SwediA  geneml,  bora 
in  1601.  He  served  under  Qustavus  Adolphus^ 
and  on  his  death  became  commander-in-chief. 
After  gaining  many  victories,  and  taking  several 
important  places,  fortune  favored  the  imperial- 
ists, and  they  at  last  drove  him  out  of  Bohemia. 
He  died  in  1641,  on  his  retreat  from  the  German 
dominions. 

BANNIMUS,  q.  d.  we  banish,  from  the  obso- 
lete verb  hanmo,  the  form  of  expulsion  of  any 
member  from  the  University  of  Oxford,  by  affix- 
ing the  sentence  up  in  some  public  place,  as  a 
promulgation  of  it. 

BANNITUS,  an  exile  or  outlaw. 

BAN'NOCK,  n.  s.  A  kind  of  oaten  or  peas- 
meal  cake,  mixed  with  water,  and  baked  upon 
an  iron  plate  over  the  fire ;  used  in  the  northern 
counties,  and  in  Scotland. 

Bannocks  differ  from  cakes,  in  being 
thicker  and  softer ;  and  their  taste  is  thought  to 
be  Improved  by  being  baked  in  the  embers,  or  on 
a  stone  placed  before  the  fire,  or  a  slate  above  it. 

Bannock-burn,  a  village  of  Scotland,  in  Stir- 
lingshire, seated  on  the  Bannodi,  from  whence 
it  is  named,  famous  for  the  decisive  battle  fought 
near  it  between  king  Robert  Bruce  of  Scotland, 
and  Edward  II.  of  Ensland.  A.D.  1314. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  Uiat  to  poetical  narratives 
only  (that  of  the  Scottish  poet  Barbour  particu- 
larly) we  must  look  for  the  existing  detail  of 
the  events  of  tliis  memorable  day.  They,  how- 
ever, were  so  important,  and  have  since  been  so 
firequently  alluded  to  by  poets  and  historians, 
that  we  cannot  omit  to  furnish  the  reader  with 
the  best  account  we  can  dijg^est.  On  Saturday 
the  22d  of  June,  bruce  having  received  intelli- 
gence that  the  English  had  reached  Edinburgh, 


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drew  hfs  tetay  bbt  Of  !Ht  encampment  to  take  up 
a  position  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stirling. 
Here  hfe  occupied  a  wood,  extending  ^>n  the 
right  towards  me  church  of  St.  Ninran,  and  on- 
the  left  neatly,  ii  is  supposed,  in  the  direcrion  of 
ihe  road  from  Edinburgh  to  Stiriinp:;  directinj^ 
a  number  of  small  pits  to  be  dug  knee-deep,  and 
covered  with  turf,  which  concealed  at  the  bottom 
a  kind  of  spikes  called  calthrops,  designed  for 
the  deatfuction  of  the  enemy's  cavalry.    The  po- 
sitaou  was  besides  protected  by  a  neighbouring 
morass.     On  Sunday,  the  23d,  an  alarm  being 
given  of  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  Brace  prfe- 
pared  to  receive  them.     His  army  heard  mass : 
and  in  answer  to  a  proclamation  that  whoever 
would,  might  retire,  all  unanimously  declared 
their  reaolation  to  conquer  with  him  or  die.  His 
right  wing  was  commanded  by  his  brother  Ed- 
ward, the  left  by  lofd  Douglas  «nd  the  younger 
Stewart,  and  the  centre  by  his  nepkew,  Randolph^ 
earl  of  Murray,  while  he  himself  commandea  a 
reserve  posted  on  a  rising  ground:   Th«  English 
army  meanwhile  had  sent  a  squadron  of  800 
horse  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  Stirling  castlis 
by  a  circuitous  route,  which  the  king  perceiving, 
reproached  the  earl  of  Murray  with  reacving  the 
place  exposed,  and  the  latter  hastened  with  500 
spearmen  to  turn  the  enemy,  an  object  which  he 
with  difficulty  accomplished.    The  van  of  ^e 
English  army  soon    after  appeared    in  sight. 
Henry  de  Bohun,  a  knight  of  the  Hereford  fa^. 
mily,  advancing  a  bbw-shot  before  his  comrades, 
now  distinguished  '  the  Bruce'  from  a  crown  sur- 
mounting his  helmet,  and  the  manner  in  which 
he  disposed  his  troops,  he  himself  being  in  ad^ 
?ance  of  his  front.    The  Englishman  advanced 
upon  him,  but  his  spear  missing  the  king,  the 
latter,  rising  in  his  stirrups,  cleft  his  opponent's 
helmet  with  a  single  blow  of  his  battle-axt,  and 
Bohun  fell :  tliis  was  the  only  memorable  ev^nt  the 
first  day.  At  the  succeeding  dawn  Bruce  reminded 
his  troops  of  the  past  conduct  of  the  enetny  be- 
fore them,  their  usurpation  of  the  government  of 
the  country,  and  their  barbarous  treatment  of 
those  that  had  fallen  into  their  hands,  Aat  they 
therefore  were  now  to  iight  for  alt  they  held  dear^ 
their  own  liberty,  and  the  comfort  and  existence 
of  their  families.    He  showed  them  his  exoctlcnt 
position,  urged  the  toecessity  fe^  otder,  «nd  to 
preserve  their  line  unbroken,  while  he  pvomited 
the  amplest  rewards  to  all  who  exerted  them^o 
selves,  and  to  their  heirs  if  they  fell.    At  day- 
break Maurice,  Abbot  of  Inchaffiray,  leelelintted 
mass  in  front  of  the  army^  and  exhorted  the  sol- 
diers, bearing  k  crutiifix  In  his  hand.  The  troops 
now  breakfegted  on  the  ground,  atid  Brtioe  cre- 
ated some  of  the  most  distingui^ie^  of  his  ^* 
lowers  knights.    Edward  al:*o  in  ^ts^  com* 
manded  tlie  English  army,  attended  by  a  body- 
guard of  500  cavalry :  among  his  troops  were 
52,000  archers.    He  likewise  "was  cxmftdent  "Of 
victory,  but  the  same  unanimity  did  not  bubsist 
as  among  his  foes ;  and  die  Scottish  hott  having 
knelt  to  utter  a  prayer  and  receive  beMdieUon, 
be  exclaimed  to  those  around  hiftft  *  Behold, 
they  kneel  for  mercy!*    But  they  quktly  unde- 
ceived him; — the  armies   approached,  and  a 
contest  ensued,  unexampled   in  die  annals  of 
British  hbtory     The  English  van,  compost  of 


caivalry,  charged  the  right  vring  of  the  Scots  in 
full  gallop.  Here  Edward  Bruce  commanded, 
and  received  them  with  intrepidity.  While  this 
wing  was  engaged,  Randolph  advanced  to  meet 
the  main  body  of  the  enemy ;  and  the  left  wing 
also  hastened  into  the  conflict.  Repeated  charges 
of  cavalry  in  vain  attempted  to  break  the  Scottish 
line — ^it  was  impenetrable;  everywhere  they 
were  resisted  and  driven  back.  At  this  time  the 
battle  became  general.  The  Scots  were  annoyed 
by  the  English  archers ;  but  they  fought  despe- 
rately with  their  spears^  swords,  and  knives,  and 
also  with  iron  clubs  or  maces,  and  found  the  ad-^ 
vantage  of  acting  in  a  compact  body,  while  the 
English  forees  were  too  unwieldy  to  be  concezi- 
trated.  The  Scots  were  also  protected  by  their 
light  mrmour^  which  at  the  same  time  did  not 
restiain  thmr  movements.  Edward,  the  king's 
brother,  was  hard  pressed  by  the  English  cavalry, 
and  Murray,  making  a  movement  to  his  support^ 
vras  almost  overwhelmed  by  the  multitude  of 
the  enemy^  who  presented  a  vast  and  extensive 
front«  The  Scottish  king  now  directed  Sir  Ro- 
bert Keith  to  take  the  archers  in  flank  with  500 
horse,  and  their  impetuosity  proved  irresistible. 
The  enemy  were  overthrown,  and  fled  with  pre- 
cipitation. The  earl  of  Gloucester,  endeavour^ 
ihg  to  rally  the  fugitives,  was  unhorsed  and 
slain.  The  numbers  of  the  English  finally  proved 
their  destruction :  for  those  who  recoiled  threw 
the  rest  into  disorder,  and  those  who  fell  were 
trampled  to  death.  The  battle,  notwithstanding, 
continued  to  rage,  and  victory  was  long  and  fu^ 
riotosly  contested.  But,  at  length,  the  retainers 
of  the  Scottish  camp,  who  had  previously  been 
sent  to  a  valley  in  the  rear,  suddenly  appeared 
on  a  neighbouring  height,  and  the  enemy,  be- 
lieving it  a  strong  reinforcement,  took  at  once  to 
flight.  Edward,  with  500  horse,  sought  shelter 
in  Stirling  castle,  but  the  governor  found  means' 
to  dissuade  him  from  remaining  there.  The  rout 
of  his  army  became  complete.  Some  sought  re^ 
ft^e  among  the  rocks  ot  the  castle,  others  hur" 
ried  to  the  river  Forth,  and  they  were  drowned  ^ 
-b«t  th«  most  terrific  carnage  was  in  the  valley  of 
the  Batnockf  for  the  ascent  towards  the  east 
beiniC  difficult,  and  probably  impeded  by  wood, 
the  f^igitives  were  exposed  to  inevitable  destruc- 
tion. Scarcely  any  who  took  that  direction  es- 
ca|»ed ;  and  the  course  of  the  river  is  said  to  have 
been  completely  dammed  up  by  the  English 
who  were  slain.  Edward,  Itotly  pursued,  con- 
tinued, his  flight,  followed  by  sixty  horse,  to 
Wiachburgh,  twenty  miles  from  the  field  of 
bttttU»  where,  again  mounung,  the  pursuit  was 
<»ntinued  to  Dunbar  castle,  whence  he  was 
>iltiaMitely  conveyed  by  a  vessel  to  England* 
The  loss  on  both  sides  in  this  memorable  battle 
was  immense.  Barbour  asserts  that  the  English 
huA  30^000  men  and  200  kniights  killed :  but  the 
truth. of  this  calculation  is  questionable,  as  it  is 
mid  elsewhere  that  only  forty-two  knights  were 
Skdin,  «nd  sixty  made  prisoners,  ^arbour  A\s>a 
affirms  thiA  only  two  Scotsmen  of  note  fell  on 
the  eccftsioth  Sir  William  Vipont  and  ^ir  Walter 
Ross.  Tiie  earl  of  Gloucester's  {ate,  who  was 
the  near  relative  to  Edward,  was  much  la- 
mented ;  and  historians  state  that  had  the  Scots 
known  him  he  would  not  have  fallen.    His  body 


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was  carried  to  St.  Ninian's  church,  and  sent 
with  that  of  lord  CUflford  to  England.  '  O  day 
of  vengeance  and  fatality/  one  of  our  hbtorians 
exclaims,  *  hateful  accursed  day,  to  he  blotted 
from  the  circle  of  the  year;  a  day  which  taiv 
nished  the  glory  of  England,  despoiled  our  na- 
tion, and  enriched  its  enemies  to  the  amount  of 
£200,000.  How  many  valiant  youths  and  il- 
lustrious nobles,  how  many  excellent  horses  and 
beautiful  arms,  how  many  precious  vestments 
and  golden  vessels,  were  lost  in  that  single  unfor- 
tunate day/  The  privy  seal  of  Edward  was 
among  the  spoils,  and  afterwards  restored  by 
Robert.  He  is  said,  indeed  to  have  acted  upon 
this  victory  with  that  clemency  and  moderation 
which  has  rarely  been  equalled. 

The  consequences  of  this  great  battle  were  the 
surrender  of  the  fortresses  of  Scotland  to  Bruce, 
the  liberation  of  the  inhabitants  from  a  foreign 
yoke,  and  the  firm  establishment  of  that  prince 
upon  the  throne.  Memorials  of  it  are  said  still 
to  remain  near  the  spot,  where  armour  and 
weapons  are  frequently  dug  up ;  and  at  an  inter- 
val of  500  years  the  inhabitants  of  the  vicinity 
met  on  the  24th  of  June  1814,  to  celebrate  the 
tritimph  of  their  ancestors.  Sir  Walter  Scott 
has  commemorated  it  with  enthusiasm  in  his 
Lord  6f  the  Isles. 

BANNOW,  a  town  of  Ireland,  ten  miles 
south-west  of  Wexford. 

BANNUM,  in  law,  the  utmost  bounds  of  a 
manor  or  town ;  bannum  capitis  was  a  mulct  paid 
in  cattle. 

BANNUS  Dei,  the  bann  of  God,  an  expres- 
sion used  by  writers  of  the  middle  age,  for 
excommunication. 

B ANNUS  Regis,  a  proclamation  of  silence 
anciently  made  by  the  court,  before  the  encounter 
of  the  .champions  in  a  combat. 

BANOLAS,  a  town  of  Spain,  m  Catalonia, 
district  of  Gerona,  with  3000  inhabitants,  and  a 
considerable  trade  in  linen. 

BANGS,  a  town  of  Leon,  Spain,  thirty  miles 
from  Plasencia,  in  Estremadura.  The  nnmber 
of  families  is  about  300,  who  are  employed  prin- 
cipally in  the  manufacture  of  linen.  It  takes 
its  name  from  the  hot  sulphureous  baths  to  the 
north-east  of  the  town.  Here  are  to  be  seen  the 
remains  of  a  Roman  mound  or  dyke.  The 
territoiy  is  covered  with  olives,  chestnuts,  and 
vines ;  the  last  produces  annually  15,000  arobas 
of  wine. 

BANOY,  the  name  given  by  the  people  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  to  a  species  of  nawk,  some- 
what larger  than  our  sparrow-hawk,  of  a  yellowish 
color  on  the  back  and  wings,  and  white  under 
the  belly.  It  is  the  most  common  species  of 
hawk  in  that  part  of  the  world,  and  is  very 
voracious. 

BAN'QUET,«.  &ii.^       Fr.  banquet,  Ital. 

Ban'quetant,  IbanchettOf  Span.  6af»- 

B ANQUET^EB,  &  queUf  vanqueto;  Germ. 

Ban'quetimo.  3  and     Dut.     bancket. 

Derived  from  bank,  a  bench  or  table,  around 
which  messmates  or  companions  sit  to  eat  or 
feast  together.  It  now  signifies  a  luxurious  and 
sumptuous  entertainment.  Whether  the  feast,  or 
the  aessert  which  succeeds  it,  or  both. 

Shall  the  compamons  make  a  banqmet  of  him  T — 
Shall  they  part  1dm  among  thr  merchant-  **  J^^b, 


In  which  how  many  wonders  doe  they  nsdi^ 
To  their  oonoeipt  that  othera  ne*<er  sae ! 
Now  of  her  smUes  with  which  their  scales  tfcey  fcedi. 
Like  gods  with  nectar  in  their  b^nkeU  free.     4*""^ 

The  mind  shall  60119110^,  tho'  the  body  piae  : 
Fat  paunches  make  leaa  pates,  and  dainty  fate 
Make  rich  the  rihs,  bat  baakeroat  the  wiu. 

Welcome  his  fiiends. 
Visit  his  countrymen,  and  bamquet  theio.  h. 

In  his  commendations  I  am  fed  ; 
It  is  a  hanqugt  to  me.  ^ 

You  cannot  have  a  perfect  palace,  except  yi«  hax 
two  sides ;  a  side  for  the  bimquei,  and  a  side  fo  c^ 
household ;  the  one  for  feasto  and  triampfaay  aad  ex 
other  for  dwelling.  ^•t*- 

They  were  banqueted  by  the  way,  and  i^b  aeisr 
they  approached,  the  more  increased  the  nobSiij. 

Sir  J.  JSiyvR 
In  a  ftonfwefM^house,  among  certain  pleasaitf  Qu, 
the  table  was  set  near  to  an  excellent  water-wort. 

Home  then,  my  lambs  \  the  flailing  dio|w  eadbrr: 
To-monow  shall  ye  feast  in  pastnrea  new. 
And  with  the  rising  sun,  6a«9iM<  on  pearled  dew. 
F^tAa^e  FmfU  l^L 

When  Yenus  was  bom  all  the  goda  were  laviieia 
ByBiimi*e  Anafems  ef  Mtiami^ 


If  a  fasting-day  come,  he  hath  on  that  daja  1«> 
qaet  to  make.  "* 

At  that  tasted  £nut. 
The  sun,  as  from  Thyestan  bamjmet,  tozm'd 
His  course  intended.  M 

So  long  as  his  innoceaoe  is  his  repeat,  he  feia 
and  ftoNfiffte  upon  bread  and  water.  SM. 

That  dares  prefer  the  toils  of  Hercnles. 
To  dalliance,  tenju^ft,  and  ignoble  eaee. 

Dffim, 
At  the  walk's  end  behold,  how  rais'd  en  high» 
A  btrnquet-houee  salutes  the  southern  sikj.  & 

I  purpos'd  to  unbend  the  erenlng  he«i». 
And  banquet  private  in  the  women's  bow'zs. 

nor 

With  royal  banqueti  feasts  my  longing  saeU 
And  seals  his  truth  with  sacramental  wioc. 

Ban9Uetivg-House,  Banquetikc  Row 
The  ancient  Romans  supped  in  the  atrius*  er 
vestibule  of  their  houses ;  bat,  in  after-ni^.. 
magnificent  saloons,  or  banaueting  rooms,  «e?e 
built  for  the  more  commodious  and  spleadi^ 
entertainment  of  their  guests.  Lucnlli^  ind 
ieyenl  of  these,  each  distinguished  by  the  xam 
of  some  god ;  and  there  was  a  particular  mie  «t 
expense  appropriated  to  each.  Plutarch  ifhm 
with  what  ms^ificence  he  entertained  Gccn 
and  Pompey,  who  went  with  desig^  to  surphse 
him,  by  telling  only  a  slave  who  waited,  ihas  tk 
cloth  ^ould  be  laid  in  the  Apollo.  The  empotf 
Claudius,  among  others,  had  a  splendid  baoqii^ 
ing  room  named  Mercury.  But  eymj  thing  sf 
this  kind  was  outdone  by  the  lastre  of  that  oeir 
brated  banqueting  house  of  Nero,  called  doavs 
aurea;  which,  by  the  circular  motion  of  ib 
partitions  and  ceilings,  -imitated  the  revoluiMra 
of  the  heavens,  and  represented  the  dilfefeDt«e9i> 
sons  of  the  year,  whicn  changed  at  eveiy  semcf, 
and  showered  down  flowers,  essences  wed  \<r- 
fumes,  on  the  guests.    See  Saloon. 

BAN  QUETTE,  n.  $.  Fr.  in  fortificaf irn,  3 
small  bank  at  the  foot  of  the  parapet,  fg?  the 
soldiers  to  mount  upon  when  they  fife. 


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BANSTICKLE,  in  ichthyology.    See  Gas- 

TEROSTEUS. 

BAN'STICKLE,  n.  s.  A  smaU  fish,  called 
itickleback. 

BANTAM,  a  large  town  of  the  island  of  Java, 
n  the  East  Indies,  once  the  capital  of  an  indepen- 
lent  stale.  But  its  harbour  has  been  gradually 
choked  up  with  soil  from  the  surrounding  hills : 
ind  the  air  is  so  unhealthy  that  its  inhabitants 
lare  been  compelled  to  desert  the  place  almost 
entirely.  In  1595  the  king  of  Bantam  called 
n  the  assistance  of  the  Dutch  of  Java,  against 
he  Portuguese,  and  as  a  return  for  their  aid 
illowed  them  to  build  a  factory  here,  where  also 
he  English,  under  Captain  lAncaster,  established 
me  in  1603.  At  this  time  the  sovereign  had  a 
:omroerciaI  navy  of  his  own,  and  until  the  latter  end 
>f  the  seventeenth  century,  when  he  sent  an 
embassy  to  England,  to  request  assistance  against 
he  Dutch.  In  the  following  year  the  latter  took 
lis  capital,  and  in  1683,  they  entirely  dispossessed 
lira  of  die  government;  the  English  factory 
vithd  rawing  to  Surat. 

The  Dutch  East  India  Company  now  keep  a 
^rrison  here,  nominally  to  defend  the  king,  but 
n  fact  to  have  him  always  in  their  own  power, 
nie  chief  authori^  on  the  part  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company  was  vested  ina  seninr  merchant, 
vith  the  title  of  Commandant,  who  had  the 
nanagement  of  the  trade,  which  consisted  chiefly 
n  pepper  and  some  cotton  yarn.  To  the  com- 
nandery  at  Bantam  belonged  the  residencies  of 
Lampong,  Toulang,  Baunang,  and  Lampong 
iamanca,  situated  on  the  southern  part  of  Suma- 
:ra.  The  sovereigns  possess  the  power  of  life 
ind  death  over  their  subjects,  but  pay  an  annual 
:ribute  of  six  million  pounds  of  pepper  to  the 
Dutch. 

The  climate  of  Bantam,  says  Mr.  Hamilton,  is 
till  more  pestilential  than  that  of  Batavia,  of 
vhich  JSL  remarkable  instance  is  mentioned.  On 
he  night  of  the  18th  March  1804,  the  king  of 
bantam  was  murdered  by  one  of  his  grand 
lephewii,  who  had  concealed  himself  under  his 
ted,  and  who  was  afterwards  discovered  and  put 
o  death.  An  embassy  was  sent  from  Batavia,  to 
ilect  and  instal  the  new  king  in  the  name  of  the 
Dutch  Company,  part  of  which  ceremony  consists 
n  having  him  weighed  in  a  pair  of  scales  at  the 
>alace  gate,  after  having  feasted  for  fifteen  days, 
this  deputation  was  composed  of  a  counsellor  of 
India,  four  senior  merchants,  a  major,  lieutenant, 
lerjeant,  two  corporals,  eighteen  French  and 
eighteen  Dutch  grenadiers.  The  external  forms 
>ccupied  fifteen  days;  at  the  end  of  which  time, 
>r  soon  after  their  return,  the  whole  of  the  Euro- 
>ean  grenadiers  and  subalterns  died,  except  two 
>r  three  of  the  French  who  escaped.  The  coun- 
lellor,  bis  wife  who  had  accompanied  him,  the 
najor  and  four  merchants,  all  returned  with  putrid 
even,  which  brought  them  to  the  brink  of  the 
frave,  and  the  secretary  died.  In  181 1,  after  the 
conquest  of  Batavia,  the  town  and  district  of 
Bantam  surrendered  to  the  British  arms  without 
resistance.  Bantam  was  restored  to  the  Dutch 
ay  the  peace  of  1814.  Long.  106*  31'  E.,  lat.  6° 
14' S. 

Baktam,  or  dwarl  cock,  in  zoology,  a  well 
known  variety  of  the  species  pliasiaaus  gallus. 
See  Pbasiakus. 


Bantam  Wobx,  a  kind  of  painted  or  carved 
work,  resembling  that  of  Japan,  only  more  gaudy. 
Some  are  flat,  lying  even  with  the  black,  and 
others  highly  embossed,  as  we  find  in  many  large 
screens.  The  Japan  artists  work  chiefly  in  gold 
and  other  metals;  and  those  of  Bantam  generally 
in  colors,  with  a  small  sprinkling  of  gold  here 
and  there :  for  the  flat  Bantam  work  is  done  in 
colors  mixed  with  gum-water,  proper  for  the 
thing  designed  to  be  imitated. 

BANTER, w.&n,  ^  The  derivation  unknown. 

Ban'terer,  S  Perhaps  from  badiner^  Fr. 

Ban'tering.         3  It  signifies  to  mock  with 
ridicule.    A  lighter  kind  of  raillery.    Playing 
upon  the  fretfulness  of  the  testy,  the  simplicity 
or  the  ignorant,  the  self-importance  of  the  proud, 
and  the  conceitedness  of  the  vain.    It  is  some- 
times employed  against  the  infirmities  of  the 
good  and  the  virtuous.     A  species  of  humor 
that  is  more  allied  to  malignity  than  kindness^ 
and  which  sometimes  meets  with  its  reward. 
'Tiff  thoi,  maliciottB  deity. 
That  thoo  hast  banter'd  wretched  me; 
Thus  made  me  vainly  loee  my  time, 
Thof  fool  away  my  yoathfol  prime. 

WaM.  Onkmng  dm  /  mmkt  mw. 

The  magistrate  took  it  that  he  bantered  him,  and 
bade  an  officer  take  him  into  custody.         VEatrange, 

It  is  no  new  thing  for  innocent  simplicity  to  be  the 
subject  of  haniering  drolls.  Ji, 

This  humour,  let  it  look  never  so  silly,  as  it  passes 
many  times  for  frolic  and  hanter,  is  one  of  the  most 
pernicious  snares  in  human  life.  /if. 

What  opinion  have  these  religions  hmtehn  oi  the 
divine  power?  Or  what  have  they  to  say  for  their 
mockery  and  contempt?  /^^ 

And  the  grave  affairs  of  state  have  been  treated 
with  an  air  of  irony  and  banter,  ShafteAwy, 

Could  Alcinotts'  guests  withhold 
From  scorn  or  rage  ?     Shall  we,  cries  one,  permit 
His  lewd  romances,  and  his  hcM^ring  wit?  Tate. 

Metaphysicks  are  so  necessary  to  a  distinct  concep- 
tion, solid  judgment,  and  just  reasoning  on  many  sub- 
jects, that  those  who  ridicule  it,  will  be  supposed  to 
make  their  wit  and  bmter  a  refuge  and  excuse  for 
their  own  laaness.  Warn* 

BANTIUS  rL),  a  spirited  youth  of  Nola, 
whom  Hannibal  found  almost  dead  among  those 
who  had  fellen  in  the  battle  of  Canna.  Having 
been  kindly  treated,  and  sent  home  with  great 
generosity,  he  took  it  into  his  head  to  betray  his 
country  to  such  a  humane  enemy;  but  Marcellus, 
the  Roman  general,  being  informed  of  it,  repri- 
manded Bantius,  and  he  afterwards  continued 
steady  in  the  Roman  interest 

Bantling,  n.  f.    if  it  has  any  etymology, 
it  is  perhaps  corrupted  from  the  old  word  baimy 
hainilingy  a  little  child.    A  low  word ;  so  says 
Johnson.    But  it  is  usually  applied  to  a  child 
bom,  or  at  least  begotten,  before  marriage. 
If  the  object  of  their  love 
Chance  by  Lucina's  aid  to  prove. 
They  seldom  let  the  bantUttg  roar 
In  basket  at  a  neighbour's  door.  Prior. 

BANTRY  Bat,,  called  also  Beerhaven,  a 
capacious  bay  of  Ireland,  ou  the  coast  of  Cork, 
capable  of  containing  all  the  shipping  of  Europe. 
It  is  twenty-six  miles  long,  mree  broad,  and 
forty  fiithoms  deep  in  the  middle,  where  are  two 
small  islands.    Bear  and  Whiddy.     Coral   is 


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494 


BAP 


dredged  fromlhe  bottom  of  the  hav,  and  uied  as 
manure  in  the  neicrhbourhood.  Fish  were  for- 
merly Tery  plentiful  here ;  but  of  late  the  business 
has  declined.  In  May,  1689,  a  French  fleet, 
which  had  brought  succours  of  arms,  ammuni- 
tion, and  money,  to  the  adherents  of  king  James, 
was  attacked  in  this  hay  by  Admiral  Herbert ; 
and  in  December,  1796,  another  French  fleet, 
consisting  of  seven  sail  of  the  line,  two  frigates 
armed  en  flute,  and  seventeen  transports,  an- 
chored here  fot  a  few  inys,  and  landed  an 
officer  aad  eight  msB  ifi  a  boat,  who  were  taken 
prisoners. 

Bantry,  a  lartre  barren  barony  of  Ireland,  in 
ibe  county  of  Cofk, 

B^iiTJtY,  a  se»-poirt  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Cork,  and  province  of  Munster,  seated 
,   o&  the  bay,  about  thirty  mU^  west  of  Cork,  and 
164  south-west  of  Dublin. 

BANYAN  Ta»,  in  botaay,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  flcus  Indica. 

BANYOUWANGY,  a  Dutch  settlement  of 
Java,  containing  the  residence  of  ar  native  chief. 
The  Dutch  garrison  the  fort  to  protect  themselves 
and  commerce  from  the  numerous  pirates  of  the 
straiu  of  Bail. 

BAN2A,  A  Iowa  ol*  Congo  Proper,  on  the 
river  Zaire. 

BAOBAB,  the  name  given  by  Prosper  Albi- 
nus  to  the  African  calabash.  I^e  Aoanronia. 
This  iff  the  largest  vegetable  production  known: 
although  the  trunk  is  not  above  twelve  or  flfteen 
feet  high,  it  is  from  sixty  to  eighty-flve  feet  round, 
and  the  lower  branches  extend  almost  horizon- 
t^ly  ^out  sixty  feet.  Their  own  weight  bending 
Ihese  extremities  to  the  ground,  they  form  an 
hemispherical  mass  of  verdure  about  120,  and 
4M>metimes  150,  feet  in  diameter.  The  flowers 
of  this  plant  are  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
tree,  and  are  followed  by  a  fruit  pointed  at  both 
ends,  about  ten  inches  long  and  five  or  six  broad, 
covered  with  a  kind  of  green  down,  under  which 
is  a  hard,  black,  radiated,  rind.  The  fruit  hangs 
to  the  tree  by  a  pedicle  two  feet  long.  It  con- 
tains a  whitish,  spongy,  juicy,  substance  of  an 
acid  taste,  and  seeds  of  a  brown  color,  of  the 
shape  of  a  kidney  bean,  which  are  called  goui 
When  dry,  the  pulp  by  which  the  seeds  are  sur- 
rounded, is  powdered,  and  brought  into  Europe 
under  the  name  of  terra  sigillata  lemnia.  Tue 
kernel  contains  a  large  proportion  of  alkali, 
when  burnt,  and  the  negroes  mix  it  with  palm 
oil  to  make  soap.  The  bark  is  called  lalo;  the 
negroes  dry  and  powder  it;  after  which  it  is  pre- 
served in  little  cotton  bags,  and  two  or  three 
pinches  are  put  into  their  food :  it  is  mucilagi- 
nous and  supposed  tf>  check  perspiration.    This 


tree  is  a  native  of  the  west  coast  cf  Africa,  &om 
the  Niger  to  the  kingdom  of  Benin. 

BAOL,  a  smdl  kingdom  of  wHtem  Africa, 
.between  Uie  Senegal  and  Gambia.  It  lies  south 
of  Cavor,  by  which  it  has  recently  been  con- 
quered.    It  has  a  capital  of  the  same  name. 

BAPAUME,  a  strong  town  of  France,  in  the 
ci-devant  French  Netherlands,  now  included  in 
the  department  of  the  Straits  of  Calais.  Fine 
thread  and  lawn  are  made  here.  De  V^ille  and 
Vauban  fortified  it  in  1 641,  and  France  obtained 
the  cession  of  it  in  1659.  Situate  eighteen  miles 
south-east  of  Arras. 

BAPHE,  in  the  writings  of  the  ancients,  a 
word  used  to  express  t(>at  fine  red  color  with 
which  they  illuminated  the  capital  letters  in  ma- 
nuscripts, at  the  beginning  of  chapters.  It  is 
also  called  by  some  encaustum  sacra,  and  by 
others  coccus  and  cinnabaris.  It  was  a  very  ele- 
gant color,  and  said  to  have  been  prepared  of  the 
purple  taken  from  the  murex  and  some  other 
mgredients.  It  was  called  encaustuin,  •  from  its 
resembling  the  fine  bright  red  used  in  enamels. 

BAPTiE,  in  antiquity,  an  efleminate  volup- 
tuous kind  of  priests  of  the  goddess  Cotytto,  at 
Athens ;  so  called  firom  their  staied  dippings  and 
wttshings,  by  way  of  purification;  flietr  rites  vrere 
performed  in  the  night,  and  consisted  chiefly  d[ 
lascivious  dances.  Eupolis  having  composed  a 
comedy  to  expose  them,  entitled  pairroQ,  they 
threw  him  into  the  sea,  to  be  revenged ;  and  the 
same  fate  is  also  said  to  have  befallen  Cratinus^ 
another  Athenian  poet,  who  had  written  a  comedy 
against  the  Baplse,  nnder  the  same  title.  Others 
deduce  the  denomination  Bapts  firom  the  prac- 
tice of  dyeing  and  painting  their  bodies,  especi- 
ally their  eyebrows,  and  officiating  at  the  service 
of  their  deity,  with  the  parade  and  demureness 
of  women.  Juvenal  descnbes  them  in  this  light. 
Stat.  ii.  ver.  91. 

BAPTES,  in  natural  history,  a  namie  given 
by  the  ancients  to  a  fossile  substance  ns^  iq 
medicine ;  they  have  left  us  but  very  short  de- 
scriptions of  it.  Pliny  only  tells  us,  that  it  was 
soft  and  of  an  agreeable  smell.  Hence  Agricola 
judges,  that  it  was  probably  one  of  the  bitumens. 

BAPTIS£CULA,in  botany,  a  name  given  by 
some  authors  to  the  blue  com-flower,  caUed  the 
cyanus  or  blue-bottle. 

BaPTISIA,  in  botany,  a  genns  of  plants, 
class,  decandria ;  order,  mooogynia.  The  gen- 
eric character  is :  cal.  semi  ft>iir*ftvefid,  bilabi- 
ate :  COR.  papilionaceous,  petals  nearly  equal  in 
length:  vexii.lum  reflected  laterally :  stam.  de- 
ciduous; legume  ventricose,  pediceHaie,  maoy- 
teeded. — Hort.  Rew.  it  is  a  genus  closely  allied 
to  podalyria,  and  containing  fear  species. 


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BAPTISM. 


BAPTISM, 
BAP^rrzEy  V. 
Bapti'zer,  n. 
Bap'tismal, 
Bafi'ist, 
Bap'tistert, 
Baptist'ical, 
Bapti'zation. 


Derived  from  the  Gr.  pairrtf 
nnd  Panic**-  The  primary 
meaning  is  to  dip,  to  phing^, 
toimmerge.  Protestant  Chris- 
'"tians  use  it  strictly  in  its  pri- 
mary sense,  or  with  greater 
latitude  of  meaning,  accord- 

. . ,^„.J  ing  to  their  respective  tenets, 

on  the  subject  of  the  nte  of  baptism,  as  an  ordi- 
nance of  Christianity.  It  is  sometimes  employed 
figuratively,  to  express  overwhelming  sorrows; 
the  covering  of  the  earth  by  the  de^  of  heaven; 
and  the  sacred  influences  of  the  spirit  of  God  in 
cleansing  the  heart. 

I  have  a  haptitm  to  be  baptiged  with,  and  how  am 
I  ttraitened  till  it  be  accompliahed.  £«A«. 

Certes,  if  he  be  taptued  without  peniteAce  of  hia  old 
(Ut,  he  veeeiveth  the  ma^  of  be^timt,  bat  not  the 
grace,  ne  the  reminion  of  his  sinnet,  til  he  hare 
veray  npentanee.  Chameer.  The  Pertmu  ToU* 

Speak,  my  Lord ; 
And  ve  will  haav,  note,  aad  belaaiva  in  heart, 
That  what  you  speak  is  in  yovr  conscienea  wuh'd 
As  pore  as  sin  with  baptimn,  Shakipmn, 

His  hapiitme  gives  virtue  to  onrs.  His  last  aiotiflin  < 
(or  rather  passion)  wm  his  Aopltmy  with  blood;  his 
first  was  his  hapttmUion  with  w^r:  both  of  them 
wash  the  world  from  their  sins. 

BaJTi  ConttmplaiUmi^ 
BtpHim  is  given  by  water,  and  that  prescript  form 
0f  words  wht(^.the  church  of  Christ  dodi  use. 


Ha  to.  them  shall  laave  in  change. 
To  teach  all  nations  what  ot  him  they  leavn'd. 
And  his  salvation ;  then  who  shall  believe, 
Baptumg  in  the  profluent  stream,  the  sigA 
Of  hashing  them  from  guilt  of  sin  to  Ufa, 
Pure,  and  in  mind  prepared,  if  so  befal. 
For  death,  like  that  which  the  Redeemer  died. 

MtUm. 
Let  us  reflect  that  we  are  Christians :  that  we  are 
called  by  the  name  of  the  Ron  of  God,  and  haptttted 
into)  an  irreeondleahle  enmity  with  sin,  the  worid,  and 
the  devil.  Rogen. 

The  sacramant  oi  haplitm  was  supposed  to  eontain 
a  fall  and  absdnta  expiatiott  of  sin ;  and  the  soul  was 
instantly  restoved  to  its  original  foxiiff,  aad  antitlad 
to  the  promise  of  eternal  salvation,  Cikken, 

Philosophy,  hapiu^d 
In  the  pure  fountain  of  eternal  love, 
Has  eyes,  indeed  ;  and,  viewing  ill  she  sees 
As  meant  to  indicate  a  God  to  man. 
Gives  him  his  praise,  and  forfeits  not  her  own. 

Cowper's  Tatk, 
Pass  not  unblast  the  genius  of  the  place ! 

if  through  the  air,  a  aephyr  more  serene, 
WinnMr  the  brow,  tis  his ;  and  if  ye  traea 
Along  bis  margin  a  mora  eloquent  gveen. 
If  on  the  heart  the  freshness  of  the  scene 

Sprinkle  iu  coolness,  and  faom  the  dry  dnsi 
Of  weary  life  a  moment  lave  it  clean 

With  nature's  tepfiim, — 'ti»  to  him  ye  asnst 
Pay  orisons  for  this  suspension  of  disgusL 

^yroN,  ChUdBBmtHd. 

Baptism  has  been  defined^  a  New  Testaiaent 
ordinance,  appointed  by  our  Lord  ieras  Christ, 
'jcs  the  first  or  mitiatoiy  spbcrameat  of  the  Gospel 
dispensation,  whereby  its  subjects  ave  adnrittea  as 
visible  membeiRS  of  liiat  spiritual   society    o^ 


believers,  which  is  scripturallv  denominated  the 

*  Church  of  Christ,'  and  entitled  to  all  the  privi- 
leges of  church  communion.  The  derivation  of 
the  word  is  from  the  Greek  jSairrt^si,  which  lite* 
rally  signifies  dipping  or  immersion,  but  is  often 
used  in  a  lower  sense  to  express  the  legal  ablu- 
tions and  washings  of  the  ceremonial  law.  SeeHeb. 
ix.  10.  and  Mark  vii.8.  Baptism  is  denominated 
or  described  by  various  ecclesiastical  writers,  in 
other  ways;  it  is  sometimes  called  palingenesia, 
the  laver  of  regeneration,  salus,  salvation;  er^pa- 
yic»  signaculum  Domini,  or  signaculum  fldei,  the 
seal  of  fruth ;  mysterium,  mystery ;  sacramentum 
fidei,  the  sacrament  of  &ith,  &c.  Sometimes  it 
was  called  viaticum,  from  its  being  administered 
to  departing  persons ;  sometimes  sacerdotium 
laici,  the  lay  priesthood,  because  allowed  in  cases 
of  necessity  to  be  conferred  by  laymen;  some- 
times the  great  circumcision,  because  it  suc- 
ceeded in  the  room  of  circumcision,  and  was  to 
be  a  se!(l  of  the  Christian  covenant,  as  that  was 
the  seal  of  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham.  As 
it  had  Christ  for  its  author,  it  was  anciently  styled 
Aftfpor  and  ^opiffyia  Kvpcov,  the  gift  of  the  Lord  ; 
sometimes  simply  ^i#pov,  by  way  of  eminence. 
And  as  it  made  men  members  of  the  church,  it 
had  the  ride  of  TcXnwffic,  and  TcXaii,  the  conse- 
cration, and  consummation;  because  it  gave 
men  the  perfection  of  Christians,  and  a  right  to 
partake  of  the  To  TtXftov,  which  was  the 
Lord's  Supper,  it  was  also  entitled  /iviytfi^  and 
fWYoyoyia,  the  initiation,  as  it  admitted  men  to 
all  the  sacred  rites  of  the  Christian  religion. 

Purification  by  water  seems  so  natui^  an  em- 
blem to  express  mental  purification,  that  the  use 
of  it  has  prevailed  amongst  nations  who  were 
never  enlightened  by  revelation ;  water  was  used 
in  Ae  religious  ceremonies  botii  of  the  Egyptians 
and  Greeks;  and  Grotius  is  of  opinion  tjiat  it 
orizinated  at  the  time  of  the  deluge.  Accordine 
to  Clemens,  Alexandrinus,  and  Tertullian,  pun- 
fication,  by  vrater,  was  the  first  ceremony  per- 
fmned  at  initiation  into  the  Eleusinian  myste- 
ries, which  were  derived  from  Egypt ;  and  Hesy- 
obius  renders  the  word  vipavoc,  or  the  waterer,  by 

•  oyvwrtK  rmp  JSKtvnvwv,  Ibe  priest  whose 
oftce  at  tbe  Eleorinian  mysteries  was  that  of  pu- 
riftriag. 

TV  Jews  flie  said  by  many  writers,  to  have 
used  Baptism  together  with  circumcision  and  sa« 
crifioe  in  the  admission  of  male  proselytes  :  all 
these  ceremonies,  according  to  the  same  authors, 
having  been  observed  in  their  own  admission  into 
covenant  with  the  Deity  at  Sinai,  when  they 
washed  their  clothes,  and  sanctified  themselves. 
See  Ezod.  xix.  10. — 14.  The  female  proselyte 
was  admitted  by  baptism  and  sacrifice,  and  in 
cases  where  the  proselyte  had  children,  they 
both  circumcised  and  baptised,  or  baptised  them 
only,  according  to  their  sex.  The  baptism  of  a 
proselyte  was  what  they  called  metonymioally 
nis  regeneration,  or  *  new  birth.' 

The  connexion,  or  rather  the  similitude  be- 
tween Jewish  and  Christian  baptism  has  been 
thus  exhibited  by  Dr.  Wall's  celebrated  treatise 
rpon  the  latter  institution . 


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BAPTISM. 


1.  Hie  Jews  required  of  proseljtea  a  renun- 
ciation of  idolatry,  and  to  believe  m  Jehovah. 

3.  The  Jews  interrogated  the  proselyte  while 
standing  in  the  water. 

3.  The  Jews  baptised  the  in&nt  children  of 
proselytes. 

4.  The  Jews  required  for  an  infant  proselyte 
that  either  his  father,  or  the  church  of  the  place, 
or  three  grave  persons  should  answer  for  the 
child. 

5.  A  Jewish  proselyte  was  said  to  be  bom 
again,  when  baptised. 

6.  The  Jews  told  the  proselyte  that  he  was 
now  clean  and  holy. 


7.  The  Jews  declared  the  baptised  to  be  under 
the  wings  of  the  Divine  Majesty,  or  Shechinah. 


8.  At  the  paschal  season,  the  Jews  baptised 
proselytes,  that  they  might  eat  the  passover. 

9.  The  Jews  had  their  proselytes  of  the  gate. 


The  above  statements  are  ingeniously  drawn 
from  the  writings  of  Maimonides  and  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud,  which  was  completed  at  the  close 
of  the  fifth  century,  and  of  course  affords  an  his- 
torical testimony  of  facts  existing  and  believed  in 
at  that  time.  Spencer,  who  is  fond  of  deriving  the 
rites  of  the  Jewish  religion  from  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Pagans,  lays  it  down  as  a  probable  sup- 
position, tliat  the  Jews  received  the  baptism  of 
proselytes  from  the  neighbouring  nations,  who 
were  wont  to  prepare  candidates  for  the  more 
sacred  functions  of  their  religion  by  a  solemn 
ablution ;  that,  by  this  affinity  of  sacred  rites, 
they ''might  draw  the  Gentiles  to  embrace  their 
religion,  and  that  the  proselytes  (in  gaining  of 
whom  ihey  were  extremely  diligent)  might  the 
more  easily  comply  with  the  transition  from 
Gentilism  to  Judaism.  In  confirmation  of  this 
opinion  he  observes,  first,  that  there  is  no  divine 
precept  for  the  baptbm  of  proselytes,  God 
naving  eqjoined  only  the  rite  of  circumcision 
for  the  admission  of  strangers  into  the  Jewish  re- 
ligioio^  Secondly,  that,  among  foreign  nations, 
the^  Egyptians,  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and 
others,  it  was  customary  that  those  who  were  to 
be  initiated  into  their  mysteries,  or  sacred  rites, 
should  be  first  purified  by  dipping  their  whole 
body  in  water.  That  learned  writer  adds,  as  a 
farther  confirmation  of  his  opinion,  that  the  cup 
of  blessing  likewise,  added  to  the  paschal  supper, 
seems  plainly  to  have  been  derived  from  a  pa^n 
original :  for  the  Greeks,  at  their  feasts,  had  one 
cup,  called  iroriypcov  aya^  iatuovoct  the  cup  of 
the  good  demon  or  god,  which  they  drank  at 
the  conclusion  of  their  entertainment,  when  the 
table  was  removed.  Since,  then,  a  rite  of  Gen- 
tile origin  was  added  to  one  of  the  Jewish  sacra- 
ments, viz.  the  passover,  there  can  be  no  absurdity 
in  supposing,  that  baptism,  which  was  added  to 
the  other  sacrament,  namely,  circumcision,  migfat 
be  derived  from  the  same  source.  In  the  last 
place,  be  observes,  that  Christ,  in  the  institution 


1.  The  Christians  required  to  renounoe  the 
devil,  and  all  his  works,  and  to  believe  in  the 
Trinity. 

2.  The  Christians  put  interrogatories  as  the 
catechumen  was  about  to  enter  the  water^  when 
he  had  before  answered  in  the  congregation. 

3.  The  Christians  baptised  in&nts. 

4.  The  Christians  observed  a  similar  custom. 


5.  Our  Saviour  and  the  Apostles  call  baptism 
regeneration,  or  being  bom  again. 

6.  The  same  term  is  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment :  the  baptised  Christians  are  called  the 
saints,  the  holy,  the  sanctified — ^sanctified  with 
the  washing  of  water. 

7.  Among  Christians  this  was  shown  by  the 
gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost:  to  this  end  the  lay- 
ing on  of  hands  was  used,  a  custom,  probably 
taken  from  the  Jewish  church. 

8.  Tlie  Christians  at  Easter  administered  bap- 
tism in  a  solemn  maxiner. 

9.  The  Christians  had  their  catechumens,  or 
competentes. 

of  his  sacraments,  paid  a  peculiar  regard  to  those 
rites  which  were  borrowed  from  the  Gentiles; 
for,  rejecting  circumcision  and  the  paschal  supper, 
he  adopted  iiito  his  religion  baptism  and  the 
sacred  cup;  thus  preparing  the  way  for  the 
conversion  and  reception  of  the  Gpntiles  into  his 
church. 

Some  able  critics,  however,  who  oppose 
the  general  conclusions  of  the  Baptists  upon 
this  subject,  agree  with  tliem  in  discarding 
these  alleged  proofii  of  the  connexion  between 
the  Christian  institute  and  Jewish  proselyte 
baptism.  The  learned  Owen  says : — 'The  opi- 
nion of  some  learned  men,  about  the  transferring 
of  a  Jewish  baptismal  rite  (which,  in  reality,  did 
not  then  exist),  by  the  Lord  Jesus  for  the  use  ol 
his  disciples,  is  destitute  of  all  probability.*  And 
in  his  exercitations  on  the  epistle  to  the  He* 
brews,  Exercitat.  xiv.  <  From  this  latter  tem- 
porary institution  (the  washing  of  their  clothes 
commanded  upon  tlie  Israelites  at  Sinu)  such  as 
they  had  many  granted  to  them  in  the  wilder^ 
ness,  before  the  giving  of  the  law,  the  Rabbins 
have  formed  a  baptism  for  tliose  that  enter  into 
their  synagogue ;  a  fancy  too  greedily  embraced 
by  some  Christian  writers^  who  would  have  the 
holy  ordinance  of  the  Church's  baptism  to  be 
derived  from  thence.  But  this  washing  of  their 
clothes,  not  of  their  bodies,  was  temporary, 
never  repeated  ;  neither  is  there  any  thing  of  any 
such  baptism  or  washing  required  in  any  prose- 
lyte, eittier  man  or  woman,  where  the  laws  of 
their  admission  are  strictly  laid  down.  Nor  are 
there  the  least  footsteps  of  any  such  usage  among 
the  Jews  until  after  the  days  of  John  the  Baptist, 
of  whom  it  was  first  taken  up  by  some  ante- 
mishnical  Rabbins.*  Jennings,  in  his  Jewish 
Antiquities,  (vol.  I.  p.  134,  8.)  a  work  recom- 
mended by  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  placed  in 
the  first  class  of  those  which  eveiy  clergyman 
ought  to  possess;  says  it  is  more  likely  the  Jews 
took  the  hint  of  prosdyte-baptism  fiom  the 


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Christians  after  our  Siriour's  time,  than  that  he 
borrowed  his  baptism  from  their's;  which,  when- 
ever it  came  into  practice,  was  one  of  those  addi- 
tions to  the  law  of  God,  which  he  severely  cen- 
sures. There  wants  more  evidence  of  its  being 
as  ancient  as  our  Saviour's  time,  than  I  appre- 
hend can  be  produced}  to  ground  any  argument 
upon  it  in  relation  to  Christian  baptism.  We 
therefore  dismiss  this  form  of  the  admission  of 
proselytes,  as  uncertain.'  And  Dr.  Lardner, 
works,  vol.  V.  p.  601,  2. :  *  I  pay  no  regard  to 
what  tiic  later  Jewish  Rabbins  say  of  the  method 
of  initiating  proselytes,  by  circumcision,  bap- 
tism, and  sacrifice ;  who  have  made  void  not  only 
the  moral  (with  which  our  Lord  often  charged  . 
them,  as  Matth.  xv.  1 — 9,  Mar^^  vii.  1 — 15,  and 
other  places),  but  also  the  ritual  part  of  the  law 
of  God .  Indeed,  they  had  corrupted  the  Mosaic 
ritual  by  numberless  additions,  before  the  coming 
of  our  Saviour.  As  appears  from  the  text  of  St. 
Mark  just  referred  to.  Nor  have  they  ceased  to 
do  the  like  since. 

'  I  think,  as  before  said,  that  women  were  first 
baptised  under  the  evangelical  dispensation.  I 
am  also  of  opinion,  that  our  blessed  Lord's  fore- 
runner first  made  use  of  baptism  as  an  initiating 
ordinance;  and  therefore  he  was  called  the 
Baptist,  O  BairrMTQc-  Matth.  iii.  1,  and  in  many 
other  places.  Nor  am  I  singular  in  this  opinion.'. 
From  this  alleged  Jewish  ordinance,  as  Jen- 
nings has  observed,  some- sects  infer,  tiiat  under 
the  Christian  dispensation  baptism  is  only  to  be 
administered  to  converts  from  Judaism,  Mahom- 
medanism,  paganism,  or  some  other  religion,  and 
to  tlieir  descendants  bom  before  their  conversion 
«Bd  baptism,  but  to  none  bom  after.  Mr.  Emlyn, 
in  particular,  (Previous  Qnesti<Mi  to  several 
Questions,  or  Valid  and  Invalid  Baptirai),  in- 
sists upon  this  argument  against  the  constant  and 
universal  obligation  of  inftunt  baptism.  And 
the  Society  of  Friends  ground  on  this  their  prin- 
cipal argument  for  rejecting  baptism  with  water 
as  a  '  carnal  washing.'  1^  Mr.  Gtumey's  late 
defence  of  the  '  Peculiarities  of  Friends,'  p.  67, 
See. 

Tbe  baptism  of  John  naturally  presses  upon 
our  consideration  at  the  commencement  of  eveiy 
enquiry  upon  this  subject.  Its  divine  original  is 
expressly  taught,  John  1  and  33,  and  its  object 
was  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  Messiah  by  call- 
ing a  general  attention  to  him  and  preaching  the 
secessity  of  repentance.  The  Jews  seem  to  have 
expected  a  general  baptism  at  the  coming  of  the 
IVicssiah,  and  accordingly  express  litde  surprise 
It  the  fact  of  tbe  baptism  itself,  but  ralber  ques- 
ion  tbe  authority  of  John  to  administer  it. 
'  Why  baptisest  thou  then  if  thou  be  not  Christ, 
leitber  Elias,  nor  the  prophet?'  J<^  uniformly 
)ore  testinBony  to  the  more  glorious  petsoa  and 
jfiice  of  the  Messiah; '  I  indeed,'  saia  he,  *  bap- 
:ise  you  with  water;  but  there  standcth  one 
unong  you  whom  ye  know  not,  he  shall  bap- 
tise you  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  fire:' 
wd,  agreeably  to  the  nature  of  his  mission,  he 
taught  them  that  his  baptism  was  of  no  more 
force  after  the  entrance  of  the  latter  upon  his 
public  ministiy; '  He  must  increase,  but  I  must 
jecrease;'  *  1  know  him  not  but  that  he  should 
bue blade  manifest  to  Israel;  therefore  am  I  come 
Vol.  III. 


baptisin<(  with  water;'  and  the  whole  of  his 
ministry  received  a  perfect  accomplislmjent, 
when,  amidst  the  admiring  multitude:!,  assembled 
on  occasion  of  his  baptising  his  great  successor, 
there  came  a  voice  from  heaven,  saying,  *  this  is 
my  beloved  sou,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased, 
hear  ye  him.*  The  cause  of  Christian  oaptism 
has  frequently  been  advocated,  and,  as  some 
have  thought,  illustrated,  from  the  baptism  of 
John ;  but  John,  according  to  the  scriptures,  is 
to  be  considered  as  a  member  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment church,  agreeably  to  our  Lord's  language, 
*  the  least  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  greater 
than  he.'  The  nature  and  obligation  of  baptism, 
as  a  Christian  ordinance,  is  to  be  placed  on  dif- 
ferent and  on  better  grounds. 

1 .  Tlie  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  oriei- 
nal  institution  of  this  sacrament  by  our  Lord 
himself,  as  a  means  of  admission  into  his  church. 
He  gave  the  universal  commission  to  the  dis- 
ciples after  his  resurrection  from  tbe  dead,  '  Go 
ye  and  teach  all  nations,  baptising  them  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  He  that  believeth  and  is  baptised 
shall  be  saved,  he  that  believeth  not  shall  be 
damned,'  Mark,  xvi,  15, 16.  As  a  sacrament  of 
initiation,  baptism,  according  to  the  majority  of 
writers  on  this  subject,  corresponds  with  circum- 
cision in  the  Jewish  establishment,  being  the 
badge  of  distinction  between  the  churc^i  and  the 
world.  The  analogy  between  these  two  ordi- 
nances appeared  so  forcible  to  the  church  in  the 
time  of  St.  Cyprian,  that  his  opinion  was  request- 
ed upon  the  point,  whether  baptism  ought  not  to 
be  delayed  till  the  eighth  day  after  the  birth 
of  a  child,  in  order  that  the  resemblance  between 
the  Jewish  and  Christian  sacraments  might  be 
moie  perfectly  exhibited.  Gregory  Nazianzen 
was  an  advocate  for  the  eighth  day.  Cir- 
cumcision has  been  considered,  from  a  very 
remote  period,  as  a  type  of  baptism,  and  those 
arguments  in  behalf  ot  infant  baptism  have  been 
deemed  valid,  which  are  drawn  ftom  the  prac- 
tice of  circumcision  under  the  ceremonial  law. 
St.  Paul  himself,  appears  to  teach  the  analogy 
of  the  two  ordinances  in  the  following  language, 
found  in  Col.  ii.  11.  'In  whom  ye  are  circum- 
cised with  the  circumcision  made  without  hands, 
in  putting  off  the  body  of  the  sins  of  the  flesh  by 
the  circumcision  of  Christ  (or  Christian  baptism), 
buried  with  him  in  baptism.' 

That  baptism  must  be  received  by  all  believers, 
is  evident  from  the  very  language  of  the  original 
institute,  *  he  that  believeth  and  is  baptised  shall 
be  saved,'  and  so  strongly  did  the  early  fathers 
feel  the  necessity  of  it,  that  they  frequentiy  ex- 
pressed their  doubts  as  to  tbe  safety  of  infants 
who  died  in  an  unbaptised  sUte.  Whether  it  be 
possible  for  a  man  to  be  saved  in  an  unbaptised 
condition  the  church  of  England  nowhere 
decides ;  but  the  scriptures  have  been  thought  to 
lean  to  the  side  of  absolute  necessity,  in  our 
Lord's  words  to  Nicodemus,  John,  iii,  5, 
'  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  thee,  except  a  man 
be  bom  again  of  water  and  of  the  spirit,  he  can- 
not enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God.'  The  fkthers 
generally  supposed  this  intended  to  express  the 
alMolute  necessity  of  baptism :  the  ft>rmer  part  of 
the  verse  evidenUy  aUudiag  to  the  outward  form 

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of  adminifltnition  by  water;  the  latter,  to  the  sub- 
sistance  of  an  inward  grace  by  the  spirit  of  God; 
constituting,  in  reality,  that  regeneration  of  the 
mind  of  which  the  outward  regenerative  rite  is 
an  imperfect  representation.  Hooker's  language 
upon  the  necessity  of  the  exterior  ordinance  is, 
'  If  Christ  himself,  which  giveth  salvation,  do 
require  baptism  it  is  not  for  us,  that  look  for  sal- 
vation, to  sound  and  examine  him  whether 
unbaptised  men  ms^  be  saved,  but  seriouriy  to 
do  what  is  required,  and  religiously  to  fear  the 
danger  which  may  grow  by  the  want  thereof/ 

2.  The  second  thing  worthy  of  consideration 
is  the  proper  subjects  to  whom  baptism  may 
be  administered^ 

The  church  of  England  admits,  equally,  to  the 
sacrament  persons  of  both  sexes,  adults  or  chil- 
dren. Considerable  opposition  of  opinion,  never- 
theless, prevails  at  present,  with  respect  to  the 
validity  0/  infant  baptism  and  its  benefits ;  for 
an  hisU>ri6il  sketch  ot  the  ceremony,  see  Pjedo- 
BAPTiKT.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  our  present 
enquiry  to  observe,  that  there  is  no  church  in 
the  world,  the  Baptist  excepted,  that  does  not 
admit  of  infant  baptism,  and  that  the  question 
was  never  agitated  upon  any  considerable  scale  un- 
til the  period  of  the  reformation.  The  service  found 
in  the  Common  Prayer  for  the  baptism  of  such 
as  are  of  riper  years,  was  added  at  the  review  oh 
the  restoration  of  Charles  IL  in  consequence  of 
the  growA  of  Anabaptists,  who  had  become  so 
numerous  in  the  preceding  oentnry,  that  it  was 
necessary  to  have  a  form  fitted  for  dieir  service. 

Clinical  Baptism,  which  was  used  in  the 
first  centuries  of  the  christian  era,  was  baptism 
administered  to  a  person  on  his  death-bei;  of 
which  custom,  mention  is  made  by  Cyprian  and 
£usebin&,  by  Epiphanius  in  Heres.  Cerinth,  and 
by  other  writers  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries. 
In  a  case  where  a  heathen  in  his  last  sickness, 
was  converted  to  the  Christian  religion,  such  a 
baptism  became  necessary.  But,  in  consequence 
of  the  superstitious  notion  that  baptism  alone 
washed  away  all  the  sins  of  the  past  life,  many 
persons  delayed  the  consideration  of  Christianity 
till  their  last  moments,  intending  just  at  that  cri- 
sis to  make  use  of  baptism,  and  thus  die  in  the 
hope  of  heaven.  Gregory  Nyssen,  Chrysostom, 
Nazianzen,  and  other  fathers  of  the  church, 
inveighed  against  this  delusion  in  ^e  most 
powerful  language.  The  two  most  remarkable 
instances  of  the  superstition  alluded  to,  are 
found  in  the  emperor  Constantine  and  his  son 
Constantius,  who  wer6  both  baptised  on  their 
death-beds.  But,  since  in  ail  cases  the  sincerity 
of  death-bed  religion  is,  to  say  the  least,  doubtful, 
it  was  decreed  bv  the  council  of  Neocesarea, 
A.  D.  350,  and  of  Laedicea,  363,  diat  no  clinic 
should  ever  be  admitted  to  the  order  of  presbyter. 

d.  The  third  enquiry  on  this  subject  respects 
the  persons  in  whom  is  vested  the  ofiice  ot  ad- 
ministering this  sacrament.  The  right  of  bap- 
tising has  generally  been  committed  to  tne 
clergy  of  all  communions.  It  belongs  to  bishops 
and  presbyters  as  a  part  of  their  office,  althougn, 
from  the  example  of  Philip,  it  appears  that  dea- 
cons have  a  diTine  authority  for  performing  it, 
perhaps  equal  to  eitiier  of  the  two  former.  In 
our  eatabUthed  cbuch  deacons  are  empowered 


to  baptise  only  in  the  absence  of  the  priest,  t 
limitation  whidi  is  intended  out  of  respect  to  Uw 
higher  orders  of  the  clergy.  Different  opinions 
appeal  to  have  been  held^y  the  fathers  upon  the 
subject  of  lay-baptism.  Tertullian  admits  laymea 
to  administer  it  in  cases  of  urgent  necessity :  tl)e 
same  sentiment  was  expressed  by  St.  Jerome. 
and  by  the  council  of  Eliberis,  A.  D.  305.  Cal- 
vin also  confesses  the  antiquity  of  the  opinion.— 
Inst  1.  iv.  c.  XV.  sec.  20.  Basil  however  held 
the  contrary  option,  and  the  apostolic,  Const 
c.  It.  I.  iv.,  forbids  laymen  to  baptise.  It  is  how- 
ever one  thinff  to  dispute  the  right  of  a  layman 
to  baptise,  and  another  thing  to  deny  the  spiritoal 
validity  of  a  sacrament  so  administered,  especially 
since  several  of  the  ancient  fiithers  adlowed  the 
validity  of  the  ordinance  even  when  administered 
by  women.  Baptism  by  laymen  ia  at  present 
unknown  in  our  national  church,  it  may  never- 
theless be  interesting  to  our  readers  to  notice 
some  of  the  ancient  canons  upon  the  subject, 
made  in  England  by  the  Pope*s  delegates,  daring 
the  thirteenth  century.  In  the  constitution  of 
Edmund,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  A.D.  1236, 
26  Hen.  III.,  there  is  this  direction :— <  Item  in- 
terroget  sacerdos  laicum  diligentur,  dim  in  neces- 
sitate baptizaveret  puerum ;  quid  dixerit,  etiam, 
quid  fecerit.  Et  si  diligenti  pneoedente  inoui- 
sitione  famlL  sibi  fide  plenfiL,  invenirit  Jaicnm  dis- 
tinck^  et  in  fonn&  ecclesis  baptizasse,  sive  m 
Latino,  sire  in  GllIico,siveinAnglico,  approbet 
fectum.  Si  verb  baptizatus  fuerit  pner  a  laico, 
precedentia  et  toubsequentia  mersidDem  explean- 
tur  vel  suppleantur  ^  sacerdote.'  '  When  a  lay- 
man has,  upon  urgent  necessity,  baptised  a  child, 
the  priest  shall  enquire  diligently  with  what  words 
and  acts  it  was  performed,  and  if  upon  diligent 
enquiry  hC  find,  and  is  well  persuaoed,  that  tlie 
layman  did  distinctly,  and  according  to  fbe 
forms  of  the  church,  whether  in  Latin,  French, 
or  English,  baptise  the  child,  he  shall  confirm 
the  proceeding :  but  in  this  case  the  rites  preced- 
ing and  following  the  immersion  shall  be  supplied 
by  a  priest.'  By  another  constitution  or  the 
same  archbishop,  order  was  given,  that  in  casei 
of  child-birth  tne  attendants  should  hare  water 
ready  at  hand  to  baptise  the  child  if  nocessity 
required.  The  legantine  conslitutiofis  of  Otbo 
the  year  following  gave  order  that  laymen  should 
be  instructed  how  to  baptise ;  which  was  again 
enforced  by  the  constitution  of  Otobon,  another 
legate,  in  1260.  It  would  perhaps,  under  all 
circumstances,  be  difficult  to  decide  the  point, 
whether  this  earnest  solicitude  to  prevent  any 
child  dying  unbaptised  was  the  efiect  of  a  de- 
plorable superstition,  or  a  profound  policy  on 
the  part  Of  the  clergy,  but  evidently  the  compli- 
"anoe  arose  from  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the 
people.  It  is  also  certain,  that  in  consequence 
of  thew  institutions  baptism  became  veiy  pre- 
valent, for  we  find  a  constitution  of  archbtsaop 
Peccham,  in  a  provincial  synod  held  at  Readiai 
in  1279,  enjoining  that  baptism  by  laymen  shooM 
not  be  repeated ;  and,  in  casies  where  it  appeared 
doubtfiil,  whether  the  child  had  been  baptised  or 
not  that  the  form  should  be  used,  which  is  still 
preserved  in  our  lituigy.  *  If  thou  art  not  aUeady 
baptised,  I  baptise  the^  &o.'  In  the  liturgy,  of 
Edward  VI.  there  is  internal  evidence  that  the 


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form  of  priT^ite  In^ptism  was  mten^^  for  the  use 
of  the  la^ty,  as  well  as  the  clergy,  at  least  in  cases 
of  extreme  danger.  Jn  the  f^ticlcs  drawn  up  by 
the  ooDTocation,  A.D.  157^,  the  twelfth  takes 
ootioe  of  a  douU  which  hr^d  frequeni^y  i^isen ; 
namely,  vhetljier  th^  fprm  of  private  baptism 
might  oe  sbdmipUtmd  l>y  Ipymefi  or  po.  The 
convocation  decided  jn  the  negative;  b\^t  t)iis 
article,  though  existing  in  the  MS.,  was  never 
printed,  and  tl^e  question  still  remained  till  the 
conference  at  Hampton  Court,  which  took  pl4ce 
in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  James  I., 
when  the  fyna  itself  was  so  altered  as  to  ex- 
clude lay  baptism  altogether.  Upon  the  whole, 
then,  it  appears  ^that  lay  baptism  is  now  ex- 
cluded horn  t)>e  church  of  England,  there  exist- 
ing no  necessi^  for  it,  but  that  the  church  does 
not  say  th^t  lay  baptism  is  no  baptism-' 

4.  The  fourth  enouiry  is,  what  facts  go  to  con- 
stitute baptism.  Tnese,  with  reference  to  the 
outward  administration  of  it,  are  two ;  n^ely, 
the  application  of  water,  aiid  the  using  of  the 
original  words  of  institution — *  I  baptise  thee  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  and  pf  the  Son,  and  of 
the  Hobr  Ghost' 

The  Baptists  consider  that  it  is  ^  essential 
part  of  baptism  that  the  subject  should  be  atp- 
plied  to  the  water  and  immersed  in  it,  for  which 
reason  manv  of  them  abstain  irom  Christian  com- 
munion with  members  of  other  churches,  consider- 
ing them  as  unbaptiaed  persons.  It  is  cer]Uun  that 
the  literal  meanmg  of  the  word  baptism  is  iip- 
roersion,  wbich  is  further  confim^ed  by  the  pxac- 
tioe  of  the  ancient  churdi ;  but  whether  immersion 
be  esseitial  to  the  constitution  of  the  ordinance, 
is  in  our  opinion  a  separate  enquiry.  The 
practice  of  sprinkling  in  some  cases  was  adopted, 
and  even  JQStified  by  all  the  parties^  ^s  in  the 
baptism  of  sick  persons  and  weak  cluldren.  It 
follows  that  baptism  is  valid  where  immersion  is 
not  used,  and  therefore  that  immersion  is  no 
essential  part  of  it;  besides  which,  there  is  a 
strong  probability  jkhat  in  the  baptism  of  the 
jailor,  Acts  xvi.  33,  immersion  was  not  resorted 
to.  With  respect  to  the  practice  of  our  estab- 
lished church,  dipping  appears  to  have  been  the 
regular  and  established  mode,  and  was  general  at 
the  Reformation ;  but,  in  1644,  when  the  Presby- 
terians had  the  ascendancy,  the  original  practice 
of  the  church  began  to  decline,  anoT  after  seversd 
centuries  had  elapsed,  the  present  mode  became 
universal.  It  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
cause  of  aorinkling,  that  during  the  bloodv  reign 
of  queen  Mary,  many  pif  our  Protestapt  divines, 
flying  into  Germany  and  Switzerland,  and  re- 
taming  when,  queen  Elizabeth  came  to  die  crown, 
brought  back  with  ^em  a  great  zeal  for  the  pro- 
testant  churches  beyond  sea,  virnere  ^they  bad 
been  sheltered  and  received";  and  having  ob- 
served, that  at  Geneva  and  some  other  places, 
baptism  was  admitiistered  by  sprinkling,  they 
introduced  the  same  practice  into  the  churches 
of  England. 

The  next  point  essential  to  a  valid  baptisQif  is 
that  it  be  administered  'in  the  name  of  the  Pa- 
ther,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost/  A 
baptism  not  thus  administered,  or  administered 
without  water,  the  church  of  England  considers 
no  baptism,  and  would  insist  on  a  proper  sub- 


mission to  the  sacrament.  But  sundry  passages 
occur  in  the  new  testament  which  relate  to  the 
administering  of  baptism  in  the  name  of  Christ 
alone,  as  Acts  ii.  38;  viii.  16;  xx.  48;  xix.  5; 
Eom.  vi.  3;  Gal.  iii.  27;  accordingly  in  St. 
Basirs  time,  the  question  was  agitated,  and  some 
contended  that  baptism  ought  to  be  thus  adminis- 
tered. But  being  baptised  in  the  name  of  Christ 
implies  being  baptised  '  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
kcJ  because  these  were  points  in  which  aU  cate- 
chumens were  instructed,  and  in  which  every  bap- 
tised Christian  was  supposed  to  be  established. 

Th^  fojlpwing  illustration  of  |his  subject,  taken 
from  Dr.  Ligfatfqot>  Harmony  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, Acts  ii.,  is  worthy  the  attention  pf  the 
reader.  'Three  thousand  converted  are  baptised 
in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus,'  verse  38,  which 
no  whit  disagreeth  from  the  command, '  Baptise 
in  the  naoie  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  &c. 
Matt.  XX viii.  19.  For  the  form  of  baptism  in 
these  first  days  of  the  gospel,  of  which  the  New 
Testament  giveth  the  story,  may  be  considered 
under  a  threefold  condition.  1.  John  the  Bap- 
^st  baptised  ip  the  n^e  pf  Messias,  or  Christ 
that  was  then  ^rjeady  to  come,  but  that  Jesi^s  of 
Nazaiejth  was  he,  ^e  hunself  knew  npt  till  he  had 
run  a  good  part  of  his  cpurse,  John,  i.  31 ',  32. 
The  disciples  baptising  the  Jews,  baptised  them 
in  the  name  of  Jesus,  upon  this  reason,  because 
t^e  great  point  ot  controversy  ^en  in  the  nation 
about  j^ess^s  was,  w^i^er  Jesus  of  Nazaratb 
were  he  or  no.  All  the  nations  acki^owled^d 
a  ])XessiaiS,  but  the  most  of  tnem  ^ijbomin^d  that 
Jesus  of  Illazareth  iphould  bie  thought  to  be  he, 
therefore  jthose  that  by  the  preaching  of  the  gos- 
pel came  to  acknowledge  him  to  be  Messias, 
were  now  baptised  in  his  name  as  the  critical 
badge  of  their  embracing  the  tn^  ])i(essias.  But 
^d,  where  the  question  was  not  on  foot,  tl^ey 
baptised  in  the  iiame  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
S^on,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  And  so  that  bap- 
tising in  the  name  of  Jesus  was  for  a  season  for 
the  settling  of  the  evidence  of  his  being  Messias, 
and  when  th^  was  thoroitgh,ly  establi^ed,  then 
it  was  used  no  more;  but  baptism  was  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  &c.  Of  the 
same  cqgnizance  were  those  extraordinary  giib 
pf  the  spirit  evidences  of  Jesus  his  being  the 
Messias,  and  ;cneans  of  conveying  tbe  gospel 
through  the  world,  and  when  bow  these  were 
well  established,  then  those gifb  ceased  forever.' 
See  also  his  sermon  c^  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  where  it 
is  proved  that  John  baptized  in  the  name  of  Mes- 
sias now  coming. 

According  to  the  geuend  sentiment  among 
Christians  this  sacrament  c^be  received  but  once, 
thus  expressed  in  the  Nicene.creed,  *  I  believe  m 
one  baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins.'  The  cases 
mentioned  in  ecclesiastical  history  to  the  con- 
trary, are  derived  from  the  re-baptising  of  per- 
sons who  had  been  baptised  by  heretics,  the 
validity  of  which  the  orthodox,  or  party  baptising, 
denied  and  said  that  it  was  no  baptism.  The 
sut^ect  was  therefore  in  those  cases  considered 
as  an  unbaptiaed  person. 

5.  Our  next  object  vrill  be  to  illustrate  the 
time,  place,  and  manner  of  baptism.  In  the 
earliest  ages  of  the  church,  there  was  no  stated 
time  or  place  fiw  the  reception  of  bfiptism-  A(^er- 

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wares  Easter, \\liitsuntide,and  Epiphany,  became 
solemn  seasons,  out  of  which  baptism  was  not 
administered,  except  in  cases  of  nfecessity.  The 
catechumens,  who  were  to  receive  it  at  these 
times,  were  called  coropetpntes  ^  and  to  these  it 
is  that  St.  Cyril  addresses  his  catechises.  In  the 
apostolical  age,  and  some  time  after,  before 
churches  and  baptisteries  were  generally  erected, 
they  baptised  in  any  place  where  they  had  con- 
venience; as  John  baptised  in  Jordan,  and  Philip 
baptised  the  eunuch  m  the  wilderness,  and  Paul 
the  jajlor,  in  his  own  house.  But  in  after  ages, 
baptisteries  were  built  adjoining  to  the  church ; 
and  then  rules  were  made,  that  baptism  should 
ordinarily  be  administered  nowhere  but  in  those 
buildings.  Justinian  refers  to  ancient  hiws,  ap- 
pointing that  none  of  the  sacred  mysteries  of  the 
-church  should  be  celebrated  in  private  houses. 
Men  might  have  private  oratories  for  prayer  ia 
their  own  houses ;  but  they  were  not  to  adminis- 
ter baptism  or  the  eucharist  in  them,  unless  by  a 
particular  license  from  the  bishop  of  the  place. 
Such  baptisms  were  frequently  condemned  in  the 
ancient  councils,  under  the  name  iropo/Sairnir- 
fiara,  baptisms  in  private  conventicles.  As  to 
the  attendant  ceremonies  and  manner  of  baptism 
in  the  ancient  church :  The  person'  to  be  bap 
tised,  if  an  adult,  was  first  examined  by  trie 
bishop  or  officiating  priest,  who  put  some  ques- 
tions to  him ;  as,  first.  Whether  ne  abiurea  the 
devil  and  all  his  works  ?  secondly,  Whether  he 
gave  a  firm  assent  to  all  the  articles  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith?  to  both  which  he  answered  in  the 
affirmative.  If  the  person  to  be  baptised  was  an 
infent,  he  answered  by  his  sponsors  or  god- 
fathers. After  the  questions  and  answers  fol- 
lowed the  exorcism :  The  minister  laid  his  hand^ 
on  the  person's  head,  and  breathed  in  his  face, 
to  expel  the  devil  from  him,  and  prepare  him  for 
baptism,  by  which  the  holy  spirit  was  to  be  con- 
ferred upon  him.  After  exorcism,  the  minister, 
by  prayer,  consecrated  the  water.  The  person 
was  then  baptised  *  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.'  In 
performing  the  ceremony,  the  usual  custom  (ex- 
cept in  clinical  cases,  or  where  there  was  scarcity 
of  water),  was  to  immerse  and  dip  the  whole 
body.  Thus  St.  Barnabas,  describing  a  baptised 
person,  says,  '  We  go  down  into  the  water  full  of 
sin  and  filth,  but  we  ascend  bearing  fruit  in  our 
hearts.'  And  this  practice  was  so  general  that 
-we  find  no  exceptions  made  in  respect  either  to 
the  tenderness  of  infants,  or  the  bashfulness  of 
the  other  sex,  unless  in  case  of  sickness  or  other 
disability.  But  to  prevent  any  indecency,  men 
and  women  were  baptised  apart ;  and  either  the 
baptisteries  were  divided  into  two  apartments, 
one  for  the  men,  the  other  for  the  women,  as 
Bingham  has  observed^;  or  the  men  were  bap- 
tised at  one  time,  and  the  women  at  another,  as 
is  shown  by  Vossius,  from  the  Ordo  Romanus, 
Gregory's  Sacramentarium,  &c.  There  was  abo 
an  order  of  deaconesses,  one  part  of  whose  busi- 
ness was  to  assist  at  the  baptism  of  women. 
These  precautions,  however,  rather  indicate  a 
scrupulous  attention  to  delicacy,  than  imply  any 
indecency  in  the  circumstance  of  immersion  it- 
idf.  From  the  candidates  being  immersed,  there 
'>l  no  Ttason  to  infer  that  they  were  naked :  The 


S resent  baptists  never  baptise  naked,  though 
ley  always  immerse.  After  immersion,  followed 
the  unction ;  by  which  (says  St  Cvril)  was  sig- 
nified, that  they  were  now  cut  off  from  the  wild 
olive,  and  were  ingrafted  into  Christ,  the  true 
vine ;  or  else  to  show  that  they  were  now  to  be 
champions  for  the  gospel,  and  were  anointed 
thereto,  as  the  old  athletse  were  against  their 
solemn  games.  With  the  anointing  was  joined 
the  sign  of  the  cross,  made  upon  the  forehead  of 
the  person  baptised ;  which  being  done,  he  had 
a  white  garment  given  him,  to  denote  his  bemg 
washed  from  the  defilements  of  sin.  From  this 
custom  die  feast  of  Pentecost,  which  was  one  of 
the  annual  seasons  of  baptism,  came  to  be  called 
Whit-sunday,  i.  e.  Wliite  Sunday.  This  garment 
was  afterwauds  laid  up  in  the  church,  that  it 
might  be  an  evidence  against  such  persons  as 
violated  or  denied  that  fiuth  which  they  had 
owned  in  baptism.  The  person  baptised  was 
then,  according  to  Justin  Martyr,  'received  into 
the  number  of  the  faithful,  who  sent  up  their  pub- 
lic prayers  to  God,  for  all  men,  for  themselves, 
and  for  those  who  had  been  baptised.' 

Hie  Form  of  Baptism  in  the  church  of  Rome 
is  as  follows :~  When  a  child  is  to  be  baptised, 
the  persons  who  bring  it,  wait  for  the  priest  at  the 
door  of  the  church,  vmo  comes  thither  in  his  sar- 
plice  and  purple  stole,  attended  bv  his  clerks. 
He  begins  witn  questioning  the  god&ther,  whe- 
ther they  promise,  in  the  child's  name,  to  live  and 
die  in  the  true  catholic  and  apostolic  fiuth,  and 
what  name  they  would  give  the  child.  Then  fol- 
lows an  exhortation  to  the  sponsors :  after  which 
the  priest  calling  tlie  child  by  its  name,  asks  it. 
What  dost  thou  demand  of  the  church?  The 
godfather  answers,  eternal  life.  The  priest  goes 
on  :  If  you  are  desirous  of  obtaining  eternal  lifSe, 
keep  God's  commandments,  thou  iaXi  love  the 
lord  thy  God,  &c.  After  which  he  breathes  three 
times  in  the  child's  face,  saying.  Come  out  of  this 
child,  thou  evil  spirit,  and  make  room  for  the 
Holy  Ghost  1  This  said,  he  makes  the  sign  of 
the  cross  on  the  child's  forehead  and  breast,  saj- 
jng.  Receive  the  sign  of  the  cross  on  thy  fordiead, 
and  in  thy  heart.  Then  taking  off  his  cap,  be 
repeats  a  short  prayer;  and  laying  his  hand  softly 
on  the  child's  -hc^,  repeats  a  second  prayer: 
which  ended,  he  blesses  some  salt,  and  putting  a 
little  of  it  into  the  child's  mouth,  pronounce 
these  words,  Receive  the  salt  of  wisdom.  All 
this  is  performed  at  the  church  door.  The  priest, 
with  the  godfathers  and  godmothers,  coming 
into  the  church,  and  advancing  towards  the  foot, 
repeat  the  apostle's  creed  and  the  Lord's  prayer. 
Being  come  to  the  font,  the  priest  exorcises  the 
evil  spirit  again ;  and  taking  a  little  of  his  own 
spittle,  with  the  thumb  of  his  right  hand,  robs  it 
on  the  child's  ears  and  nostrils,  repeating,  as  he 
touches  the  right  ear,  the  same  word  (Ephatha  be 
thou  opened),  which  our  Saviour  made  use  of  to 
the  man  bom  deaf  and  dumb.  Lastly,  they  pull 
off  its  swaddling-clothes»  or  strip  it  below  the 
shoulders,  during  which  the  priest  prepares  the 
oils,  &c.  Hie  sponsors  then  hold  the  child 
directly  over  the  tout,  observing  to  turn  it  doe 
east  and  west :  whereupon  the  priest  asks  the 
child,  Whe^er  he  renounces  the  devil  and  all  hi« 
works?  sv>d  the  srodfather  having  answered  m 


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501 


the  affiimatiTty  the  priest  anoints  the  child  be- 
tween the  sbouldera  ra  the  form  of  a  cross.  Then 
taking  some  of  the  consecrated  water,  he  pours 
part  of  it  thrice  on  the  chUd's  hiead,  at  each  per- 
lusioD  callin{f  on  one  of  the  persons  of  the  Holy 
Trinity.  The  priest  conclaaes  the  ceremony  of 
baptism  with'  an  exhortation.  The  Romish  church 
allows  midwives,  in  cases  of  danger,  to  baptise  a 
child  before  it  is  come  entirely  out  of  its  mother's 
womb :  where,  it  is  to  be  obsenred,  that  some 
part  of  the  body  of  the  phild  must  appear  before 
it  can  be  baptised,  and  that  it  is  baptised  on  that 
part  which  first  appears :  if  it  l>e  tne  head,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  re-baptise  the  child ;  but  if  only 
\  foot  or  hand  appears,  it  is  necessary  to  repeat 
baptism.  A  still-bom  child,  thus  baptised,  may 
be  buried  in  consecrated  ground!  The  Greek 
:hurch  differs  from  the  Romish,  as  to  the  rite  of 
baptism,  chiefly,  in  performing  it  by  complete 
immersion. 

Fo&MS  or  Baptism  in  the  Church  of  England, 
rhe  forms  of  administering  baptism  among  us 
3eing  too  well  known  to  require  a  particular  de- 
icription,  we  shall  only  mention  one  or  two  of  the 
nore  material  differences  between  the  form,  as  it 
;tood  in  the  liturgy  of  king  Edward,  and  that 
n  the  English  Common  Prayer  Book  at  present. 
[lie  form  of  consecrating  the  water  did  not  make 
'.  part  of  the  office  in  king  Edward's  litui]^^,  as 
t  does  in  the  present,  because  the  water  in  the 
ont  was  changed,  and  consecrated  but  once  a 
Qonth.  The  form  likewise  itself  was  somethinff 
i  fferent  from  that  now  used ;  and  was  introduced 
rith  a  short  prayer ;  that  Jesus  Christ,  upoh 
^hom  (when  he  was  baptised),  the  Holy  Ghost 
arae  down  in  the  likenen  of  a  dove,  would  send 
own  the  same  Holy  Spirit,  to  sanctify  the  foun- 
lin  of  baptism ;  which  prayer  was  afterwards 
ift  out  at  the  second  reriew. — By  king  Edward's 
rst  book,  the  minister  is  to  dip  the  diild  in  tl  e 
ater  thrice;  1st,  dipping  the  riffht  side;  2dly, 
e  left ;  the  3d  time,  dipping  the  race  toward  the 
nt  This  trine  immersion  was  a  very  ancient 
ractice  in  the  Christian  church,  and  used  in 
>Dor  of  the  Holy  Trinity ;  though  some  later 
riters  say,  it  was  done  to  represent  the  death, 
irial,  and  resurrection  of  Christ,  together  with 
s  three  days  continuance  in  the  grave.  After- 
ards,  the  Arians,  persuading  the  people  that  it 
as  used  to  denote  that  the  three  persons  in  the 
rinity  were  three  different  substances,  the  or- 
odox  left  it  off,  and  used  only  one  single  immer- 
[>n.  By  the  first  common  prayer  of  king 
dward,  after  the  child  was  baptised,  the  god- 
thers  and  godmothers  were  to  lay  their  hands 
>on  it,  and  the  minister  was  to  put  on  him  the 
bite  vestment  commonly  called  the  chrysome, 
id  to  say,  '  Take  this  white  vesture,  as  a  token 

the  innocency,  which  by  God's  grace,  in  the 
>ly  sacrament  of  baptism,  is  given  unto  thee; 
d  for  a  sign,  whereby  thou  art  lulmonished,  so 
ngr  as  thou  livest,  to  give  thyself  to  innocence 
living,  that  after  this  transitory  life  thou  may- 
t  be  partaker  of  the  life  everlasting.  Amen.' 
i  soon  as  he' had  pronounced  these  words,  he 
IS  to  anoint  the  mftint  on  the  head,  saying, 
ilmightv  God,  the  father  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
irist,  who  hath  regenerated  thee  by  water  and 
e  Holy  Ghost,  and  hath  given  unto  thee  remis- 


sion of  all  thy  sins ;  mar  he  Touchsafe  to  anoint 
thee  with  the  unction  of  his  Holy  Spirit,  and  bring 
thee  to  the  inheritance  of  everlasting  life.  Amen.' 
This  was  manifestly  done  in  imitation  of  t^ie 
practice  of  the  primitive  church. 

The  only  human  institutions  connected  with 
baptism  in  our  established  church,  at  present,  are 
two,  namely,  sponsors  and  signing  with  the 
cross.  Sponsors,  or  godfathers,  called  in  ancient 
ecclesiastical  writings,  patrini,  and  dvuSoxoi,  or 
susceptores,  are  mentioned  as  early  as  TertuUian. 
Cyril  oftAlexandria,  A.  D.  412,  mentions  the 
susceptor  as  saying  Amen  for  the  child  baptised. 
It  is  also  evident  that  in  the  second  century  there 
were  attendants  upon  the  children  to  be  baptised, 
whose  distinct  office  was  to  receive  them  from 
the  priest,  and  who,  it  is  highly  probable,  an- 
swered for  them  at  the  font ;  but  that  the  prac^ 
tice  was  not  used  in  the  days  of  the  apostles  is 
evident,  since  it  is  not  mentioned  by  Justin 
Martyr-  The  sign  of  the  cross  is  a  ceremony 
against  which  much  censure  has  been  levelled. 
It  was  used  as  eariy  as  the  third  century,  and, 
althoiigh  many  efforts  were  made  at  the  reforma- 
tion to  abolish  it,  has  been  carefully'  preserved. 

Other  customs,  however,  have  by  different 
churches,  and  in  different  ages>  been  introduced 
into  the  celebration  of  this  sacrament,  which  are 
now  totally  disused,  or  retained  only  in  the 
church  of  Rome.  They  may  be  enumerated  in 
the  following  order :  1.  Trine  immersion,  already 
alluded  to,  the  practice  of  which  commenced 
about  the  opening  of  the  fourth  century.  Al 
though  prescribed  in  the  English  church  by  the 
prayer-book,  2  of  Edward  VI.,  this  form  was 
afterwards  omitted.  2.  Chrism,  or  unction,  as 
mentioned  by  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Cyril,  and 
Chrysostom.  It  was  peiformed  with  plain  oil 
before  baptism,  and  with  unguent  afterwards. 
3.  Tertullian  mentions  the  practice  of  giving 
milk  and  honey  to  persons  after  baptism.  This 
ceremony,  which  after  a  few  centuries  was  dis- 
continued, has  been  derived  by  some  learned 
men  from  the  Jewish  customs  at  proselyte  bap- 
tism. 4.  Exorcism,  or  putting  the  baptised  per- 
son upon  his  oath,  and  declaring  to  him  bis 
obligation  to  renounce  sin,  was  used  in  the 
ionrth  century.  This  ceremony  abounds,  with 
corruption  in  the  church  of  Rome.  5.  Candles 
light^  after  baptism,  and  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  person  baptised,  as  an  emblem  of  the  illumi- 
nation of  the  spirit,  was  a  ceremony  used  as 
early  as  the  fourth  century.  6.  'fhe  chrisom,  so 
called  in  the  English  church,  was  a  white  gar- 
ment or  surplice,  put  on  immediately  after  bap- 
tism. 7.  Easter  and  Pentecost  were  considered 
solemn  times  for  the  administration  of  baptism, 
as  early  as  the  second  and  third  centuries. 
8.  Salt  was  not  given  to  the  baptised  till  the 
eighth  century;  nor,  9.  The  ears  touched  with 
spittle  till  the  ninth. 

6.  Our  sixth  object  will  be  to  exhibit  some  of 
the  most  popular  heresies  which  have  prevailed 
at  different  ^riods  respecting  baptism  These 
arose  chiefly  in  the  second  and  three  following 
centuries.  1.  In  the  second  century  Marcion 
permitted  women  to  baptise ;  affirmed  that  none 
out  virgins,  widows,  or  celibates,  were  tit  sub- 
jects for  baptism ;  and  allowed  baptism  to  b« 


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BAPTISM. 


xepeated  thnce.  'Die  Mootanbto  baptised  the 
d^.  The  Valentmians,  instead  of  baptising  in 
the  name  of  the  Father,  &c.  used  a  mystical  fonn 
in  the  name  of  the  Unknown  Father  of  all  things, 
in  the  Truth  the  Mother  of  all  things,  in  him 
that  came  down  on  Jesns,  in  the  union  and  re- 
demption, and  communion  of  powers  Instead 
of  using  water  they  poured  a  mixture  of  oil  and 
water  on  the  head,  after  which  they  anointed  tlie 
persons  so  baptised.  2.  In  the  third  century 
arose  the  heresy  of  the  Manichees,  who  affirmed 
that  baptism  by  water  was  not  necessafy  to  sal- 
vation, and  accordingly  neglected  it.  3.  The 
fourth  century  was  remarkable  for  the  heresy  of 
Arius,  who  baptised  in  the  name  of  the  Sou  onfly. 
4.  Pelagius,  m  the  ii(Ui  century,  affirmed  that 
infants  were  baptised  for  other  reasons^  and  not 
because  6\'  origmal  sin. 

7.  Several  laws  hare  passed  in  different  a^ 
for  enforcmg  and*  restricting  btotism.  In  the 
ancient  church,  baptism  was  "frequently  con-  ' 
fened  on  Jews  by  violence;  but  the  church 
never  seems  to  have  Allowed  of  force  on  this 
occasion.  By  a  canon  of  the  fourth  council  of 
Toledo,  it  is  expressly  forbidden  to  baptise  any 
against  their  wills.  That  which  looks  most  like 
force  in  this  case,  allowed  by  law,  were  tW6 
orders  of  Justinian ;  one  of  which  appoints  the 
heathens,  and  the  other  Samaritans,  to  be  bap- 
tised, with  their  wives  and  children  and  servants, 
under  pain  of  confitcaiion.  By  the  ancient  laws, 
baptism  was  not  to  be  Conferred  on  image-makere, 
stage-players,  gladitttors,  aurigsK  or  puMic  drivers, 
mi^cians,  or  even  stroUins  beggars,  till  they 
quitted  such  professions.  Slaves  were  not  at-- 
lowed  the  privilege  of  baptism  witliout  the  tes- 
timony and  consent  of  their  masterr;  excepting 
the  slaves  of  Je^s,  heathens,  and  heretics,  who 
were  not  only  admitted  to  baptism,  but,  in  con- 
sequence thereof,  had  their  lireedom.  Vossius 
has  a  learned  and  elaborate  woik,  De  Baptismo, 
wherein  he  accurately  discusses  all  the  questions 
concerning  baptism  according  to  ihe  doctrine  of 
the  ancients. 

8.  Baptism  for  the  Dead  was  a  sort  of  vies- 
riotts  baptiiim,  formerly  in  use,  where  a  person 
dying  without  baptism,  another  was  baptiiied  in 
ms  stead.  Bi.  Chrysoitom  tells  us,  this  was 
practised  among  the  Marcionites  with  a  great 
deal  of  ridiculous  ceremony.  After  any  catechu- 
men was  dead,  they  hid  a  living  roan  under  the 
bed  of  the  deceased ;  then  coming  to  the  dead 
man,  they  asked  him,  whether  be  would  receive 
baptism  ?  and  he  making  no  answer,  the  other 
answered  for  him,  and  said,  he  would  be  bap- 
tised in  his* stead;  and  so  they  baptised  tne 
liring  for  the  dead.  Epiphanius  assures  us,  the 
like  was  also  practised  among  the  Corinthians. 
This  practice  tney  pretend  to  be  founded  on  the 
apostle's  authority ;  alleging  that  text  for  it,  If 
the  dead  rise  not  at  all,  what  shall  they  do  who 
Sive  baptised  for  the  dead?  This  text,  indeed, 
has  given  occasion  to  a  great  variety  of  different 
systems  and  explications.  Botius  enumerates  no 
less  than  nine  different  opinions  among  divines 
concerning  the  sense  of  the  phrase.  St.  Ambrose 
and  Walafred  Strabo  seem  clearly  of  opinion, 
that  the  apostle  had  respect  to  such  a  custon*. 
then  in  being;  and  several  modems  are  6f  the 


same  opmRm,  as  BarMitus^  Jds.  Scaliger,  Jiu- 
tellus,  and  Grotiua.,  But  Bellarmin,  Slmeros, 
Menochius,  and  several  other  Roman  catholics, 
undeKitand  it  of-  the  baptism  of  tears,  and  pe- 
nance, and  prayers,  whidi  the  living  undergo  for 
the  dead ;  and  thus  allej^  it  as  a  proof  of  the 
belief  of  purgaiory  in  St.  IHrnVs  days.  Some 
protestant  divines  read  the  passage,  baptised 
mto  death ;  and  illustrate  it  by  the  context;  paN 
ticulariy  the  wovds  *  being  buried  with  Christ  hj 
baptism  into  deah*  Paul,  they  say,  is  pforing 
tile  resurrection  by  that  of  our  Saviour,  and  the 
strength  of  his  argument  is,  (1  Cor.  xv.  16, 17, 
29.)  <If  Christ  be  not  raided,  and  if  die  dead 
rise  not,  what  shall  they  do  who  ate  baptised 
into  his  death  V  This  appears  the  most  probable 
interpretation  6f  the  text 

Baptism  of  the  Deav  was  a  custom  which 
anciently  previ^led  among  some  people  in  Africa. 
The  thira  council  of  Carthage  speaks  of  it  as  a 
thing  tiiat  ignorant  Christians  weic  fond  of. 
Gregory  Naziansefi  also  takes  notice  of  the  same 
superstitious  opinion  prevailing  among  some 
who  delayed  to  be  baptised.  In  his  address  to 
this  kind  of  men,  he  asks  whether  they  staid  to 
be  baptised  af^r  death  ?  Philastrins  also  notes 
it  as  me  general  error  of  tiie  Montanists  or  Cauir 
Phrygians,  that  Ihey  baptised  men  after  deadi. 
The  practice  seems  to  be  grounded  on  a  vain 
opinion,  that,  wben  men  had  neglected  to  receive 
iNiptism  in  their  life-time^  some  compensation 
might  be  made  le»r  this  omission  by  receiving  it 
afler  death. 

Baptism  op  Belis,  a  superstitions  custom 
practised  in  the  drardi  of  Rome,  whereby  the 
bell  was  supposed  to  be  rendered  capable  of 
driving  away  tempests  and  devils.  It  is  first 
taken  notice  of  in  the  capftulars  of  Charles  the 
Great.  Baronius  carries  its  antiquity  no  higher 
tiian  die  vear  968,  when  the  greatest  bell  of  the 
church  or  Lateran  was  christened  by  pope  John 
III.  In  1581  it  was  complained  of  in  the  cen- 
tum gravamina  of  the  German  nation,  drawn  up 
in  the  nublic  diet  at  Nuremberg.  In  this  cere- 
mony me  bell  wiAs  provided  with  god  Others,  who 
made  responses,  and  gave  it  a  name ;  after  which 
theydotiked  it  with  a  new  garment,  as  Christians 
used  to  be  dotfaed  on  coming  out  of  the  water. 

Baptism,  Fiae,  spoken  of  by  St.  John  the 
the  Baptist,  has  occasioned  much  conjecture. 
Some  of  the  fathers  held  that  believers,  before 
they  enter  paradise,  are  to  pass  through  a  cer- 
tain fire,  which  is  to  purify  Uiem  from  all  re- 
maining pollutions.  Otiiers,  with  St.  Basil, 
understood  it  of  (he  fire  of  hell ;  others  of  that 
of  tribulation  and  temptation.  Others,  widi  St. 
ChiysostcMn,  will  have  it  io  denote  an  abundance 
of  graces.  Others  suppose  it  to  mean  the  descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  tne  aposties,  in  the  fonn  of 
ftery  tongues.  Lastiy,  others  maintain  that  the 
words  'with  fire'  are  an  interpolation.  Some 
MS.  copies  of  St  Matthew,  indeed,  want  these 
words ;  but  still  they  are  to  be  found  in  St  Mark 
and  St  Luke.  The  ancient  Seleucians  and  Her- 
minians,  understanding  it  literally,  maintained 
that  material  fire  was  necessary  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  baptism.  But  we  do  not  find  how,  or 
to  what  part  of  the  body,  diey  applied  it,  or 
whether  they  were  satisfied  with  obliging  the 


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peraoa  boptifed  to  pass  through  the  fire.  Valen- 
tinus,  according  to  Tertullian,  rebaptized  all  viho 
had  received  water  baptism,  and  conferred  oq 
them  tha  baptism  of  fire.  Heracleon,  cited  by 
Clemens  Alexandriniui^  says  that  some  applied  a 
red  hot  iron  to  the  ears  of  the  person  baptised, 
as  if  to  impress  some  mark  upon  him !  It  many 
of  the  plainest  texts  of  Scripture  had  not  been 
miiconstnied  by  ienorance,  and  darkened  by 
knavery,  one  ytoM  be  surprised  that  ever  this 
text  should  have  occasioned  the  smallest  contro- 
versy. The  oomext  suggests  one  good  interpre- 
tation. The  Baptist  spoke  to  a  mixed  multitude', 
many  of  whom  were  or  would  be  believers,  and 
many  of  whom  never  did  believe  the  gospel.  He 
therefore  teUs  them  &at  One,  mightier  than  he, 
should  baptise  them  (the  one  class)  with  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  (the  other)  *witli  fire;'  that  he 
will  thoroughly  purge  his  floor  and  gather  his 
wheat  into  his  gamer;  but  he  will  bum  up  the 
chaff,  &c.  Other  passages  of  the  New  Testament 
speak  of  a  'fiery  ttial,'  which  is  to  try  all  faithful 
believers,  as  no  <  strange  thing/  1  Pet.iv.  12;  and 
Jesus  Christ,  aliuding  to  his  own  sufferings,  as- 
sured his  immediate  followers  '  that  they  should 
be  baptised  with  the  baptism 'wherewith  he  was 
baptised.'  Probably  therefore  we  unite  the  best 
interpretations  of  the  passage  by  considering  it 
to  r«er  to  the  baptism  of  Ae  day  of  Pentecost 
literally,  and  symbolically  to  the  Christian's 
share  of  afflictions  in  tliis  suffering  and  vain 
vrorld. 

BAPTISTS,  a  general  name  by  which  those 
Christians  are  distinguished  who  deny  the  validity 
of  infant  baptism,  and  restrict  the  administration 
of  that  sacrament  to  persons  capable  of  believing 
and  understanding  the  religion  into  which  they 
are  Mkus  initiated.  They  al^d  maintain  generally 
that  immersion  is  necessary  to  constitute  a  scrip- 
tural baptism.  Like  all  other  denominations  of 
Christians,  they  call  in  the  evidence  of  antiquity ; 
and  their  pretensions,  if  founded  on  fact,  as  will 
\e  seen  hereafler,  are  considerable.  Thev  affirm 
that  in&nt  baptism  was  unknown  before  the  third 
century,  was  established  in  the  fourth  and  fifUi, 
and  prevailed  generally  till  the  Reformation ;  that 
tsven  in  the  dark  ages  some  traces  of  pure  bap- 
tism are* discernible;  that  the  ancient  British 
church,  before  the  arrival  of  St.  Austin^  did  not 
baptise  infants;  that  Brano  and  Beiengarius  in 
the  eleventh  4!entury,  the  Waldenses,  the  Lol- 
lards, and  the  Wickiiffites,  opposed  in&nt  bap- 
tism, together  with  William  Sawtre,  the  first 
Lollard  martyr  in  England,  who  was  burnt  A.  D. 
1401,  m  the  reiga  of  Heniy  IV.  This  is  certain, 
with  respect  to  their  antiquity,  that  at  an  early 
period  ot  the  Reformation  disputatioBS  were  held 
at  Zurich,  Bale,  and  Berne,  upon  iufituit  baptism. 

To  the  elass  of  Baptists  bdoag  the  ancient  No- 
vatians,  Cataphrygians,  tiie  DonatistSi  the  Ana- 
kftptistsand  Mennonites  of  Germany,  and  odiers, 
mo,  though  they  differed  widely  in  their  opinions 
upon  other  subjects,  held  the  same  general  views 
with  respect  to  the  initiatory  sacrament. 

Although  the  term  Anabaptist  has  been  pro-^ 
auscuouslY  used  as  a  general  name  by  whicn  to 
distinguish  Baptists  or  re-baptisers,  still  we  must 
distinguish  between  tlie  Baptists  in  oeneial  and 
tha  Anabaptists  of  Germany^  fof  whi<m  tee  axtide 


Ahabaptist.  It  would  be  equally  uncandid 
and  unjust  to  confound,  with  the  ijtttr  enlh«- 
siasts,  so  respectable  and  consistent  a  body  of 
Christians  as  the  Baptists  are,  merely  from  a  coin- 
cidence of  opinion  on  the  subject  of  baptism, 
especially  since  the  wild  doctrines  of  the  latiei* 
on  the  subject  of  civil  government  have  always 
been  disclaimed  by  the  former,  although  it  must 
be  confessed  a  difficulty  to  distinguish  them  for 
some  year^'af^er  the  Reformation. 

The  Baptists  in  England  separate  from  the  es- 
tablishment for  the  same  reasons  as  their  brethren 
of  the  other  denominations  do ;  and  from  the  ad- 
ditional motives  derived  from  their  particular 
tenets  respecting  baptism.  The  constitution  of 
their  churches,  and  their  modes  of  worship,  are 
congregational  or  independent ;  in  the  exercise 
of  which  they  are  protected  in  common  with 
otfier  dissenters,  by  the  act  of  toleration.  Before 
Ais  act  they  were  liable  to  pains  and  penalties  as 
nonconformists,  and  often  ipr  their  peculiar  sen- 
timents as  Baptists.  A  proclamation  was  issued 
out  against  them,  and  son^e  of  them  were  burnt 
in  Smithfield  in  1538.  Many  of  them  were  per- 
secuted as  Anabaptists  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
charged  with  holding  opinions  which  tended  to 
anarchy.  Indeed,  during  the  latter  part  of  Eliza- 
beth's reign,  the  powers  of  the  Star  Chamber,  and 
the  High  Commission,  i  ad  almost  destroyed  dis- 
sent ;  the  Baptists  fled  the  countiv,  and  settled 
l^ncipally  in  Holland.^  Mr.  Smyth,  a  beneficed 
elergyman  who  had  seceded  from  the  establish- 
ment, founded  a  Baptist  church  of  English  refu- 
g^ees  at  Amsterdam.  He  appears  to  have  been 
an  Arminian  in  point  of  sentiment;  but  in  hb 
settlement  over  this  people  we  have  the  earliest 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  regular  Baptist 
churches.  Mr.  Sm^th  died  in  1610,  and  was 
succeeded  in  his  ministry  by  Thomas  Helwisse,. 
who  shortlv  afler  returned  with  his  congregation 
to  England,  and  settled  in  London.  The  severi- 
ties exercised  by  king  James  I.  at  this  time 
against  the  Puritans  and  Baptists,  called  forth 
some  able  writings  in  explanation  and  defence  of 
Aeir  principles.    A  petition  was  presented  to 

e lament  in  1620,  after  which  the  Baptists  were 
Uy'acknowledged  as  a  body  distinct  from  the 
Anabaptist,  although  considerable  prejudice 
existed  against  them^  even  to  the  time  when 
4»ishop  Taylor  vnote  hit  Liberty  of  Prophecying. 
it  was  particularly  unhappy  for  their  cause  that 
die  fifth  monarchy  men,  of  Cromwell's  time, 
were  diiefly  Baptists.  T^e  year  1633  affords  us 
the  earliest  records  remaining  of  a  particular 
baptist  church  in  London,  formed  under  a  Mr. 
Spilsbufy.  The  persons  who  formed  this  con- 
gregation had  separated  from  one  of  the  inde- 
pendent persuasion ;  and,  conceiving  the  right  of 
administering  baptism  to  descend  in  uninter- 
rupted succession,  sent  one  of  their  members 
over  to  Holland  to  receive  that  ordinance,  and 
bring  it  over  to  them. 

They  might,  it  is  true,  have  received  baptism 
firom  some  member  of  Mr.  Spilsbury's  congrega- 
tion;  but  that  body  being  Particular  or  Cal- 
vinistie  Baptists  would  not  have  any  connexion 
with  the  Arminian  or  General  Baptists.  Be- 
tween these  two  denominations  there  never  wa5 
much  intercourse,  nor  is  there  at  the  presen* 


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flay.  After  the  murder  of  Charles  I.  both  the 
Baptists  and  Independents  suffered  much  from 
the  intolerant  spirit  of  the  Presbyterians ;  but  in 
the  short  pariiament  of  Cromwell,  commonly 
called  *  Praise  God  Barebone's  parliament,'  from 
the  circumstance  of  Mr.  Barebone,  a  Baptist  mi- 
nister, having  made  himself  conspicuous  in  it, 
the  Baptists  appear  to  hare  had  some  influence. 
Great  suspicion,  nevertheless,  rested  upon  them 
^neraily ;  especially  as  amongst  the  Baptists  at 
hat  period  were  found  some  who  opposed  the 
Protector's  government,  and  advocateci  republi- 
can principles,  and  others  who  believed  the  near 
approach  of  Christ  to  reign  upon  the  earth,  and 
were  ever  ready  to  promote  by  the  sword  the 
establishment  of  what  was  called  by  way  of  con- 
tempt tlie  fifth  monarchy.  A  conspiracy  of  the 
fifth  monarchy  was  defeated  by  Cromwell,  in 
1650,  and  Harrison,  the  regicide,  at  their  head, 
was  imprisoned  for  life ;  but  upon  the  restora^ 
tion  the  Baptists  publicly  disclaimed  Anabap- 
tist principles,  and  presented  the  king  with  a 
confession  of  their  mith.  A  second  conspiracy 
of  the  same  deluded  class  took  place  in  1661, 
after  which  the  Baptists  repeated  tneir  disavowal 
of  Anabaptist  principles,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  their  sufferings  in  common  with  their  dis- 
senting brethren  during  the  period  between  the 
B^toration  and  the  Revolution  in  1688,  from  the 
rigorous  measures  employed  to  compel  them  to 
conform,  neither  the  general  nor  particular  Bap- 
tists have  since  that  period  suffered  any  consi- 
derable molestation.  The  particular  Baptists,  at 
a  general  assembly  held  in  London  in  the  year 
1689,  professed  their  belief  in  the  distinguishing 
doctrines  of  Calvinism,  which  are  still  the  general 
sentiments  of  all  their  churches.  As  a  body  they 
are  highly  respectable,  and  rising  in  importance. 
They  have  several  academies  for  the  education  of 
students  for  the  ministry  in  their  congregations, 
the  oldest  of  which  is  at  Bristol ;  and  also  two 
exhibitions  for  students  to  be  educated  at  one  of 
the  universities  in  Scotland,  given  them  by  Dr. 
Ward  of  Gresham  college. 

Both  the  particular  and  the  $;eneral  (or  Armi- 
nian)  Baptists  had  formerly  messengers  of  their 
churches  who  exercised  a  species  of  episcopal 
authority ;  but  their  only  church  officers,  at  the 
present  time,  are  ministers  or  pastors,  and  dea- 
cons. Their  churches  are  not  parochial,  or  con- 
fined to  certain  districts,  but  congregational  and 
independent,  every  congregation  being  empow;- 
ered  to  prescribe  its  own  rulers.  The  meetings 
of  the  messengers  and  members  of  the  different 
congregations  are  not  for  the  general  govern- 
ment of  the  body,  but  for  mutual  advice  and 
encouragement 

A  considerable  controversy  has  of  late  agitated 
both  the  above  denominations  of  Baptists,  on  the 
question  of  open  communion,  namely,  whether 
persons  who  have  been  baptised  in  infancy  may 
be  admitted  without  any  further  baptism  to  the 
other  sacrament  when  they  arrive  at  years  of  dis- 
cretion, provided  in  other  respects  they  are 
thought  proper  persons.  On  this  particular  the 
teachers  of  both  denominations  are  roach  divided 
in  opinion,  and  frequent  pamphlets  have  been 
written  on  both  sides. 

SCOTCH    BAPTisTfiy    a    denomination    of 


Christians  in  Scotland,  who  pio&ss  to  deduce 
their  original  from  the  apostolic  a|^  Their  views 
of  the  initiatory  sacrament,  and  arguments 
against  the  validity  of  infant  baptism,  are  the 
same  as  those  held  by  Baptists  generally,  bat 
their  collateral  opinions,  especially  on  the  sub- 
ject of  church  government,  are  peculiar.  They 
stand  in  no  particular  connexion  with  any  other 
class  of  Baptists,  either  abroad  or  in  England, 
although  they  have  churches  and  brethren  in 
their  own  communion  in  London  and  other 
places.  It  was  not  known  till  lately  that  a  so- 
ciety of  Baptists  had  existed  in  Scotland  before 
1765,  but  now  the  fact  is  ascertained  that  such  a 
society  did  really  exist,  and  usually  met  both  in 
Leith  and  Edinburgh  as  hi  back  as  the  middle 
of  the  last  centuiy.  At  the  period  already  al- 
luded to,  the  Baptist  profession  publicly  revived, 
first  in  Edinburgn  ana  afterwards  in  other  places, 
so  that  now  there  are  disciples  and  brethren  in 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

They  are  generally  remarked  for  their  unity 
and  love  to  each  otlier,  to  which  is  superadded  a 
firmness  in  maintaining  their  religious  opinions. 

I.  They  hold,  from  the  New  Testament,  that 
each  church  planted  by  the  apostles  was  a  single 
congregation,  and  met  together  in  one  place. 
Acts  ii.  1.  46;  iv.  31;  and  v.  12;  1  Cor.  xi. 
18.  20;  so  that  it  was  composed  of  visible  be- 
lievers; 1  Cor.  i.  2;  Philip  i.  1;  Col.  i.  2; 
that  it  had  a  plurality  of  elders,  or  bishops,  to 
rule  and  labor  vi  the  word  and  doctrine ;  (Acts 
xiv.  23 ;  XX.  17 ;  Philip  i.  1 ;  Titus  i.  5 ;  1  Tim. 

V.  17;  also  a  plurality  of  deacons  to  minister 
in  the  proper  application  oi  the  church's  bounty ; 
Acts  vi.  1—17;  Philip  i.  1;  and  that  both 
were  chosen  not  by  their  academical  abilities, 
but  by  their  characters  laid  down  in  1  Tim.  iiL 
1 — 16 ;  Tit.  i.  5^-10 ;  and  set  apart  by  the  laying 
on  of  hands;  AcU  vi.  6;  1  Tim.  iv.  14;  v.  22. 

II.  They  aim  at  the  faithful  and  impartial  exer- 
cise of  discipline,  according  to  the  several  rules 
laid  down  in  the  New  Testament;  Matt.  xvii.  15 — 
17;  1  Cor.  v.;  2Thess.  iii.6— 15;  2Tim.iii.5. 
Tit.  iii.  10,  18.  Gal.  vi.  1  Jude  22,  23.  Such 
discipline,  they  say,  is  essential  to  the  very  being 
of  a  christian  church ;  but  altogether  impiacb- 
cable  in  any  other  society.  III.  Th^  receive 
none  into  church-fellowship  but  such  as  make  a 
scriptural  profession  of  their  &ith  in  Christ,  and 
ahoyr  their  readiness  to  observe  ^hatsoera  he 
enjoins;  and  they  retain  none  in  their  com- 
munion who  visibly  depart,  in  any  instance,  horn 
the  fiiith  and  obedience  of  the  gospel,  and  are 
proof  against  all  the  instituted  means  of  recoveiy. 
IV.  They  hold  that  the  rule  of  forbearance  is 
divine  revelation,  making  all  due  allowance  ibi 
differences  in  natural  tempers,  capacities,  growth 
in  grace,  &c.  and  exercising  all  long^^ufEeiiog, 
lowliness,  and  medtness,  in  their  eodeavoors  to 
reclaim  an  erring  brother.  V.  They  consider  il 
their  duty  to  be  all  of  one  mind,  in  every  thiog 
that  regards  their  fiuth  and  practice  as  a  body. 
Acts  iv.  32.  1  Cor.  i.  10.  2  Cor.  xiii.  11.  Philip^ 
i.  27.  ii.  2.  1  Pet.  iii.  8.  Nothing  is  decided 
among  them  by  human  influence  or  policy,  or 
by  majority  of  votes,  but  by  the  unanimous  con- 
sent and  explicit  agreement  of  every  nwoiber. 

VI.  They  meet  every  first  day  of  the  week  hw 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BAPTISTS, 


505 


TcasoM  and  ends  giten  in  Matt,  xxvii.  1—7. 
Luke  zxiv.  John  xz.  19,  26.  Acts  ii.  1.  zx.  7. 
1  Cor.  zi.  18.  20.  zvi.  2.  Rer.  i.  10.  When 
they  dbseire  die  following  institudons  of  dirine 
ivorship  :  1.  The  pablic  reading  of  die  scrip- 
tures Of  the  Old  ana  New  Testaments,  from  what 
is  written.  Acts  xv.  20,  21.  Col.  iv.  16.  1  Thess. 
▼.  27.  1  Tim.  iv.  13.  2.  The  mutual  exhorta- 
tion of  the  brethren^  which  is  attended  to  on  the 
morning  of  Lord*s  day,  immediately  after  the  reed- 
inf(of  tlie  scriptures.  Col.  iii.  16.  1  Thess.  it.  18. 
Heb.  iii.  13.;  x.  24,  25.  3.  Preaching  and  ex- 
pounding the  word,  which  is  done  by  the  elders 
and  pastors.  1  Pet  v.  2.*1  Tim.  ▼.  17.  Acts  v. 
42.  XX.  20.  2  Tim.  iv.  2.  4.  The  public  prayers, 
not  only  of  the  elders,  but  also  or  the  brethren, 
as  was  exemplified  in  the  first  churches.  Rom. 
zii.  12.    1  Cor.  xi.  4.  xiv.  14.    £ph.  vi.  18. 

1  Tim.  ii.  1,  2.  Jas.  ▼.  16.  Jude  20.  To  these 
prayecs  and  thanksgiyings,  the  whole  church  say 
Amen.  1  Cor.  xiv.  16.  5.  The  singing  oif 
praise.  Matt.  xxvi.  30.  1  Cor.  xiv.  15.  In 
doing  which  they  use  the  Psalms  of  David,  and 
other  spiritual  songs.    £ph.  v.  19.   Col.  iii.  16. 

6.  The  fellowship,  contribution,  communication, 
distribution,  or  well  doing,  as  in  Rom.  xvi.  26. 

2  Cor.  ix.  13.  Philip,  iv.  14,  15.  1  Tim.  vi. 
18.  Heb.  xiii.  16.  i.  e.  the  collection  for  the 
support  of  the  poor  saints,  and  other  necessary 
uses.    See  Acts  ii.  41.  and  1  Cor.  xvi.  1,  2. 

7.  The  breaking  of  bread,  or  the  Lord's  supper : 
this  they  observe  eveiy  Lord's  day  without  any 
regard  to  preparation  and  thanksgiving  days,  as 
the  church  at  Troas  came  together  diiefly  for 
that  end  on  the  first  day  of  the  week.  Acts  xx.  7. 

8.  In  the  interval  of  public  worship,  they  have 
the  feast  of  charity,  in  an  appropriate  pbce,  and 
generally  contiguous  to  the  ordinary  place  of 
meeting  for  worship,  where  every  member  may 
attend.  Its  nature  is  to  promote  love,  pleasure,  ha> 
mony,  and  mutual  edification  among  the  brethren, 
also  for  disengaging  the  minds  of  die  members, 
from  the  time  and  care  spent  in  preparing  a  diet 
at  their  own  houses  on  that  day  ;  tor  refreshing 
those  who  come  from  a  distance,  and  for  afibrding 
a  moderate  repast  to  the  poorer  members.  These 
love  feasts  they  deduce  fit)m  the  apostolic 
churches.  Acts  ii.  46.  xx.  11.  1  Cor.  xi.  20, 
21,  22.  Jude  12.  2  Pet.  ii.  13.  VII.  They 
consider  it  their  duty  to  join  fasting  with  prayer, 
on  particular  occasions.  Matt.  ix.  25.  Acts  xiii. 
2.  compare  Isaiah  Iviii.  5.  with  James  iv.  8 — 10. 
VIII.  They  use  the  kiss  of  charitv  on  various 
occasions ;  such  as,  the  reception  of  a  new  mem- 
ber, the  forgiveness  of  offences,  the  reconciliation 
of  differences,  the  setting  apart  of  office-bearers, 
the  departure  or  return  of  brethren,  &c.  Rom. 
xvi.  16.  1  Cor.  xvi.  20.  2  Cor.  xiii.  12.  1  Thess. 
V,  26.  1  Pet.  V.  14.  IX.  They  wash  the  saints' 
feet,  even  literally,  and  that  not  as  a  ceremony, 
but  whenever  it  can  be  of  real  service  to  a  bro- 
ther ;  the  men  perform  that  service  to  those  of 
their  own  sex,  and  the  women  to  their's  only. 
John  xiii.  14,  15.  X.  They  abstain  from  eating 
of  blood  and  strangled,  or  *  flesh  with  the  blood 
thereof;'  because  these  were  not  only  forbidden 
to  Noah  and  his  posterity.  Gen.  ix.  3,  4 ;  but 
also  under  the  gospel.  See  Acts  xv.  28,  29.  xvi. 
4.  and  xxi.  25.    Rex.  ii.  20.  24.  and  ver.  52. 


XI.  They  do  not  find  diemselves  at  liberty  to 
eat  a  common  meal  with  persons  excommuni- 
cated from  their  fellowship ;  but  they  do  not  set 
aside  any  natural  or  relaUve  duty.  Matt  xviii. 
17.  Luke  XV.  2.  Acts  x.  28.  1  Cor.  v.  9, 10, 
11.  And  XII.  They  consider  themselves  subject 
to  the  powers  that  be  in  all  lawful  civil  matters, 
Rom.  xiii.  1 — 6.  1  Pet.  ii.  13 — ^16.  to  honor 
them,  ver.  17.  pray  for  them,  1  Tim.  ii.  2.  pay 
them  tribute,  Rom.  xiii.  6, 7.  and  rather  to  suffer 
patiendy.fbr  a  good  conscience,  than  in  any  case 
to  resist  them  by  force.  Acts  v.  29.  1  Pet.  ii. 
19 — 24.  Theremre  they  can  have  no  fellowship 
with  any  who  are  known  to  be  disaffected  to 
government;  Prov.  xxiv.  21. 

BAPTISTERY,  in*  ecclesiastical  writers,  was 
one  of  the  exedrte,  or  buildings  distinct  from  tlie 
church  itself;  and  consisted  of  a  porch  or  anti- 
room,  where  die  persons  to  be  baptised  made 
their  confSession  of  faith,  and  an  mner  room, 
where  the  ceremony  of  baptism  was  performed. 
Thus  it  continued  till  the  sixth  century,  when  the 
baptisteries  began  to  be  taken  into  the  church 
porch,  and  afterwards  into  the  church  itself.  The 
ancient  baptisteries  were  commonly  called  fo- 
n?9/Ma,  photisteria,  q.d.  places  of  illumination; 
either  because  that  name  was  sometimes  given  to 
baptism,  or  because  they  were  the  places  of 
an  illumination,  or  instruction,  ,preceaing  bap- 
tism ;  where  the  catechumens  were  taught  the 
first  rudiments  of  the  Christian  faith. 

Baptisteries  in  general  are  either  octagonal  or 
circular,  surmounted  with  a  dome,  and  as  the 
font  is  usually  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the 
church  to  represent  the  initiation  of  the  new 
christian,  so  the  baptistery  is  situated  at  the 
approach  to  the  western  or  principal  gate.  These 
edifices  are  of  very  high  antiquity,  since  one 
was  prepared  for  the  ceremonial  of  the  baptism 
of  Clovis ;  and,  as  the  times  of  baptising  returned 
but  seldom,  diey  have  been  usually  very  ca- 
pacious. In  Italy,  although  the  churches  were 
numerous,  in  some  of  the  most  considerable  cities 
there  was  only  one  general  baptistery,  to  which 
they  all  resorted.  This  was  dedicated  to  John 
the  Baptist,  and  the  church  to  which  it  was  at- 
tached, assumed  the  pre-eminence  connected 
with  the  church  of  Santa  Sophia.  At  Constanti- 
nople was  a  spacious  baptistery,  in  which  we  read 
of  ancient  councils  assembling.  Of  the  baptis- 
teries of  Rome,  the  Lateran  is  the  most  ancient, 
in  which  some  antiauaries  are  said  to  have  disco- 
vered the  remains  of  the  Thermae,  anciently  within 
the  precincts  of  the  imperial  palace.  The  bap- 
tistery of  Pisa,  both  externally  and  internally, 
presents  a  fine  display  of  the  most  exquisite 
workmanship,  and  accordingly  has  greatly  excited 
the  admiration  of  modern  travellers,  among  whom 
we  may  distinguish  the  celebrated  Joseph  Ad- 
dison .  Hie  baptistery  of  Florence  is  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  its  gates.  Here  also  are  to 
be  seen  the  has  reliefs,  of  which  Michael  Angelo 
was  so  enamoured,  that  he  exclaimed  th^  de- 
served to  be  poruds  of  paradise.  The  Italian 
baptistery  in  appearance  is.  not  very  dissimiUr 
to  the  octagon  in  Ely  cathedral  at  the  intersection 
of  the  transepts  and  nave ;  but  it  does  not  ap- 
pear from  history  that  any  building  especially 
devoted  to  the  purpose  of  baptism,  was  ever 


Digitized  by 


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506 


BAPTIST   MISSION. 


erected  in  Ecgland.  Many  of  the  fonta  id  our 
churches  are  nevertheless  highly  interesting  to 
the  antiquarian,  that  of  Bridekirk  in  Cumberland 
is  of  Danish  origin,  and  that  which  was  removed 
from  the  churdi  of  St.  Peter  in  the  east,  Oxford, 
exhibited  proofs  of  an  antiquity  almost  as  early. 
See  FoMT. 

Upon  fonts  and  baptisteries  in  general,  the 
following  curious  inicnptioa  is  frequently  found, 
especially  upon  those  which  are  ancient: 
'NI'^ON  ANOMHMATA  MH  HOKAN  (TtrlVJ 
The  pious  monks  often  exercised  their  gifts  in 
formmg  acrostics  and  ehronograms ;  but  this  line 
exhibits  the  happiest  instance  of  the  amphisbena; 
the  words  being  exactly  the  same  whether  we 
read  the  line  backwards  of  forwards. 

Baptist  Mission. — While  the  Missionary 
Societies  of  various  denominations  have  an  ul- 
terior object  in  view,  too  high  and  sacred  for 
much  discussion  in  books  of  human  science, 
there  are  collateral  benefits  to  mankind,  which 
gradually  accompany  their  march,  that  fall  strictly 
wiidiin  our  sphere  to  record.  The  bearing  of 
these  societies,  on  our  acquaintance  with  the 
physical  and  politioal  geography  of  the  globe, 
and  on  the  study  of  its  lavages,  ancient  and 
raoderuy  is  obvious :  while  the  very  object  al- 
luded to,  and  a  missionary  «dor  for  its  accom- 
plishment, has  armed,  and  wiH  am,  the  traveller 
aod  the  scholar  (when  a  missionary),  with  a 
patient  and  persevering  zeal,  to  be  imbibed,  per- 
haps, in  DO  odier  school.  It  will  be  principally 
to  the  literary  and  scientific  aspect  of  these  in- 
stitutions that  we  shall,  in  this  work,  direct  the 
attention  of  the  reader ;  b«t  we  purpose,  ia  so 
doing,  to  insert  a  slight  sketch  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  all  ^  reputable  societies  of  this  kind. 

Among  Protestants,  it  may  be  said,  that  in 
1732  the  Unilas  Fradmrn,  or  Moravian  brethren, 
led  the  way  in  tliese  benevolent  enterprises. 
They  became  deeply  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
so  many  millions  of  the  human  race  were  silting 
in  darkness,  and  held  in  bondage  by  idolatry  and 
vice ;  and  they  formed  themselves  into  a  small 
society  for  endeavouring  to  convey  the  benefits  of 
Christianity  to  heathen  nations.  At  first  their 
beginnings  were  very  sn^ill,  but  they  now  possess 
between  forty  and  fifty  setdemonts,  empk)ying 
from  160  to  li80  missionaries.  For  six^  years 
this  society  pursued  its  way,  in  she  most  unos* 
tentatious  and  silent  manner,  before  any  others  of 
a  like  nature  were  fbnned. 

Oct.  2, 1792,  a  few  Baptist  ministeis  meeting 
at  Kettering,  Northamptonshire,  entered  into  a 
series  of  resolutions  for  the  formation  of  a  so- 
ciety, to  be  called  The  Particulaf  (or  Calyinis- 
tic)  Baptist  Society  for  propagating  the  Gospel 
among  the  Ueathea.  *  But  so  fiu,'  say  they, 
'  were  we  from  having  in  view  the  exclusive  pro- 
snotion  of  our  own  peculiar  principles  as  Bap- 
ibts,  that  we  were  determiiMd  from  tne  beginning, 
if  no  opportunity  ap^eaiied  for  sending  ont  Miik 
aionaries  of  our  own,  that  we  would  assist  other 
societies  already  in  being  amongst  the  Presby- 
terians and  the  Moravian^.'  The  names  of  the 
fiiat  committee  were  John  Ryland,  Reynold  Hogg, 
William  Carey,  John  Suleliff,  and  Andrew  Ful- 
ler. Reynold  Hogg  was  chosen  Treasurer,  and 
Andrew  Fnlier,  Secretary. 


Nov.  13. — ^The  committee  meeting  again  at 
Northampton,  learned  that  a  Mr.  John  Thomas, 
a  suigeoD,  who  had  been  several  years  in  Ben- 
gal, and  during  that  period  had  occasionally 
prnuihed  die  gospel  to  the  natives,  was  then  in 
London.  He  was  said  to  be  endeavouring  to 
establish  a  fund  for  a  mission  to  that  country, 
and  to  be  desirous  of  engaging  a  companion  tci 
return  with  him.  Enquiry  was  made  concemin.,' 
Mr.  Thomas,  as  to  his  character,  principles,  &c. ; 
and  the  accounts  which  were  received  provir;^  . 
satisfiictory,  the  committee  resolved  to  invite  liini 
to  go  out  as  one  of  their  missionaries,  and  to  en- 
deavour to  fttifiish  him  with  a  colleague.  Mr. 
Carey,  on  being  asked  if  he  were  willing  to 
accompany  Mr.  'Awmas,  answered  readily  in  the 
affirmative.  And  thus  was  fimished  to  the  so- 
ciety one  of  the  most  useful  laborers  in  the 
missionary  field,  and  ultimately  one  of  the  most 
profound  of  oriental  scholars,  from  the  bnmble 
station  of  an  uneducated  provincial  dissenting 
minister. 

The  next  step  was  to  calculate  the  expense  ef 
seiiding  them  out,  and  to  obtaun  the  means  of 
defraying  it  The  expense  was  estimated  at 
£500,  which  sum  required  to  be  raised  in  about 
three  or  four  months.  To  accomplish  this  the 
committee  frankly  stated  to  the  religious  public 
tkeir  plan,  requesting  that  so  iar  as  it  appeared 
to  be  deserving  of  encouragement,  they  wooki 
enoottrage  it.  Letters  also  were  addressed  to  the 
most  active  mimstersof  the  denomination  through- 
out the  kingdom,  requesting  Ifcehr  concurrence 
and  assistance.  The  result  was,  that  more  than 
twice  the  s^m  which  had  been  af&ed  for  was 
eoUected ;  yet,  when  the  work  was  finished,  the 
actual  expense  had  so  (ar  exceeded  the  estimate, 
that  there  were  only  a  few  pounds  to  spare.  A 
principal  cause  of  this  was,  that  the  whole  of  the 
new  missionary's  fiimily  were  induced  to  ac- 
company kin. 

The  first  laborers  in  this  mission  sailed  on 
June  13,  1793,  on  board  the  Princessa  Maria, 
a  Danish  Indiaman ;  but  no  tidings  of  their  pro- 
ceedings arrived  in  this  country  until  July  or  die 
following  year.  For  the  first  three  or  four  months, 
it  seems,  Mr.  Carey  found  himself  in  consider. 
9Ade  pecuniary  difficulties.  The  investment 
which  was  taken  out  for  Cheir  immediate  sup- 
port, was  sudk ;  and  he,  vritb  his  wife  and  fronny 
m  a  foreign  land,  were  utterly  destitote  of  the 
means  of  subostence.  He  now,  therefore,  en- 
quired for  secular  t>ccupa.tion ;  and  eariy  in 
March,1795,  received  an  invitation  from  Malda,to 
take  the  superintendance  of  an  indigo  fiictory .  His 
colleague  also,  Mr.  Thomas,  who  had  stopped  at 
Calcutta,  under  an  idea  of  supporting  himself  by 
his  proll^on,  received,  a  little  before,  a  similar 
invitation. 

Mr.  Carey  accepted  the  superintendence  of  an 
indigo  fiunory  at  Mudnabatty,  and  Mr.  Thomas 
of  another  at  Moypauldiggv,  both  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood  of  Malda.  Here  uiey  considered  thm- 
selves  capabte  of  watching  the  best  opportnni^ 
for  proceeding  with  their  noble  undertaking  in 
commg  out;  and  letters  were  sent  to  England, 
expressing  their  great  pleasure  in  being  able  to 
decline,  at  present,  any  further  assistance  from 
the  Society'*  foods. 


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At  home,  about  this  time,  hro  young  men, 
Mr.  Jacob  Grigg,  and  Mr.  James  Ilodwaj,  had 
)ffered  themselves  as  missionaries,  and  being 
considered  suitable  persons,  the  committee  te- 
lolved  on  another  mission,  i.  e.  to  Africa,  in  (he 
leighbourhood  of  Sierra  Leone.  In  the  autumn 
>f  1795,  the  missionaries  left  England;  but 
Itrough  the  indiscretion  of  one  of  dtem,  and  the 
U  heaJth  of  the  other,  ihe  undertaking  fiiiled. 
in  the  spring  of  1796,  a  Mr.  J.  Fountain  offer- 
ttg  himself  as  a  missionary,  was  accepted,  and 
ent  out  to  join  his  brethren  in  India. 

During  the  first  year  of  his  residence,  Mr. 
3arey  had  repeated  attacks  of  an  intermittent 
hvei  with  a  dysentery.  Mrs.  Carey  also,  and 
heir  eldest  son,  were  much  a£9icted ;  and  their 
bird  son,  Peter,  died  at  fire  years  of  age.  As 
toon  as  they  were  able  to  apply  themselves  to 
he  work,  they  set  up  schools  at  their  respective 
ketones;  preached  every  Sunday,  and  frequently 
m  week  days ;  and  Mr.  Thomas  being  particu- 
arly  attentive  to  the  poor,  in  administering  me- 
iidnes,  &c.  to  (hem ;  many  people,  besid^  the 
vorkmen,  attended  flieir  preaching.  Two 
Englishmen,  a  Mr.  Long  and  a  Mr.  Powell,  who 
lad  settled  in  Bengal,  joining  in  the  views  of  tiiis 
ittle  band,  on  Nov.  1, 1795,  they,  with  (he  mis- 
lionaries,  formed  a  church,  and  commemorated 
he  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Mr.  Long 
vas  afterwards  excluded  for  improper  conduct ; 
mt  Mr.  Powell  continued  an  useful  character  till 
lis  death,  which  was  at  Dinagepore,  on  Sept. 
15, 1802.  An  European  or  two  were  joined  to 
his  body,  from  1796  to  1800 ;  a  spirit  of  cnquiiy 
Nras  awoke  among  the  natives,  and  a  school 
erected  at  Dinagepore ;  but  no  native  converts 
nanifested,  as  yet,  sufficient  boldness  to  shake 
»flr  caste  for  the  benefit  of  the  new  faith. 

The  missionaries,  however,  were  not  easily  dis- 
ouraged.  They  requested  ner  helpers  from 
ome,  and  particularly  some  one  wno  should 
inderstand  the  printing  business.  Accordingly, 
1  the  spring  of  1799,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Marshman, 
Ar.  and  Mrs.  Grant,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Brunsdon, 
rf  r.  William  Ward,  and  Miss  Tidd,  etfibarked 
>r  India.  Mr.  Ward  being  a  printer,  and  Mr. 
nd  Mrs.  Marshman  having  kept  a  school, 
lieir  instructions  were,  to  *  beware,  both  from 
principle  of  conscience,  and  from  a  regard  to 
leir  own  interest,  and  that  of  tlie  mission,  of 
jtermeddling  with  any  political  concerns — to  be 
bedieot  to  the  laws  in  all  civil  afiairs — to  re- 
pect  magistrates,  both  supreme  and  subordinate, 
nd  teach  the  same  things  to  others — in  fine,  to 
pply  themselves  wholly  to  the  all-important 
oncems  of  that  evangelical  servicp  to  which 
ley  had  so  solemnly  dedicated  themselves.' 
loreover,  that  '  however  gross  might  be  the 
lolatries,  and  heathenish  superstitions  that 
lisht  fidl  under  their  notice,  they  should  se- 
ulously  avoid  all  rudeness,  insult,  or  interrup- 
on,  during  the  observance  of  such  superstitions, 
bserving  no  methods  but  those  of  Christ  and  his 
postles,  namely,  the  persevering  use  of  scripture^ 
iatsoUf  prayer,  meekness,  and  love.' 

Mr.  Carey  was  anxious  that  the  new  mission- 
ries  and  their  wives  might  bo  permitted  to  pro- 
eed  and  settle  in  the  neighbourhood  of  MsJda. 
le  had  taken  a  small  place  at  Ridderporc,  about 


twelve  miles  distant,  where  he  intended  to  eurj 
on  a  little  business,  and  to  erect  some  dwellings 
for  them.  The  refinquishing  of  this  undertak- 
ing would  be  a  loss  of  £500.  But  the  British 
authorities  were  inflexible  in  tiieir  opposition  to 
his  plan  of  increasing  his  establishmeut.  Mr. 
Carey,  therefore,  determined  to  rernove  to  the 
Danish  settlement  of  Serampore,  where  his  bre- 
thren had  arrived. 

This  miportant  step  was  accomplished  Janttary 
10, 1800,  and  the  next  day  he  was  introduced  to 
the  governor,  who  received  him  in  a  very  friend- 
ly manner.  The  first  object  of  attention  was  to 
settle  a  plan  of  internal  government.  All  the 
missionaries  determined  to  consider  themselves 
as  one  fiunily ;  the^  were  to  preach  and  piay  in 
tarn ;  one  tosupemrtend  the  affairs  of  the  &mily 
for  a  month,  and  then  another.  Mr.  Carey  was 
appointed  treasurer  and  keeper  of  the  medicine 
cnest ;  Mr.  Fountain  librarian.  Saturday  even- 
ing was  devoted  to  adjusting  any  differences 
which  might  arise  during  the  week,  and  pledg- 
ing themselves  to  love  one  another;  finally,  it 
was  resolved  that  no  one  should  engage  in  any 
private  trade ;  but  that  whatever  was  done  by 
any  member  of  the  fkmily,  should  be  done  for 
the  benefit  of  the  mission. 

The  first  sheet  of  the  Bengalee  New  Testament 
was  printed  May  16.  They  worked  off*  2000 
copies,  besides  500  of  the  gospel  hj  Matthew, 
fbr  immediate  distribution.  E^riy  in  June  they 
opened  a  Bengalee  school,  in  which  the  children 
or  those  natives  who  chose  to  send  them,  were 
taught  gratis ;  and  b^  the  20th  of  July  they  had 
forty  pupils.  A  native,  named  Gokool,  also  ap- 
peared exceedingly  attentive  to  their  ministry. 
On  the  22d  of  December,  Gokool,  and  a  man 
named  Kristno,  came  and  ate  in  public  with  the 
missionaries,  by  which  act  they  threw  off*  their 
caste.  All  who  witnessed  it  were  surprised ;  it 
was  so  universally  said,  No  one  would  lose 
caste  for  the  Gospel. 

'  Thus  the  door  of  faith  is  opened  to  these  Gen- 
tiles— ^who  shall  shut  itf  said  Mr.  (now  Dr.) 
Marshman.  *  The  chain  of  the  caste  is  broken, 
who  shall  mend  it?'  llie  same  evening  Gokool, 
without  his  fkmily,  and  Kristno  with  his,  came 
and  offered  themselves  willingly  to  the  church, 
each  making  a  solemn  profession  of  faith  in 
Christ,  and  of  obedience  to  his  commands.  It 
was  soon  noised  abroad  that  these  people  had 
lost  caste ;  and  now  a  time  of  trial  drew  near. 
The  next  day  a  great  company  of  people  assem- 
bled, two  thousand  or  thereabouts,  pouring  out 
their  execrations  upon  them.  Taking  them  by 
force,  they  first  dragged  them  before  Uie  Danish 
magistrate;  but  he,  instead  of  censuring,  com- 
mended them  fbr  what  they  had  done.  Being 
dismissed,  they  came  a  second  time  with  Kristno 
with  a  new  charge,  accusing  him  of  refusing  to 
deliver  up  his  daughter  to  a  man  who  had  con- 
tracted for  her  in  marriage.  The  magistrate, 
however,  defended  Kristno,  and  assured  the 
girl  that  she  should  not  be  compelled  to  marry 
the  man  against  her  consent.  Tne  governor  also 
promised  the  missionaries  that  they  should  not 
be  interrupted  in  baptising.  The  hubbub  that 
had  thus  been  raised,  did  not  shake  the  resolution 
of  Kristno;  but  his  family,  and  Gokool,  were  in- 


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BAPTIST   MISSION. 


timidated  by  it.  On  the  27Ui  they  sent  to  the 
misdion-house,  sayinff,  *  they  wished  to  put  off 
their  baptism  for  a  few  weeks/  The  next  day 
(the  28tn)  was  the  time  appointed  for  baptising. 
Kristno  came  forward,  ana  with  Felix  Carey,  was 
baptised  in  the  Hoogiv.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  Europeans  and  natives  attended;  many 
of  whom  appeared  to  be  struck  with  the  so- 
iemnity  of  toe  ordinance.  Shortly  after,  a  Mr. 
Fernandez,  and  Joymooni  (Kristnoo's  wife's 
sister),  were  baptised,  and  joined  ttie  church. 
At  a  meeting  on  the  22d,  she  said,  <  She  had 
found  a  treasure  in  Christ  greater  than  every 
thing  else  in  this  world.'  Kristnoo  said  his 
chief  '  thoughts  now  were  about  the  salvation  of 
others.' 

The  effect  of  diese  baptisings  was,  that  all  the 
children  of  the  Bengalee  school  were  taken 
away  by  their  parents,  lest  they  should  be  made 
Christians ;  and  the  only  children  left  for  instruc- 
tion were  those  of  Kristno,  to  whom  the  mis- 
sionaries now  paid  the  greater  attention,  and 
amongst  whom  there  were  some  hopeful  ap- 
pearances. The  baptised  Hindoos  appeared  to 
improve  much  in  knowledge  and  affection. 
Their  manner  of  speaking  was  singular  and 
impressive.  '  Christ  (said  one)  is  my  joy,  my 
hope,  my  all.  If  worldly  things  draw  my  mind 
from  him,  I  say,  mind,  why  dost  thou  leave 
Christ?  There  is  no  other  Saviour.  If  t^iou 
leave  him,  thou  finUest  into  hell.'  *  I  was  for- 
merly,' said  another,  '  in  prison;  the  light  of 
tlie  Gospel  came  to  ihe  prison  door,  and>  I  got 
outr 

About  this  time  Mr.  Carey  was  appointed  by 
Marquis  Wellesley  to  a  professorstup  in  the 
New  College  of  Fort  William.  When  an  appli- 
cation was  made  to  him  on  the  subject,  he  nad 
some  hesitation  as  to  complying  with  it,  lest 'it 
should  interfere  with  his  proper  work  as  a  mis- 
sionary. Nor  did  he  accede  to  the  appointment 
till  he  had  consulted  widi  his  brethren,  who 
thought  that  it  might  promote  rather  than  ob- 
struct the  great  objects  of  the  mission.  Every 
temporal  advantage  that  might  arise  from  it 
would,  on  the  ground  of  their  established  rules, 
be  only  so  much  added  to  the  missionary  stock. 
And  here  let  us  add,  that  steadily,  and  when 
these  advantages  have  risen  to  several  thousands 
per  annum,  has  this  good  man  added  them  to 
that  stock. 

On  the  morning  of  May  8th,  during  our  short 
war  with  the  Danes,  the  British  flag  was  hoisted 
at  Serampore.  At  ten  o'clock  the  missionaries 
were  ordered  to  appear  at  the  government  house. 
On  presenting  themselves,  they  were  treated  with 
the  utmost  civility,  both  by  the  late  Danish 
governor,  and  the  English  commander,  and  told 
to  go  on  with  their  school,  preaching,  &c.  in  the 
same  peaceable  v?ay  as  before. — On  the  29th, 
Gokool,  who  had  feinted  at  the  outset,  came  for- 
ward again,  and  on  June  7th,  he  was  baptised. 
Kristno  was  now  in  the  habit  of  talking  to  his 
neighbours  who  came  to  him  at  hb  work,  in  some 
such  strain  as  this: — '  In  all  your  worship  there 
is  no  fruit  None  of  the  debtas  died  for  sinners ; 
bat  Jesus  Christ  came  into  the  world  for  this. 
This  is  the  greatest  love  I  ever  heard  of.  At 
the  house  of  the  missionaries  I  have  seen  such 


love  as  I  never  saw  before.  When  a  man 
believes  in  Christ  he  gets  a  new  mind.  This  is 
the  fruit  of  becoming  a  Christian,  &c.  &c.' 
The  missionaries  from  such  specimens  hoped 
that  he  would  soon  be  able  to  preach  Christ  to 
his  countrymen. 

During  this  month,  Mr.  Ward  and  Kristno 
visited  certain  parts  of  the  country  from  whence 
persons  had  come  for  religious  instruction,  preach- 
ing and  distributing  papers  as  they  proceeded; 
and  some  of  the  women  went  to  visit  tneir  female 
relations  up  the  country,  where  they  also  con- 
versed about  the  gospel.  Mr.  Ward  in  his  ex- 
cursion was  detained  by  a  police  officer,  on  the 
ground  <  that  the  company  had  given  no  orders 
for  the  natives  to  lose  caste.'  Mr.  W.  assured 
him  that  the  papers  were  entirely  religious;  and 
on  his  offering  to  sign  them  with  his  own  name, 
the  officer  released  him.  The  papers  thus  signed 
were  sent  to  Calcutta,  and  examined.  Some 
alleged,  that  it  was  improper  to  attack  the  reli- 
gion of  the  natives;  but  others  answered  that 
diere  was  nothing  more  in  the  papers  than  had 
been  always  tolerated  in  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  company's  territories.  Nothing  therefore 
came  of  it;  and  during  the  administration  of 
Marquis  Wellesley,  no  more  was  heard  of  the 
subject. 

In  the  course  of  this  year,  colonel  Bie  trans- 
mitted to  his  government  an  account  of  the  set- 
tlement of  the  missionaries  at  Serampore,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  his  Danish  majesty  directed 
the  Royal  College  of  Commerce  at  Copenhagen 
to  signify  his  pleasure  to  the  governor  of  Senm- 
pore,  that  the  society  of  missionaries  be  con- 
sidered as  under  his  majesty's  protection  and 
patronage,  which  they  accordingly  signified  by  a 
letter,  bearing  date  Sept.  5,  1801.  The  gover- 
nor-general tdao  of  British  India  was  ples^  tc 
assure  one  of  the  missionaries,  that  he  '  was  per- 
fectly acquainted  with  all  the  concerns  and  opera- 
tions at  Serampore,  and  felt  great  satis&ctioo  at 
their  affairs  being  attended  with  a  degree  of 
success'. 

In  the  beginning  of  1802  the  mission  had  bap- 
tised seven  natives. 

On  the  4th  of  April,  a  native  who  had  previ- 
ously lost  caste,  of  the  name  of  Syam  Da«,  was 
baptised.  He  proved  to  be  a  simple-hearted 
good  man,  and  was  instnimental  to  tne  conver- 
sion of  one  of  his  neighbours,  Bharut;  bat  died, 
or  was  murdered  on  a  journey  in  the  autumn  ot 
the  same  year,  about  five  -months  after  his  bap- 
tism. About  this  time  a  brahmin  came  to  Seram- 
eire,  who  lived  with  Dulol,  a  famous  leader  of  a 
indoo  sect.  They  are  a  kind  of  Deists,  setting 
light  by  the  superstitions  of  the  country,  and  by 
the  caste;  but  making  light  also  of  sin,  and  a 
future  state.  He  said  thact  Dulol  sent  him  to 
get  baptised  first,  and  that  he  himself  would  fol- 
low, and  bring  with  him  an  hundred  thoosand 
disciples  I  The  missionaries  had  no  faitti  n 
this  tale;  but  thought  it  right  to  pay  him  a  visit 
Mr.  Carey,  Mr.  Marshman,  and  Kristno  (who 
had  formerly  been  one  of  his  disciples)  tber«fore, 
set  off  for  Ghospura,  the  place  of  his  residcocf . 
They  perceived  him  to  be  what  they  expected, 
a  designing  man,  living  in  xUte  only  upon  m 
creduU^  of  his  ^llowen. 


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609 


On  May  lOtb,  Mr.  Ward  and  Mrs.  Fountain 
vn^ra  married.  Heretofore  the  marriages  had 
been  performed  by  an  English  clergyman;  but 
the  missionaries  having  been  advised  to  marry 
their  own  people,  they,  with  the  concurrence  of 
^  civil  authorities,  drew  up  a  simple  form  for 
the  purpose ;  and  the  business  was  conducted  to 
the  satisfaction  of  all  present.  In  June  or  July 
"five  more  natives  were  baptised  at  Senimpore. 
Towards  the  end  of  this  last  month,  a  Mussul- 
man, whose  name  was  Moorad,  came  from  Ponche- 
taluckphool,  or  as  they  usually  call  it  by  wa^  of 
contraction,  Luckphool,  with  an  invitation  from 
a  considerable  number  of  people  in  that  part  of 
the  country  to  go  and  preach  tne  gospel  to  them. 
Mr.  Marshman,  accordingly,  set  out  on  the  10{h 
of  August,  taking  Petumber  Mittre  and  Bharut 
with  him.  At  Luckphool,  they  halted  under  a 
large  tree,  which  was  the  appointed  place  for 
hearing;  the  people  came  together  and  received 
them  sitting  aown  on  the  grass,  and  after  having 
heard  with  much  earnestness  for  about  half  an 
hour,  entreated  the  preacher  to  rest,  and  take 
refreshment  He  did  so,  and  then  renewed  his 
subject.  They  spent  the  evening,  sitting  round 
him,  and  asking  questions  on  Christ,  the  resur- 
Taction,  a  future  state  &c. 

These  people,  amounting  to  some  hundreds, 
had,  for  the  last  fourteen  years,  begun  to  dislike 
the  idolatry  of  the  country ;  and  attaching  them- 
selves to  a  grave  elderly  man,  as  their  goroo  or 
teacher,  had  from  that  time  been  enquiring  after 
the  right  way.  Neelo,  for  that  was  the  old  man's 
name,  had  taught  them  that  there  was  one  God, 
whom  he  calleid  father,  who  alone  was  to  be 
worshipped;  that  sin  was  to  be  forsaken;  and 
that  a  nurther  revelation  was  to  be  expected.  It 
was  in  consequence  of  his  having  heard  of  the 
missionaries  thstt  Moorad  was  sent  to  Seram- 
pore,  to  request  them  to  come  and  visit  them. 
After  the  worship,  as  above  related,  the  old  man 
took  Mr.  Marshman  aside  for  private  conversa- 
tioDy  and  appeared  to  be  very  averse  to  Brahmin- 
isin,  and  friendly  to  the  ffospel  as  opposed  to  it; 
recommending  it  also  to  his  people,  as  being  the 
reyelation  which  he  had  given  them  to  expect. 
-In  returning  home,  Mr.  M.  called  on  another 
goTOo,  who  had  nearly  20,000  followers.  His 
name  was  Seeb  Ram  Dass,  and  his  residence  at 
Juggerdandakatt^.  There  was  much  less  pomp 
and  artifice  in  him  than  in  Dulol;  and  less  con- 
viction and  affection  than  in  Neelo,  and  his 
people  at  Luckphool.  The  general  impression 
was,  that  these  people  were  loosened  from  the 
Hindoo  and  Mahommedan  systems,  which  marked 
the  hand  of  providence,  and  might  be  introduc- 
tory  to  the  gospel. 

uuring  this  year  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Chamberlain 
w«re  sent  out  l^  the  committee  to  assbt  in  the 
labors  of  the  India  mission.  About  the  same 
time,  the  missionaries  purchased  the  house  and 
premises  adjoining  their  own.  The  garden  and 
out-buildings  contained  more  than  four  acres  of 
land.  By  this  addition  they  had  room  not  onty 
for  the  schools,  and  for  the  printing  and  binding 
boniness,  but  also  for  any  new  missionaries  that 
might  arrive.  They  made  themselves  trustees 
for  the  society,  as  they  had  done  in  the  fir^it  pur- 
chase.   Towards  the  end  of  January,  1803,  be- 


sides the  New  Testament,  the  first  volume  of 
the  Old,  the  Psalms,  and  a  part  of  Isaiah,  were 
finished,  and  began  to  be  a  good  deal  read  in 
different  phices.  A  new  fount  of  Naggree  types 
was  nearly  completed ;  and  a  house  was  taken 
in  Calcutta  for  preaching  to  both  Europeans  and 
natives. 

In  February  they  speak  of  the  affairs  of  the 
mission  growing  more  and  more  weighty.'  Se- 
veral new  enquirers  arrived ;  amongst  whom  was 
Sheetaram,  a  soodQ^,  from  Bishoohurry;  in  Jes- 
sore,  and  who  on  the  27th  was  baptised.  The 
zeal,  the  simplicity,  and  the  good  conduct  of  this 
man  proved,  as  will  be  seen,  a  great  blessing  to 
several  of  his  relations  and  neighbours. 

In  April  two  of  the  native  converts  intermar- 
ried. The  ceremoijy  was  conducted  much  in  the 
same  way  as  Mr.  Ward's  had  been.  Mr.  Carey, 
after  explaining  the  nature  and  ends  of  mamage, 
and  noticing  the  impropriety  of  the  Hindoo  cus- 
toms, read  certain  portions  of  scripture,  and 
after  them  the  marriage  agreement.  The  parties 
then  joined  hands,  promised  love,  faithfulness, 
obedience,  &c. ;  ^en  signed  the  agreement,  to 
which  others  added  their  names  as  witnesses.  A 
prayer  for  adivine  blessing  followed,  and  the  whole 
was  conclucfed  with  a  temperate  and  cheerful  repast 
of  raisins,  plantains,  &c.  The  day  following  they 
had  a  supper  at  the  house  of  Kristno,  the  bride's 
father,  where  all  sat  down  together  without  dis« 
tinction  of  color  or  country.  This  to  the  spec- 
tators was  quite  a  new  thing.  During  this  month 
several  of  the  native  brethren,  as  Kristno,  Pre- 
saud,  Ram  Roteen,  &c.  went  into  the  villages  to 
talk  with  the  people  about  Christ.  They  were 
treated  with  aouse,  but  bore  it  with  Christian 
meekness,  telling  their  abusers,  that  they  '  only 
did  what  eveiy  sect  did,  who,  whether  Hindoos 
or  Mussulmans,  were  allowed  to  perform  their 
pooijahs  in  the  streets;  and  that  insults,  stripes, 
and  even  death  were  good  for  them,  so  that  God 
by  them  did  but  turn  their  hearts.' 

Frequent  additions  were  now  made  to  the 
Baptist  flock  here ;  nor  did  the  diligence  of  the 
missionaries  slacken  in  their  noble  work  of  trans- 
lating the  scriptures. 

In  August,  a  new  and  improved  edition  of  the 
Bengalee  New  Testament  was  begun,  as  only 
600  copies  remained  of  the  first  impression.  In 
September,  the  convert,  Gokool,  seemed  to  be 
drawing  near  his  end.  But  his  mind  was 
steadily  fixed  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  and  on  die 
7th  of  October  he  died.  '  About  two  hours  be- 
fore his  death,'  says  Mr.  Marshman,  '  he  called 
the  native  brethren  round  him  to  sing  and  pray. 
.  He  was  perfectly  sensible,  resigned,  and  tranquil. 
Some  ot  the  neighbours  had  been  trying  to  per- 
suade him  to  employ  a  native  doctor ;  but  as 
all  their  medicines  are  accompanied  with  hea- 
then incantations,  he  refused  them,  saying,  he 
would  have  no  physician  but  Jesus  Cnrist. 
*  How  is  it,'  'said  Uiey,  *that  you,  who  have 
turned  to  Christ,  should  be  thus  afflicted  ?"  My 
affliction,  replied  he,  is  on  account  of  my  sins: 
my  Lord  does  all  things  well.  Observing  Komal 
to  weep  (who  was  a  most  affectionate  wife)  he 
said,  why  do  you  weep  for  me?  His  tranquil 
and  happy  end  made  a  deep  impression  ou 
all  arouna.    They  said  one  to  another,  May  my 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


>10 


J3  APT  I  ST    MI  SSI  OK. 


mind  be  as  Gokoors  was.*  His  fimeraly  in  the 
European  manner^  made  abo  a  considemble  im- 
pression on  the  natives.  On  the  23d,  a  brahmin 
from  Assam  was  baptised. 

During  this  year,  the  society  presented  a  copy 
of  the  Bengalee  New  Testament,  and  of  the  penta- 
teuch,  to  his  majesty>  Geo.  III.  by  the  hands  of 
Robert  Bowyer,  Esq.    His  majesty  was  pleased 

Saciously  to  accept  of  them,  and  to  direct  that  his 
anks  should  be  given  to  the  society.  During 
this  year  also  a  plan  was  laid  for  translating  the 
scriptures  into  various  othe/ eastern  languages. 

In  February,  1804,  these  worthy  laborers  had 
the  happiness  of  devolving  a  portion  of  their 
work  upon  two  native  teachers,  and  ordained 
Kristno  and  Petumber  Shingo  to  the  work  of  the 
ministry,  with  prayer  and  the  imposition  of 
hands.  In  the  course  of  the  year,  fourteen  more 
natives  were  baptised. 

About  four  years  previously,  Mr.  Ward  being,  on 
a  visit  at  Calcutta,  went  with  Kristno  to  a  village 
called  Ramkreeshnopore,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river,  opposite  Calcutta.  Here  they  left  a  num- 
ber of  small  tracts,  and  a  New  Testament.  Till 
now  the  effects  were  unknown.  Kristno,  on  re- 
visiting tlie  village,  meets  with  a  byraggee,  who 
tells  him  that  the  books  have  been  read,  and  that 
several  persons  are  convinced  by  them. 

In  November  and  December  twenty-one  per- 
sons were  baptised,  seven  of  whom  came  from 
Kristnopore,  and  were  the  fruits  of  the  New 
Testament  and  tracts  which  were  left  at  that  vil- 
lage. One  of  Oiem,  named  Kristnoo  Dass,  re- 
ferring to  Mr.  Ward's  having  declared  that  *  it 
was  for  the  use  of  the  whole  village,  and  that  he 
who  coald  read  the  best  should  keep  it,  and 
read  it  to  all  who  wished  to  hear  it,'  said, '  he 
had  got  it,  and  that  the  reading  of  it  had  changed 
his  ideas,  and  made  him  leave  off  idolatry,  and 
put  his  trust  in  Christ.'  The  Testament  was 
produced,  and  was  nearly  worn  out  by  reading. 
Ten  out  of  the  twenty-one  were  baptised  on  No- 
vember dd.  'A  solemn  seriousness,*  says  Mr. 
Biss,  'pervaded  the  company.  Some  who 
seemed  to  know  nothing  of  the  power  of  religion, 
nevertheless  shed  tears.^  At  the  Lord's  supper 
there  was  great  joy  through  the  whole  church, 
singing,  and  making  melody  in  our  hearts  to  the 
Lord.' 

In  the  autumn  of  this  year,  captain  Wickes 
being  in  London,  the  committee  sent  by  him 
1000  guineas,  which  had  been  collected  in  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  and  Ireland,  towards  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  into  tlie  eastern  languages. 
On  the  captain's  arrival  in  America,  he  expressed 
a  wish  in  the  public  papers,  that  the  friends  of 
religion  in  his  country  would  add  something  to 
it.  The  result  was,  that  by  the  generous  exer- 
tions of  the  different  denominations,  the  original 
sum  was  considerably  more  than  doubled,  and 
sent  in  dollars  to  Serampore. 

We  have  been  followmg  this  band  of  brethren 
to  the  period  of  their  cause  taking  that  deep  and 
well  grounded  root  in  India,  from  which  it  will 
not  quickly  be  removed.  But  their  steps  were 
not  everywhere  encouraged.  Both  at  home  and 
in  India,  British  authority  and  influence  were  oc- 
sionallv  arrayed  against  them.  When,  on  the 
2'dd  of  August,  Messrs.  Chatcr  and  Robinson 


arnved,  a  demur  was  made  m  to  their  being  oer 
mitted  to  proceed  to  Serampore.  Next  day,  Mr. 
Carey  was  told  by  the  magistrates  that  they  had 
a  message  for  him,  'that  as  government  did  not 
interfere  with  the  prejudices  of  the  natives,  it 
was  the  governor-general's  reauest  that  Mr. 
Carey  and  his  colleagues  would  not*  As  ei- 
plained  by  the  magistrates,  this  request  was  said 
to  be  a  kind  of  order.  ^They  were  not  to  preach 
to  the  natives,  nor  suffer  the  native  converts  to 
preach;  they  were  not  to  distribute  religious 
tracts,  nor  suffer  the  people  to  distribute  them; 
they  were  not  to  send  forth  converged  natives 
nor  take  any  steps,  by  conversation  or  otherwise, 
for  persuading  the  natives  to  embrace  Chris- 
tianity. Mr.  Carey  enquired  whether  they  had 
&ny  written  communication  with  tlie  governor- 
general;  and  being  axiswered  in  the  negatiTe, 
took  leave.  ThLs  however,  it  was  afterwards 
said  was  not  meant  '  to  prohibit  Mr.  Carey  or 
his  brethren  from  preaching  at  Serampore,  or  in 
their  own  house  at  Calcutta ;  only  they  mustnoc 
preach  at  the  loll  bazaar.  Nor  was  it  intended  to 
prevent  Uieir  circulating  the  scriptures,  hut 
merely  the  tracts  abusiiM^  the  Hindoo  religioo  r 
or  to  forbid  the  native  Christians  conversing  with 
their  countrymen  on  Christianity,  only  they  must 
not  go  out  under  the  sanction  of  the  misnoo- 
aries.' 

In  a  conversation  that  took  place  between  &e 
magistrates  and  a  friend  of  the  missioovies,  tfaej 
acknowledged  themselves  'well  satisfied  with 
their  character  and  deportment.'  Messrs.  Chater 
•and  Robinson,  however,  were  commanded  to 
veturn  to  Europe. 

A  tract,  about  this  time,  was  translated  and 
sent  to  England,  in  which  the  missionaries  were 
represented  as  calling  the  natives  '  barbarians,* 
and  their  shasters  '  barbarian  shasters,'  when  io 
the  original  they  had  only  intreated  ihem  not  to 
reject  the  bible  as  being  the  shaster  of  the  hai- 
barians,  or  '  M'leeches,  a  name  by  which  they 
designate  all  who  are  not  of  the  caste.  Ai^ 
this  a  pamphlet  appeared  by  Mr.  Twining, 
and  was  followed  by  several  more,  irritten  by 
mjajor  Scott  Waring,  and  others:  some  openK 
espousing  the  cause  of  idolatiy,  and  most  ot 
tliem  filled  with  unfounded  statementSp  and  iaef> 
fectual  endeavours  to  trace  the  V^ell^re  mutiny 
to  the  attempts  at  christianising  the  nauves. 
The  charges  produced  in  these  pamphlets  were 
answered'  by  the  friends  of  the  mission.  Not 
long  after,  a  tract  which  had  been  printed  in 
Bengalee,  and  which  in  that  language  contained 
nothing  offensive,  was  put  into  the  hands  of  a 
native  to  be  translated  into  Pernc.  The  transla- 
tion being  finished,  it  was,  through  the  ptessoie 
of  business,  inadvertently  printed  off.  witnout  be- 
ing first  inspected  by  the  missionaries  ;  and  the 
translator  having  introduced  various  strong  epi- 
thets, calling  Mahomet  a  tyrant,  &c.  which  it 
was  alleged  would  irritate  his  followers,  the  Bri- 
tish authorities  took  it  up  in  a  serious  icaooer. 
Mr.  Carey  being  sent  for,  readily  acknowledged 
the  impropriety  of  the  epithets,  and  promised  to 
enquire  into  the  affair.  Had  the  object  of  the 
party  been '  merely  to  prevent  the  disturbance 
of  the  public  tranquillity,  things  would  have  is- 
sued here.    But  proceedings  were  commenced 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BAPTIST   MISSION. 


511 


which  thTettened  min  to  the  migsion.  In  oon- 
sequenoe,  however,  of  ao  explanalioti,  and  a 
respectful  memoritd  presented  to  the  goreraor- 
general,  the  most  Serious  part  of  the  proceedings 
was  revoked ;  and  when  two  of  the  missionaries 
waited  on  his  lordship  to  thank  him  for  his 
candour'  in  regard  to  their  memorial,  he  replied^ 
that  nothing  more  Was  necessary  *thaii  a  mere 
examination  of  the  subject,  on  which  every  thing . 
appeared  in  a  clear  and  iavotable  light.  The 
missionaries  however,  were  required,  in  future, 
not  to  print  any  tracts  withont  first  submitting 
them  to  the  inspection  of  government. 

In  1807  new  rules  were  formed  suited  to  the 
present  state  of  the  mission,  every  station  being 
independent  of  the  other,  but  all  tinited  as  a  ge- 
neral body.    A  considerable  advance  was  made 
in  ten  of  the  translatiotis :  two  new  founts  of 
type  completed,  viz.  the  Orissa  arid  the  Mahratta, 
and  two  others  begun,  viz.  tiie  Burmah  and  Chi- 
nese; a  new  and  improved  fount  of  Nagree  also 
begun.    With  respect  to  printing,  an  impression 
of  1500  copies  of  the  fourth  volume  of  tne  Ben- 
galee Old  Testament,  containing  all  the  prophets, 
I     was  completed;  the  third  volume,  comprising 
,     the  histoncal  books,  being  in  the  press ;  an  edi- 
tion of  10,000  copies  Of  Luke,  the  Acts,  and 
the  epistle  to  the  Romans  was  completed ;  the 
New  Testatnetit  in  the  Sungscrit  and  Orissa 
,     considerably  advanced;  and  the  Hindostanee, 
,     Mahratta,  and  Guzuratee,  put  to  press. 

Januaiy  28,  1808,  Serampore  waSi  taken  by 
I  the  English,  but  without  making  any  difference 
,  in  the  situation  of  the  missionaries.  Mr.  F. 
Carey,  having  stndied  medicine  at  Calcutta,  in- 
troduced the  vaccine  inoculation  at  Rangoon. 
After  having  inoculated  about  fifty  in  the  city 
with  success,  he  was  sent  for  by  the  governor  to 
perform  the  operation  on  his  children,  lliis 
circumstance  proved  favorable  to  their  settling 
as  missionaries. 

During  this  year  the  Danish  clek^gyman  at 
Serampore  being  dead,  a  question  was  moved 
among  the  inhabitants  who  should  Succeed  him? 
The  majority  expressed  their  wish,  that  the  mis- 
sionaries might  be  permitted  to  do  so.  A  peti- 
tion was  accordingly  presented  to  the  governor- 
general  for  the  purpose,  which  being  granted, 
the  parish  church  has  from  that  time,  about  Sep- 
tember, been  occupied  by  some  of  the  Baptist 
brethren.  They  accept  of  no  pecuniary  reward 
for  their  services. 

Towards  the  latter  end  of  September  &ere  was 
a  second  examination  of  the  lads  engaged  in  the 
study  of  the  Chinese  language,  held  at  Seram- 
pore ;  at  which  were  present  the  vice-president 
of  the  Asiatic  Society,  with  sevend  other  Euro- 
pean gentlemen,  who  expressed  their  satisfaction 
in  very  strong  terms.  The  missionaries  now  oc- 
cupy the  ten  following  stations,  viz. 

llootan.    Missionary,  Robinson. 

Dinagepore, Fernandez. 

Saddamahl, Wm;  Carey. 

Goaroalty» Mardon. 

Miniary, Moore. 

Cutwa, Chamberiain. 

Jessore, Carapeit  ChAter. 

Serampore, Carey,  &c. 

Calcutta, Carey,  &c. 

Uangoon,  ......  Chater  and  F.  Carey. 


In  the  month  of  March,  1809,  they  finished  the 
Orissa  New  Testament.  Towards  the  close  of 
this  year  an  improved  paper  manufacture  was 
established  in  Serampore.  *  Tlie  Benevolent  In- 
stitution had  increased  to  nearly  ninety  children, 
and  a  humane  medical  gentleman  prescribed  and 
iumished  medicines  for  it  and  the  family  gratis. 
Access  was  allowed,  and  the  gospel  freely 
preached  amongst  ib'e  soldiers  and  their  wives  in 
the  fort.  In  all  the  stations  106  were  baptized 
during  the  year. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  following  year, 
the  missionaries  speak  of  themselves  no  longer 
as  a  single  mission,  but  as  divided  into  five  mis- 
sions, according  to  the  different  lani^ages  of  the 
country,  and  which  they  designate,  the  United 
Missions  in  India.  These  are  the  Bengal,  the 
Burtnan,  the  Orissa,  the  Bootan,  and  ^e  Hin- 
doost*han.  The  Bengal  contains  five  stations, 
the  Hittdoost^han  two,  and  the  rest  one  each. 

In  March  the  New  Testament  in  the  Hindee 
and  Mahratta  languages,  the  Pentateuch  in  Sung-  * 
sent,  and  the  Prophetic  books  in  Orissa,  were 
finished  at  press;  and  considerable  numbers  of 
them  were  sent  and  distributed  in  the  respective 
oountries,  from  whence  they  afterwards  received 
intelligence  of  their  being  read  and  understood. 
In  April  the  plan  suggested  by  Dr.  Bell  and 
improved  by  Mr.  Lancaster  was  introduced  by 
Mr.  Marshman  into  the  school  at  Calcutta,  by 
Which  the  number  of  children  could  be  greatly 
increased,  and  the  expense  contracted.  Ground 
was  purchased,  and  a  new  school-house  erected, 
near  the  chapel,  ninety  feet  by  seventy,  which 
Would  contain  800  chjdren.  Among  the  chil- 
dren in  this  school  was  a  Malay  boy,  bought  by 
Captain  W.  out  of  the  hands  of  persons  who 
were  fattening  him  for  sale  to  the  Batta  can- 
nibals 1 

On  the  11th  of  March,  1812,  occurred  a  me- 
morable calamity  for  Che  mission,  the  spacious 
printing-office  at  Semmpore  was  consumed  hj 
fire,  with  all  the  types,  many  valuable  MSS. 
and  a  large  quantity  of  paper;  the  whole 
amounting  to  a  loss  of  nearly  £10,000.  The 
missionaries,  though  much  affected,  were  not 
greatly  disheartened,  nor  in  any  degree  induced 
«o  relax  their  efforts.  New  founts  of  type,  in  all 
the  eastern  languatces,  were  cast,  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, from  the  melted  metal  recovered  firom  the 
ruins ;  and  the  printing  of  the  Scriptures  was 
resumed,  as  fost  as  they  could  be  prepared. 

On  the  19th  of  Februasy  the  following  year, 
the  Tamnl  New  Testament  was  finished  at  the 
press,  and  on  the  20th  was  laid  before  the  Cal- 
cutta Auxiliary  Bible  Society,  at  their  anniver- 
versary.  This  edition,  consisting  of  5000  copies, 
was.  begun  in  April  1812,  and  completed  in  ra- 
^r  more  than  ten  months. 

The  progress  of  the  translations,  during  this 
year,  cannot  be  better  described  than  in  an  ex- 
tract from  a  letter  of  Dr.  Carey,  dated  Decem- 
ber 14.— 'We  are,  at  dkis  time,  engaged  in 
translating  the  Bible  into  twen^-one  langu^ies 
including  the  Bengalee,  which  u  finished.  This 
week,  we  obuined  a  penon  to  assist  in  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Scriptures  into  the  Kassai  language. 
About  a  fortnight  ago  we  obtained  help  for  the 
Sindh  and  Wuch.  I  believe  we  have  now  all 
the  languages  in  that  part,  except  that  of  Kutch, 


bigitized  by 


Googl( 


il2 


BAPTIST   MISSION. 


which,  I  hope,  will  soon  be  brought  within  our 
reach.  We  have  not  yet  been  able  to  secure  the 
languages  of  Nepala,  Bootan,  Munipoora,  and 
Siam,  and  about  five  or  six  tribes  of  moun- 
taineers: besides  these,  I  am  not  acauainted 
with  any  language  on  the  continent  ol  India, 
into  which  the  word  of  God  is  not  under  tran»- 
'  lation.' 

At  the  public  disputation  of  the  students  of 
the  college  of  Fort  William,  held  before  Lord 
Minto  as  visitor  of  the  college,  on  September 
20th,  his  lordship,  after  enumerating  their  recent 
labors,  concludes  thus :  *  I  profess  a  very  sincere 

Sleasure  in  bringing  the  literary  merits  of  Mr. 
larshman  and  the  other  Reverend  Members  of 
the  Serampore  Mission  to  the  notice  of  the  pub- 
lic, and  in  bearing  my  testimony  to  the  great  and 
extraordinary  labors  which  constancy  and  energy 
ki  their  numerous  and  various  occupations  have 
enabled  this  modest  and  respectable  community 
to  accomplish.  I  am  not  less  gratified  by  the 
.opportunity  which  their  literary  achievements 
afford,  of  expressing  my  regard  for  the  exemplary 
worth  of  their  lives,  and  the  beneficent  principle 
which  distinguishes  and  presides  in  the  various 
useful  establishments  which  they  have  formed, 
and  which  are  conducted  by  themselves.*  The 
stations  occupied  by  the  mission  in  1814  had 
increased  to  twenty-four. 

In  1815  the  society  had  to  sustain  one  of  its 
greatest  losses  at  home  in  the  death  of  their 
secretary,  the  Rev.  Andrew  Fuller,  who  expired 
at  Kettering,  after  a  short  illness,  on  May  7th. 
He  had  sustained  tliis  arduous  and  important 
office  ever  since  the  commencement  of  the  society 
in  1 792 ;  and  at  length  fell  a  sacrifice  to  its  ac- 
cumulated carefi  and  labors.  At  the  next  meeting 
of  the  committee,  Dr.  Ryland,  of  Bristol,  was  re- 
quested to  undertake  the  office,  pro  tempore ;  and, 
at  the  annual  meeting,  held  at  Northampton,  in 
October,  this  appointment  was  confirmed,  and 
Mr.  Hinton,  of  Oxford,  associated  with  the  Doc> 
tor,  as  joint-secretary.  November  27th  the  mis- 
sion prembes  were  visited  by  the  Right  Hon. 
Earl  Moira,  the  bishop  of  Calcutta,  and  other 
distinguished  personages,  who  expressed  their 
high  gratification  with  what  they  saw.  On 
December  15th  the  settlement  was  restored  to 
the  Danish  government. 

January,  1818,  say  the  missionaries, '  In  the 
Bengalee  we  have  commenced  a  new  edition,  of 
5000  copies,  of  the  whole  Scriptures,  in  a  new 
and  much-reduced  type,  reduced  by  brother 
Lawson,  when  he  resided  at  Serampore.  By 
means  of  this  alteration  we  shall  be  able  to  com- 
prise the  whole  Bible  in  one  large  octavo  volume 
of  850  pages ;  which  has  hitherto  occupied  five 
volumes,  of  800  pages  each.  The  brethren  in- 
tend to  print  5000  additional  Testaments,  form- 
ing a  thin  volume,  of  about  180  pases.  In  the 
Sungscrit,  the  Latin  of  the  east,  and  intelligible 
to  almost  all  the  learned  men  throughout  Hin- 
doostan,  the  Historical  Books  have  been  com- 
pletedy  and  the  printmg  advanced  to  the  middle 
of  Jeiemtah.  We  therefore  expect  to  compleie 
tbis  voluine  within  the  next  three  months,  and 
shall  then  have  printed  the  whole  of  the  Scriptures 
ta  that  language.  The  Hindee  Bible  is  still 
(urther   idrvaoed;   and  we  fully  expect  that 


within  a  month  the  last  part  will  be  ready  for 
distribution.  We  shall  then  hare  printed  (he 
first  edition  of  the  whole  Scriptures,  with  a  second 
edition  of  the  New  Testament.  In  the  Mahratta 
the  historical  books  have  been  printed  ofT,  since 
the  last  Memoir,  and  the  Hagiographa  advanced 
to  the  middle  of  Proverbs.  In  the  Sikh,  the 
Pentateuch  is  just  completed,  and  the  historical 
books  begun.  In  the  Chinese  we  have  just  com- 
pleted the  Pentateuch,  and  are  now  proceeding 
with  a  second  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  In 
the  Telinga  the  New  Testament  is  printed  as  hr 
as  the  Thessalonians ;  and  we  hope  to  have 
finished  the  volume  ere  this  reaches  you.  In  the 
Pushtoo  Testament  the  printing  is  advanced  as 
far  as  the  first  of  Peter;  and  in  the  Assam  and 
Wuch,  to  the  Romans:  while,  in  the  Bnij  Bhassa, 
although  a  delay  has  arisen  in  consequence  of 
tlie  distance  of  brother  Chamberiain's  station, 
who  was  superintending  the  version,  we  are  pre- 
paring to  proceed  with  the  version  as  before.  In 
the  Kurnata  we  have  finished  Mark,  and  are  pro- 
ceeding with  Luke:  white  in  the  Kunkuna,  the 
Mooltanee,  the  Sindhee,  the  Kashmere,  the 
Bikaneer,  the  Nepal,  the  Ooduypore,  the  Mar- 
war,  the  Joypore,  and  the  Khassee,  not  moeh 
progress  in  printing  has  been  made  since  the 
last  Report.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  Hindee 
and  Sungscrit  versions  are  completed,  it  is  in- 
tended to  proceed  with  them.  These  transUiions 
were  never  advancing  more  rapidly  than  at 
present.  The  office  now  furnishes  onr  venerable 
editor.  Dr.  Carey  (independently  of  the  Chinese 
proofs  it  forwards  to  Dr.  Maishman)  with  twelve 

rah  per  week,  on  an  average.  To  which  may 
added,  that  opportunities  of  distribnting  the 
Scriptures,  when  printed,  are  becoming  more 
extensive.' 

Copies  of  the  New  Testament,  in  Tuknis  kn- 
guages,  as  printed  and  published  at  Serampore, 
were  presented  by  Mr.  Ward  at  the  Amiual 
Meeting  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
in  1820;  and  two  years  after,  the  Chinese  Bible 
complete,  the  result  of  sixteen  years  labor  on  the 
part  of  Dr.  Marshman,  was  presented  on  a  simi- 
lar occasion,  by  his  eldest  son,  t^ien  in  England. 
At  that  time,  1822,  the  New  Testament  had  been 
printed  and  published  in  twenty-one  different 
languages,  and  the  work  was  proceeding  in  ten 
others.  Four  versions,  after  having  been  carried 
to  a  certain  point,  had  been  resigned  to  other 
individuals,  whose  local  residence  afforded 
greater  facilities  for  completing  them;  and  ten 
besides  were  suspended,  principaUy  because  the 
requisite  pecuniary  means  were  wanting. 

In  1819  a  new  station  was  fbimed  in  the  island 
of  Ceylon,  at  a  place  called  Uangwell,  about 
fourteen  miles  from  Colombo.  Mr.  Siera  re- 
moved hither,  and  a  small  church  was  subse- 
quently formed  under  his  direction.  The  trans- 
lation of  the  whole  Bible  into  Cingalese,  by  the 
united  efforts  of  Messrs.  Chater,  Annoar,  and 
Clough,  was  completed  about  the  end  of  18SS. 

No  part  of  the  missionary  undertakings  of  this 
society  has  succeeded  more  satisfactorily  than  the 
Jamaica  mission.  In  1819  two  gentlemen  left 
England  for  Kingston  and  Spanish  town;  a 
spacious  chapel  has  been  butU  at  the  former 
place. 


Digitized  by 


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BAPTIST    MISSION. 


613 


In  the  year  1822  the  number  of  members  in 
the  church  exceeded  2,000 :  Mr.  Knibb  arrived 
this  year  to  take  charge  of  a  free  school,  estab- 
lished and  maintained  by  the  congregation ;  and 
Mr.  Tinson  to  commence  a  new  station  in  a  dis< 
tant  part  of  the  island.  A  station  has  been  also 
formed  in  the  north-west  part  of  the  island,  on  an 
estate  in  the  parish  of  St.  Jaroes*s ;  the  owners 
of  which  had  long  been  &vorable  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  their  negroes. 

Id  consequence  of  facilities  afforded  by  some 
pious  gentlemen,  in  the  habit  of  trading  to  that 
quarter,  the  committee  were  induced,  in  1822t 
to  turn  their  attention  ftirther  westward  still,  and 
to  send  out  Mr.  James  Bourne  as  a  missionary  to 
the  bay  of  Honduras,  South  Ainerica. 

At  home,  the  business  of  the  society  having 
become  &r  more  extensive  than  formerly,  some 
alterations  were  made  in  the  manner  of  con- 
ducting it.  At  the  General  Meeting  held  at 
Cambridge,  October,  1819,  it  was  resolved  that 
a  central  committee  should  be  formed  out  of  the 
general  committee,  who  should  meet  monthly, 
in  London,  for  the  transaction  of  business;  and 
from  that  time  the  Annual  Meeting  of  the  society 
has  been  held  also  in  the  Metropolis,  in  the 
month  of  June.  Mr.  Hinton,  of  Oxford,  incon- 
sequence of  his  other  numerous  and  important 
engagements,  had  resigned  the  office  of  joint 
secretary,  in  October,  1817,  on  which  Mr.  Dyer, 
then  of  Reading,  now  of  Battersea,  was  chosen 
assisUnt  secretary  to  Dr.  Ryland,  and,  in  the 
following  year,  requested  to  devote  himself  ex- 
clusively to  the  service  of  the  mission,  as  joint 
secretary.  In  1820  premises  were  engaged  for 
the  society  in  London,  and  at  length  a  suitable 
house  purchased,  at  No.  6,  Fen  Court,  Feachurch 
Street,  where  its  still  increasing  business  is  now 
carried  on. 

Exclusive  of  the  Chinese,  the  New  Testament 
is  Dublished  and  sent  into  circufation  in  twen^ 
of  tne  languages  of  India.    They  are : 


1.  The  Bengalee,   6th  ) 

edition  in  the  press  S 
TheHindee,  2dedi-^ 

tion  in  the  press    $ 
The    Simgscnt,    2d) 

edition  in  the  press  S 
The  Orissa,  2d  edi-  ) 

tion  in  the  press    ) 
5.  The    Mahratta,    2d  j 

edition  in  the  press  S 
The  Telinga    . 
The  Sikh    .    . 
The  Gujuratee 
The  Kunkuna 
10.  Ttie  Kumata   . 

The  Pushtoo  or  AflT- 1 


Finished 
»t; 


ghan 
The 
The  Wutch  or  Mid- 

tanee 
The  Bikaneer  .    . 
^5.  The  Kashmeer 
The  Bhugulkhund 
The  Martfwar  . 
Vox.  III. 


i 


1794 
1802 
1803 
1803 


1804 

1805 
1807 
1807 
1808 
1808 

1811 

1811 

1812 

1813 
1810 
1814 
1814 


1801 
1811 
1810 
1811 

1811 

1818 
1815 
1820 
1819 
1822 

1819 

1819 

1819 

1820 
1820 
1821 
1821 


1812 

1821 

1815 

1822 

1815 

1822 

1806 


1817 


TheNepalee  .    .    . 
The  Harotee    .    . 
20.  The  Kanoja     .    .     . 
The  Chinese,  2d  edi- ^ 

tion  of  the  gospels  > 

printed  J 

From  this  view  of  the  translations,  and  of  the 
time  whem  they  were  respectively  begun  and 
finished  at  press,  it  will  be  evident  that  none  ot 
them  have  been  brought  hastily  through  the  press. 
Seven  years  have  formed  the  shortest  (feriod 
which  bias  been  occupied,  even  by  those  in  which 
the  terminations  were  the  pearest  akin  to  those 
in  the  neighbouring  dialects :  we  have  before  us 
the  most  honorable  and  competent  eastern  tes- 
timony to  the  corrrectness  of  tnese  versions. 

The  following  list  exhibits  ten  other  versions 
now  or  recendy  in  the  Serampore  press,  with  the 
period  of  their  commencement,  and  the  state  of 
their  progress. 


Gur- 


Begon.     Printed  to. 

1814  PhU.    iii.    9 

1814  2  Cor.  xiii.  4 

1814  Rom.  xiii.  4 

1814  Acts   xix.  29 

1815  Phil.    i.     10 
1815  2  Cor.   ii.  9 

1815  Luke  x.    23 

1816  Rom.  xiv.  13 

1816  Luke  xi.  21 

1817  Matt.xxvii.8 


The  Jtfmboo 
The  Mtmipoor 
The  Mugtfclh     . 
TheKhasee 
The  Oojjuyunee. 
TheBruj      .    . 
The  Kumaoun 
The  Bhtttneer   . 
The  Sree-nugar,  or 

wal 
The  Palpa    . 

To  these  we  may  add  the  Ky  thee  edition,  which 
is  the  Hindee  in  the. current  Naguree  character, 
chiefly  used  by  the  mercantile  and  trading  chisses, 
and  in  which  at  the  earnest  request  of  the  late 
Mr.  Chamberlain,  they  prepared  a  fount  of  types 
for  the  sake  of  printing  the  New  Testament. 
We  are  able  further  to  submit  to  the  reader  a  brief 
view  of  what  have  been  done  by  this  society  re- 
lative to  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  the  New. 

State  of  the  Vernons  of  the  Old  Tutament. 
The  Bengalee,  second  edition  ad^^mced  to  1  Sam* 

XX. 

The  Simgscrit,  second  edition  advanced  to  Exod. 

xxxi. 
The  Orissa,  first  edition  finished  at  press  in 

1819. 
The  MahratU,  first  edition  printed  off  in  1820; 
The  Chinese,  finished  at  press  April  1822. 
The  Sikh,  Pentateuch,  and  Historical  Books, 

printed ;  Prophetic  printed  to  Jer.  xiii. 
The  Assamee,  Pentateuch  finished.  Historical 

Books  begun. 
The  Pushtoo  or  Afighan,  Pentateuch  advanced 

to  Deut.  XXX. 
The  Kashmeer,  PenUteuch  advanced  to  Gen. 

xxxvi. 
The  Teltnga,  Pentateuch  printed ;  and  the  ver- 
sion resigned  to  the  Madras  Bible  Society. 
The  Old  Testament  now  printed  off  in  Chi- 
nese, forms  the  sixth  version  completed  here  of 
the  whole  Scriptures  in  the  different  Indian  lan- 
guages. This  was  finished  at  press  in  April  this 
year;  af^er  sixteen  years  of  unremitting  labor. 

2L 


Digitized  by 


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BAP 


514 


We  doae  with  a  fao-simile  of  a  printed  passage,  in  thirteen  of  those  eastern  laugu^^es,  in  which 
the  Scriptures  haye  been  published  in  the  whole,  or  in  part,  by  this  Society. 

Text.— 'The  people  which  nt  in  darimeu  tew  great  light,'  &e. — ^Hatt.  iv.  16. 

CI  nt5  31^^$  ^tfifltfeT  3  Wat  ^  «iwi 

7^QZ(ji»  t&^aG«o  ^2(d(SlSd    fCAS^ 

€^  f  #  7^   ^  M  ^  9f  J9r 


No.  1. 

The  Bengalee. 

2. 

The  Orissa. 

3. 

The  HindooBtanee. 

4. 

The  Sungskrit. 

5. 

The  Telinga. 

6. 

The  Kumata. 

7. 

The  Affghan. 

8. 

The  Burman. 

9. 

The  Tamul. 

10. 

The  SiDgalese. 

11. 

The  Malay. 

12. 

The  Chinese. 

13. 

The  Multanee. 

Baptists  (John  Monoyer),  an  artist,  bom  in 
Lisle  in  1635,  -who  received  his  education  at 
Antwerp^  and  in  his  first  years  was  intended  for 
a  painter  of  history ;  but  his  genius  more  strongly 
inclining  him  to  the  representation  of  flowers  he 
applied  his  talents  to  those  subjects,  and  became 
in  that  style  one  of  the  greatest  masters.  The 
disposition  of  his  objects  is  elegant  and  beautiful ; 
ana  his  compositions  are  easily  known  in  that 
respect.  The  duke  of  Montague  employed  him 
in  conjunction  with  La  Fosse  and  Rousseau,  to 
embellish  his  house,  now  the  British  Museum ; 
where  are  some  of  the  finest  performances  of 
Baptist.  A  celebrated  work  of  nis  is  a  looking- 
glass  in  the  ro^  palace  at  Kensington,  which 
he  decorated  with  a  garland  of  flowers  for  Queen 
Mary  II.  who  sat  by  him  during  the  greatest 
part  of  the  time  he  was  painting  it  Baptist 
aied  in  1699,  leaving  a  son,  Anthony,  who 
painted  flowers  in  his  tatlier^s  style. 

Baptiste  (John  Caspars),  bom  at  Antwerp, 
was  the  disciple  of  Boschaert.  During  the  civil 
war  he  came  to  England,  and  entered  into  the- 
service  of  General  Lambert ;  but  after  the  Testo- 
ration  was  engaged  by  Sir  Peter  Lely  to  paint 
the  postures  and  draperies  of  his  portraits ;  and 
he  has  been  called  Lely*8  Baptist.  Kneller  also, 
and  Riley,  employed  him  for  the  same  ^rpose. 
In  the  ludl  of  St.  Bartholomew's  hospital  is  a 
portrait  of  King  Charles  11.  painted  by  this  ar- 
tist, who  died  in  1691. 


BAPTISTIN  (John  Baptiste  Stuk),  an  Italiao 
musician,  was  ^  native  m  Floraace.  He  was  a 
good  composer,  but  is  chiefly  famed  as  hating 
first  brousht  the  violincello  into  6slnon  io 
France.  He  died  about  1 740. 
BAR',  v.  &  fi.,  >  From  the  Ang.-Sax.  bairgan, 
Bar'ful.  Sbeorgan,  birgan,  byrgan,  lite- 
rally to  prevent,  to  keep  out,  or  obstruct,  to 
guard,  to  secure,  to  fortify,  to  prohibit  Chaucer 
once  uses  it  in  a  metaphorical  sense,  *  covered 
with  precious  cloth  and  nch,  barred  (that  is  striped 
and  crossed  in  the  form  of  bars)  and  platea  of 
gold  and  silver.'— 7%6  Penone$  TaU,  But  we 
meet  with  it  in  other  parts  of  bis  writings,  em- 
ployed according  to  the  common  acceptaboo. 

He  rode  but  homely  in  m  medlee  eote» 
Girt  with  m  seint  of  tilke,  with  &arr«»  tenell. 

He  was  short  shulderc^,  brode,  a  tlukke  giurre, 
Ther  'nas  no  dore  that  he  'nolde  heve  of  kmm. 
Or  breke  it  at  a  renning  with  his  hede.  Z^. 

He  brcake  the  borrvr,  and  through  the  timber  pcarU 
So  large  a  hole,  wherby  they  might  disceme 
The  hoase,  the  court,  the  secret  diambers  eke 
Of  Priamos,  and  anncient  kings  of  Troy.  Smtejl, 

Deep  in  the  bottom  of  an  huge  great  rocke 
The  dongeon  was,  in  which  her  bound  he  leite. 
That  neither  yron  AwT«r,  nor  braaen  locke» 
Did  need  to  gnard  from  force  or  aeewt  dieft. 


Digitized  by 


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e 


BAR. 


615 


Hath  he  Mt  hounds  between  rheir  lore  and  me  ? 
I  un  their  mother,  who  shall  6itr  them  from  me  ? 

My  duty  cannot  toffer 
T*  obey  in  all  your  daughter's  hard'eommands ; 
Though  their  ix\junction  he  to  ftor  my  doon» 
And  Ifi  this  tyranaons  night  take  hcdd  upon  you. 

Id. 
When  law  can  oo  no  right. 
Let  it  be  lawful,  that  law  bar  no  wrong.  Id, 

Viola.  Ill  do  my  best 
To  woo  your  lady  \  yet,  a  barnfittt  strife. 
Whoe'er  I  woo,  myself  would  be  his  wife. 

Id.'Twelflh  Night, 
Ye  sit  like  pris'ners,  borr*d  with  doors  and  chaines. 
And  yet  no  eare  perpetnai  care  restraines. 

Bemmumi,     Of  Tnte  Liberty . 
Hard,  thou  know'st  it,  to  exclude 
Spiritu^  substlkaee  with  onrpoieal  bar.         MUtom, 
These  6or«  endoee  that  wider  dim, 
Of  those  wild  creatores  called  men.         MarveU. 
Our  hop^  of  luly,  not  only  lost. 
But  shut  from  eT'iy  shore,  and  harr'd  from  ev'iy  coast. 

Dryden. 
When  yon  bar  the  window  shutters  of  your  lady's 
bed-chamber  at  nights,  leave  open  the  sashes,  to  let  in 
*ir.  Swiji, 

What  is  a  greater  pedant  than  a  mere  man  of  the 
town?  Bar  him  the  playhouses,  and  yon  srrlhe  bim 
dvaah,  "Addimm. 

With  emulation  fir'd. 
They  strain  lo  lead  the  field,  top  the  barr'd  gate. 
O'er  the  deeo  ditch  exulting  bound,  and  brush 
The  thr.ray-twining  hed^e.     Soitmvitle,  The  Ckaee, 


The  folded  spates  would  6or  iny  progrdis  now. 
But  that  the  lord  of  this  enclos'd  demesne. 
Communicative  of  the  good  he  owns, 
Admiu  me  to  a  share  ^  the  guiltless  eye 
Cominiu  no  wrong,  nor  wastes  what  it  enjoys. 

Cowper'i  Toik, 

Bar,  in  law,  is  a  peremptory  exception  against 
a  demand  or  plea  brought  by  the  defendant  in  an 
action,  that  destroys  the  action  of  the  plaintiff  for 
ever.  It  is  divided  into  a  bar  to  common  intent, 
and  a  bar  special ;  a  bar  to  common  intent  is 
an  ordinary  or  general  bar,  iliat  disables  tlie  de- 
claration or  plea  of  the  plaintiff;  a  bar  special, 
is  that  which  is  more  than  ordinary,  and  falls  out 
in  the  case  in  hand,  upon  some  special  circum- 
stance of  the  fact. 

Bab,  in  heraldry,  one  of  the  honorable  ordi- 
naries, consisting  of  two  horizontal  lines  drawn 
across  the  escutcheon,  as  in  fig.  1.  The  bar  dif- 
fers from  the  feste  in  three  particulars,  namely, 
that  it  occupies  a  fifth  part  of  the  field  instead  of 
a  third;  it  is  not  limited  to  any  part  of  the 
escutcheon,  and  is  never  borne  single.  It  has 
two  diminutives,  namely,  the  closet  (fig.  2),  which 
is  half  the  bar,  and  the  barruU  (fig.  3),  which  is 
half  the  closet.  Of  the  closet  there  may  be  five 
in  one  field ;  but  the  barrulet  can  be  borne  only 
in  couples.  Bars-gemeliet  are  so  called  when 
they  stand  in  couples,  as  in  fig.  4,  *  The  field  is 
argent,  a  fesse  between  two  bare,  pemelles  guleM, 
by  the  name  of  Badlemere.' 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


§98 


Bar,  in  African  traffic,  is  used  for  a  denomi- 
nation of  price :  payment  being  formerly  made 
by  the  negroes  almost  wholly  in  iron  bars. 

Bab,  in  courts  of  justice,  is  an  enclosure 
made  with  a  strong  partition  of  timbef,  where 
the  council  are  placed  to  plead  causes.  It  is 
also  applied  to  the  benches  where  the  lawyers 
or  advocates  are  seated,  because  anciently,  there 
was  a  bar  to  sepante  the  pleaders  from  the  at- 
torneys and  others.  Hence  our  lawyers,  who  are 
called  to  the  bar,  or  licensed  to  plead,  are  termed 
barristers,  an  appellation  equivalent  to  licentiate 
in  other  countries. 

Bab  of  gold  or  silver,  is  a  lamp  or  wedge  from 
mines,  melted  down  into  a  sort  of  mould,  and 
never  wrought. 

Babs  of  a  hone,  are  the  upper  part  of  the 
gums  between  the  tusks  and  grinders,  which 
bear  no  teeth,  and  to  which  the  bit  is  applied, 
and  by  its  friction  the  horse  is  governed. 

Bars,  in  music,  are  strokes  drawn  perpendi- 
cularly across  the  lines  of  a  piece  of  music ;  used 
to  regulate  the  beating  or  measure  of  musical 
time.  The  use  of  bars  in  music  is  a  modem  in- 
vention. Thev  cannot  be  traced  higher  than  the 
year  1574,  and  seem  not  to  be  in  ecneral  use  till 
about  the  ifiiddle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  It' 
is  not  easy  to  imagine  how  music  in  many  parts 
could  be  composed  without  bars,  or  how  Che 


maxima,  or  larce,  equal  to  eight  semibreves» 
could  be  divided  into  bars  of  one  or  two  semi- 
breves  in  each.  See  Battuta,  and  Time-table. 
A  double  b^  implies  the  end  of  a  strain.  When 
double  bars  are  dotted  on  both  sides,  thus, 
tlie  dots  imply  a  repetition  of 
each  Strain ;  but  if  dotted  only  on  w 

one  side,  that  strain  only  which  ;||»    - 

precedes  or  follows  the  dots,  is  to  "       ■ 

be  repeated. 

Bar,  in  geography,  (Gael,  a  hill  or  brae),  the 
name  of  seversu  places  in  different  parts  of  £u- . 
rope :  such  as, 

Bar,  a  ci-devant  duchy  of  France,  bounded 
on  the  east  by  Lorraine,  on  the  north  by  Luxem- 
bourg, on  the  west  by  Champagne,  on  the  south 
by  part  of  the  same  country  and  by  Franche 
Comt^ ;  it  is  crossed  by  the  Meuse  from  south 
to  north,  and  watered  by  several  other  rivers, 
which  render  it  very  fertile.  It  was  divided  into 
four  bailiages,  viz.  BassSgni,  Bar,  St.  Michael, 
and  Clermont.  The  chief  towns  are  Bar-le-Duc, 
Clermont,  St  Michael,  Longwy,  Pont-a-Mous- 
son,  and  Stenay.  In  1736  it  was  given  to  Sta- 
nislaus, then  kme  of  Poland. 

Bar,  a  city  of  Poland,  in  Podolia,  seated  on 
the  river  Kiov,  and  strongly  fortified ;,  forty-eight 
miles  north-west  of  Braclaw,  and  sixty-five 
north-east  of  Kaminieck. 

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Bar,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Bahar,  in  the 
district  of  the  same  name,  thirty-five  miles  E.  S.  E. 
of  Patna.    Long.  86**  46'  E.,  lat.  25°  28*  N, 

Bar,  a  hill  of  Scotland,  in  Renfrewshire,  in 
the  parish  of  Kilbarchau,  on  the  top  of  which 
are  the  remains  of  an  old  encampment,  consist- 
ing of  a  semicircular  parapet  of  loose  stones  to- 
wards the  south,  and  defended  od  the  north  b^ 
perpendicular  basaltic  rocks.  Tradition  says  it 
was  an  encampment  of  the  celebrated  Sir  William 
•Wallace ;  and  the  people  show  a  pmnacle  of  rock 
where  they  say  he  sat,  while  he  enticed  the  Eng- 
lish forces  into  a  bog  at  the  bottom  of  it,  where 
they  perished.  But  Mr.  Maxwell,  the  minister 
of  the  parish,  concludes  it  to  be  Danish  from  its 
form,  and  from  the  silence  of  historians  respect- 
ing this  anecdote  of  the  Scots  patriot.  Mr. 
Maxwell  also  mentions  it  as  a  singular  fact  in 
natural  hijstory,  by  no  means  consonant  to  the 
prevailing  theories,  that  these  perpendicular  ba- 
saltes  are  incumbent  upon  coal,  formerly  wrought 
to  a  great  extent. 

Bar,  or  Barr,  a  small  but  thriving  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
sixteen  miles  soatn-west  from  Strasburg.  It  has 
a  population  of  4100  souls. 

Bar-le^Mont,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  ci- 
devant  French  Netherlands,  now  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  North ;  fifteen  miles  south  of  IVtons, 
situated  on  the  Sambre. 

-  Bar  sur  Aube,  an  ancient  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Aube,  and  ci-devant  province 
of  Champagne,  twenty-six  miles  east  of  Troyes, 
famous  for  its  excellent  wines.  The  manufac- 
tures are  soap,  linen,  serge,  and  leather.  Here 
are  also  some  ^ood  iron-works.  It  is  the  capital 
of  an  arrondissement,  containing  44,000  inhabi- 
tants. 

Bar  sur  Ornain,  or  Bar-le-Duc,  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Meuse,  and  the  ci- 
ievant  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Bar.  It  is  seated 
on  the  declivity  of  a  hill,  and  divided  into  the 
higher  and  lower  town  ;  the  lower  town  is 
watered  by  the  rivulet  Ornain,  which  abounds 
with  excellent  trout.  The  population  nearly 
10,000.  Here  are  manufactures  of  calicoes, 
woollen  stuffs,  stockings,  hats,  and  leather ;  also 
a  good  trade  in  grain^  wood,  brandy,  win?,  and 
hemp.  Forty-two  miles  west  of  Nancy,  and  133 
cast  of  Paris.    Long.  52^  15*  E.,  lat.  48^  47'  N. 

Bar-sur-Ssine,  a  town  of  France,  in  Bur- 
gundy^  on  the  Seine ;  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
county  of  the  same  nan»e,  now  of  an  arrondisse- 
ment in  the  department  of  the  Aube.  In  it  are 
460  houses,  and  2270  inhabitants,  with  manufac- 
tures of  knives,  leather,  and  woollen  eaps,  and 
a  trade  in  wine,  grain,  and  paper.  Eighteen 
miles  south-east  of  Troyes,  and  110  south-east  of 
Paris.    Ix)ng.  4^  2r  E.,  lat.  48°  T  N. 

Bars-oemel,  or  bars-gemelles,  are  diminu- 
tives of  the  bar,  and  are  placed  in  pairs,  or  two 
and  two  on  a  shield.  Tney  derive  their  name 
from  the  Latin  gemelli,  twins. 

BARA,  a  festival  celebrated  with  much  mag- 
nificence at  Messina,  and  representing  tlie  as- 
sumption of  the  Virgin.  The  bara,  though  used 
as  the  general  denomination  of  this  festival,  sig- 
nifies more  particularly  a  vast  machine  fifty  feet 
high,  at  the  top  of  which  a  young  girl  of  four- 


teen, representing  the  Virgin,  stands  upon  the  hand 
of  an  image  of  Jesus  Christ.  Round  him  turn 
vertically,  in  a  circle,  twelve  little  children, 
which  represent  the  seraphim;  below  them,  in 
another  circle,  which  turns  horizontally,  are 
twelve  more  representing  the  cherubim;  b^tow 
these  a  sun  turns  vertically,  with  a  child  at  the 
extremity  of  each  of  the  four  principal  radii  ot 
his  circle,  who  ascend  and  descend  with  his  ro- 
tation, yet  still  stand  upright.  Below  the  sun  is 
the  lowest  circle,  about  seven  feet  from  the 
ground,  in  which  twelve  boys  turn  horizontally 
without  interruption :  these  are  intended  for  the 
twelve  apostles,  who  are  supposed  to  surround 
the  tomo  of  the  Virgin  at  the  moment  when  she 
ascends  into  heaven.  This  description  of  such  a 
complication  of  superstitious  whirligigs  may 
nearly  turn  the  stomachs  of  our  delicate  readers; 
but  think  of  tfie  poor  little  cherubim,  seraphim, 
and  apostles,  who  are  twirled  about  in  this  pro- 
cession !  *  For,'  says  M.  Houel,  in  his  Travels 
through  Sicily, '  some  of  tliem  &11  asleep,  many 
of  them  vomit,  and  several  do  still  worse :'  but 
these  unseemly  effusions  are  no  drawback  upon 
the  edification  of  the  peopl<^  and  nothing  is 
more  common  than  to  see  &thers  and  motibers 
soliciting  vrith  ardor  for  their  boys  and  girb 
the  pidus  distinction  of  puking  at  the  baia. 
This  machine  is  not  drawn  by  asses  or  mules, 
but  by  a  multitude  of  robust  monks ! 

Bara,  in  ancient  geography,  1.  a  small  islaad 
in  the  Adriatic,  opposite  to  Brundnsinm;  the 
Pharos  of  Mela :  2.  A  Frith,  or  arm  of  the  sea  of 
Britannia,  supposed  to  be  the  Murray  frith. 

Bara,  orBARRAY,  one  of  the  Western  Islands 
of  Scotland,  eight  computed  miles  in  length,  and 
from  two  to  four  in  breadth. 

BARABAIAN  Desert.  See  BARABiyzuvs. 

BARABBAS,  from  p,  a  son,  and  KSK,  a  &- 
ther,  a  notorious  robber  and  murderer,  whom 
Pilate,  wishing  to  save  Jesus,  offered  for  execu- 
tion to  the  Jews;  but  they,  instigated  by  their 
rulers,  saved  the  murderer,  and  murdered  die 
Saviour  of  mankind. 

BARABINZIANS,  a  tribe"  of  Tartars,  who 
live  on  both  sides  the  river  Irtisch.  They  seem  to 
derive  tlieir  name  from  the  Barabaian  desert, 
whose  lakes  supply  them  abundantly  with  fish, 
on  which,  and  their  cattle,  they  chiefly  subsist 

BARABRAS,  a  people  of  Lower  Nubia,  con- 
tiguousto  Egypt.  They  are  a  distinct  race  from 
their  neighbours,  and  of  unknown  origin. 

BARACHAN,  a  creek  on  the  western  coast  of 
Scotland,  on  the  Ross  side  of  the  Sound  of  Eye, 
where  vessels  of  considerable  burden  may  an- 
chor in  safety. 

BARACOA,a  sea^-port  on  the  noTth-«ast  coast 
of  the  i^nd  of  Cul»,  fifty  miles  north-east  of  St 
Jago. 

BARAD^US ,  Jacob,  or  Jacob  Zanzalus,  a 
monk  of  the  sixth  century.  He  was  a  Syrian  by 
birth,  and  a  disciple  of  Eutyches  and  Dioscorus. 
He  maintained  that  there  is  but  one  nature  vl 
Christ;  and  his  doctrines  spread  so  much  in 
Asia  and  Africa  that  ^e  Eutychians  were  swal- 
lowed up  bv  that  of  the  Jacobites,  which  also 
comprehended  all  the  Monophysites  of  the  east 
His  party  made  him  bishop  of  Edessa.  He 
died  m  5B8. 


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BARAK,  pa,  i.  e.  lightning;  the  son  of 
Abinoam,  of  Kedesh  Napthali,  one  of  the  deli- 
verers of  Israel  from  the  oppression  of  the  Ca- 
naanites.    See  Judjres  iv. 

BARAKAN,  or  Parkak,  a  town  of  Hungary, 
fonnerly  fortified,  in  the  farther  circle  of  the 
Danube,  where  the  Turks  were  defeated,  and 
the  town  recovered  by  the  Imperialists,  who  took 
it  by  storm  in  1684.  It  is  opposite  to  Gran,  of 
which  it  is  reckoned  a  part. 

BARALIPTON,  among  logicians,  a  term  de- 
noting the  first  indirect  mode  of  the  first  figure 
of  syllogism.  A  syllogism  in  baralipton,  is 
vhen  the  two  first  propositions  are  general,  and 
the  third  particular,  the  middle  term  being  the 
subject  in  the  first  proposition,  and  the  predi- 
cate in  the  second.  The  following  is  of  this 
kind : 

Ba.   Every  evil  ought  to  be  feared ; 
B  A.   Every  violent  passion  is  an  evil ; 
LIP.  Therefore  something  that  ought  to  be* 
feared  is  a  violent  passion. 

BARALLOTS,  in  church  history,  a  sect  of 
heretics  at  Bologna,  in  Italy,  who  had  all  things 
in  common,  even  their  wives  and  children  I 
Their  facility  in  complying  with  all  manner  of 
debauchery  made  them  get  the  name  of  obe- 
dientes,  or  compliers. 

BARAN,  a  river  rising  in  the  Hindoo  Kho 
mountains,  and  flowing  through  the  north-east  of 
Cabul. 

BARANCA  DE  Malambo,  a  town  of  Terra 
Pirma  in  America,  with  a  bishop's  see  and  a 
gt>od  haven.  It  is  a  place  of  great  trade,  seated 
on  the  river  Magdalena,  seventy-five  miles 
north  of  Carthagena. 

BARANGI,  ofiBcers  among  the  Greeks  of  the 
lower  empire,  who  kept  the  keys  of  the  city 
gates  where  the  emperor  resided.  Codiuus 
says,  they  stood  guara  at  the  door  of  the  em- 
peror's bed-chamber  and  dining-room.  Codinus 
and  Curopalata  observe,  that  the  name  is  English, 
formed  from  bar,  to  shut ;  and  that  the  barangi 
were  Englishmen  by  country;  Anglo-Danes, 
who,  being  driven  out  of  England,  were  received 
into  the  service  of  the  emperor  of  Constantinople, 
and  made  guards  or  protectors  of  his  person. 
Whence  they  are  called  in  Latin  (Cujaccius), 
protectores;  by  others,  securigeri,  as  being 
armed  with  securis,  a  battle-axe.  Codinus  adds,- 
that  they  still  spoke  the  English  tongue.  Anna 
Comnena  says,  the  barangi  came  from  the  island 
Tliiile ;  by  which  is  doubtless  meant  our  island. 
Yet  Nicetas  make^  them  Germans;  a  mistake 
easy  to  ^e  made  at  that  distance,  considering  the 
relation  the  Anglo-Saxons  bore  to  Germany. 
There  were  barangi  as  early  as  the  emperor  Mi- 
chael Paphlagonius.  in  1035,  as  appears  from 
Cedrenus;  but  they  were  then  only  common 
soldiers,  not  a  life-guard.  Their  commander  was 
called  amo\o$oc,  importing  a  person  who  always 
followed  the  emperor. 

BARANTA,  a  West  Indian  balsam. 
BARANVAT,  a  county  of  Lower  Hungary, 
I'Ounded  by  the  Danube,  Sclavonia,  and  the 
counties  of  Tolna  and  Schumeg.  It  abounds  in 
grain,  fruit,  wine,  cattle,  and  garaa.  Its  capital 
i^  Funf  kirchen,  and  it  has  a  population  of  1 40,000 
persons. 


BARANZANO  (Redemptus),  a  Bamabite 
monk,  bom  in  Piedmont  in  1590.  He  became 
professor  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at 
Anneci,  and  was  highly  esteemed  by  lord  Bacon, 
who  corresponded  with  him.  He  died  at  Mon- 
targis  in  1622.  He  wrote,  1,  Uranoscopia,  sen 
Universa  Doctrinade  Ccelo,  fol.  1617;  ^,  Cam- 
pus Philosophicus,  8vo.  1620;  3.  De  Novis 
Opinionibus  r hysicis,  8vo.  1617. 

BARA-Picklet,  bread  made  of  fine  flour 
kneaded  with  barm,  which  makes  it  very  light 
and  spongy :  bara  being  the  Welch  for  bread. 

BARATHIER(Barthelemy),an  Italian  lawyer 
of  the  fifteenth  century.    He  was  born  at  Plar 
centia,  and  became  professor  at  Pavia  and  Fer- 
rara.    He  published  a  New  Digest  of  the  Feudal 
Law,  at  Paris,  in  1611. 
BARATHRA,  a  name  of  the  Serbonian  bog. 
BARATHRO,  a  glutton.    See  Barathrum. 
BARATHRON,  solemn  games  held  at  Thes- 
protia. 

BARATHRUM,  Papappov,  in  antiquity,  a 
deep  dark  pit  at  Athens,  into  which  condemned 
persons  were  cast  headlong.  It  had  sharp  spikes 
at  the  top  that  no  man  might  escape  out ;  and  others 
at  the  Dottora,  to  pierce  and  torment  such  .as 
were  cast  in.  Its  depth  and  capaciousness  made 
it  to  be  applied  proverbially  to  a  covetous  per- 
son, a  glutton,  called  barathro  by  the  Romans, 
and  a  common  prostitute. 

Barathrum,  in  physiology,  a  baleful  cavern, 
inaccessible  on  account  of  its  foetid,  or  poisonous 
fumes ;  sWled  by  others  fossa  charonia. 

BARATIER  (Philip),  a  most  extraordinary 
instance  of  early  and  rapid  exertion  of  mental 
faculties.  This  surprising  genius  was  the  son  of 
Francis  Baratier,  minister  of  the  French  church 
at  Schwabach,  near  Nuremberg,  where  he  was 
bom  January  10,  1721,  The  French  was  his 
mother-tongue,  and  High  Dutch  the  language  of 
the  place;  but  his  father  talking  Latin  to  him, 
that  language  became  as  familiar  to  him  as  the 
rest:  so  that  without  knowing  the  rules  of 
grammar,  he,  at  four  years  of  age,  talked  Freneh 
to  his  mother,  Latin  to  his  father,  and  High 
Dutch  to  the  maid,  or  neighbouring  children ; 
and  all  this  without  mixing  or  confounding  the 
respective  languages.  About  the  middle  of  his 
fifth  year  he  acquired  Greek  in  like  manner;  so 
that  in  fifteen  months  he  perfectly  understood  all 
the  Greek  books  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
which  he  r^ily  translated  into  Latin.  When 
he  was  five  years  and  eight  months  old,  he  en- 
tered upon  Hebrew ;  and  in  three  years  was  so 
expert  in  the  Hebrew  text,  that  from  a  bible 
without  points,  he  could  give  the  sense  of  the 
original  m  Latin  or  French ;  or  translate  extem- 
pore the  Latin  or  French  versions  into  Hebrew, 
almost  word  for  word ;  and  had  all  the  Hebrew 
psalms  by  heart.  He  composed,  at  this  time,  a  dic- 
tionary of  rare  and  difficult  Hebrew  words,  with 
critical  remarks  and  philosophical  observations,  in 
about  400  pac^es  in  4to ;  and,  about  his  tenth 
year,  amused  himself  for  twelve  months  with  the 
rabbinical  writers.  With  these  he  intermixed  a 
knowledo:e  of  the  Chaldaic,  Syriac,  and  Arabic ; 
and  <icquired  a  taste  for  divinity  and  ecclesiastical 
antiquity,  by  studying  the  Greek  fathers  and 
councils  of  the  first  four  ages  of  the  church.  In 
*he  midst  of  these  occupations,  a  pair  of  globes 


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coming  into  his  possession,  he  coafd,  in  ten  days 
time,  resolve  all  the  problems  on  them ;  and  in 
about  three  months  (in  January,  1735),  devised 
his  project  for  the  discovery  of  the  longitude, 
which  he  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  at 
London  and  the  Royal  Academy  of  Scien9cs  at 
Berlin.  In  June,  1731,  he  was  matriculated  in 
the  university  of  Altorf;  and  at  the  close  of 
1732,  he  was  presented  by  his  father  at  the  meet- 
ing of  the  reformed  churches  of  the  circle  of 
Franconia;  who,  astonished  at  his  wonderful 
.alents,  admitted  him  to  assist  in  the  deliberations 
of  the  synod ;  and  to  preserve  tlie  memory  of  so 
singular  an  event,  it  was  ordered  to  be  registered 
in  their  acts.  In  1734  the  margrave  of  })ran- 
denburgh  Anspach  granted  this  young  scholar 
the  use  of  whatever  books  he  wanted  from  the 
Anspach  library,  together  with  a  pension  of  fifty 
florins,  which  he  enjoyed  three  years;  and  his 
father  receiving  a  call  to  the  French  church  at 
Stettin,  in  Pomerania,  young  Baratier  was,  on 
the  journey,  admitted  M.  A,  with  universal  ap- 
plause at  we  university  of  Halle ;  at  Berlin  he 
was  honored  with  several  conversations  with  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and  was  received  into  the  royal 
academy.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  he  ac- 
quired a  taste  for  medals,  inscriptions,  and  anti- 
quities: metaphysical  enquiries, and  experimental 
philosophy,  intervening  occasionally  between 
these  studies.  He  wrote  several  essays  and  dis- 
sertations ;  made  astronomical  rediarks  and  labo- 
rious <»]culations;  and  took  great  pains  towards 
a  history  of  the  heresies  of  the  anti-tr^nitarians, 
and  of  the  thirty  years'  war  in  -Germany.  His 
last  publication,  which  appeared  in  1740,  was  on 
the  succession  of  the  bishops  of  Rome.  The  final 
woriL  he  was  engaged  in,  and  for  which  he  had 
collected  many  materials,  was  Enquiries  concern- 
ing the  Egyptian  Antiquities.  But  the  sub- 
stance of  this  blazing  meteor  was  now  nearly 
exhausted ;  he  was  always  weak  and  sickly,  and 
died  October  5, 1740,  aged  nineteen  years,  eight 
months,  and  sixteen  days.  He  published  eleven 
different  pieces,  and  left  twenty-six  MSS.  on 
various  subjects,  the  contents  of  which  may  be 
seen  in  his  life,  written  by  M.  Formey,  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Berlin. 

BARATOR,  or  Barretor,  in  law.  Lambert 
derives  the  word  from  the  latin  balatro,  a  vile 
knave;  but  the  proper  derivation  is  from  the 
French barrateur,  i.  e.  a  deceiver;  and  this  agrees 
widi  the  description  of  a  common  barretor  in 
lord  Coke's  report,  viz.  that  he  is  a  common 
mover  and  maintainer  of  suits  in  disturbance  of 
the  peace,  and  in  taking  and  detaining  the  pos- 
session of  houses  and  lands,  or  goods,  by  false 
inventions,  &c.  And,  therefore,  it  was  adjudged 
that  the  indictment  against  him  ought  to  be  in 
these  words,  viz.  that  he  is  communis  malefactor, 
calumniator  et  seminator  litium  et  discordiarum 
inter  vicinos  suos,  et  pacis  regis  perturbator,  &c. 
It  is  said  that  a  common  barretor  is  the  most 
dangerous  oppressor  in  the  law,  for  he  oppresseth 
the  innocent  by  color  of  law,  which  was  made 
to  protect  them  from  oppression. 

Baratry,  or  Barratry,  in  a  shipmaster, 
is  his  cheatinff  the  owners.  If  eoods  aelivered 
on  ship-board  are  embezzled,  all  the  mariners 
ought  by  the  maritime  law,  to  contribute  to4he  sa- 


tisBsLction  of  the  party  that  lost  his  goods,  and  the 
cailise  is  to  be  tried  in  the  admiralty.  In  a  case 
where  a  ship  was  insured  against  the  baratiy 
of  the  master,  &c.  and  the  jury  found  that  the 
ship  was  lost  by  the  fraud  and  negligence  of  the 
master,  the  court  agreed,  that  the  fraud  was 
baratry,  though  not  named  in  the  covenant ;  bat 
that  negligence  was  not. 

Baratry,  or  Barretrt,  from  baraterie,  Fr. 
fraud ;  in  law,  is  the  offence  of  frequently  stiniDg 
up  suits  and  quarrels  between  his  majesty's  sub- 
jects, eitlier  at  law  or  otherwise.  The  punish- 
ment for  this  offence,  in  a  common  person,  is  by 
fine  and  imprisonment :  but  if  the  offender,  as 
is  too  frequently  the  case,  belongs  to  ^e  profes- 
sion of  the  law,  the  barator  who  is  thos  able  as 
well,  as  willing  to  do  mischief,  ought  always  to 
be  disabled  for  practising  for  Uie  mtnre.  And, 
indeed,  it  is  enacted  by  statute  12  Geo.  I.  c.  29, 
that  if  any  one  having  been  convicted  of  foigeiy, 
perjury,  subornation  of  perjury,  or  commcm  bar^ 
retry,  shall  practice  as  an  attorney,  solicitor,  or 
agent  in  any  suit,  the  court,  upon  compl^nt, 
shall  examine  it  in  a  summary  way;  and  if 
proved,  shall  direct  the  offender  to  be  tramsported 
for  seven  years.  Hereunto  also  may  be  referred 
another  offence  of  equal  malignity  and  audacious^ 
ness,  that  of  suing  another  in  the  name  of  a  fic- 
titious plaintiff,  either  one  not  in  being  at  all,  or 
one  who  is  ignorant  of  the  suit.  This  offence,  if 
conunitted  in  any  of  the  king's  superior  courts, 
is  left,  as  a  high  contempt,  to  be  punished  at 
their  discretion :  but  in  courts  of  a  lower  degree, 
where  the  crime  is  equally  pernicious,  but  the 
authori^  of  the  judges  not  equally  extensive,  it 
is  directed  by  statute  8  E\iz.  c.  2,  to  be  punished 
by  six  months  imprisonment,  and  treble  damages 
to  the  party  inju^. 

Baratry  is  also  used  for  bribery  or  corrap- 

tion  in  a  judge,  giving  a  false  sentence  for  money. 

Baratry  is  also  used,  in  middle  age  writers, 

for  fraud  or  deceit  in  making  of  contracts^  sales, 

or  the  like. 

BARATZ,  Turkish,  letters-patent  granted  hy 
the  Turkish  emperors  to  the  Greek  patriarchs, 
bishops,  &c.  for  the  exercise  of  their  ecclesias- 
tical functions.  This  baratz  gives  the  bishops 
full  power  and  authority  to  establish  and  depose 
the  mferior  clergy,  and  all  other  religious  per- 
sons ;  to  grant  licenses  for  marriages,  and  issue 
out  divorces ;  to  collect  the  revenues  belonging 
to  the  churdies;  to  receive  the  pious  l^ades 
bequeathed  to  them;  in  short,  to  enjoy  all  the 
privileges  and  advantages  belonging  to'  th«ir 
nigh  station:  and  all  this  (as  it  is  expmsed  in 
the .  baratz  itself),  '  according  to  the  vain  and 
idle  ceremonies  of  the  Christians.' 

BARB',  17.  &  n.    -V  TT.harbierJ>ox.barhe€rtm, 
Barb'ated,  f  Lat  barba.  The  etymology 

Barb'ej),  \.  doubtful.     It  signifies  a 

Barb'er,  v.  &  n.  i  beard;  hence  it  has  grown 
Barb^'et.  J  to  mean  a  covering  and 

protection ;  as  armour  and  trappings  for  IrarMs^ 
a  hood  or  mu£9er  for  the  head  and  lower  part  of 
the  &ce  and  shoulders.  It  has  also  been  ex- 
tended in  its  application  to  the  jags  or  reversed 
points  of  an  arrow  or  hook.  To  baib,  is  to  cut, 
to  shave,  or  to  dress  out  the  beard.  Barb,  con- 
tracted from  Barbaiy,  signifies  a  Barbery  hone 


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519  BAR 


For  of  a  MMtio  ihit  d«k»  mnk9  the  kyng  on  the 
brow,  right  niuler  tho  defenoo  of  the  hedpece,  on  the 
very  coyfb  tcall  or  bawenet  pece^  whereunto  the  ftor- 
het  for  power  and  defence  it  chemeld. 

ffaU.  Kmg  Hemy  VJJL  fbl  133. 
But  let  be  this,  and  tell  me  how  yon  fare. 
Do  way  your  harU,  and  shew  your  face  bare. 
Bo  way  your  boko,  rise  up  and  let  uf  dance. 
And  let  ▼•  done  to  May  some  obsenraunce. 

Chamcar.  Troiha  amd  Cmeidt, 
Two  manner  of  arrows  heades  sayth  Pollux,  was 
used  in  olde  time.    The  one  be  caUeth  tyxi«f,  de- 
■cribinge  it  thus,  haTing  two  points  or  ftortev,  looking 
^     backwarde  to  the  stele  and  the  feathers,  which  surely 
[    we  call  in  SngUshe,  abrode  arrowe  head  or  a  swalowe 
I     tayle.  Bogv  Amham,  TwephUm, 

Thanked  they  werefinmi  the  senate,  and  presents 
i     were  sent  unto  them,  to  wit,  a  ehaine  of  gold  wei^« 
ing  two  pounds ;  ceitaiii  golden  eups  of  fmue  ponnde 
weight;  a  brnye  oootier  tarfted  and  trapp'd,  and  an 
I     horseman's  armour.  BoUmid.  Lkma, 

Shave  the  head,  and  tie  the  beard,  and  My  it  was 
\     the  desire  of  the  penitent  to  be  so  barbed  befiore  his 
deatlu  Shakqmn, 

Gxim-visag'd  war  hatib  amooth'd  his  wrinkled  front; 
*   And  now-- instead  of  mmiuting  barbed  steeds. 
To  fright  the  soul  of  fearful  adversaries. 
He  capers  nimbly  in  a  lady's  chamber. 
To  the  lascivious  pleasing  of  a  lute.  Id, 

Their  hones  were  naked,  without  any  &orft>;  for  . 
albeit  many  brought  barh$,  few  regarded  to  put  them 
on.  Hagfward, 

The  stooping  scythe-man,  that  doth  bmb  the  field. 
Thou  mak'st  wink-sure ;  in  night  all  creatures  sleep. 
Manton,  Malcontent, 
Ho  drizzling  show'r. 
But  rattling  storm  of  arrows,  bmb'd  with  fire. 

UiUm. 
Thy  boisterous  looks 
Ko  worthy  match  for  valour  to  assail. 
But  by  the  harbet'i  raiorbest  subdued.  Id, 

A  wafriour  train 
Hat  like  a  deluge  pour'd  upon  the  plain ; 
On  bmrhed  steeds  they  rode,  in  proud  array. 
Thick  as  the  college  of  the  bees  in  May. 

Dryden'tFoNst, 
Nov  less  the  Spartan  feas-'dlieiore  he  found 
The  shining  btwh  appear  above  the  wound.         Pope, 
Watermen  brawl,  eoblen  sing;  but  why  must  a 
barber  be  for  ever  a  politician,  a  musidan,  an  anato- 
mist, a  poet,  and  a  physician  ?  Taker,  No.  34. 
I  cannot  lay  so  much  stress  on  a  plate  and  descrip- 
tion, given  by  Plot,  of  a  dart  uncommonly  barbated. 

trarton* 
To  make  a  fine  gentlemen  several  trades  are  re- 
quired, but  chiefly  a  bafber.  You  have  undoubtedly 
heard  of  the  Jewish  champion,  whose  strength  lay  in 
his  hair;  one  would  think  the  English  were  for 
placing  all  wisdom  there;  to  appear  wise  nothing  is 
more  requisite  here  thsn  for  «  man  to  borrow  hair 
horn  the  heade  of  all  his  neighbours,  and  dap  it  like 
abuahenhia  own. 

OeUmmih,     CUiMem  of  the  Werid, 
Straight  as  above  the  surfaee  of  the  flood. 
They  wanton  rise,  or  uig'd  by  hunger  leap. 
Then  fix,  with  gentle  twitch,  the  barbed  hook. 


Hoiseo  brought  Aom  Baibary  are  eonmonly  of  a 
light  dender  siee,  and  very  dear,  usually  chosen  tnm 
stdlions.  Barbe,  it  is  said,  may  die,  Imt  never  grow 
old ;  the  vigour  and  mettle  of  barb$  never  eease  bat 
uith  their  Ufe.  Farrier'*  MHeHomarg^ 


Thoyar«iH-li«iIk» 
Pin-buttoek'd  like  your  dainty  barbarkt. 
And  weak  i'  the  pasterns. 

BeotimoMl  and  Fleli*hcr^ 

But  why  should  you  who  still  succeed. 
Whether  with  graceful  act  you  lead 
The  fiery  batrb,  or  with  as  graceful  motion  tresf* 
In  shining  balls,  where  all  agree 
To  give  the  highest  praise  to  thee. 

Vertea  to  Lamdomne, 

Baeb  is  also  used  for  tae  Barbary  pigeon,  caUed 
Jby  Moore  the  oolumba  numidica.  Tliis  biid  is 
but  a  small  uigeon,  and  has  a  very  short  bid^k 
like  a  buUfinciii  with  a  small  water,  and  a  naked 
circle  of  tuberose  red  flesh  round  the  eyes ;  the 
iris  of  the  eye  is  of  a  pearl  color,  and  the  broader 
and  redder  this  circle  round  them  is,  the  more 
the  pigeon  is  valued;  but  this  is  always  narrow 
while  they  are  voung,  and  does  not  arrive  at  its 
iaiX  breadth  till  they  are  four  years  old.  Some 
of  this  species  have  a  tuft  of  feathers  behind 
their  head,  and  others  not.  The  red  circle  round 
^eir  eyes  grows  pale  and  whitish  if  they  become 
sick,  but  alwavs  recovers  its  redness  as  they 
grow  well.  Their  i>roper  color  is  black  or  dun. 
There  are  likewise  pied  ones;  but  they  are  of  a 
mixed  breed  and  not  so  valuable. 

BARBAf  in  botany,  a  species  of  pubes,  or 
down,  with  which  the  surface  of  some  plants  is 
covered.  The  term  was  invented  by  l^nneus, 
and  by  its  application  in  the  Species  Plantarum, 
seems  to  signify  a  tufi  or  bunch  of  strong  hairs 
terminating  the  leaves.  The  mesembrvanthemum 
^arbatum,  a  species  of  marypld,  furnishes  an  ex- 
ample. The  word  is  also  often  used  in  composi- 
tion to  form  the  trivial  names  of  several  plants. 

Baeba  Aeon,  in.  botany,  a  name  given  by 
some  authors  to  ^e  common  great  house-leek. 

Baeba  Capeje,  in  botany.  See  Sp!ejea.  Of 
this  genus  Mr.  Toumefort  allows  only  one  spe- 
cies, the  comiDoA  barba  caprs,  or,  as  it  is  called 
by  some,  drymopogon. 

Baeba  Jotis,  in  botany,  a  species  of  anthyllis. 

Baeba  (Alvarez  Alonio),  curate  of  St  Ber- 
nard  de  Potod,  in  the  seventeenth  century.  He 
was  authof  of  a  curions  book  on  metallurgy, 
published  at  Madrid  in  1620,  quarto,  and  again 
in  1730,  abridged  in  French,  12mo. 

BAR'BACAN,  n. «.  Fr.  barbacane,  Span,  bar- 
baeana.  A  fortification  nlaced  before  the  walls  of 
a  town.  A  fortrev  at  tne  end  of  a  bridge.  An 
openinff  in  the  wall  through  which  the  guns  are 
levelled. 

Within  the  barhaeam  a  porter  sate. 

Bay  and  night  duly  keeping  watch  and  ward : 

Nor  wight  nor  word  mole  pees  out  of  the  gate. 
But  in  good  order,  and  with  due  regard. 

Fasris  Qneene. 

Babbacak,  or  Baebicav.    See  Castle. 

BABBADENSIS,  in  conchology,  a  SMcies  of 
voluta,  inhabiting  the' American  seas.  The  shell 
is  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  tapering;  color  red- 
dbh,  with  very  fine  transverse  strise.    . 

Baebadsnsis,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of 
psittacus,  the  ash-firouted  parrot  of  Latham.  This 
oird  is  green;  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon,  and 
inhabits  Barbadoes. 

BARBADILLO  (Alphonsus  Jerom  de  Salas\ 
a  Spanish  dramatic  writer,  born  at  Madrid.    He 


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was  author  of  several  comedies,  and  of  the  Ad- 
ventures of  Don  Diego  de  Noche,  1624,  8vo. 

BARBADINO,  a  learned  Portuguese.  He 
wrote  and  published  at  Paris,  in  1746,  a  book 
in  his  native  language.  On  the  present  sUte  of 
Literature  in  Portugal.  This  work  was  attacked 
with  CTcat  severity  by  a  Portuguese  Jesuit,  and 
defended  by  Don  Joseph  de  Maymo. 

BARBADO,  a  district  in  the  island  of  Arl)e, 
which  produces  excellent  wines.    See  Arbe. 

BARBADOES,  the  most  easterly  o(  all  the 
Carribee  Islands,  subject  to  Great  Britain,  and,- 
according  to  the  best  ffeographeis,  lying  between 
59**  SC  and  62**  2'  W.  long.,  and  between  12'' 
56'  and  13®  16'  N.  lat  It  is  seventy  miles  from 
St.  Vincent's.  Its  extent  is  not  certainly  known ; 
but,  according  to  Edwards,  the  length  of  the 
island  is  twenty-one  miles,  and  its  br«idth  four- 
teen. From  the  returns  to  parliament  in  1811, 
tt  appears  that  ^e  population  of  its  different  pa* 
rishes  vras  at  that  Ume  as  follows : — viz. 


Parishes. 

WhitM. 

Free  color. 

Slaves. 

St.  Michael   . 

5405 

1551 

12,198 

Christ  Church 

1570 

66 

9234 

St.  Philip     . 

1510 

212 

9682 

St.  John  .    . 

1148 

887 

58 

St.  Joseph    . 

1066 

77 

3104 

St.  Andrew  . 

571 

165 

3249 

St.  Lucy  .    . 

1043 

34 

5282 

St.  Peter  .    . 

1356 

223 

5725 

St.  James     . 

708 

33 

4295 

St.  Thomas  . 

773 

31 

4003 

St.  George   . 

1139 

lis 

5428 

16,289 

3392 

62,258 

The  whole  population  of  the  island,  therefore, 
was  81,939;  and  from  this  statement  it  appears 
that  the  number  of  slaves  had  been  nearly  sta- 
tionaiy  during  a  period  of  thirty  years,  i.  e.  from 
1781  to  1811 ;  for  it  was  affirmed  by  Mr.  Wil- 
berforce,  in  the  House  of  Commons,  in  the 
course  of  the  debates  on  the  slave  trade,  that  in 
the  former  of  these  years  there  were  63,248 
slaves  on  the  island;  in  1786  the  number  was 
62,115;  and  in  1811  they  were,  as  we  see, 
62,258.  Baibadoes  is  supposed  to  have  attained 
the  summit  of  prosperity  more  than  a  century 
ago;  and  between  the  great  planters  and  the 
people  of  color  here  there  is  a  numerous  and 
remarkable  class  of  inhabitants,  descended  from 
the  original  settlers,  who  have  no  precise  know- 
ledge when  their  ancestors  arrived  at  the  island. 
These,  consequently,  consider  it  as  their  coun- 
tiT,  and  do  not  look  back,  therefore,  like  the 
planters  or  the  negroes,  tu  early  associations  or 
other  scenes  as  their  home.  At  a  distance,  Bar- 
badoes  presents  a  brown  and  nearly  uniform 
surface;  and  the  West  Indians  generally  think 
it  a  very  flat  country;  but  on  a  nearer  approach 
the  prospect  improves,  and  the  scenery  becomes 
more  diversified.  The  ground  rises  in  singular 
and  almost  regular  nidges  from  the  shore. 
Rugged  acclivities  of  about  100  feet  eadi  are 
separated  by  plains  or  terraces,  nearly  half  a 


mile  broad,  and  daese,  higUy  cultivated,  hm 
a  strong  contrast  with  the  Uack  rocky  precipioes 
and  bold  promontories,  projecting  over  deep 
ravines  covered  with  dark  foliage,  by  which  th^ 
are  surrounded. 

When   Barbadoes  was  first  settled   by  the 
English,  in  1605,  few  or  no  (quadrupeds  were 
found  upon  it  except  hogs,  which  had  been  left 
there  by  the  Portuguese.    For  convenience  of 
carriage  to  the  sea-side,  some  of  the  plantsn 
at  first  procured  camels,  which  undoubtedly 
would,  in  all  respects,  have  been  prefierableto 
horses  for  their  sugar  and  other  wofks;  but  the 
nature  of  the  climate  disagreeing  with  that  ani- 
mal, it  was  found  impossible  to  preserve  the 
breed.     Some  gentlemen  of  small  fortune  in 
England  resolved  at  this  time  to  become  adven- 
turers thither.    The  trees  were  large,  and  of  a 
wood  so  hard  and  stubborn  that  it  was  with 
great  difficulty  they  could  dear  as  much  groond 
as  was  necessary  for  their  sabsistenoe ;  bat  by 
unremitting  peneverance  they  bioogfat  it  to  yield 
Uiem  a  tolerable  support     They  found  dm 
cotton  and  indigo  agreed  well  with  the  soil;  end 
that  tobacco,  which  was  beginning  to  come  into 
repute  in   England,    answered  tolerably  welL 
These  prospects,  tc^ther  with  the  storm  be- 
tween the  king  and  parliament,  which  was  be- 
ginning to  break  out  in  England,  induced  mxaj 
to  transport  themselves  into  this  island :  and  so 
great  was  the  increase  of  people  in  Barbadoes, 
within  twenty-five  years  alter  its  first  settlement, 
that  in  1650  it  contained  more  than  50,000 
whites,  and  a  much  greater  number  of  negro  and 
Indian  slaves.    They  now  applied  for  horses  to 
Old  and  New  England*.  fit>m  the  former  they 
had  those  that  were  fit  for  show  and  dmight; 
from  the  la^er  those  that  were  proper  for  mount- 
ing their  militia,  and  for  the  sadd&e.    They  had 
likewise  some  of  an  inferior  breed  from  Curanao^ 
and  other  settlements.     They  are  reported  to 
have  had  their  first  breed  of  black  cattle  fiorn 
Bonavista  and  the  Isle  of  May ;  they  now  breed 
upon  the  island,  and  often  do  the  woork  of  hocKS. 
Tne  sugar,  which  soon  afier  this  was  coltivated, 
rendered  tliem  extremely  wealthy.    The  number 
of  slaves,  therefore,  was  still  augmented ;  and  m 
1676  it  is  supposed  diat  they  amounted  to  100,000, 
which,  together  with  50,000  whites,  made  150,000 
on  this  small  spot :  a  degree  of  population  un- 
known in  Holland,  in  China,  or  any  other  part  of 
the  world  most  renowned  for  numoert.     At  this 
time  Barbadoes  employed  400  sail  of  ships,  one 
with  another  150  tons,  in  their  trade.    Tnar  an- 
nual exports  in  sugar,  indigo,  ginger,  oottoo, 
and  citron-water,  were  above  £350,000;  and 
their  circulating  cash  at  home  was  £200,000. 
Such  was  the  increase  of  population,  trade,  and 
wealth,  in  the  course  of  fifty  years.  The  asses  here 
are  veiy  serviceable  in  carrying  burdens  to  and 
from  the  pUntations.    The  hogs  of  Baifaadocs  are 
finer  eating  than  those  of  Britain,  but  the  few 
sheep  they  have  are  not  near  so  good.    They 
likewise  have  goats,  which  when  young  are  ex- 
cellent food.    RaaM>ns  and  monkeys  are  also 
found  here  in  great  abundance.     A  variety  of 
birds  are  produced  on  Barbadoes,  of  which  the 
humminff-oiid  is  die  most  remarkable.  Wild  fowl 
do  not  <men  frequent  this  island ;  but  i 


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teal  are  ftnind  near  their  ponds.  A  bird  whidi 
they  call  the  man  of  war,  is  said  to  meet  ships 
at  twenty  leagues  from  land,  aod  their  return  is 
to  the  inhabitants  a  sure  sign  of  the  arrival  of 
these  ships.  When  the  wind  blows  from  the 
south  and  south-west  they  have  flocks  of  cur- 
lews, ploveirs,  snipes,  wild  pigeons,  and  wild 
ducks.  The  wild  pigeons  are  very  fat  and  plen- 
tiful at  such  seasons,  and  rather  larger  than  those 
of  England.  The  tame  pigeons,  pullets,  ducks, 
and  poultry  of  all  kinds,  that  are  bred  at  Barba- 
does  have  also  a  fine  flavor,  and  are  accounted 
more  delicious  than  those  of  Europe.  Their 
rabbits  are  scarce ;  they  have  no  hares ;  and  the 
few  deer  they  have  are  kept  as  curiosities.  The 
insects  of  Barbadoes  are  not  venomous,  nor  do 
either  their  snakes  or  scorpipns  ever  sting.  The 
mosquitoes  are  troublesome,  and  bite ;  but  are 
more  tolerable  in  Barbadoes  than  on  the  conti- 
nent. Various  otiier  insects  are  found  on  the 
island,  some  of  which  are  troublesome,  but  in  no 
greater  degree  than  those  that  are  produced  by 
every  warm  summer  in  England.  Oranges  and 
lemons  grow  in  Barbadoes  in  great  plenty,  and 
in  their  utmost  perfection.  The  lemon  juice 
here  has  i^  peculiar  fragrancy.  The  citrons  of 
Barbadoes  afibrd  the  best  drams  and  sweetmeats 
of  any  in  the  world,  the  Barbadoes  ladies  excel- 
ling in  the  art  of  preserving  the  rind  of  the  fruit. 
The  pine-apple  is  also  a  native  of  Barbadoes, 
and  grows  there  to  much  greater  perfection  than 
it  can  be  made  to  do  in  Europe.  A  vast  num- 
ber of  diflierent  trees,  peculiar  to  the  climate,  are 
also  found  to  flourish  m  Barbadoes  in  great  per- 
fection, such  as  the  aloe,  mangrove,  calalxish, 
cedar,  cotton,  ginger,  plantains,  guavas,  mastic, 
&c.  Here  likewise  are  produced  some  sensitive 
plants,  with  a  good  deal  of  garden^stufi*.  Bar- 
badoes u  well  supplied  wi&  fi^;  and  some 
caught  in  the  sea  surrounding  it  axe  almost  pe- 
culiar to  itself,  such  as  the  parrot-fish,  snappers, 
gray  cavaJlos,  terburas,  and  coney-fish.  The 
mullets,  lobsters,  and  crabs,  caught  here  are  ex- 
cellent; and  the  green  turtle  is  perhaps  the 
greatest  delicacy  that  ancient  or  mcniem  luxury 
can  boast  of.  At  Barbadoes  this  delicious  shell- 
fish seldom  seUs  for  less  than  a  shilling  a  pound, 
and  often  for  more.  There  is  found  in  this 
island  a  kind  of  landHsrab  which  eaLt  herbs 
whereever  it  can  find  them,  and  shelters  itself  in 
houses  and  hollows  of  trees.  According  to  re- 
port they  are  a  shell-fish  of  passage ;  for  in  March 
tliey  travel  to  the  seain  great  numbers.  See  Cancer. 
Barbadoes  is  considered  by  some  writers  as 
having  its  fertility  diminished  by  long  cultiva- 
tion; and  its  produce  is,  ^erefore,  bought  to 
be  little  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  land. 
The  soil  chiefly  tests  upon  a  basis  of  calcareous 
rock,  formed  of  roadnpores  and  other  marine 
concretions.  In  some  places  it  is  composed  of  a 
deep  black  mould ;  red  earth,  of  the  same  kind 
as  in  .Tamaica,  is  also  found,  and  sometimes  the  ' 
surface  consists  of  a  species  of  light  white  earth, 
>^bich  is  chiefly  indurated  .argil,  bleached  by  ex- 
posure. Barbadoes  on  the  whole  must  be  con- 
sidered as  an  important  possession :  its  situation 
renders  it  the  key  to  the  Weit  Indies ;  and  its 
fine  bay  aflords  an  excellent  rendezvous  for  snip- 
IMDgy  vhsle  the  salubrity  of  its  climate  exceeds 


that  of  most  of  the  other  West  India  islands. 
But  it  has  been  thought  to  decline  considerably 
since  the  year  1787,  a  circumstance  ascribed  to 
the  dreadful  succession  of  hurricanes  with  which 
it  has  been  visited.  The  capital  of  the  island 
was  scarcely  risen  from  the  ashes  to  which  it  had 
been  reduced  by  fire,  when  it  was  torn  from  its 
foundations,  and  the  whole  country  made  a  scene 
of  desolation  by  the  storm  of  the  10th  of  October, 
1780.  Above  4000  of  the  inhabitants  miserably 
perished,  and  the  damage  of  property  was  com- 

Suted  at  above  one  million  sterling.  Indepen- 
ent  of  those  sudden  calamities^  arising  from  the 
fiiry  of  the  elements,  its  inhabitants  are  also  sub- 
ject to  a  distressing  malady,  in  the  form  of  an 
elephantiasis,  so  peculiar  to  this  island  that  it 
has  obtained  the  appellation  of  the  Barbadoes 
disease.  Dr.  Pinckanl,  however,  describes  the  hea't 
as  less  inconvenient  than  he  expected.  In  the 
harbour,  and  placed  in  the  shade,  die  thermo^ 
meter  seldom  rose  higher  than  84^,  and  never 
exceeded  86°.  The  inhabitants  may  be  consi- 
dered in  three  classes,  viz.  the  roasters,  white 
servants,  and  blacks.  The  former  are  either 
English,  Scots,  or  Irish ;  but  the  mat  encou- 
ragement given  by  government  to  me  peopling 
this  and  ouer  West  India  islands,  indooed  some 
Dutch,  French,  Portuguese,  and  Jews,  to  settle 
among  them  with  their  estates ;  by  which,  after 
a  certain  time,  they  acquire  the  rights  of  natura- 
lization in  Great  Britain.  The  white  servants, 
whether  by  covenant  or  purchase,  are  said  to 
live  more  easy  lives  than  the  day-laborers  in 
England ;  and  when  they  come  to  be  overseers, 
their  wages  and  other  allowances  are  consider- 
able. The  earliest  planters  of  Barbadoes  were 
reproached  with  cruelly  forcing  into  slavery  the 
Indians  of  the  neighbouring  continent ;  and  the 
history  of  Inkle  and  Yarico,  which  Mr.  Addison, 
in  his  Spectator,  has  recorded  for  the  detestation 
of  mankind,  took  its  ;ise  in  this  island.  For  the 
treatment  of  the  negro  slaves  in  this  and  other 
islands,  see  Negro,  Slave,  and  West  Indies. 
St.  Vincent  may  be  seen  from  Barbadoes  in  a 
clear  day.  It  is  twenty-five  miles  only  from  St. 
Lucia;  twenty-eight  south-east  from  lif artinico ; 
sixty  north-east  from  Trinidad ;  and  100  south- 
east from  St.  Christopher. 

Barbadoes,  Flower-Fekce.  See  Poinciaka. 

Barbadoes  Tar;  a  bituminous  substance, 
differing  little  from  the  petroleum  floating  on 
several  springs  in  England  and  Scotland.  It 
is  a  mineral  fluid  of  the  nature  of  the  thicker 
fluid  bitumens,  of  a  nauseous  bitterish  taste^ 
very  strong  and  disagreeable  smell,  found  in 
many  parts  of  America,  trickling  down  the  sides 
of  the  mountains,  and  sometimes  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  waters.  It  has  been  greatly  recom- 
mended in  coughs,  and  other  disorders  of  the 
breast  and  lungs. 

BARBANA,  a  district  and  village  of  the  late 
maritime  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Istria,  seated 
on  the  Arza,  with  two  forts. 

BARBARA,  in  logic,  the  first  mode  of  the 
first  figure  of  the  syllogisms.  A  syllogism  In  bar- 
bam  is  that  whereof  all  the  propositions  are  uni- 
versal and  affirmative;  the  middle  term  being  the 
subject  in  iSie  first  proposition,  and  attribute  or 
predicate  in  the  secona. — Example: 


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BAR  Whoever  suffers  a  inan  to  starve,  whom 
he  is  able  to  sustain,  is  a  murderer : 

BA  Whoever  is  rich,  and  rehiseth  to  give 
alms,  suffers  those  to  starve,  whom 
he  is  able  to  sustain : 

RA  Therefore,  whoever  is  rich,  and  refuses 
to  ^ve  alms,  is  a  murderer. 

Ba&bara,  sister  and  successor  of  Zingha, 
queen  of  Angola.  > 

Barbara,  St.  an  island  on  the  coast  of  Brasil. 

Barbara,  St.  the  capital  of  New  Biscay,     t 

BAllBARANO,  a  district  of  maritime  Austria, 
in  the  Vicentino,on  the  banks  of  theBaochiglione, 
among  tlie  Berean  hills,  containing  one  tovn«  of 
thesame  name,  &c.,  and  fifteen  populous  villages. 

BARBARIANI.    See  Barbelicotjs. 

BARBARICAHII,  in  antiquity,  1.  artists, 
who»  with  threads  of  divers  colors,  expressed  the 
figures  of  men,,  animals,  &c.  or,  whose  businestf 
was  to  gild  and  decorate  shields  and  helmets 
with  jifold  and  silver.  They  were  so  called, 
because  they  learned  these  arts  from  the  Phryf- 
gians,  who  were  particularly  denominated  ban- 
barians,  in  regard  of  their  opposition  to  the 
Greeks.  The  name  is  sometimes  also  written 
hranbaricarri.  2.  Soldiers,  or  officers,  who  wore 
masks  and  viiards  thus  adorned  with  gold  and 
silver. 

BARBARICUM,  in  ancient  writers,  1.  A 
military  shout  raised  by  the  soldiers  on  point  of 
engagement;  so  called  from  the  barbarians,  in 
whose  armies  this  method  much  prevailed :  2.  A 
war  or  expedition  undertaken  against  the  bar- 
barians; Quousque  ad  ipsum  tempusquo  barba- 
ricum  exortem  est  inter  nos  et  vos:  3.  Ab 
armory,  or  magazine,  wherein  the  Greek  em- 
perors kept  the  spoils  taken  from  the  barbarian*. 

Barbaricum ,  m  botany,  an  appellation  given 
by  the  modem  Greeks  to  rhubarb;  so  called  from 
the  sinus  barbaricus,  by  the  way  of  which  this 
root  was  first  brought  to  them.  • 

BARBARICUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  oi 
cimex  (reduvius)  of  a  black  color;  thorax  an4 
wing-cases  obscure  ferruginous,  and  a  little 
white  line  on  the  middle  of  the  scutellum.  A 
native  of  Barbaiy.    Gmelin. 

Barbaricus,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  ralr 
lus  that  inhabits  Barbary;  the  Barbary  rail  ojp 
Latham;  and,  2.  A  species  of  turd  us,  of  a  green 
color,  with  the  breast  spotted  with  white;  rump 
and  tip  of  the  tail  yellow.  It  is  the  grive  basr 
sette  ae  Barbaric  of  Buffon^  and  the  Barbaiy 
thrush  of  Linnxus. 

BARBARIES,  that  rudeness  of  mind  where- 
in the  understanding  is  neither  fumbhed  with 
useful  principles,  nor  the  will  with  good  inclina- 
tions. 


BARBARIZE, 

Bar'barism, 

Barba'rity, 

Barba'rian,  n.  &  atU. 

Barba'rick,  n.  &  aaj, 

Bar'barous, 

Bar'barously,. 

Bar'barousness. 
lisation.  It  seems  to  have  signified  at  first  only 
foreign  or  a  foreigner.  The  Greeks  applied  it  to 
all  nations  but  themselves,  and  conveyed  by  it 
an  idea  of  disoaiagement  and  contempt.    It  is 


1 


Gr.  /3ap/3apoc,  Lat 
barbanUf  of  uncertain 
etymology,  applied 
to  any  nation,  person, 
''or  thing,  whicn indi- 
cates a  want  of  cul- 
ture. It  is  opposed 
in  all  respects  to  civi« 


now  applied  to  every  species  of  wildness,  fitrw>- 
ness,  and  cruelty ;  to  untaught  aarages;  to  mcn- 
sters  vritbout  pity;  to  ignorance  of  arts  and 
want  of  learning;  to  inaccuracies,  vulgarisms, 
impurities  of  speech  and  language;  and  to  inci- 
vility of  manners.  Brace  has  shown,  that  bar- 
barick,  barbarine^  and  harberinf  are  names  derived 
.from  Berber  pr  Berber,  the  native  name  of  the 
coast  of  the  troglodjfie,  icfathyophagi,  and  shep- 
herds. It  goes  down  the  vrikole  western  coast  of 
the  Red  Sea.  The  Egyptians  hated  and  feared 
them.  It  was  therefore  in  Egypt  a  term  both  of 
dread  and  contumely ;  in  which  sense  it  passed 
to  the  Greeks,  and  £rom  them  to  the  Romaas. 
To  barbarUef  is  to  reduce  to  a  state  of  barbarim ; 
to  make>  or  cause  to  be  made,  fierce,  cruel,  and 
uncivilised. 

Nor  were  the  Cerinthiaiu  proude  only  by  reuoa 
of  their  welthe,  but  alio  because  they  were  learned  in 
the  Cbeciaxw'  philosophy,  and  therefore  despised  tfacjr 
Mche  as  were  not  leanxsd  therein  as  mde  and  bar- 

VdJL 


What  need  I  say  more  to  yon  t    What  ear  is  lo 
barhcavm;  bat  hath  heard  of  AmphialosT  fiUsQ^. 

The  doubtful  damsel  dare  not  yet  commit 
Her  single  person  to  their  harhmrtmt  tx%th. 

Spetuer.  Faerie  Queme. 

I  have  for  harharitm  spoke  more 
Than  for  that  angel  knowledge  you  can  say. 


Thoo  art  a  Roman ;  be  not  harharom.  Id. 

Ko  joyfol  tongue  gave  him  hts  welcome  home ; 
But  dust  was  thrown  upon  his  sacred  head  ; 
Which  with  such  gentle  sorrow  he  shook  oCT^ 
His  face  still  combating  with  tears  and  smiles. 
The  badges  of  his  grief  and  patience. 
That  had  not  God  for  some  strong  purpose  tteel'd 
The  hearts  oimen,  they  most  perforce  hava  melted, 
And  harharitm  itself  have  pitiad  him.  U, 

I  would  they  were  harhariam,  as  they  are. 
Though  in  Jtome  littered.  Id.  OorioUmm, 

Moderation  ought  to  be  Imd  ia  iemperiiig  aad  iii»- 
naging  the  Irish,  to  bring  them  from  thaur  deiigfat  «f 
licentious  harharum  unto  tho  love  of  goodnesa  aad 
civility.  .Spamr'M  bdmL 

Divors  great  monarehiea  hatve  risen  from  haihanm 
to  civility,  and  fallen  again  into  ruin. 

Dmomem  hdmtL 

A  Aofiofwurcoantiy  mast  be  broken  by  war,  befeie 
it  be  capable  of  government;  and  when  snbdned,  if  it 
be  net  well  planted,  it  will  eftsoons  retnm  to  hat- 


.  He  left  governor,  Philip,  for  Us  cooatiy  a  Pfarj^ 
gian,  and  for  manners  more  harhatmu  thaa  he  thatiei 
him  there. 


Our  groaning  ooontzy.bled  at  every  ^ 
When  murders,  rapes,  and  massacrea  ptcvail'df 
When  churches,  palaces,  and  cities  bbU'd^ 
When  insolence  and  haiharitm  triomph*d« 
And  swept  away  distinction. 
By  their  hurharmt  usage*  he  died  within  a  few 
days,  to  the  grief  of  all  that  knew  him.        Clanmdm. 
And  they  did  treat  him  with  all  the  nadeness,  re- 
proach, and  harharitif,  imaginable.  U. 
The  barhanvrnteat  of  the  trial,  and  the  pemasives 
of  the  clergy,  prevailed  to  antiquate  it. 

HoWm  Cewiaa  Lam. 
The  gorgeous  East,  with  richest  hand, 
Show*rs  on  her  kings  hurharick  p^arl  and  gold. 

Pm 


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Next-Petraardi  JMiovr'4,  «ftd  in  hUs  we  tee 
I        What  rhyme,  improv'd  in  all  its  height,  can  be ; 
1        At  best  a  pleasing  sound,  and  sweet  harharitp. 

Drydm. 
They  who  restored  painting  in  Germany,  not  hav- 
ing those  reliques  of  antiquity,  retained  that  hairharma 
manner.  Ji. 

Latin  expresses  that  in  one  word,  which  either  the 
'  harhmrUy  or  narrowness  of  modem  tongues  cannot  sup* 
I    ply  ia  more.  Id^ 

The  genius  of  Raphael  hatving  noceeded  to  tha 
I  time«  of  batbantm  and  ignoranoe,  the  knowledge  of 
1    painting  is  now  arrived  to  perfection. 

Id.  Jhiftunojf,  Pnfaee. 

The  language  is  as  near  approaching  to  it,  as  our 

^    modem  harbarittn  will  allow ;  wjbich  is  all  that  can  be 

expected  from  any  now  extant. 
'  Id.  Jueenai,  Dedioation. 

The  eastern  front  was  glorious  to  behold. 
With  diamond  flaming,  and  harbarich  gold, 
f  Pope. 

,        Some  felt  the  silent  stroke  of  moold'ring  age, 
,     Barharmm  blindness.  Id, 

We  bmhanmtfy  call  them  blest. 
While  swelling  coffers  break  their  owner's  rest. 

'         Jixcellencies  of  musick  and  poetry  are  grown  to  be 
little  more,  but    the  one   fiddling,  and  the  other 
I    rhiming;  and  are  indeed  very  worthy  of  the  igno- 
rance of  the  friar,  and  the  harbaroutne$$  of  the  Goths. 

Temple. 
Proud  Greece  all  nations  else  harbariam  held. 
Boasting  her  learning  all  the  world  excell'd. 

Demham, 

There  were  not  different  gods  among  the  Greeks 

and  harbariam,  StiUmgfieet, 

But  with  descending  show'rs  of  brimstone  fir*d. 

The  wild  barbarian  in  the  storm  expirM.         Addison, 

She  wishes  it  may  prosper ;  but  her  mother  used 

one  of  her  nieces  very  barbaroudjf,  Spedaior, 

Thou  fell  barbarian. 

What  had  he  done?    What  toold  provoke  thy 

madness 
To  assassin*^"*  so  great,  so  brave  a  man? 

A.  Phimpe. 
This  moon,  which  rose  last  night,  round  as  my 
shield. 
Had  not  yet  fill'd  her  horns,  when  by  her  light, 
A  band  of  fieice  barhdriam,  from  the  UHs, 
Rush'd  like  a  torrent  down  npoi  the  vale. 
Sweeping  our  flocks  and  herds.  Hornef 

The  barbariant  of  Germany,  still  faithful  to  the 
maxims  of  their  ancestors,  abhorred  the  confinement 
of  walls,  to  which  they  applied  the  odious  names  of 
prisons  and  sepulchres ;  and  fixing  their  independent 
habitations  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  the  Rhine,  the 
Moselle,  and  the  Mouse,  they  secured  themselves 
against  d&e  danger  of  a  suiprise,  by  a  rade  and  hasty 
fortification  of  large  trees,  which  were  felled  and 
thrown  across  the  roads.  Gtftten^ 

We  shall  be  bmhariaed  on  both  sides  of  the  water, 
if  we  do  not  see  one  another  now  and  then,  we  shall 
sink  into  suiiy  brutish  Johns,  and  yon  will  degene- 
rate into  wild  Irish. 

Burhe.  Letter  ie  Sir  C,  Binghmn, 
That  saddening  hour  when  bad  men  hotlier  press. 

But  these  did  shelter  him  beneath  their  roof. 
When  less  bmrbarianM  would  have  ch'eer'd  him  less. 

And  fellow-countrymen  have  stood  aloof — 
In  aught  that  tries  the  heart,  how  few  withstand 
the  proof!  Bifnm,  ChUde  Barcid. 

We  retain  from  a  preceding  worjc  of  thia  kind 
an  illustration  of  this  subject;  not  the  most  glar- 
ing, perhaps,  vhich  has  happened  in  the  same 


quarter  of  the  world ;  a^  it  xlUplays  at  once  the 
savage  cruelty  of  a  man  bred  among  Christians, 
and  the  noble  disinterested  friendship  and  true 
greatness  of  soul,  in  those  too  often  considered 
barbarians.  A  planter  in  Virginia,  who  was 
ownec  of  aoonsiaerable  number  of  slaves,  instead 
of  r^^rding  them  as  human  creatures,  and  of 
the  same  species  with  himself  used  them  with 
the  utmost  cruely,  whipping  and  torturing  them 
for  the  slightest  mults.  One  of  these,  thinking, 
any  change  preferable  to  slavery  under  such  a 
barbarian,  attempted:  to  make  his  escape  among 
the  mountain  Indians;  but  unfortunately  was 
taken  and  brought  back  to  his  master.  Poor 
Arthur  (this  was  his  name)  was  immediately 
ordered  to  receive  300  lashes.  These  were  to 
be  given  him  by  his,  fellow  slaves,  among  whom 
there  happened  to  be  a  negro  whom  the  planter 
bad  purchased  on  the  preceding  day.  This  slave^ 
the  moment  he  saw  the  unhappy  wretch  destined^ 
to  the  hishes,  rushed  forwara,  clasped  him  in 
his  arms,  and  embraced  him  with  the  greatest 
tenderness:  the  other  returned  his  transports,; 
and  nothing  could  be  more  moving  than  their 
mutual  ^bemoaning  each  other's  misfortunes. 
Their  master  was  soon  given  to  understand  tha^ 
they  were  countrymen  and  in^mate  friends;  and, 
that  Arthur  had  formerly,  in  a  battle  with  ^ 
neighbouring  nation,  saved  the  life  of  hb  friend 
at  the  expense  of  his  own.  The  newly  purchased, 
negro  thcew  himself  at  the  planter^s  feet,  with, 
tears,  beseeching  htm,  in  the  most  moving  maui- 
ner,  to  spare  his  friend,  or  at  least  to  permit 
him  to  undergo  the  punishment  in  his  stead,, 
protesting  he  would  rather  die  ten  thousand 
deaths  than  lift  his  hand  against  him.  But  the 
haughty  planter,  looking  on  this  as  an  affront  to 
the  absolute  power  he  pretended  over  him, 
ordered  Arthur  to  be  immediately  tied  to  a 
tree,  and  his  friend  to  give  him  the  lashes;  tell- 
ing him  that  for  every  lash  not  well  laid  on,  he 
should  himself  receive  a  score.  The  negro, 
amazed  at  a  barbarity  so  unbecoming  a  human 
creature,  with  a  generous*  disdain  refused  to 
obey  him,  at  the  same  time  upbraiding  him  with 
his  cruelty ;  upon  which,  the  planter  turning  all 
his  rage  on  him,  ordered  him  to  be  immediately 
stripped,  and  commanded  Arthur,  to  whom  he 
promised  forgiveness,  to  give  his  countryman 
the  lashes  which  he  himself  had  been  destined  to 
receive.  This  proposal  vras  heard  with  scorn, 
each  protesting  he  would  rather  suffer  the  most 
dreadful  torture  than  injure  his  friend.  This 
generous  conflict,  which  must  have  raised  the 
strongest  feelings  in  a  breast  susceptible  of  pity, 
did  but  the  more  inflame  the  monster,  who  now 
determined  th^  should  both  be  made  examples 
of,  and,  to  satiate  his  revenge,  was  preparing  t6 
begin  with  Arthur,  when  the  negro  drew  a  kniie 
from  his  pocket,  stabbed  the  planter  to  the  heart, 
and,  at  the  same  time  struck  it  to  his  own, 
rejoicing  with  his  last  breath,  that  he  had 
avenged  his  friend,  and  rid  the  world  of  such 
a  monster.— Eiwycfo.  Pertkemit. 

BARBARISM,  a  name  applied  by  JSt.  £pi« 
phanius,  to  the  most  ancient  of  the  four  primitive 
religions;  that  which  worshipped  hills,  trees, 
and  ^uiitains. 

BARfiAROLOGIA,barbarology,  a  word  used 


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by  Isidore,  to  express  that  species  of  writing, 
wherein  foreign  words  are  adopted,  or  as  he  rtyles 
it,  irftruded  into  the  Latin  language. 

BARBAROSSA  (Aruch),  and  his  brother 
llayradin,  were  famous  corsairs,  the  sons  of  a 
potter  in  the  isle  of  Lesbos ;  who  being  of  a  rest- 
less and  enterprising  spirit,  left  their  father's  em- 
ployment, and  joined  a  crew  of  pirates.  They 
soon  distinguished  themselves  by  their  zeal  and  ac- 
tivity, and,  becoming  masters  of  a  small  brigan- 
tine,  they  carried  on  their  depredations  with  such 
success  and  conduct,  that  they  were  soon  pos- 
sessed of  twelve  galleys,  besides  smaller  vessels. 
Of  this  fleet  Aruch,  the  elder  brother,  was  ad- 
miral, and  Hayradin  the  second  in  command ; 
they  called  themselves  the  iriends  of  the  sea,  and 
the  enemies  of  all  who  sailed  upon  it ;  and  their 
names  became  terrible,  from  the  straits  of  the 
Dardanelles  to  those  of  Gibraltar.  With  such  a 
power  they  wanted  an  establishment;  and  the 
opportunity  of  settling  themselves  offered  in 
1416,  by  the  inconsiderate  application  of  Eutemi, 
king  of  Algiers,  to  them  for  assistance  against  the 
Spaniards.  The  active  corsair  gladly  accepted 
the  invitation,  and,  leaving  his  brother  Hayradin 
with  the  fleet,  marched  at  the  head  of  5000  men 
to  Algiers,  where  he  was  received  as  their  de- 
liverer. Such  a  force  gave  him  the  command  of 
the  town ;  and  observing  that  the  Moors  neither 
suspected  him  of  any  bad  intentions,  nor  were 
capable,  with  their  light-armed  troops,  of  oppos- 
ing his  disciplined  veterans,  he  secretly  murdered 
the  monarch  he  came  to  assist,  and  caused  him- 
self to  be  proclaimed  king  in  his  stead.  The 
authority  thus  boldly  usurped,  he  endeavoured  to 
establish  by  arts  suited  to  the  genius  of  the 
people  he  had  to  govern ;  by  Uberality  without 
bounds  to  those  who  favored  his  promotion ;  and 
by  cruelty  no  less  unbounded,  towards  all  whom 
he  had  any  reason  to  distrust.  See  Algiers. 
The  Arabians,  alarmed  at  his  success,  implored 
the  assistance  of  Hamidel  Abdes,  king  of  Tunis, 
to  drive  the  Turks  out  of  Algiers.  That  prince 
readily  undertook  to«do  what  was  in  his  power 
for  this  purpose,  and,  upon  their  agreeing  to 
settle  the  kingdom  on  himself  and  his  descen- 
dants, set  out  at  the  head  of  10,000  Moors. 
Upon  his  entering  the  Algerine  dominions,  he 
was  joined  by  all  the  Arabians  in  the  country. 
Barbarossa  engaged  him,  with  only  1000  Turkish 
musqueteers  and  500  Granada  Moors ;  totally 
defeated  his  numerous  army  ;  pursued  him  to  the 
very  gates  of  his  capital,  which  he  easily  made 
himself  master  of;  and,  having  given  it  up  to  be 
plundered  by  his  Turks,  obliged  the  inhabitants 
to  acknowledge  him  sovereign.  This  victory, 
(which  was  chiefly  owing  to  his  fire-arms),  wzs 
followed  by  an  embassy  irom  the  inhabitants  of 
Tremecen,  inviting  him  to  come  to  their  assistance 
against  their  prince,  with  whom  they  were  dissa- 
tisfied on  account  of  his  having  detlironed  his 
nephew,  and  offering  him  even  the  sovereignty,  in 
case  he  accepted  of  their  proposal.  The  king  of 
Tremecen,  not  suspecting  the  treachery  of  his 
subjects,  met  the  ^rant  with  an  army  of  6000 
horse  and  3000  foot;  but  Barbarossas  artillery 
^ve  him  such  an  advantage,  that  the  king  was 
at  length  forced  to  retire  into  the  capital ;  which 
be  had  no  sooner  entered,  than  his  head  was  cut 


off,  and  sent  to  Barbarossa,  with  a  firesh  ravitatioa 
to  take  possession  of  the  kingdom.  On  his  ap- 
proach ne  was  met  by  the  inhabitants,  whom  he 
received  with  great  complaisance,'  and  many  fair 
promises ;  but  ^^eginning  to  tyrannise  as  usual, 
nis  new  subjects  soon  convinced  him  that  they 
were  not  so  passive  as  the  inhabitants  of  Algiers. 
He  therefore  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the 
king  of  Fer ;  after  which  he  secured  the  rest  of 
the  cities  in  his  new  kingdom,  by  garrisoning 
them  with  his  own  troops.  Some  of  diese,  how- 
ever, revolted  soon  after ;  upon  which  he  sent  one 
of  his  corsairs,  named  Escander,  a  man  no  less 
cruel  than  himself,  to  reduce  them.  The  Treme- 
cenians  now  began  to  repent  of  their  having  in- 
vited such  a  tyrant  to  their  assistance ;  and  con- 
sulted how  to  bring  back  their  lawful  prince  Abn- 
cben-Men  :  but  their  cabals  being  discovered,  a 
great  number  of  the  conspirators  were  massa- 
cred in  the  most  cruel  manner.  The  prince 
escaped  to  Oran,  and  was  taken  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  marquis  of  Gomarez,  who  sent 
immediate  advice  of  it  to  Charies  V.  then  lately 
arrived  in  Spain,  with  a  powerful  fleet  and  army 
That  monarch  immediately  ordered  the  young 
king  a  succour  of  10,000  men,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  gbvemor  of  Oran ;  who,  under  the 
guidance  of  Abuchen-Men,  began  his  march  to- 
wards Tremecen ;  and  in  their  way  were  joined 
by  prince  Selim,  with  a  great  number  of  Arabs  and 
Moors.  The  first  thing  they  resolved  upon  xns 
to  attack  the  important  fortress  of  Calau,  situated 
between  Tremecen  and  Algiers,and  commanded  by 
Escander  at  the  head  of  about  300  Turks.  They 
invested  it  closely,  in  hopes  that  Barbarossa  would 
come  out  of  Tremecen  to  its  relief,  which  would 
give  the  Tremecenians  an  opportunity  of  keeping 
him  out.  That  tyrant,  however,  kept  close  in 
his  capital,  being  embarassed  by  his  fears  of  a 
revolt,  and  the  delays  of  the  king  of  Fez»  who  had 
not  sent  the  auxiliaries  he  promised.  The  gar- 
rison of  Calau,  in  the  mean  time,  made  a  biave 
defence ;  and,  in  a  sally,  cut  off  near  300  Spa- 
niards. This  encouraged  them  to  venture  a  se- 
cond time ;  but  they  were  now  repulsed  with  a 
great  loss,  and  Escander  himself  wounded :  soon 
after  which,  they  surrendered,  but  were  all  mas- 
sacred by  the  Arabians,  except  sixteen,  who 
clung  close  to  die  stirrups  of  the  king,  and  of  the 
Spanish  general.  Baroarossa  being  now  in- 
formed that  Abuchen-Mcn,  with  his  Arabs,  ac- 
companied by  the  Spaniards,  were  in  full  march 
to  lay  siege  to  Tremecen,  came  out  at  the  head 
of  1500  TurkSy  and  5000  Moorish  horse,  in  order 
to  break  his  way  through  the  enemy  ;  but  be  had 
not  proceeded  fei,  before  his  council  advised  hiro 
to  return  and  fortify  himself.  This  advice  was 
now  too  late ;  the  inhabitants  being  resolved  to 
keep  him  out,  and  open  their  gates  to  their  own 
lawful  prince  as  soon  as  he  appeared.  In  this 
distress  Barbarossa  saw  no  way  left  but  to 'retire 
to  the  citadel,  and  there  defend  himself  till  he 
could  find  an  opportunity  of  stealing  out  with 
his  men  and  all  nis  treasure ;  but,  his  provisions 
failing,  he  took  advantage  of  a  subterraneo'is 
back  way,  and,  taking  his  immense  treasure  with 
him,  stole  away  as  secretly  as  be  could.  His 
flight,  however,  was  soon  discovered;  and  be 
was  so  closely  pursued,  that  to  amuse,  as  he 


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hoped,  the  enemy,  he  caused  a  great  deal  of  his 
moneyy  plate,  jewels,  &c.  to  be  scattered  all  the 
way,  thinkinji:  they  would  not  fail  to  stop  their 
pursuit  to  gather  it  up.  This  stratagem,  how- 
ever, foiled,,  through  tlie  vigilance  of  the  Spanish 
commander,  who  being  at  the  head  of  the  pur- 
suers, obliged  them  to  march  on,  till  he  was  come 
up  close  to  him  on  the  banks  of  the  Huexda, 
about  eight  leagues  from  Tremecen.  Barbarossa 
had  just  crossed  the  river  with  his  vanguard, 
when  the  Spaniards  came  up  with  his  rear  on 
the  other  side,  and  cut  them  all  off;  and  then 
crossing  the  water,  overtook  him  at  a  small  dis- 
tance from  it.  Here  a  bloody  engagement  en- 
sued, in  which  the  Turks  fought  like  lions ;  but 
being  at  length  overpowered  by  numbers,  they 
were  all  cut  to  pieces,  and  Barbarossa  among  the 
rest,  in  the  forty-fourth  year  of  his  ^e,  and  four 
years  after  he  had  raised  himself  to  the  royal 
title  of  Jigel  of  the  adjacent  country ;  two  years 
afler  he  had  accomplished  the  reduction  of  Ti^me- 
cen.  '  His  head  was  carried  to  Tremecen,  on 
the  point  of  a  spear;  and  Abuchen-Men  pro- 
claimed king,  to  tne  joy  of  all  the  inhabitants. 
A  few  days  after,  the  king  of  Fa  appeared  at  the 
head  of  20,000  horse,  near  the  field  of  battle ; 
but  hearing  of  Barbarossa's  defeat  and  death, 
marched  off  with  all  possible  speed. 

Barbaeossa  (Hayradin)y  upon  his  brother's 
death,  assumed  the  sceptre  at  Algiers  with  equal 
abilities,  but  with  better  fortune ;  for  the  ^pa^ 
niards,  sufficiently  employed  in  Europe,  giving 
him  no  disturbance,  he  regulated  the  interior  po- 
lice of  his  kingdom  with  great  prudence,  earned 
on  his  naval  operations  with  vigor,  and  extended 
his  conquests  on  the  continent  of  Africa.  But 
perceiving  that  the  Moors  and  Arabs  submitted 
to  his  government  with  the  utmost  impatience, 
and  being  afraid  that  his  continual  depredations 
would  one  day  draw  upon  him  the  arms  of  the 
Christians,  he  put  his  dominions  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Grand  Seignior,  and  received  from 
him  a  body  of  Turkish  soldiers,  sufficient  for  his 
security  against  his  domestic,  as  well  as  his  fo- 
reign enemies.  At  last  the  fame  of  his  exploits 
daily  increasing,  Solyman,  the  Turkish  emperor, 
offered  him  the  command  of  his  fleet,  as  the  only 
person  whose  valor  and  skill  entitled  him  to 
command  against  the  famous  Andrew  Doria. 
Proud  of  this  distinction,  Barbarossa  repaired  to 
Constantinople;  and  ¥ritha  wonderful  versatility 
of  mind,  mingling  the  arts  of  a  courtier  with  the 
boldness  of  a  corsair,  gained  the  entire  confi- 
dence both  of  the  sultan  and  his  vizier.  To  them 
he  communicated  a  scheme  he  had  formed  of 
making  himself  master  of  Tunis,  the  most  flourish- 
ing kingdom  at  that  time  on  the  coast  of  Africa; 
which  being  approved  of,  they  gave  him  what- 
ever he  demanded  for  carrying  it  into  execution. 
He  obtained  it  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  by 
which  his  brother  gained  Algiers ;  but  was  driven 
from  it  by  Charles  V.  in  1536.  After  this  he 
mvaged  several  parts  of  Italy,  and  reduced  Ye- 
toen,  in  Arabia  Felix,  to  the  Turkish  government. 
He  died  in  1547,  aged  80.    See  Algiers. 

Barbarossa  was  also  a  title  or  surname  of 
Frederick  I.  emperor  of  Germany,  one  of  the 
first  sovereigns  in  Europe  who  ventured  to  speak 
fireely  of  the  papal  hierarchy,  and  the  pride  of 


the  popes.  Of  the  cardinals  he  said,  Cardina* 
lis  non  esse  pradicatores  sed  praedatores  ; — the 
cardinals  were  not  preachers,  but  plun'lerers. 
This  was  so  early  as  A.D.  1155.  See  Ger- 
many. 

Barbarossa,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
scarabsus,  a  native  of  New  Holland.  The  an- 
terior part  of  the  thorax  is  scabrous ;  horns  o^ 
the  head  recurved  and  short. 

BARBAROUX  (Charles),  a  French  republi- 
can, and  a  sufferer  by  the  guillotine.  He  was  a 
native  of  Marseilles,  and  became  a  member  of 
the  national  assembly.  He  was  a  great  adver- 
sary to  Robespierre  and  Tallien,  against  whom 
he  brought  many  charges.  He  likewise  proposed 
the  trial  of  the  king  and  the  royal  family.  On 
the  overthrow  of  the  Girondist  party,  he  was 
arrested,  but  found  means  to  escape.  Some 
time  after,  however,  he  was  seized,  and  brought 
to  the  guillotine  at  Bourdeaux,  on  the  25th  of 
June,  1794. 

BAKBARUS  (Daniel),  a  noble  Veneti^,  pa- 
triarch of  Aquileia,  and  fiunous  for  his  learning, 
was  ambassador  from  Venice  to  England ;  and 
one  of  the  fathers  of  the  council  of  Trent,  where 
he  acted  with  great  zeal  for  the  interest  of  the 
pope.  He  wrote,  1.  A  Commentary  upon  Vi- 
truvius.  2.  Catena  Grsecorum  Patrum  m  quin- 
Quaginta  Psalmos  lAtine  versa.  3.  La  Pratica 
aella  Perspectiva.    He  died  in  1569,  aged  41. 

Barbarus  (Francis),  a  noble  Venetian,  of  the 
same  family  with  Daniel.  He  was  bom  in  1 398, 
and  gained  great  fame  in  tlie  fifleentli  century, 
not  only  for  his  learning,  but  for  a  skilful  address 
in  the  management  of  public  affairs.  He  wrote 
a  book  De  Re  Uxoria,  on  the  Choice  of  a  Wife 
and  the  Duties  of  Women;  and  translated 
some  of  Plutarch's  Lives.  He  died  in  1454. 
His  book,  De  Re  Uxoria  was  printed  at  Paris  in 
1515,  and  his  Letters  in  1743. 

Barbarus,  (Hermolaus),  grandson  of  Fran- 
cis, one  of  die  most  learned  men  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  The  public  employments  he 
was  entrusted  with  early,  did  not  prevent  him 
from  cultivating  letters.  He  understood  the 
most  difficult  authors ;  wrote  a  celebrated  para- 

Ehrase  upon  Aristotle;  and  corrected  and  trans- 
ited Dioscorides,  and  added  a  commentary. 
But  of  all  his  works  none  gained  him  so  much 
reputation  as  his  commentary  upon  Pliny; 
wherein  he  corrected  above  5000  passages,  and 
occasionally  restored  300  in  Pomponius  Mela. 
Pope  Innocent  VIIL  to  whom  he  was  ambas- 
sador, conferred  upon  him  the  patriarchate  of 
Aquileia.  He  imprudentlv  accepted  it  without 
waiting  for  the  consent  of  his  superiors ;  though 
the  republic  of  Venice  had  made  laws  forbidding 
the  mmisbers  they  sent  to  the  court  of  Rome  to 
accept  any  benefice.  The  haughty  aristocrats 
were  inflexible ;  and  not  being  able  to  gain  any 
thing  upon  them  either  by  flattery  or  his  Other's 
interest,  the  father  died  of  grief,  and  the  son  soon 
followed  him. 

Barbarus  (Hermolaus),  was  a  nephew  of 
Francis,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  know- 
ledge of  the  Greek  language.  At  the  age  of 
twelve  years  he  translated  some  of  iEsop's  Fables 
into  Latin.  He  was  successively  bishop  of  Tre- 
visa  and  of  Verona,  and  died  at  the  latter  in  1470. 


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Barbarus,  in  entomology,  1.  A  species  of 
papilio;  the  wings  without  tails,  and  blueish. 
2.  A  species  of  tenebrio,  of  a  black  color,  and 
▼ery  glossy.  3.  A  species  of  cryptocephalus 
that  ii3iabits  Barbaiy. 

Barbarus,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of  syng- 
nathus,  found  in  European  seas. 

Barbarus,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  brown 
Tulture  that  inhabits  Baibary,  and  some  other 
parts  of  Africa.  The  vultur  barbatus,  Briss.  Om. 
and  bearded  vulture  of  Edwards  and  Latham. 
Also  a  species  of  Falco,  called  by- the  English 
writers  Barbary  feicon. 

BARBARY,  a  part  of  Africa,  including  the 
states  of  Fez,  Algiers,  Morocco,  Tripoli,  and 
Tunis.  This  country  contains  almost  tne  whole 
of  what  the  Romans  possessed  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Africa,  excepting  Egypt.  It  stretches 
in  length,  from  east  to  west,  from  Egypt  to  the 
straits  of  Gibraltar,  full  35®  of  longitude ;  and 
from  thence  to  Santa  Cruz,  the  utmost  western 
«dge  of  it,  about  six  more,  in  all  41°.  On  the 
south,  indeed,  it  is  confined  within  much  narrower 
bounds,  extending  no  further  than  from  27**  to 
35i°  N!  lat  In  this  view  of  it  Barbary  begins 
on  the  west  of  the  famed  mount  Atlas,  called  by 
the  Arabs  Al  Duacal,  enclosihg  the  ancient  king- 
doms of  Suez  and  Dela,  now  provinces  of  Mo- 
rocco ;  thence  stretching  along  the  Atlantic  to  the 
pillars  of  Her<Ailes  at  cape  Finisterre,  then  along 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  it  is  at  last 
bounded  by  the  city  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  In 
the  ancient  world  this  comparative  desert  was 
rendered  interesting  by  being  the  seat  of  the 
•Carthaginian  empire ;  and  portions  of  it  wero 
then  so  fruitful,  tnat  Northern  Africa  was  some- 
times denominated  the  |^nary  of  Italy. 

Concerning  the  origm  of  the  name  there  are 
many  conjectures.  According  to  some,  the  Ro- 
mans, after  they  had  conquered  this  large  tract  of 
country,  gave  it  the  name  of  Barbary,  out  of  dis- 
like to  the  manners  of  the  natives,  according  to 
their  custom  of  calling  all  other  people  but  them- 
selves and  the  Greeks,  Barbarians.  Marmol,  on 
the  contrary,  derives  the  word  Barbary  from  Ber- 
ber, a  name  which  the  Arabs  gave  to  its  ancient 
inhabitants,  on  account  of  the  barrenness  of  the 
country,  and  which  they  retain  to  this  day  in 
many  parts  of  it,  especially  along  the  great  ridge 
of  the  mountains  of  Atlas.  According  to  Leo 
Africanus,  the  name  of  Barbary  was  given  by  the 
Arabs  on  account  of  the  strange  language  of  the 
natives,  which  appeared  to  them  more  like  the 
grumbling  of  brutes  than  articulate  sounds. 
Others  derive  it  from  the  Arabic  word  bar,  signi- 
fying a  desert,  which  was  given  by  one  Afncus, 
a  kiug  of  Arabia,  from  whom  the  whole  continent 
of  Africa  is  said  to  have  taken  its  name ;  and 
who  being  driven  out  of  his  own  dominions,  and 
closely  pursued  by  his  enemies,  some  of  his  retinue 
called  out  to  him  Bar-bar ;  that  is,  To  the  desert, 
to  the  desert ;  from  which  the  country  was  after- 
wards called  Barbary. 

Gibbon  (Decline  and  Fall  Rom.  Emp.  ▼.  ix.) 
jays  that  the  history  of  the  word  Bar-bar  is  divi- 
sible into  four  periods.  1.  In  the  time  of  Homer, 
when  the  Greeks  and  Asiatics  might  probably 
use  a  common  idiom,  the  imitative  souna  of  Bar- 
bar,  was  applied  to  the  ruder  tribes,  whose  pro- 


nunciation was  most  harsh,'  vrfiose  grammar  iw 
most  defective.  KapE;  BoDfitip^fwHn  (Iliad,  ii. 
867.  with  the  Oxford  Scholiast,  Clarke's  Annota- 
tions and  Henry  Stephens*s  Greek  Thesaoras,  too. 
i.  p.720.)  2.  From  tlie  time,  at  least,  of  Herod». 
tus,  it  was  extended  to  all  nations  who  were 
strangers  to  the  language  and  roannen  of  the 
Gre^s.  3.  In  the  age  of  Plantus,  the  RonudH 
submitted  to  the  insult  (Pompeius  Festus,  1.  ii. 
p.  48.  ed.  Dacier),  and  freely  gave  themselves  tbe 
name  of  Barbarians.  They  insensibly  daioied  ao 
exemption  for  Italy,  and  her  sabject  prorinoo, 
and  at  length  removed  the  disgraceful  appeUatioo 
to  the  savage  or  hoistile  nations  beyond  the  paie 
of  the  empire.  4.  In  every  sense  it  was  dae  to 
the  Moors ;  the  fkmiliar  word  was  bommed  from 
tiie  Latin  provincials  by  the  Arabian  tonqoeron, 
and  has  justly  settled  as  a  local  denomination^ 
(Barbary)  along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa. 

By  the  Romans,  this  country  was  divided  into 
the  province  of  Mauritania,  Africa  Propria,  &c 
and  they  continued  absolute  masters  of  it  fimn 
tlie  time  of  Julius  Cssar  tiU  A.  D.  428.  Atthat 
time  Bonifacius,  the  Rt^man  governor  of  theiepT»- 
vinces,  having  t}i  rough  the  tveachery  of  Stilts 
been  forced  to  tevolt,  called  to  his  assistance 
Genseric  king  of  the  Vandals,  who  had  been  sooe 
time  settled  in  Spainl  The  terms  ofirefed,aceoi- 
ding  to  Procopius  were,  that  Genseric  should  faa?e 
two  thirds,  and  Boni&cius  one  third,  of  Africa, 
provided  they  could  maintain  themselves  against 
the  Roman  poweir;  and  to  accompliaih  this  thcf 
were  to  assist  eaich  other  to  the  utmost.  Hiu 
proposal  was  instantly  complied  with ;  and  Gen- 
seric set  out  from  Spain  in  May  428,  with  an  amj 
of  80,000  men,  according  to  some,  ot  only  24,000 
according  to  others,  together  with  their  wim, 
children,  and  all  their  effects.  In  the  mean  time 
Uie  Empress  Placid ia,  having  discovered  the  Ine 
cause  or  Bonifacius's  revolt,  wrote  a  most  obb^ 
ing  letter  to  him,  in  which  she  assured  him  of 
her  favor  and  protection  for  the  future,  exhortiog 
him  to  return  to  bis  duty,  mad  exert  his  iimal 
zeal  for  the  wel&ro  of  the  empire ;  by  driving  o«t 
the  Barbarians,  whom  the  malice  of  his  < 


had  obliged  him  to  call  in  for  his  own  taktj  and 
preservation.  Boni&cius  readily  complied,  and 
offei^  the  Vandals  ooDiideiable  sums  if  tbey 
would  return  to  Spain.  But  Genseric,  alxtad<f 
master  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  country,  refinai- 
ing  a  sc6mful  answer,  and  felling  laexpeetedlj 
on  him,  cut  most  of  his  men  in  pieces,  ana 
obliged  Boni£acius  himself  to  fly  to  Hippo,  wiudi 
he  invested  in  May  430.  The  siege  lasted  tfil 
July  431,  when  the  Vandab  were  fiiroed,  byafih 
mine  that  began  to  rage  in  thdr  camp,  to  diop 
the  enterprise,  and  to  retire.  Soon  after,  Boni- 
fiacius  having  received  two  rdnforoGBnents,  one 
from  Rome,  and  tiie  other,  under  the  ceMnaied 
Aspar,  from  Constantinople,  n  Tesdution  was 
taken  by  the  Roman  geuends  to  ofifer  die  enennr 
battle.  A  bloody  engagement  ensued,  in  wlucn 
the  Romans  were  utterly  defeated,  a  prodigious 
number  of  them  taken,  and  the  leat  obliged  to 
shelter  themselves  among  the  rocks  attdmoontaiBS. 
Aspar,  who  commanded  die  eastern  troops, 
escaped  with  difficulty  to  Constantinople,  and 
Bonifacius  was  recalled  to  Italy.  Upon  tbeir  de- 
parturo,  the  VahdaU  overranall  Africa,  commitiioff 


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eTeiywhere  the  roost  terrible  ravines,  which 
struck  the  inhabitants  of  Hippo  with  such  terror^ 
that  they  abandoned  the  city,  which  was  first 
plundered,  and  then  set  on  fire  bv  the  victorious 
enemy ;  so  that  Cirtha  and  Carthage  were  now 
the  only  strong  places  possessed  by  the  Romans. 
In  435,  Genseric,  afraid  of  an  attadk  by  the  united 
forces  of  ^e  eastern  and  western  empires,  con- 
cluded a  peace  with  the  Romans,  who  vielded  to 
him  part  of  Numidia,  the  province  of  Piocon- 
sulans,  and  Byzacene,  for  which,  according  to 
Prosper,  he  was  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute  to  the 
emperor  of  the  east.  Genseric  delivered  up  his 
son  Hunneric  by  way  of  hostage;  but  so  great 
waiB  the  confidence  which  the  Romans  placed  in 
that  barbarian,  that  some  time  after  they  sent  him 
back  his  son.  Of  this  they  soon  had  reason  to 
repent ;  for  in  439,  the  Romans  being  engaged  in 
a  war  with  the  Goths  in  Gaul,  Genseric  laid  hold 
of  that  opportunity  to  seize  upon  the  city  of  Car- 
thage; by  which  he  considerably  enlarged  his 
Ainc&n  dominions.  Valentinian,  however,  re- 
tained as  long  as  he  lived,  the  two  Mauritanias 
-with  TripoUtana,  Tingitana,  and  that  part  of 
Numidia  where  Cirtha  stood.  On  taking  Car- 
thage, Genseric  made  it  the  seat  of  his  empire ; 
and  in  440  ravaged  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  laid 
siege  to  Palermo.  Not  being  able,  however,  to 
reduce  that  place,  he  soon  returned  to  Africa  with 
an  immense  booty,  and  a  vast  number  of  captives, 
Being  now  become  formidable  to  both  empires, 
'Fbeodosius,  emperor  of  the  east,  resolved  to  assist 
Valentinian  agamst  so  powerful  an  enemy.  Ac- 
cordingly, he  fitted  out  a  fleet  consisting  of  1100 
large  ships ;  and  putting  on  board  of  it  the  flcwer 
of  his  army,  under  the  conduct  of  Arcovindas, 
Ansilus,  and  Germanus,  he  ordered  them  to  land 
in  Africa,  and  joining  tiie  western  forces  there, 
to  drive  Genseric  out  of  the  countries  he  had 
seized.  But  the  latter,  pretending  a  desire  to  be 
reconciled  vrith  both  empires,  amused  the  Roman 
general  with  proposals  of  peace,  till  the  season 
for  action  was  over;  and,  next  year,  Theodosius 
being  obliged  to  recal  his  forces  to  oppose  the 
Iluns,  Valentinian  found  it  necessary  to  conclude 
a  peace  with  the  Vandals ;  and  this  he  could  ob- 
tain on  no  other  terms  than  yielding  to  them  the 
Quiet  possession  of  the  countnes  they  had  over-run. 
So  powerful  was  Genseric  now  become,  or  rather 
•0  low  was  the  Roman  empire  by  this  time  re- 
duced, that  in  455  he  took  and  plundered  the  city 
of  Rome  itself  (See  Rome),  and,  after  his  return 
to  Africa,  made  himself  master  of  the  remaining 
countries  held  by  the  Romans  in  that  part  of  the 
world.  Hereupon  Avitus,  who  had  succeeded  . 
Valentinian  in  the  empire,  despatched  ambassa- 
dors to  Genseric,  putting  him  in  mind  of  the  treaty 
he  hsd  concludea  with  the  empire  in  442;  and 
threatening  if  he  did  not  observe  the  articles  at 
that  time  agreed  upon,  to  make  war  upon  him, 
not  only  with  his  own  forces,  but  with  those  of  his 
allies  the  Visigoths,  who  were  ready  to  pass  over  in- 
to Africa.  To  this  Genseric  was  so  far  nom  paying 
anv  regard  that  he  immediately  put  to  sea  vn& 
a  fleet  of  sixty  ships ;  but  being  attacked  by  the 
Roman  fleet  under  Ricimer,  he  was  utteriy  de- 
feated, and  forced  to  fly  back  into  Africa.  He 
returned,  however,  soon  after,  with  a  more  power- 
ful armament,  committing  great  ravages  on  the 


coast  of  Italy :  but  in  a  second  expedition  he  was 
not  attended  with  so  good  success ;  the  Romans 
falling  unexpectedly  upon  his  men, while  busied  in 
plundering  the  country,  put  great  numbers  of 
them  to  the  sword,  and  among  the  rest  the  brother- 
in-law  of  Genseric  himself.  Encouraged  by  this 
advantage,  Majorian,  then  emperor,  resolved 
to  pass  over  into  Africa,  and  attempt  the  recovery 
of  that  country.    For  this  purpose  ne  made  great 

S reparations ;  but  his  fleet  being  surprised  and 
efeated  by  the  Vandals,  through  the  treachery  oC 
some  of  his  commanders,  the  enterprise  miscarried. 
'Notwithstanding  this  misfortune,  Majorian  per- 
sisted in  his  resolution,  and  would  in  all  likelihood 
have  accomplished  his  purpose,  had  not  he  him- 
self been  murdered  soon  after  by  Ricimer.  After 
his  death  Genseric  committed  what  ravages  he 
pleased  in  the  poor  remains  of  the  western  em- 
pire, and  even  made  descents  on  Peloponnesus 
and  the  islands  belonging  to  the  emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople. In  revenge,  Leo  made  vast  prepa^ 
rations  n>r  the  invasion  of  Africa,  insomucn  that, 
according  to  Procopius,  he  laid  out  130,000 
pounds  weight  of  gold  in  the  equipment  of  his 
army  and  navy.  The  forces  employed  on  this 
occasion  were  sufficient  for  expelling  the  Vandals, 
had  they  been  much  more  powerful  than  they  were ; 
but  the  command  being  given  to  Basiliscus,  a 
covetous  and  ambitious  man,  the  fleet  was  ut- 
terly defeated  through  his  treachery,  and  all  the 
vast  preparations  came  to  nothing.  By  this  last 
defeat  the  power  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa  was 
fully  established,  and  Genseric  made  himself 
master  of  Sicily,  as  well  as  all  the  other  islands 
between  Italy  and  Africa,  without  opposition  from 
the  western  emperors,  whose  power  was  entirely 
annihilated,  A.  D.  476.  Thus  was  the  Vandalic 
monarchy  in  Barbary  founded  by  Genseric,  be- 
tween the  years  428  and  468.  That  prince's 
government,  in  his  new  dominions,  presents  no 
very  agreeable  prospect.  Being  himself  a  barba- 
rian in  the  worst  sense  of  the  word,  and  an  utter 
stranger  to  every  useful  art,  he  displayed  his 
prowess  by  tlie  destruction  of  all  the  monuments 
of  Roman  greatness,  which  were  so  numerous  in 
the  country  he  had  conquered.  Instead  of 
improving  the  country  he  laid  it  wake,  by  de^ 
mojishing  all  the  stately  structures  both  public 
and  private  with  which  those  proud  conquerors 
had  adorned  this  part  of  their  dominions.  Mo^ 
numents  which  the  Romans  had  been  at  an 
immense  expense  to  erect,  the  barbarous  Van- 
dals reduced  to  heaps  of  ruins.  Besides  this 
kind  of  devastation,  Genseric  made  his  dominions 
a  scene  of  blood,  by  persecuting  the  orthodox 
Christians;  being  hiroself,as  well  most  of  his  coun- 
trymen, zealously  devoted  to  the  Arian  party.  He 
died  in  477,  after  a  reign  of  sixty  years ;  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hunneric,  who  also 
proved  a  still  greater  tyrant  than  his  father,  per- 
secutine  the  orthodox  with  the  utmost  fury ;  and, 
during  ni»  short  reign  of  seven  years  and  a  half, 
destroying  moro  of  them  than  Genseric  had  done 
in  all  his  life.  He  died  miserably;  his  flesh 
rotting  upon  his  bones,  and  crawling  with  worms, 
so  that  he  looked  more  like  a  dead  carcase  than 
a  living  man.  Concerning  his  successors  Gun- 
damund,  Thrasimund,  and  Hilderic,  we  find 
nothing  remariiable,  except  that  Ht^y  sometimes 


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persecuted,  and  sometimes  were  &voTable  to,  the 
orthodox.  Hilderic  by  iavoring  them  was  ruined ; 
for,  having  published,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  a  manifesto,  wherein  he  repealed  all  the 
acts  of  his  predecessors  against  them,  a  rebellion 
was  the  immediate  consequence.  He  was  de- 
posed in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  by  Gilimer, 
a  prince  of  the  blood-royal,  who  caused  Uie  king 
with  all  his  family  to  be  closely  confined,  and 
himself  to  be  crowned  at  Carthage.  Gilimer 
proved  a  greater  tyrant  than  any  that  liad  gone 
before  him.  lie  not  only  continued  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  orthodox,  but  horribly  oppressed 
the  rest  of  his  subjects,  so  that  he  was  held  in 
universal  detestation,  when  the  Greek  emperor 
Justinian  projected  an  invasion  of  Africa.  This 
expedition  is  nibled  to  have  been  occasioned  by  an 
apparition  of  Lstus,  an  African  bishop,  who  had 
been  murdered  some  time  before,  and  now  com- 
manded the  emperor  to  attempt  the  recovery  of 
Africa,  assuring  nim  of  success.  Justinian,  not- 
withstanding his  being  at  that  time  engaged  in  a 
war  with  Persia,  now,  therefore,  sent  a  powerful 
fleet  and  army  to  Africa,  under  the  command  of 
the  celebrated  Belisarius.  At  this  time  Gilimer 
was  so  much  taken  up  with  his  pleasure  that  he 
knew  little  or  nothing  of  the.  formidable  prepa- 
rations against  him.  On  the  arrival  of  Belisarius, 
however,  he  put  himself  in  a  posture  of  defence. 
The  management  of  his  army  he  committed  to 
his  two  brothers,  Gundimer  and  Gelamund,  who 
accordingly  attacked  the  Romans  at  the  ^head  of 
a  numerous  force.  The  engagement  was  long 
and  bloody ;  but  at  last  the  Vandals  were  de- 
feated, and  the  two  princes  slain.  Gilimer,  in 
desperation,  sallied  out  at  the  head  of  his  corps 
of  reserve,  to  reuew  the  attack  with  the  utmost 
rigor;  but  by  his  own  indiscretion  lost  a  fair 
opportunity  of  defeating  the  Romans.  For  as 
soon  as  they  perceived  Gilimer  hastening  after 
them  at  the  head  of  a  fresh  army,  they  fled  and 
the  greatest  part  were  dispersed  in  such  a  manner, 
that,  had  the  king  followed  them  close,  they  must 
have  been  totally  cut  off.  Instead  of  this,  how- 
ever, stumbling  on  the  body  of  one  of  his  slain 
brothers,,  the  sight  of  it  made  him  lose  all  thoughts 
of  the  enemy ;  and  instead  of  pursuing  them,  he 
spent  his  time  in  idle  lamentations,  and  in  bury- 
ing the  corpse  with  suitable  pomp.  Belisarius 
had  thus  an  opportunity  of  rallying,  which  he 
did  so  effectually,  that,  coming  unexpectedly 
upon  Gilimer,  he  easily  gained  a  new  and  com- 
plete victory  over  him.  Thk  defeat  was  followed 
by  the  loss  of  Carthage,  which  the  barbarians  had 
been  at  no  pains  to  put  into  a  posture  of  defence. 
Gilimer,  having  in  vain  solicited  assistance  from 
the  Moors  and  Goths,  recalled  his  brother  Zano 
from  Sardinia,  resolving  to  make  one  desperate 
attempt  to  regain  the  kingdom,  or  at  least  recover 
the  captives.  The  consequence  was  another  en- 
gagement, in  which  Zano  was  killed  with  800 
of  nis  choicest  men,  while  the  Romans  lost  only 
fifty;  after  which  Belisarius,  moving  suddenly 
forward  at  the  head  of  his  army,  feU  upon  the 
camp  of  the  Vandals.  This  GUimer  was  no 
sooner  apprised  of  than  be  fled  towards  Numidia 
in  the  utmost  consternation.  As  soon  as  the 
flight  was  known  among  his  troops,  they  aban- 
4oned  their  camp  to  the  Romans^  who  plundered 


it,  and  massacred  all  the  men  that  were  left,  car 
rying  the  women  captives.  Thus  a  total  end 
was  put  to  the  power  of  the  Vandals,  and  the 
Romans  once  more  became  the  masters  of  Bar- 
bary.  The  Vandal  inhabitants  were  permitted 
to  remain,  on  condition  of  exchanging  Uie  heresy 
of  Arius  for  the  orthodox  &ith.  Gilimer  fled  to 
Medamus,  a  town  situated  on  the  top  of  the 
Papuan  mountains,  and  almost  inaccessible  bj 
its  height  and  ruggedness.  The  si^^e  of  this 
place  was  committed  to  Pharas,  an  officer  of 
great  experience,  who  having  shut  up  all  avenues 
to  the  town,  the  fugitive  was  reduced  to  the  great- 
est straits  for  want  of  provisions.  Pharas  being 
apprised  of  the  distress  he  was  in,  wrote  him  a 
friendly  and.  pathetic  letter,  exhorting  him  to  put 
an  end  to  the  distress  of  himself  and  his  friends  by 
a  surrender.  This  Gilimer  declined ;  but  at  the 
same  time  concluded  his  answer  with  a  most  sub- 
missive request,  that  Pharas  would  so  tax  pity  his 
great  distress  as  to  send  him  a  loaf  of  bread,  a 
sponge,  and  a  lute.  This  strange  request  surprised 
Pharas,  but  was  explained  by  the  messenger,  who 
told  him  that  the  king  had  not  tasted  any  baked 
bread  since  his  arrival  on  that  mountain,  and  ear- 
nestly longed  to  eat  a  morsel  of  it  before  be  died; 
the  sponge  he  wanted  to  allay  a  humor  that  had 
arisen  in  one  of  his  eyes;  and  the  lute,  on  which 
he  had  learned  to  play,  was  to  assist  him  in  setting 
some  elegiac  verses,  ne  had  composed  on  the  sub- 
ject of  his  misfortunes,  to  a  suitable  tune.  At 
this  mournful  report,  Pharas  could  not  refrain 
from  tears,  and  immediately  despatched  the  mes- 
senger with  the  things  he  wanted.  Gilimer  had 
spent  nearly  three  winter  months  on  the  summit  of 
this  inhospitable  mountain^  his  miseij  hardening 
him  against  the  thoughts  of  surrendering,  when  a 
melancholy  scene  in  his  own  family  at  once  re- 
conciled him  to  it.  This  was  a  bloody  straggle 
between  two  boys,  one  of  them  his  sister's  son, 
about  a  flat  bit  of  dough,  laid  on  the  coals ;  which 
the  one  seized  upon,  burning  hot  as  it  was,  and 
clapped  into  his  mouth,  but  the  other  by  dint  of 
blows  forced  it  out,  and  eat  it  from  him.  The 
quarrel,  which  might  have  ended  ^.tallv,  had  not 
Gilimer  interposed,  made  so  deep  an  impression 
upon  him,  that  he  immediately  despatched  a  mes- 
senger to  Pharas,  acquainting  him  that  he  was' 
willing  to  surrender  nimself  and  all  his  effects 
upon  Uie  conditions  he  had  offered,  as  soon  as  he 
vras  assured  that  they  were  embraced  by  Belisarius. 
Pharas  lost  no  time  in  getting  them  ratified  and 
sent  back  to  him.  Gilimer  was  fiterwaids  brought 
in  golden  chains  before  Justinian,  whom  he  be- 
sought in  the  most  submissive  manner  to  save  bis 
life.  That  emperor  treated  him  with  a  degree  of 
humanity  he  little  merited ;  allowing  him  a  hand- 
some yearly  pension  to  live  upon  as  a  private 
gentleman.  But  his  mind  was  too  much  unsettled 
to  enjoy  the  sweets  of  a  private  life ;  so  that,  op- 
pressed with  ^ie^  he  died  in  the  first  year  of  his 
captivity,  five  years  after  he  had  been  raised  to  the 
throne,  A.  D.  554.  Barbaiy  being  thus  ag^n 
reduced  under  the  power  of  the  Romans,  its  his- 
tory falls  to  be  noticed  under  that  of  Roue.  In 
the  khalifat  of  Omar  this  country  was  reduced 
by  the  Saracens,  as  the  reader  will  find  under  the 
article  Khalifs.  It  continued  subject  to  the 
khali^  of  Arabia  and  Bagdad  till  the  rdgn  of 


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Haroun  Al  IU9chidf  who  having  appointed  Ibra- 
him £bn  Aglab,  governor  of  the  western  parts  of 
his  empire,  that  prefect  took  the  opportunity, 
first  or  assuming  greater  powers  than  had  been 
granted  by  the  khalif,  and  then  erecting  an  inde- 
pendent principality.    The  race  of  Aglab  con- 
tinued to  enjoy  their  new  principality  peaceably 
till  the  ^ear  of  the  Hegira  297  or  298,  during 
which  time  they  made  several  descents  on  the 
bland   of   Sicily,    and    conquered  part  of  it. 
About  this  time,  however,  one  Obeidallah  re- 
belled against  the 'house  of  Aglab,  and  assumed 
the  title  of  khalif  of  Kairwan,  the  ancient  Cyrene, 
and  residence  of  the  Aglabite  princes.    To  give 
the  greater  weight  to  his  pretensions  he  also  took 
the  surname  of  Al  Mohdi,  or  Al  Mohedi,  the 
director.    He  pretended  to  be  descended  in  a 
right  line  from  Ali  £bn  Abu  Taleb,  and  Fatema 
the  daughter  of  Mahomet;   for  which  reason 
the  Arabs  called  him  and  his  dependents  Fate- 
mitesw    He  likewise  encouraged  himself  and  his 
followers  by  a  traditional  prophecy  of  Mahomet, 
that  at  the  end  of  300  years  the  sun  should  rise 
out  of  the  west.    Having  at  length  driven  the 
Aglabites  into  £gYpt,  where  they  became  known 
by  the  name  of  Magrebians;  he  extended  his  do- 
minions in  Africa  and  Sicily,  making  Kairwan 
the  place  of  his  residence,    in  the  300th  year  of 
the  Hegira,  Habbasah,  one  of  Al  Mohdi's  gene- 
rals, overthrew  the  khalif  Al  Mokhtader's  forces 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Barca,  and  made  him- 
self master  of  that  city.    After  which  he  reduced 
Alexandria;  and  was  making  great  progress  in 
the  conquest  of  the  whole  country,  while  Al 
Mokhtader  sent  against  him  bis  generals  Takin 
and  Al  Kasem,  widi  an  army  of  100,000  men. 
Habbasah,  being  informed  that  the  khalif's  troops 
were  in  motion,  advanced  at  the  head  of  his 
axmy  to  give  them  battle,  and  at  last  came  up 
with,  them  in  an  island  called  by  the  Arabs  Ard  Al 
Khamsin.  Here  he  attacked  them  with  incredible 
bravery,  notwithstanding  their  force  was  much 
superior  to  his ;    but  the  approach  of  night 
obliged  both  generals  to  souna  a  retreat     The 
action  therefore  was  by  no  means  decisive,  though 
extremely  bloodv,  the  khalifas  generals  having  lost 
20,000  men  and  Habbasah  10,000.     The  latter, 
however,  durst  not  renew  the  fight  next  morning ; 
but  stole  off  in  the  night,  and  returned  home,  so 
that  Al  Mokhtader  in  effect  gained  a  victory.    In 
the  302d  year  of  the  Hegira,  however,  Habbasah 
returned,  possessed  himself  of  Alexandria  a  se- 
cond time,  defeated  a  body  of  the  khalifas  forces, 
and  killed  7000  upon  the  spot.     In  the  307th 
jeaTy  Abul  Kasem,  son  to  Al  Mohdi,  entered 
Egypt  with  an  army  of  100,000  men.     At  first 
he  met  with  extraordinary  success,  and  overran 
a  considerable  part  of  that  fine  country.     He 
made  himself  master  of  Alexandria,  Al  Tayum, 
Al  Baknasa,  and  the  isle  of  Ashmaryin,  penetra- 
ting even  to  Al  Jizah,  where  the  khalifas  army 
uader  the  command  of  Munes  was  posted  to  op- 
pose him.     In  this  country  he  maintained  himself 
till  the  308th. year  of  the  Hegira,  when  he  was 
entirely  defeated  by  Munes,  who  made  himself 
master  of  all  his  baggage,  as  well  as  of  the  plunder 
he  had  acquired.     This  obliged  Abul  Kasem  to 
Hy  to  Kairwan  with  the  scattered  remains  of  his 
army,  where  he  remamed  without  making  any 
Vol..  Ill 


further  attempt  on  Egypt.    Al' Mohdi  reigned 
twenty-four  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Abul 
Kasem,  who  then  took  the  name  of  Al  Kayem 
Mohdi.    During  his  reign  we  read  of  nothing 
very  remarkable,  except  the  revolt  of  Yezid  Ebn 
Condat,  a  man  of  mean  extraction,  but  who, 
having  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  chancellor, 
found  means  to  create  such  a  strong  party,  that 
the  khalif  was  obliged  to  shut  himself  up  in  the 
castle  of  Mohedia.     Yezid,  being  then  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,,  soon   reduced  the 
capital  of  Kairwan,  the  cities  of  Al  Rakkada  and 
Tunis,  and  several  other  fortresses.    He  was  no 
less  successful  in  defeating  a  considerable  number 
of  troops  which  Al  Kayem  had  sent  against  him ; 
after  which  he  closely  besieged  the  khalif  himself 
in  the  castle  seven  months,  when  the  khalif  died, 
in  the  twelfUi  year  of  his  reign,,  and  334tii  of  the 
Hegira.    Al  Kayem  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Ishmael,  who  immediately  took  the  title  of  Al 
Mansur,  but  concealed  the  death  of  his  father 
till  he  had  made  preparations  for  reducing  the 
rebels.    In  this  he  was  so  successful,  that  he 
obliged  Yezid  to  raise  the  seige  of  Mohetdi,  and 
in  the  following  year  obliged  him  to  shut  himself 
up  in  the  fortress  of  Kothama,  where  he  besieged 
him  in  his  turn.    Yezid  defended  the  place  a  long 
time  with  desperate  bravery,  but,  finding  the  gar- 
rison at  last  obliged  to  capitulate,  he  made  shift 
to  escape  privately.    Al  Mansur  despatched  a 
body  of  forces  in  pursuit  of  him,  who  overtook, 
and  brought  him  back  in  fetters,  after  a  vigorous 
defence,  in  which  Yezid  got  several  dangerous 
wounds,  of  which  he  died  in  prison.     After  his 
death  Al  Mansur  caused  his  body  to  be  flayed, 
and  his  skin  stuffed  and  exposed  to  public  view. 
For  Al  Mansur's  exploits  in  Sicily,  see  that 
article.    Nothing  fartner  remarkable  happened  in 
his  African  dominions.    He  died  after  reigning 
seven  years  and  sixteen  days,  in  the  341st  of  the 
Hegira,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Abu  Zam- 
min  Moab,  who  assumed  the  surname  of  Al  Moez 
Ledinilloh ;  and  maintained  a  bloody  contest  with 
Abdalsahman,  khalif  of  Andalusia :  for  a  particu- 
lar account  of  which,  see  Spain.     In  the  347th 
year  of  the  Hegira,  beginning  March  25th  A.  D. 
958,  Al  Moez  sent  a  powerful  army  to  tlie  western 
extremity  of  Africa,  under  the  command  of  Abul 
Hasan  Jawhar,  one  of  his  slaves,  whom  he  had 
advanced  to  the  dignity  of  vizier.     Jawhar  first 
advanced  to  a  city  called  Tahart,  which  he  be- 
sieged for  some  time  ineffectually.     From  thence 
he  marched  to  Fez,  which  he  took  at  last  by  storm 
in  the  following  year.    But  the  greatest  achieve- 
ment performed  by  this  khalif  was  his  conquest 
of  Egypt,  and  the  removal  of  the  khalifat  to  that 
country.    This  conquest,  though  long  projected, 
he  did  not  attempt  till  the  year  of  the  Hegira  358. 
Having  then  made  all  necessary  preparations  for 
it,  he  committed  the  care  of  that  expedition  to 
an  experienced  general  called  Giafar,  but  in  the 
mean  time,  this  enterprize  did  not  divert  Al  Moez 
from  the  care  of  his  other  conquests,  particularly 
those  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia  ;  to  the  last  of  which 
he  sailed  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  361,  continu- 
ing a  whole  year  in  it,  and  leaving  the  care  of  his 
A&ican  dominions  to  an    experienced    officer 
named  Yusef  Ben  Zeiri.     He  sailed  thence  the 
following  year  for  Tripoli  in  Barbary,  where  he 

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had  not  staid  long,  before  he  received  the  agree- 
able news  that  his  general  had  made  himself 
roaster  of  Alexandria.  He  lost  no  time,  but  im- 
mediately embarked  for  it,  leaving  the  government 
of  his  old  African  dominions  in  the  lumds  of  his 
trusty  servant  Yuse^  and  arriving  safely  at  that 
port  was  received  with  all  the  demonstrations  of 
joy.  Here  he  began  to  lay  the  foundations  of  his 
new  Egyptian  dynasty,  which  put  a  final  end  to  the 
old  one  of  Kairwan,  after  it  had  continued  about 
sixty-five  years.  Al  Mqez,  however,  preserved 
all  his  old  dominions  of  Barbary  and  Africa  Pro- 
per. But  the  avarice  of  the  governors,  whom  he 
appointed,  occasioned  them  to  run  quickly  to 
decay ;  particularly  the  new  and  opulent  metro- 
polis of  Mohedia,  on  which  immense  sums  had 
been  lavished,  so  as  to  render  it  not  only  one  of 
tlie  richest  and  stateliest,  but  one  of  the  strongest 
cities  in  the  world.  But  the  wealdi  and  splendor 
of  this  once  famed,  short-lived  state,  took  their 
lea^e  of  it  with  the  departure  of  the  khalif  Al 
Moez.  The  whole  maritime  tract  from  the  Eyp- 
lian  confines  to  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  has  since 
become  the  nest  of  the  most  odious  piratical 
crew  that  ever  existed.  Under  the  article  Al- 
giers we  have  given  a  short  account  of  the 
erection  of  a  new  kingdom  in  Barbary  by  Texe- 
fien ;  which,  however,  is  there  no  &rther  conti- 
nued than  is  necessary  for  connecting  the  history 
of  that  country.  A  general  history  might  here 
be  given  of  the  whole  country  of  Barbary ;  but 
as  that  would  occasion  repetitions  under  the  ar- 
ticles Morocco,  Tripoli,  Tunis,  &c.  we  must 
refer  to  these  articles  for  the  rest  of  its  history,  as 
well  as  for  other  particulars  not  here  mentioned. 
The  great  natural  feature  of  this  region,  and 
that  which  appears  to  exempt  it  firom  the  sterility 
by  which  it  is  surrounded,  is  the  mountain  chain 
of  Atlas.  This  celebrated  range,  which  ancient 
fable  imaged  as  the  prop  of  heaven,  has  its  loftiest 
pinnacles  in  the  west,  immediately  behind  Mo- 
rocco ;  but  it  extends  in  various  branches,  which 
Imve  been  little  explored,  and  at  different  heights^ 
along  the  whole  southern  frontier  of  Algiers  and 
Tunis,  leaving  a  fertile  tract  of  from  50  to  200 
miles  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Lime- 
stone is  the  predominant  rock  of  this  range,  which 
in  the  western  and  loftier  ranges  appears  in  the 
form  of  marble,  and  afterwaurds  m  the  looser 
forms  of  secondary  limestone.  The  marbles  of 
Numidia  are  well  known  in  history.  The  me- 
tallic products  are  not  well  ascertained,  from  the 
unskilful  manner  in  which  they  have  been 
worked.  Silver,  copper,  and  lead,  are  found  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  Algiers  and  Tunb. 
Iron,  lead,  copper,  silver,  antimony,  and  a  mix- 
ture of  antimony,  lead  and  gold,  are  found  in  the 
mountainous  districts;  but  none  of  them  are 
worked  to  any  great  extent  Salt,  in  many 
places,  especially  in  the  southern  countries  bor- 
dering upon  the  Great  Desert,  completely  im- 
pregnates die  earth ;  and  the  water  of  the  springs 
and  pools,  when  evaporated,  leaves  a  thick  crust 
of  saline  matter:  in  others  it  appears  in  large 
solid  masses.  Springs,  some  of  them  hot,  con- 
taining other  mineral  substances,  particularly 
sulphur,  are  frequent;  indicating  the  presence  of 
great  internal  heat.  At  Hamman  Mescouteen, 
near  Constantia,  the  waters  of  a  spring  absolutely 
cakine  the  rock  over  which  they  pass. 


Much  of  the  general  character  and  produc- 
tions of  this  entire  region  appears  in  our  article 
Algiers,  above  referred  to:  the  whole  is  ill- 
cultivated.  Of  the  improvements  in  agriculture 
they  have  no  notion ;  and  their  industry  is  con- 
stantly checked  by  the  pressure  of  a  short-sighted 
and  iniquitous  government.  Burned  stubble 
and  the  litter  of  the  cattle  turned  out  upon  the 
fallows,  is  the  only  manure  they  use.  Their 
ploughing  is  done  by  a  wooden  plough,  drawn 
by  a  single  yoke  of  oxen,  going  over  not  more 
than  one  acre  in  a  whole  day.  Two  busheb  and 
a  half  per  acre  is  their  ordinary  allowance  of 
seed-corn,  and  1200  per  cent,  the  return  ex- 
pected. Or.  Shaw  found  the  Asiatic  cnstoms 
mtroduced  by  the  Arabs  everywhere  prevailing; 
the  ox  is  driven  round  the  circular  threshing- 
floor,  to  tread  out  the  com,  which  is  aflenvards 
winnowed  by  being  thrown  up  against  the  wind, 
just  as  it  was  in  Judea  three  thousand  years  ago. 
(Deut.  XXV.  4.  Is.  xxx.  24.)  Tbe  grain  is  depo- 
sited in  large  subterraneous  magazines  called 
matmors,  each  containing  at  least  500  bushels. 
Wheat,  maize,  and  different  species  of  millet 
(sorghum),  pulse,  vetches,  lentils,  and  caravances 
(garbanzos),  chich-peas,  (cicer  arietinum),  are 
their  agricultural  objects.  Neither  oats  nor  hay 
are  used ;  but,  as  in  western  Asia,  barley  and 
chopped  straw  are  substituted  for  them.  Hemp, 
flax,  cotton,  and  tobacco,  make  up  the  remainder 
of  tiieir  field  produce.  Their  gardens  abound 
with  figs,  melons,  oranges,  lemons,  and  limes; 
vineyards  and  olive-yards  are  seen  on  tlie  plains 
and  declivities,  and  our  common  forest-trees, 
corks  and  evergreen  oaks,  in  the  woods.  There 
are  also  some  inferior  kinds  of  fruity  sach  as 
the  jujube,  lote-tree  (zizyphus  lotus),  elseagnus, 
argan  (elaeodendrum  arg.),  diospyros  lotus, 
celtis  australis,  and  cornelian  cherry  (comus 
mascula),  not  common  among  us:  some  gum 
resins,  such  as  galbanum,  opopanax,  ammonia- 
cum,  and  sandarac,  the  produce  of  the  Ar&r,  or 
Juniperus  communis,  and  medicinal  herbs,  such 
as  wormwood,  orrisroot  (iris  Germanica,  Floren- 
tina),  colocinth,  or  coloquintida,  &c. 

The  climate  is  upon  me  whole  temperate  and 
salubrious,  with  considerable  variations  in  the 
different  regions.  The  formidable  scorpion,  the 
boa  constrictor,  and  above  all  the  dreaded  locust, 
appear  here;  the  latter  in  those  prodigious 
swarms  that  convert  a  <  garden  of  Eden  into  the 
wilderness.'  Here  also  range  the  lordly  lion, 
(who  is  nowhere  seen  more  strong  or  ferocioos\ 
the  panther,  and  the  hyena.  The  last  b  said, 
however,  not  to  manifest  in  its  wild  state  that 
fierceness  which  it  displays  in  our  menageries, 
and  which  is  generated  by  confinement.  It  sel- 
dom attacks  man,  unless  molested  by  him ;  and 
boys  are  sometimes  seen  leading  it  about  with 
ropes.  It  remains  all  day  in  its  cave,  staring 
with  its  eyes  fixed,  and  comes  out  in  the  night, 
chiefly  after  dead  bodies.  The  same  is  observa- 
ble of  the  jackal,  here  called  the  deeb,  about 
half  the  size  of  die  hyena.  'Die  animal  most 
valued  is  the  antelope  or  gazel,  whose  beauty  is 
the  object  of  universal  admiration  here;  the 
term  gazel  being  employed  as  the  highest  praise 
to  a  beautiful  woman.  The  mutton  is  very  Ui 
here,  but  it  is  eaten  as  a  great  delicacy.  The 
sheep  of  eastern  Barbary,  according  to  Shaw, 


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have  fleeces  coaise  and  hairy,  like  those  of  the 

goat;  but  Morocco  contains  some  breeds  with 

very  fine  wool.    That  territory  produces  likewise 

i    the  breed  of  goats  whose  skins  yield  the  leather 

so  much  esteemed  in  Europe.    The  finest  species 

is  produced  in  Tafilet,  on  the  southern  side  of 

the  Atlas.    They  are  tanned  with  the  leaves  of  a 

:    shrub  called  tizre,  which  are  thought  by  some  to 

i    give  them  their  peculiar  softness  and  pliability. 

:    The  tanners,  however,  conceal  as  much  as  pos- 

;    sible  the  processes  employed. 

The  government  of  each  of  the  four  states, 
[    Morocco,  Algiers,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli,  is  essen- 
tially despotic.    For  any  varieties  in  their  parti- 
i    cular  forms,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  sepa- 
I    rate  articles.    The  general  population  of  Barbary 
;    consists  of,  1 .  Moors,  who  are  the  ruling  race ; 
[    2.  Jews;  3.  Arabs;  and  4.  Brebers,  or  ancient 
I    natives.    The  Moors  are  the  chief  inhabitants  of 
I    the  towns  and  cities.    The  term  may  be  consi- 
;    dered  as  including  that  portion  of  the  Mahom- 
p    medan  conauerprs  of  northern  Africa  who  have 
I    habituated  tnemselves  to  a  settled  mode  of  life, 
f    along  with   all  the  inhabitants  who  have  been 
,    incorporated  with  them,  and  trained  to  the  same 
religious  habits,  which  here  regulate  all  the  social 
.    relations,  and  extend  their  influence  to  the  mi- 
'    nutest  practices  of  life.    The  daily  ceremonies  of 
.'    worship  are  very  numerous.    Prayer  is  repeated 
[    five  times  a  day,  once  before,  once  after  sun-set, 
\    and  three  times  in  the  course  of  the  day;  the 
,'    crier  each  time  from  the  top  of  a  minaret  loudly 
\    announcing  the  hour.  Necessity  allows  the  Moor 
to  worship  in  any  spot  where  he  may  be  placed, 
at  these  hours ;  but  such  devotions  are  not  con- 
sidered equally  beneficial  with  the  public  ones. 
At  the  door  of  the  mosque  is  a  bath  for  ablution ; 
\    and  no  worshipper  must  enter  unless  barefooted. 
Mr.  Addison  relates  the  contempt  with  which  a 
Moor  once  spoke  to  him,  of  the  indecencies  of 
our  admitting  into  Christian  places  of  worship 
'    *  women,  clogs,  and  dirty  shoes,'  all  of  which  are 
here  excluded. 

The  Jews,  who  are  numerous,  are  the  objects 
of  constant  insult  and  oppression.  They  are 
envied  for  their  wealth,  despised  for  their  avarice, 
and  abhorred  as  enemies  to  the  faith ;  and,  as  in 
most  of  the  states  there  exists  no  law  for  their 
protection,  the  hardships  of  their  situation  are  no- 
where greater.  As  they  form,  however,  the  only 
class  capable  of  managing  trade  or  money  con- 
cerns, tney  make  immense  profits,  the  opportu- 
nity of  reaping  which  no  oppression  can  induce 
them  to  relinquish.  The  Arabs  occupy,  with 
their  flocks  andherds,  all  the  interior  and  pastoral 
districts.  They  live  in  movable  villages  or  douars 
composed  of  tents,  which  are  generally  arranged 
in  concentric  circles,  around  the  habitation  of  the 
sheik.  They  are  made  of  camels'  hair  and  the 
fibres  of  the  palm  tree.  In  removinff,  th^y  place 
on  the  backs  of  camels  the  women,  cnildren,  and 
young  animals,  the  latter  enclosed  in  baskets, 
the  interior  government  of  these  villages  is  en- 
tirely conducted  by  their  own  chief  or  sheik,  who, 
when  the  supreme  government  is  weak,  often  sets 
it  at  defiance.  The  Brebers  inhabiting  the 
mountain  districts  haire  a  language  of  their  own, 
which  seems  to  be  indigenous.  They  live  in 
small  fixed  villages,  and  cultivate  the  ground. 


They  also  elect  their  own  sheik,  and  have  some 
forms  of  popular  government ;  are  very  strong, 
athletic,  ana  formidable.  Their  chief  amuse- 
ment consists  in  the  use  of  the  musket. 

With  respect  to  the  habits  and  manners  of 
Barbary,  nowhere  is  grovelling  ignorance  sub- 
ject to  a  worse  tyranny  on  the  part  of  knavish 
priests,  called  here  marabits,  or  as  the  word  is 
commonly  written  in  Europe,  marabouts.  These 
men,  affecting  a  scrupulous  observance  of  the 
Koran,  and  continually  repeating  favorite  texts, 
gain  the  reputation  of  extraordinary  sanctity,  and 
soon  persuade  the  people  to  beHeve  them  the 
favorites  of  heaven.  Some  pretend  to  miraculous 
powers ;  otners  practise  the  arts  of  divination, 
and  all  deal  in  charms,  from  the  sale  of  which 
they  make  ereat  profits.  The  greater  part  wan- 
der about  througn  the  country,  professing  to  live 
on  charity,  (they  call  themselve  dervises  or  fakirs, 
i.  e.  poor  men,)  and  doing  far  more  mischief  than 
the  mendicants  in  Popish  countries.  Amongst 
all  classes  in  Barbaiy  their  influence  is  uncon- 
trolled. At  the  great  festivals  they  give  an  en- 
tire loose  to  religious  phrenzy,  heightened  pro- 
bably by  large  doses  of  opium,  and  the  excesses 
in  which  they  then  indulge  are  truly  horrible. 
Mr.  Lyon  (Travels,  ii.)  saw  a  man  thrust  his 
hand  into  the  side  of  a  living  ass,  tear  out  his 
bowels,  and  devour  them  I  Idiots  and  madmen 
are,  on  the  same  stupid  principle,  considered  as 
half-inspired,  and  are  therefore  looked  upon  with 
veneration,  and  allowed  to  do  all  the  mischief 
which  their  bewildered  imagination  suggests. 
The  most  simple  arts  are  little  known  here. 
Though  the  hardest  stone  and  better  materials 
abound,  timber,  we  are  told  by  travellers,  is 
almost  ti^e  only  thing  used  for  building.  They 
have,  however,  in  some  parts,  a  sort  of  artificiid 
stone,  called  tabiah,  a  mixture  of  lime,  sand, 
and  pebbles,  put  into  a  wooden  frame  of  the  pro- 
per size  and  snape,  and  beaten  down  with  square 
rammers;  anda  nard  and  durable  cement,  a  com- 
pound of  sand,  wood  ashes,  and  lime  beaten  toge- 
ther for  three  days  and  nights  without  intermission, 
and  frequently  sprinkled  with  oil  and  water. 
Another  cement  used  by  them  is  made  of  tow, 
lime,  and  oil.  The  houses  are  built  round 
(sometimes  paved)  square  courts,  into  which  the 
windows  open ;  the  lower  part  is  used  as  stables 
or  out-houses,  the  upper  part  for  the  apartments 
of  the  fisimily.  In  each  story  is  an  open  corridor, 
with  which  stair-cases  from  below  and  all  the 
chambers  communicate.  Sometimes  a  fountain 
appears  in  the  centre  of  the  court,  and  au  awn- 
ing is  stretched  across  from  side  to  side.  The 
ordinary  houses  seldom  have  more  than  one 
story,  about  sixteen  feet  high,  with  an  apartment 
on  each  side  of  the  court ;  and  the  windows  being 
small,  the  want  of  light  and  air  are  insuflerable  to 
Europeans.  No  fire-places  appear :  a  charcoal 
fire,  m  an  earthem  chafing  dish,  placed  in  one 
comer  of  the  court,  serves  to  cook  the  dinner ; 
and  mattresses  on  the  floors,  with  large  cushions 
against  the  walls,  are  the  seats  by  day  and  beds  by 
night :  at  one  end  of  tlie  room,  a  raised  platform 
sometimes  receives  the  beds.  Their  household 
utensils  consist  of  a  few  pewter  plates,  spoons 
and  basins,  wooden  bowls,  earthen  pots,  and 
iron  ladles,  some  China  plates  for  show,  and 

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perhaps  a  tea  equipage.  The  roofs  of  their 
houses  are  flat,  and  in  the  cool  of  the  day  are 
much  used  by  the  females.  The  rich  have  often 
a  small  additional  building,  called  dliyyali,  for 
the  accommodation  of  strangers.  It  is  like  ano- 
ther house  on  a  small  scale,  and  is  placed  over 
the  gateway  at  the  entrance,  exactly  answering 
to  the  upper  chamber  of  the  Jews.  Boarded 
ceilings,  diversified  by  painted  lattice  work,  walls 
covert  half-way  down  with  gilt  and  painted 
wainscoting,  hangings  of  different  colored  cloths, 
or  tyger-skins,  filling  the  interval  between  the 
wainscot  and  the  floor,  looking-glasses,  clocks, 
or  arms  arranged  in  fanciful  patterns,  are  the  de- 
corations of  their  rooms ;  and  the  courts  of  better 
houses,  paved  with  marble  and  elegantly  covered 
above,  form  an  agreeable  saloon  for  their  com- 
pany. 

Eastern  Barbary  is  distinguished  by  several 
Doble  monuments  of  antiquity.  The  traces  of 
Punic  architecture  indeed  have  in  a  great  mea- 
sure disappeared;  and  the  labors  of  that  cele- 
brated people  are  only  attested  by  subterraneous 
ruins,particularly  those  of  the  celebrated  aqueduct, 
by  which  water  was  conveyed  to  it  from  the  dis- 
tance of  upwards  of  sixty  miles.  The  whole 
course  of  it  may  still  be  traced ;  and  several 
arches  are  entire,  seventy  feet  high,  and  sup- 
ported by  columns  sixteen  feet  wide.  The 
architectural  ruins  being  of  Roman  erection,  are 
chiefly  of  the  composite  order,  the  favorite  one 
of  that  people.  Tne  temple  at  Spaitla  appeared 
to  Bruce  to  present  a  specimen  superior  to  what 
is  to  be  found  on  any  other  spot.  In  conse- 
quence of  recent  excavations,  some  very  valua- 
ble remains  of  statuary  have  been  dug  up;  and 
it  is  probable  that,  by  the  continuance  of  similar 
researches,  further  valuable  discoveries  might  be 
made. 

The  dress  of  the  inhabitants  of  Barbary  is  cum- 
bersome, and  unlike  those  of  eastern  climates  ge- 
nerally. .  The  men  wear  a  red  woollen  skull-cap, 
called  Fez,  (where  it  is  manufactured,)  and  a  white 
shawl  twisted  round  the  head ;  linen  and  woollen 
trowsers,  a  cotton  or  silk  shirt,  a  tunic  called 
kafUui,  with  or  without  sleeves,  having  rows  of 
buttons  down  the  front,  kept  close  to  the  body 
by  a  sash  folded  round  the  waist ;  and  a  pair  of 
yellow  slippers.  The  better  sort  have  a  strip  of 
velvet  passed  over  the  right  shoulder,  by  which 
they  suspend  the  sabre ;  and  the  dagger  is  stuck 
into  the  folds  of  the  sash. 

The  arrangements  in  Barbary  regarding  the 
female  part  of  society  are  the  same  as  in  all  Ma- 
hommedan  countries.  The  harem  is  supplied 
chiefly  from  Constantinople,  bv  Georgian  or 
Circassian  slaves,  trained  for  this  purpose  by 
persons  who  carry  on  this  employment  as  a  trade. 
The  interior  arrangements  appear  to  differ  con- 
siderably in  the  different  states,  and,  so  far  as 
known,  will  be  described  respectively  under  each. 
The  women  are  fattened  to  make  them  plump,  the 
grand  criterion  of  beauty ;  and  their  under  dress 
resembles  that  of  the  men.  Two  broad  straps 
pass  over  the  shoulders  from  their  girdle,  and 
are  crossed  upon  the  breast.  Their  hair,  as  in 
the  east,  is  tressed  and  braided,  and  a  handker- 
chief is  tied  close  round  the  head.  They  wear 
earrings  from  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the 


ears,  and  upon  their  ancles  gold  and  silver  rings. 
Their  slippers  are  always  red,  and  usually  em- 
broidered. Veils  and  hayics,  and  sometimes 
straw  hats,  form  a  part  of  their  dress  out  doors. 
A  black  stripe  down  the  forehead,  along  the 
nose,  chin,  and  throat,  is  considered  as  a  great 
improvement  of  their  beauty.  This  b  very  con- 
spicuous in  a  plate  of  the  Tripolitine  costume, 
given  by  Captain  Lyon,  p.  7.  They  use  a 
profusion  of  hinna,  for  giving  a  red  tint  to  their 
nair  and  fingers,  and  stibium  (al-cohl),  to  blacken 
the  inside  of  their  eye-lids.  Some  days  before  a 
marriage  the  bride  b  visited  by  her  female 
friends,  and  the  bridegroom  parades  the  streets 
on  horseback,  attended  by  his  associates,  a  band 
of  music,  musketry,  shouting,  racing,  &c.  an- 
nounce his  expected  joys.  On  the  wedding 
day  the  bride  is  carried  through  the  town  in  a 
sort  of  sedan-chair,  fixed  on  the  back  of  a  mule 
or  camel,  (see  plate  at  p.  299,  Captain  Lyon's 
Travels,)  covered  with  silk  or  linen.  In  this  at- 
tire, surrounded  by  torches,  drMms,  and  musketry^ 
large  bodies  of  her  relations  attend  her  home.  Nor 
are  the  attendants  of  the  bridegroom  less  daz- 
zling and  noisy.  Arrived,  the  company  retire, 
and  he  is  left  alone  with  his  wife,  whose  veil  he 
then  removes  for  the  first  time. 

The  amusements  in  Barbary  are  the  indo- 
lent Asiatic  ones  of  smoking,  tea,  and  pompous 
talk,  or  the  most  violent  exercises,  such  as  play- 
ing with  the  ierid,  (see  Jerid,)  leap-firog,  foot- 
ball, and  a  few  more  such  game^  probably 
borrowed  from  Spain ;  but  one  is  quite  peculiar 
to  themselves :  it  consbts  of  a  sort  of  mooL-fight ; 
parties  of  horsemen  riding  full  speed  at  eadi 
other,  discharge  their  pieces,  then  wheel  round 
and  retreat.  Thb  is  much  like  the  game  with 
the  jerid ;  but  to  improve  it  they  ride  full  gallop 
towards  a  wall,  approach  it  as  near  as  possibl^ 
then  stop  short  and  fire.  Sometimes,  instead  of 
chasing  a  wall  for  thb  purpose,  they  chase 
a  friend,  when  they  think  they  cannot  do  him  a 
greater  honor,  that  by  galloping  up  and  dis- 
charging their  muskets  full  in  hb  nee.  llieir 
lively  musical  airs  are  said  to  be  simple  and 
beautiful;  but  their  serious  ones  dull  and  te- 
dious. In  riding  they  have  a  thong  attached  to 
the  rein,  which  serves  as  a  whip.  Their  spur 
is  a  long  spike  loosely  attached  to  the  foot,  and 
carefully  kept  from  the  horse's  side,  except  in 
case  of  need. 

The  principal  and  best  manufacture  here  b 
morocco  leather.  Good  carpeting  b  also  made : 
mats  of  the  palmetto;  and  cotton,  silk  and  wool- 
len cloths.  Their  swords  and  gun-barreb  are 
also  of  home  make.  An  inland  traflic  is  main- 
tained, by  periodical  fiurs ;  but  the  caravans, 
protected  by  their  numbers,  are  the  only  safe 
medium  of  general  commerce. 

BARBASTELLUS,  Vespsatilio,  m  zoology, 
the  tailed  bat,  with  elevated  hairy  cheeks,  and 
large  ears,  angulated  on  the  lower  part,  the  bar- 
bastelle  of  Buffon  and  Pennant. 

BARBATA,  in  entomolognr,  a  species  of 
brown  cantharb  that  inhabits  Germany.  2.  A 
species  of  cicada  (deflexa),  of  a  brown  color,  with 
greenbh  abdomen.  3.  A  species  of  phal«na 
that  inhabits  Barbary.  4.  A  species  of  pimeliay 
(Helops  Fabr.)  inhabiting  Saxony.    Fabndiis. 


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Barbata,  in  natural  bistoiy,  a  species  of  co- 
rallina,  about  three  inches  in  length,  that  grows 
on  the  shores  of  Jamaica.  Ellis,  in  his  work  on 
coralline,  calls  it  the  rosary  or  bead-coralline  of 
Jamaica ;  it  is  the  bead-band  string  of  Plunket, 
and  corallina  major,  nenro  cassiori  fiiciformi  in- 
termedia breviora  nectente  of  Sloane.  (Hist. 
>         Jam.)    Also,  a  species  of  Nais. 

Barbata,  in  ornithology,  is  a  species  of  frin- 
gilla  of  Chili ;  and  a  species  of  muscicapa,  inha- 
biting Cayenne :  call^  by  Linnaeus,  me  whis- 
kered fly-catcher. 

BARBATED  Leaf,  in  botany,  a  leaf  termi- 
nated by  a  bunch  of  strong  hairs. 

BARBATELLI  (Bernardino),  otherwise  called 
Pochctti,  an  eminent  painter  of  history,  fruit, 
animals,  and  flowers,  was  bom  at  Florence  in 
1542.  He  was  the  disciple  of  Ridolfo  Ghirlan- 
daio  at  Florence,  from  wnose  school  he  went  to 
I  Rome,  an'd  studied  therewith  such  uncommon 
assiduity,  that  he  was  frequently  So  absolutely 
engrossed  by  the  objects  of  his  contemplations, 
as  to  forget  the  necessary  refreshments  of  sleep 
and  food.  His  touch  was  free,  light,  and  delicate, 
,  aod  the  coloring  of  his  objects  inexpressibly  true. 
The  historical  pieces  which  he  designed  were 
much  admired.    He  died  in  1612. 

BAjElBATINA,  a  seed  wh'ich  is  thought  effica- 
cious in  extirpating  worms  from  the  human  body, 
to  which  children  are  chiefly  liable.  It  comes 
from  Persia,  and  the  borders  of  Russia.  It 
•  ought  to  be  chosen  plump,  of  an  agreeable  scent, 
and  very  green  :  special  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  color  be  not  dyed,  and  that  the  seed  of  sou- 
I         tfaemwood  be  not  sold  instead  of  it. 

BARBATULA,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of 
cobitis,  with  six  cirri ;  head  unarmed  and  com- 
pressed; the  bearded  loche  of  English  writers; 
enchelyopus,  &c.  Klein ;  cobitis  fluviatilis,  Ray ; 
fundulus,  Marsden.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe 
and  Asia;  and  is  most  frequent  in  fresh- water 
streams,  and  lakes  in  mountainous  countries. 
From  its  habit  of  lurking  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water,  on  the  gravel,  it  has  been  called  the 
groundling;  but  the  latter  name  is  now  more 
generally  given  to  the  spiny  loche,  a  fish  distin- 
guished from  the  present  by  having  a  forked 
spine  under  each  eye,  and  is  tnat  species  of  cobi- 
tis, which  Gmelin  calls  tenia.  This  is  a  fertile 
creature.  We  are  told  by  Mr.  Pennant,  that  it 
is  frequent  in  a  stream  near  Amesbury  in  Wilt- 
shire, where  the  sportsmen,  through  frolic,  swal- 
low it  down  alive  in  a  glass  of  wine.  It  is  also 
found  in  great  abundance  in  France. 
•  BARBATUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  ce- 
rambyx  (prionus),  of  a  large  size  that  inhabits 
Sooth  America.  Also  a  species  of  scarabsus, 
unarmed,  smooth,  and  black;  vent  bearded. 
(Fabricius.)    A  native  of  India. 

Babbatvs,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of  gobius. 
2.  A  species  of  lophius,  of  a  depressed  fonn, 
with  the  lower  jaw  bearded.  (Montin.  act.  suec, 
1779.)  Inhabitmg  the  seas  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe. 

Barbatus,  in  ornithology^  a  species  of  faico, 
of  a  whitish  red  color,  with  brown  back :  the  vul- 
tus barbatus,  Linn.,  and  vulturine  eagle  of  Albinus. 

Babbatus  Piscis,  in  ichthyology,  a  name 
given  by  Salvian  and  others,  to  the  Silurus,  or 
sheat-fish ;  the  Glanus  of  Pliny,  and  the  ancients. 


This  Artedi  describes  under  the  name  of  silums. 
with  four  cirri  at  the  mouth.  By  this  it  is  dis- 
tinguished fix)m  the  fish  called  the  alkussa,  or 
lake,  which,  though  a  genuine  species  of  the 
silurus,  has  one  b^ird. 

BARBAULD  (AnnaLetitia),  was  tlie  daughtei 
of  the  Rev.  John  Aikin,  of  Kibworth,  in  Leices- 
tershire, and  bom  June  20, 1743.  She  received 
from  her  father,  who  in  the  early  part  of  her  life 
presided  over  a  dissenting  academy  at  Warring- 
ton, an  excellent  classisal  education,  to  which  she 
was  indebted  for  the  full  development  of  her 
great  natural  talents.  Her  first  production  was 
a  small  volume  of  miscellaneous  poetry,  printed 
in  1772,  which  in  the  year  follovring  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  collection  of  pieces  in  prose,  pub- 
lished in  conjunction  vrith  her  brother.  Dr.  John 
Aikin,  of  Stoke  Newington.  She  accepted,  in  1774, 
the  hand  of  the  Rev.  R.  Barbauld,  with  whom 
she  took  up  her  residence  at  Palgrave  in  Suffolk, 
and  there  composed  the  work  on  which  her  re- 
putation is  chiefly  founded,  viz.  Early  Lessons 
and  Hymns  for  Children,  pieces  of  standard 
merit,  in  conveying  the  first  rudiments  of  instruc- 
tion. In  1785  she  accompanied  her  husband  on 
a  tour  to  the  continent,  and  on  their  return  they 
resided  for  several  years  at  Hampstead ;  in  1802 
they  again  removed  to  Stoke  Newineton,  in  order 
the  more  constantly  to  enjoy  her  brother's  society. 
In  1812  appeared  the  last  of  her  publications, 
entitled  Eighteen  Hundred  and  Eleven,  a  poem  ; 
previous  to  which  she  had  amused  herself  by  aelect- 
mg  and  editing  a  collection  of  English  novels,with 
critical  and  biographical  notices.  A  similar  selec^ 
tion  followed,  from  the  best  British  Essayists,  since 
the  reign  of  Anne,  and  another  from  Richardson's 
manuscript  correspondence,  with  a  memoir  and 
critical  essay  on  his  life  and  writings.  Mrs.  Bar- 
bauld died  at  Stoke  Newington,  March  9, 1825, 
in  her  eighty-seoond  year. 

BARBAZAN,  (Stephen)  a  French  author, 
bom  at  Saint  Fargeau,  in  the  diocese  of  Auxerre, 
in  1696,  and  died  in  1770.  He  wrote  Instruc- 
tions from  a  Father  to  a  Son,  8vo.  1760;  but  he 
is  chiefly  filmed  as  the  editor  of  old  French  books, 
particularly  Tales  and  Fables  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  Centuries,  3  vols.  12mo.  Few  persons 
were  so  well  acquainted  as  he  was  with  the  an- 
tique French  language,  and  he  had  almost  an 
equal  knowledge  of  the  provincial  dialects. 

BARBE,  or  Barbette,  in  the  military  art. 
To  fire  in  barbe  means  to  fire  the  cannon  over  the 
parapet,  instead  of  firing  through  the  embrasures ; 
m  which  case  the  parapet  must  not  be  above 
three  feet  and  a  half  high. 

Babbe,  or  Barb.    See  Barb. 

Barbe,  or  Barde,  is  an  old  word,  denoting 
the  armour  of  the  horses  of  the  ancient  knights 
and  soldiers,  who  were  accoutred  at  all  points. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  an  armour  of  iron  and 
leather,  wherewith  the  neck,  breast,  and  shoulders 
of  the  horse  were  covered. 

Barbe,  St.  a  town  of  Biscay  in  Mexico,  near 
which  are  rich  silver  mines^  500  miles  north-west 
of  the  city  of  Mexico.  Long.  110°  5'  W.,  lat. 
26**  10'  N. 

The  Barbe,  or  Barb,  of  zoology  and  com- 
merce, brought  from  Barbary,  is  a  horse  much 
esteemed  for  its  beauty,  vigor,  and  swiftness. 
It  has  a  long  fine  neck,  not  overcharged  with 


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bair,  well  divided  from  the  withers :   the  head 
small  and  beautiful;   the  ears  handsome;  the 
shoulders  light  and  flat;  the  withers  thin  and 
well  raised;   the  back  straight  and  short;  the 
flank  and   sides  round,  and  the  belly  not  loo 
large.  Tlie  haunch  bones  are  properly  concealed ; 
the  crupper  is  somewhat  long,  and  the  tail  placed 
high;  the  thigh  is  well  formed,  and  rarely  flat; 
the  limbs  are  fine,  handsome,  and  not  hairy ;  the 
tendon  prominent,  and  the  foot  well  made ;  but 
the  pastern  is  often  long.    They  are  of  all  colors, 
but  generally  gray.    In  their  movements  they  are 
apt  to  be  careless,  and  require  to  be  checked,    gray 
They  are  swift,  nervous,  light,  and  make  very    »^«^'^ 
fine  hunters.  These  horses  are  much  sought  after 
for  improving  a  breed.    They  are  seldom,  how- 
ever, above  four  feet  eight  inches,  and  never  exr 
ceed  four  feet  nine  inches,  or  14^  hands ;  but 
they  produce  foals  which  grow  larger.    Those  of 
the  kingdom  of  Morocco  are  said  to  be  the  best, 
and  next  to  these  the  barbs  from  the  mountains.  The 
horses  from  Mauritania  are  of  an  inferior  quality, 
as  well  as  those  of  Turkey,  Persia,  and  Armenia. 
(Bufibn's  Nat.  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  357.)    It  is  a 
maxim,  that  barbs  grow  ripe,  but  never  grow  old, 
because  they  retain  their  vigor  to  the  last,  which 
makes  them  prized  foY  stallions.    In  Numidia, 
the  race  of  horses  is  much  degenerated.    The 
Tingitanians  and  Egyptians  have  had  the  repu- 
tation of  preserving  the  best  breed.    Some  of 
these  are  sixteen  hands  high,  and  all  of  them 
shaped,  according  to  their  phrase,  like  the  ante- 
lope.   The  good  qualities  of  a  Barbary  horse, 
besides  the  supposed  one  of  never  lying  down, 
and  of  standing  still  when  the  rider  drops  his 


Lenglet's  Chronological  Tables ;  also,  La  Croix's 
Modem  Geography,  and  the  two  last  volumes  of 
Bibliotheque  de  France.  Besides  which,  he  trans^ 
lated  into  French,  Strahlenberg's  Description  of 
Russia,  &c.     He  died  in  1781. 

Barbeau,  a  river  of  Canada,  which  runs  into 
the  Utawas.    Long.  7eP  55'  W.,  lat.  45**  5'  N. 

Barbed,  in  heraldry,  the  five  petals  or  leaves 
which  appear  on  the  outside  of  a  full  blown  rose 
are  called  barbs ;  and  are  thus  cmblaioned  :  a 
rose  gules  barbed  and  seeded  proper,  the  rose  b 
red,  the  barbs  ffreen,  and  the  seeds  yellow  or 
gray.  A  barbed  arrow,  signifies  an  arrow  whose 
head  is  pointed  of  an  angular  form,  and  jagged. 
A  barbed  horse  is  a  horse  barbed  at  all  points, 
that  is,  a  war-horse  completely  armed,  furnished, 
and  accoutred. 


Barbed  Cross,  in  heraldry, 
a  cross,  the  extremities  whereof 
are  like  the  barbed  irons  used 
for  striking  fish. 


BAR'BEL.  A  fish  so  called  by  feason  of  the 
harby  or  wattels,  at  his  mouth,  which  are  under 
his  nose  or  chaps,  so  says  old  Izaak  Walton.  It 
is  the  vulgar  name  of  the  cyprinus  baibus,  which 
cost  the  fisherman  so  dear,  when  he  presented  it 
to  the  gloomy  and  savage  Tiberius,  at  Captva. 
The  lavish  slave 

Six  thousand  pieoos  for  a  harM  gave ; 

A  sesterce  for  each  pound  it  weigh'J^  as  they 

Gave  out,  that  hear  great  things,  but  greater  say. 

Dmke. 

Barbel,  iu  heraldry,  is  understood  of  a  cock, 
bridle,  are  to  "have  a  long  walk,  and  to  stop   when  his  comb  and  wattles  are  of  a  different  co- 
short,  if  required,  in  full  career.    The  barb  is   lor  from  the  rest  of  tlie  body;  in  which  case  he 
very  lazy  and  negligent  in  his  general  motions ;  he   is  said  to  be  barbed  and  crested, 
will   stumble   in  walking    upon   the  smoothest       Barbel,  in  ichthyology.    See  Ctprikcs. 
ground ;  his  trot  is  like  that  of  a  cow,  and  his       BAB.BELA,  or  Verbela,  the  branch  of  the 
gallop  very  low,  very  easy  to  himself.    This  sort   Zaire  or  Congo  which  comes  from  the  south,  and 
of  horse,  however,  is  for  the  most  part  sinewy,   is  considered  by  the  Portuguese  geographers  as 
nervous,  and  excellently  winded ;  it  is  therefore   the  principal  one.    It  is  said  to  take  its  rise  in 
good  for  a  course,  if  not  overweighted.    The   the  kingdom  of  Matamba. 
mountain    barbs,  which    are    the    largest  and       BARBELICOT^,  an  ancient  sect  of  Gnos- 
strongest,  are  much  esteemed:  common  barbs   tics,  spoken  of  by  Theodoret.  Their  doctrine  was, 
have  been  usually  bought  in  Provence  and  Lan-   that  one  of  the  .£ons,  possessed  of  immortality, 
guedoc  in  France,  at  a  moderate  price ;  anid  many   had  commerce  with  a  virgin  spirit  named  Barbe- 
of  our  persons  of  fashion  in  England  have  them   loth,  who  demanded  of  him,  first  prescience,  then 
from  thence.  Barbs,  amongst  us,  fall  short  of  the    incorruptibility,  and  lastly  eternal  life ;  all  which 
swiftness  attributed  to  them  in  their  native  coun-   were  granted  to  her :  that  being  one  day  in  a 
try ;  this  may  be  accounted  for,  partly  from  the    gayer  humor  than  ordinary,  she  conceived  and 
smallness  and  lightness  of  their  riders,  and  partly    afterwards  brought  forth  light,  which  being  per- 
from  their  not  being  loaded  with  heavy  saddles    fected  by  the  unction  of  the  spirit,  was  called 
and  bridles,  as  in  Europe,  nor  even  with  shoes.    Christ :    the  child  Christ  desired  to  have  under- 
An  Arab  saddle  is  only  a  cloth  girt  round  with  a   standing,  vsy,  and  obtained  it ;  after  which,  un- 
pair  of  light  stirrups,  and  a  sort  of  pummel  to   derstanding,  reason,  incorruptibility,  and  Christ 
sustain  them.  united  together ;  and  from  their  union  arose  au- 

fiostord-BARBS,  are  those  descending  from  togenes  avrwyevifc.  To  these  fables,  they  add 
English  mares,  covered  by  barb  stallions,  and  divers  others.  They  were  also  denominated  Bar- 
who  are, by  experience,  found  both  better  shaped,    bariani. 

stronger,  and  fitter  for  the  saddle,  than  their       BARBELOTH.    See  the  last  article, 
sires.    Phil.  Trans.  No.  105.  BARBER-Ciiirurgeons  anciently  had  a  lute, 

BARBEAU  de  la  Bruyere  (John  Lewis),  a  viol,  or  some  other  musical  instrument,  as  part 
celebrated  French  chronologer,  bom  at  Paris  in  of  the  furniture  of  their  shops,  which  were  fie- 
1710.  He  published  an  historic  map  of  the  quented  by  persons  above  the  ordinary  level, 
world,  in  which  geography,  chronology,  and  his-  who  resorted  to  the  barber  either  for  the  core  of 
tory,  are  combined  in  one  view ;  and  an  edition,  wounds,  or  to  undergo  some  chiruigicai  opera- 
a  great  part  of  which  he  compiled,  of  the  Abb^   tions,  or,  as  it  was  then  called,  to  be  tnnmied 


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a  word  that  signified  either  shaving  or  cutting 
and  curling  the  hair ;  these,  together  with  letting 
blood,  were  the  ancient  occupations  of  the  bar- 
ber-snrgeons.  As  to  the  other  important  branch 
of  surgery,  the  setting  of  fractured  limbs,  that  was 
practised  by  another  class,  called  bone-setters,  of 
whom  there  are  hardly  any  now  remaining.  The 
musical  instruments  in  their  shops  were  for  the 
entertainment  of  waiting  customers ;  and  an- 
swered the  end  of  a  newspaper,  with  which  those 
who  now  wait  for  their  turn  at  the  barber's  amuse 
themselves. 

Barber,  Chirurgeons,  in  heraldry,  were  in- 
corporated by  king  Edvirard  IV^.,  but  the  barbers 
were  separated  from  the  surgeons 
by  18  Geo.  2,  c.  15.  Their  arms 
are,  *  A  St.  George's  cross  gules ; 
thereon  a  lion  pass^  gardant, 
or  quarterly ;  the  first  and  fourth 
a  chevron  between  three  fleams; 
the  second  and  third  per  pale 
argent  and  vert,  a  rose,  gides, 
crowned,  and  seeded  or. 

Barbers  of  Eoimburgh  were  formerly  united 
in  one  incorporation  with  the  surgeons;  but 
about  the  year  1720,  some  disputes  arising  about 
precedency,  a  process  commenced  before  the 
Court  of  S^ion,  which  ended  in  a  total  separa- 
tion of  these  two  bodies ;  and  the  surgeons  were 
found  entitled  to  retain  the  charter  and  privileges 
of  the  incorpomtion.  The  barbers  have  ever  since 
met  as  a  regular,  but  unincorporated  society  ;  and 
though  they  retain  some  of  their  former  privileges, 
such  as  their  preses  being  one  of  the  governors 
of  the  Trades  Maiden  Hospital)  &c.  they  have  no 
representative  in  the  town  council,  nor  even  the 
shadow  of  a  vote  in  the  election  of  a  member 
of  parliament.  Mr.  Creech,  in  his  Statistical 
Account  of  Edinburgh,  records  a  revolution  of  a 
different  nature  in  that  society,  which  afibrds  an 
instance  of  the  rapid  progress  of  refinement,  or, 
as  a  philosopher  would  express  it,  the  rapid  in- 
crease of  luxury,  in  the  metropolis  of  Scotland. 
'  In  1 763,'  he  says, '  there  was  no  such  profession 
known  as  a  perfumer ;  barbers  and  wigmakers  were 
numerous,  and  were  in  the  order  of  descent  bur- 
gesses :  hairdressers  v^rere  few,  and  hardly  per- 
mitted to  dress  hair  on  Sundays ;  and  many  of 
them  voluntarily  declined  it.  In  1783  perfumers 
had  splendid  ^ops  in  every  principal  street : 
Some  of  them  advertised  the  keeping  of  bears,  to 
kill  occasionally,  for  greasing  laaies*  and  gentle- 
mens*  hair,  as  superior  to  any  other  animal  fat. 
Hairdressers  were  more  than  tripled  in  number ; 
and  their  busiest  day  viras  on  Sunday.  There 
was  a  professor  who  advertised  a  hair-dressine 
academy,  and  gave  lectures  on  that  noble  and 
useful  art.' 

Barber's  Pole.    See  Appellation. 

BARBERINO  (Francis),  one  of  the  most  ex- 
cellent poets  of  his  age,  was  born  at  Barberino, 
in  Tuscany,  A.  D.  1264.  As  his  mother  was  of 
Florence,  he  settled  in  that  city ;  where  his  pro- 
fession of  the  law,  but  especially  the  beauty  of  his 
poetry,  raised  him  a  very  considerable  character. 
The  greatest  part  of  his  works  are  lost ;  but  his 
*  Precepts  of  Love,  amoral  poem,  calculated  to  in- 
struct all  who  have  a  regaiti  for  fflory,  virtue  and 
eternity,'  has  had  a  better  &te.    It  was  published 


at  Rome,  adorned  vi^ith  beautiful  figures,  in  1640, 
by  Frederick  Ubaldini ;  who  prefixed  the  au- 
thor's life ;  and,  as  there  are  in  the  poem  many 
words  which  are  grown  obsolete,  he  added  a 
glossary  to  explain  them,  which  illustrates  the 
sense  by  the  authority  of  contemporary  poets. 

BARBERINO,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Tuscany, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Appenine  mountains, 
twelve  miles  south  of  Florence. 

Barberry,  in  botany.    See  Berberis. 

BARBERSTOWN,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the 
county  of  Kildafe,  Leinster,  twenty-three  miles 
from  Dublin. 

BARBESULA,  in  ancient  geography,  1,  a 
town,  and  2.  a  river,  of  Baetica ;  3.  a  colony  in 
the  resort  of  the  Conventus  Gaditanus  in  Spain : 
now  Marbella,  in  Grenada. 

B  ARRET,  in  natural  history,  a  name  given  by 
M.  Reaumur,  and  other  of  the  French  writers,  to 
a  peculiar  species  of  the  worms  which  feed  on 
the  pucerons  or  aphides.    See  Aphis. 

B ARRET,  in  zoology.  Bufibn  calls  the  water- 
dog  of  Pennant,  canis  aquaticus  of  Gmelin,  &c. 
le  grand  barbet ;  and  canis  minor  Gmel.  le  petit 
barbet.    Hist  Nat. 

Barbet,  in  ornithology,  the  English  name  of  a 
^nus  of  birds  in  Latham's  Synopsis,  correspond- 
mg  with  &at  of  bucco,  Linn.    See  Bucco. 

Barbets,  the  name  of  the  inhabitants  of  seve- 
ral valleys  in  Piedmont,  particularly  those  of 
Lucem,  Angrona,  Perusa,  and  St.  Martin. 

BARBEYRAC  (Charles),  an  eminent  physi- 
cian, bom  at  Cereste,  in  Provence,  in  1629.  He 
studied  at  Montpelier,  and  afterwards  settled 
there.  The  celebrated  Locke,  with  whom  he 
was  in  friendship,  compared  him  to  Sydenham. 
He  died  in  1699.  He  was  author  of  Trait^s  nou- 
veau  de  Medicine,  &c.  12mo.  1654  ;  and  Ques- 
tiones  Medicae  Duodecim,  4to.  1658. 

Barbetrac  (John),  was  bom  at  Besiers, 
in  Lower  Languedoc,  in  1674.  He  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  law  and  history  at  Lausanne  in  1710, 
which  he  enjoyed  for  seven  years.  In  1717  he 
was  professor  of  public  and  private  law  at  Gron- 
ingen.  He  translated  into  French,  Pufi*endorf  *s 
Law  of  Nature  and  Nations,  and  his  Duties  of  a 
Man  and  a  Citizen ;  to  both  which  he  wrote  ex- 
cellent notes,  and  to  the  former  an  introductory 
Preface.  He  translated  also  Grotius*s  treatise 
)e  Jure  Belli  ac  Pacis,  vnth  large  and  excellent 
notes ;  and  several  of  Tillotson's  sermons.  He 
wrote  a  work  entitled  Traits  de  Jeu,  2  vols.  8vo. 

BARBEZIEUX,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
province  of  Saintonge,  with  2452  inhabitants, 
and  the  title  of  marguisate.  It  is  the  capital  of 
an  arrondissement  of^  six  cantons,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Charente.  Here  are  thriving  linen 
manufactures ;  and  in  the  neighbourhood  there  is 
a  mineral  spring.  Twenty-eight  miles  south-east 
of  Saintes,  and  forty-four  north-east  of  Bourdeaux. 
Long.  0°  4'  VV.,  lat.  45''  28'  N. 

BARBI,  in  natural  history,  a  species  of  echino- 
rhynchus,  of  an  ovate  shape,  yellow  color,  fias- 
ciated;  neck  long,  white,  cylindrical;  and 
cyalhiform  (glass  or  pot-shaped)  at  the  end, 
found  in  the  intestine  of  the  barbel. 

BARBICAN.    See  Barbac an. 

Barbican,  in  ornithology,  the  name  of  the 
Gmelinian  bucco  dubius,  or  doubtful  barbet,  in 


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Boffon's  Hilt.  Birds  Barbu  is  also  a  name 
given  by  that  writer  to  all  the  birds  of  the  bucco 
genus,  which  he  describes. 

BARBICANAGE,  or  Barbicanaoixjm,  in 
our  old  writers,  money  given  for  the  maintenance 
of  a  barbican,  or  watch  tower;  or  a  tribute 
towards  repairing  or  building  a  bulwark. 

BARBICON  (Barbicon  de  Cayenne),  in  or- 
nithology, the  name  of  the  Muscicapa  barbata  of 
Gmelin,  in  Buffon's  History  of  Birds. 

BARBICORNIS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
brentus  that  inhabits  New  ZeaUnd,  the  curculio 
barbicomis  of  Fabricius.  2.  A  species  of  ceram- 
byx.  3.  A  species  of  cimex  (reduvius),  of 
Sierra  Leone.    4.  A  species  of  tipula. 

BARBIER  (M.),  an  English  smger,  who  ap- 
peared on  the  revival  of  the  opera  of  Almahide, 
m  1711.  Her  timidity  on  tnis  occasion  gave 
birth  to  an  admirable  Spectator  (No.  131),  in 
which  Addison  apologises  for  and  commends 
her  diffidence  and  modesty.  This  lady  was  a 
native  of  England,  who  continued  to  sing  at  the 
opera  several  years,  and  afterw ^ds  was  a  &vor- 
ite  concert  and  playhouse  singer  till  the  year 
1729.  In  1717  it  seems  she  had  somewhat  van- 
quished her  bashfulness  in  private.  Her  elope- 
ment from  her  father's  house  gave  occasion  to 
the  following  elegant  lines  by  Hughes : — 

All,  who  in  town  or  coontzy  dwell. 
Say,  can  yoa  tale  or  tidingt  tell 
Of  Tortorella's  hasty  flight? 
Why  in  new  groves  she  takes  delight  ; 
And  if  in  concert,  or  alone. 
The  cooing  mnrmurer  makes  her  moan? 

Now  learn  the  marks,  by  which  yoa  may 
Trace  out  and  stop  the  lovely  stray. 

Some  wit,  more  folly,  and  no  care. 
Thoughtless  her  conduct,  free  her  air  ; 
Gay,  scornful,  sober,  indiscreet. 
In  whom  all  contradictions  meet. 
Civil,  affronting,  peevish,  easy, 
Form'd  both  to  charm  you  and  displease  you ; 
Much  want  of  judgment,  none  of  pride. 
Modish  her  dress,  her  hoop  full  wide  ; 
Brown  skin,  her  eyes  of  sable  hue. 
Angel  when  pleased,  when  vexed  a  shrew. 
Genteel  her  motion  when  she  walks, 
SweeUy  she  sings,  and  loudly  talks ; 
Knows  all  the  world,  and  iu  affairs. 
Who  goes  to  court,  to  plays,  to  prayers. 
Who  keeps,  who  marries,  fails  or  thrives. 
Lead  honest  or  dishonest  lives ; 
What  money  match'd  each  youth  or  maid. 
And  who  was  at  each  masquerade ; 
Of  all  fine  things  in  this  fine  town. 
She's  only  to  herself  unknown. 

By  this  description,  if  you  meet  her. 
With  lowly  bows,  and  homage  greet  her ! 
And  if  you  bring  the  vagrant  beauty 
Back  to  her  mother  and  her  duty. 
Ask  for  reward  a  lover'r  bliss. 
And,  if  she^l  let  you,  take  a  kiss ; 
Or  more,  if  more  you  wish,  and  may. 
Try  if  at  church  the  words  she'll  say. 
Then  make  her,  if  you  can     obey. 

BARBIERI  (Giovanni  Francesco),  otherwise 
called  Guercino  da  Cento,  an  eminent  histori- 
cal painter,  was  bom  at  Cento,  near  Bologna,  in 
1590.  He  was  the  disciple  of  Benedetto  Oen- 
nari,  but  afterwards  studied  in  the  school  of  the 


Caracci,  though  he  did  not  adopt  the  manner  of 
that  famous  academy.  He  preferred  the  style  of 
Caravaggio  to  that  of  Guido  or  Albano,  imagin- 
ing it  impossible  to  imitate  nature  truly^  withont 
the  assistance  of  strong  lights  and  strong  shadows. 
In  effect,  by  this  opposition,  h^  gave  such  force 
to  his  pictures,  that  few,  except  those  of  Cara- 
vaggio,  can  stand  near  them,  and  not  seem  feeble 
in  their  effect ;  however,  his  manner  is  censured 
as  not  being  like  nature,  because  it  makes  objects 
appear  as  if  they  were  seen  by  a  candle4igfat,  or 
a  sun-beam,  which  alone  can  justify  the  dee|mess 
of  his  shadowing.  His  princpal  attention  seems 
to  have  been  fixed  on  perfection  in  coloring ;  he 
saw  the  astonishing  effects  produced  by  the  color- 
ing of  the  celebrated  Venetian  masters ;  and  ob- 
served that  notwithstanding  any  imperfection  in 
regard  to  correctness  or  elegance,  their  works 
were  the  objects  of  universal  admiration.  On  this 
account  he  devoted  his  whole  study  to  excel  in 
coloring;  being  convinced  that  few  are  qualified 
to  discern  the  elevation  of  thought  which  consti- 
tutes the  excellence  of  a  composition ;  that  few 
are  touched  with  the  grandeur  or  beauty  of  the 
design,  or  have  a  capacity  to  examine  the  correct- 
ness of  a  painting ;  but  that  every  imperfect  judge 
may  be  sensibly  affected  by  the  beauty  of  the 
coloring.  His  taste  of  design  was  natural,  easy, 
and  often  grand,  but  without  any  extiaoidinary 
share  of  correctness  or  elegance.  The  airs  of  his 
heads  are  often  deficient  in  dignity,  and  his  local 
colors  want  truth.  However,  there  is  great  har- 
mony in  hii  colors,  although  his  carnations  are  not 
very  fresh ;  and  in  all  bis  works  there  is  an  expres- 
sive imitation  of  life,  which  will  always  render 
them  estimable.  Towards  the  decline  of  hia  life,  he 
observed  that  the  clearer  and  brighter  style  of 
Guido  and  Albano  had  attracted  the  admiration 
of  all  Europe ;  and  therefore  he  altered  his  man- 
ner, even  against  his  own  judgment.  But  he 
apologised  for  that  conduct,  hj  declaring  that  in 
his  former  time  he  painted  for  mme,  and  to  please 
the  judicious ;  and  he  now  painted  to  please  the 
ignorant,  and  enrich  himself.  He  died  in  1666. 
The  most  capital  performance  of  Barbieri  is  the 
history  of  St.  Petronilla  which  is  oonsidertd  as 
one  of  the  ornaments  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome. 

Barbieri  (Paolo  Antonio,  da  Cento),  painter 
of  ^  still  life  and  animals,  was  the  brother  of  Gio- 
vanni, and  horn  at  Cento  in  1596.  He  diose  for 
his  subjects,  fruit,  flowers,  insects,  and  animals ; 
which  he  painted  after  nature,  with  a  lively  tint 
of  color,  great  tenderness  of  pencil,  and  a  strong 
character  of  truth  and  life.    He  died  in  1640. 

BARBIGEROUS,  bearded. 

BARBILLONS,  in  entomology^  are  certain 
bodies,  usually  two  in  number,  placed  under  the 
head  of  an  insect,  and  movable  at  pleasure,  some- 
what resembling  hands  or  fingers  placed  on  a 
short  or  broken  arm.  The  word  is  a  diminutive 
of  the  French  barbe,  the  beard. 

BARBING,  is  sometimes  used  in  ancient 
statutes  for  shearing.  Cloth  is  not  to  be  export- 
ed till  it  be  barbed,  rowed,  and  shorn.  3  Hen. 
VII.  c.  11. 

BARBISTON,  an  ancient  castle  in  the  parish 
of  Dalrymple,  in  Ayrshire,  near  which  a  batde 
was  fought.  The  dates  of  1 340  and  1346,  aie  oo 
some  stones  in  the  old  vaults. 


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BARBITOSy  or  Barbitok,  an  ancient  instru- 
ment of  music^  mounted  with  three  strings ;  others 
sav  seven,  much  used  by  Sappho  and  AIc«us ; 
whence  it  is  also  denominated  lesboum.  It  is 
said  to  hare  differed  from  the  lyre  and  cithara. 
Strabo  makes  it  the  same  with  the  sambuca.  It  is 
represented  as  yielding  a  ffrave,deep»  sound,  and  on 
that  account  peculiarly  ntted  for  Doric  composi- 
tions. Anacreon  is  saia  to  have  been  the  inventor. 

BARBLE)  or  Bakbel,  in  ichthyology.  See 
Ctpbimus. 

BABBLES,  Barbes,  or  Barbs,  in  farriery, 
the  knots  or  superfluous  flesh  that  grow  up  in  the 
channels  of  a  horse's  mouth;  that  is,  in  the  inter- 
vals that  separate  the  bars,  and  lie  under  the 
tongue.  These  obtain  in  black  cattle  as  well  as 
horses,  and  obstruct  their  eating.  For  the  cure, 
they  cast  the  beast,  draw  out  his  tongue,  and  clip 
off  die  barbies  with  a  pair  of  scissars,  or  cut  them 
with  a  sharp  knife;  others  bum  them  off  with  a 
hot  iron. 

BARBO,  a  river  of  Mexico,  which  rises  in  the 
province  of  Honduras,  and  nins  into  the  Spanish. 
Main,  forty  miles  south-east  of  Cape  Camaron. 

BARBONI,  in  ichthyology,  a  name  given  to 
the  mullus  baj-batus,  a  fish  greatly  esteemed  at 
table,  and  caught  in  the  Mediterranean  and  some 
other  seas. 

BARBONNE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Marne,  five  miles  from  Sezanne. 

BARBORA»  a  maritime  town  of  Africa,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Adel. 

BAHBOUR  (John),  archdeacon  of  Aberdeen, 
was  esteemed  an  elegant  poet  in  the  reign  of 
David  I.  He  wrote  the  history  of  Robert  the 
Bruce,  in  an  heroic  poem,  which  is  still  extant, 
and  contains  many  tacts  and  anecdotes  omitted 
by  other  historians.  An  edition  of  this  book 
was  printed  at  Glasgow,  8vo,  in  1762:  en- 
titled The  Acts  and  Life  of  the  most  victorious 
conqueror  Robert  Bruce,  king  of  Scotland,  where- 
in also  are  contained  the  martial  deeds  of  the 
raliant  princes  Edward  Bruce,  Sir  James  Doug- 
lass, Earl  Thomas  Randall,  Walter  Steward,  and 
sondiy  others.  In  one  passage  he  calls  it  a  ro- 
mance ;  but  that  word  was  then  of  good  repu- 
tation. The  Romaunt  of  romaunts  has  been 
applied  to  true  liistory ;  as  well  as  the  Ballad 
of  ballads  to  a  sacred  song.  Mr.  Pinkerton  pub- 
lished an  edition  in  1790,  from  an  ancient  MS. 

BARBUD,  a  Persian  musician  in  the  service 
of  Kosru  Parvis,  whose  name  was  afterwards 
adopted  to  signify  the  tnaster  of  music.  Barbud 
is  atso  the  name  of  a  sort  of  lyre  in  use  among 
the  Persians. 

BARBUDA,  or  Berbuda,  one  of  the  British 
Carribee  islands,  about  twenty  miles  long,  and 
twelve  broad.  It  is  low  land,  but  fruitful  and 
pretty  populous,  abounding  in  cattle  and  fruits, 
especially  in  cocoa  trees,  which  are  here  ex- 
tremely fine.  It  also  yields  cotton,  pepper, 
tobacco,  indigo,  ginger,  and  sugar-cane,  besides 
fine  woods,  herbs,  and  roots,  with  which  it  is 
plentifully  stocked.  Several  species  of  snakes 
are  found  in  this  island,  some  of^ which  are  harm- 
less, while  others  are  exceedingly  venemous. 
V^znongst  the  latter  is  one  having  a  flat  head, 
-wbose  bite  occasions  instant  death.  The  island 
has  no  harbour,  but  a  well  sheltered  road  on  the 


west  side.  ■  Tlie  inhabitants  are  about  1500,  and 
follow  husbandry,  finding  always  a  ready  mar- 
ket for  their  com  and  cattle  in  the  sugar  islands. 
Barbuda  is  the  property  of  the  Codrington  fami- 
ly, who  have  great  numbers  of  negroes  here,  as 
well  as  in  Barbadoes.  That  family  have  one 
merit  which  few  slave-holders  can  lay  claim  to : 
they  have  given  large  benefactions .  to  instruct 
their  slaves  in  Christianity.  Barbuda  lies  about 
twenty  miles  north-east  of  St.  Christopher's,  and 
forty-five  north  of  Antigua.  Long.  61**  SC  W., 
lat.  18°  30'  N. 

BARBUE,  a  river  of  North  America,  in  the 
north-western  territory,  which  runs  west  by 
north,  and  falls  into  the  Lake  of  Michigan.  It  is 
about  150  yards  broad  at  the  mouth. 

BARBUL£  in  botany,  a  name  given  by 
Pliny  to  the  semi-flosculi. 

BARBURY  Castle,  and  Barbort  Hill, 
places  in  Wiltshire,  west  of  Ogbom  St.  George, 
and  near  Marlborough  Downs.  There  formerly 
stood  here  a  castle  of  considerable  magnitude, 
surrounded  by  a  double  moat;  and  on  the  ad- 
jacent plain  are  niany  barrows,  which  seem  to 
indicate  that  a  great  battle  was  fought  on  this 
spot,  at  some  remote  period. 

Barby,  a  county  in  the  Prussian  states  on  the 
Elbe,  between  Magdeburg  and  Anhalt,  consist- 
ing of  the  bailiwics  of  Barby,  Rosenburg,  WaU 
ther-Nienburg,  and  Muhlingen.  On  the  death 
of  the  last  of  the  counts  in  1659,  Barby  Propr 
came  to  the  elector  of  Saxony,  and  after  formmg 
part  of  Jerome  Buonaparte's  kingdom  of  West- 
phalia, was  annexed  to  Prussia  in  181 5. 

Barby,  the  chief  town  is  situated  on  the  Elbe, 
near  where  it  receix'es  the  Saale,  and  has  2900 
inhabitants.  It  is  well  built,  has  an  old  castle, 
and  is  the  seat  of  the  superintendant  of  eight 
churches  in  the  county.  The  Moravian  brethren 
obtained  permission  in  1749  to  remove  hither 
their  acaaemy  and  theological  seminary,  and 
thev  founded  an  academical  college  in  1 754.  They 
had  here  also  a  school  and  chapel,  an  observatory, 
and  a  cabinet  of  natural  history ;  but  the  greater 
number  of  these  establishments  have  been  trans- 
ferred to  Niesky,  inUpperLusatia.  Fourteen  miles 
north-west  of  Dessau,  and  fourteen  S.  S.  E.  of 
Magdeburg.  Long.  11**  58'  4r  E.,  lat.  51°  59*  N. 
BARB  Y  LA,  in  botany,  a  name  by  which  The- 
ocritus and  other  of  the  early  writers,  have  called 
the  common  damask  prune. 

BARCA,  a  large  country  of  Africa,  lying  on 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  between  the 
kingdoms  of  Egypt  and  Tripoli,  extending  in  length 
from  east  to  west  from  39°  to46°£.  long.,  and  in 
breadth  from  north  to  south  about  thirty  leagues, 
as  is  generally  supposed.  It  is  for  the  most  part, 
especially  in  the  middle,  a  dry  sandy  desert ;  on 
which  account  the  Arabs  call  it  Sahart,  or  Ceyart 
Barka,  that  is,  the  desert  or  road  of  whirlwinds 
or  hurricanes.  It  labors  almost  everywhere  un- 
der a  great  scarcity  of  water ;  and  except  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  towns  and  villages,  where  the 
ground  produces  some  small  quantities  of  grain, 
such  as  millet,  and  some  maize,  the  rest  is  in  a 
manner  quite  barren  and  uncultivated,  or  rather 
uncultivable :  and  even  of  that  small  quantity 
which  those  few  spots  produce,  the  poor  inhabi- 
tants are  obliged  to  exchange  some  part  with  their 


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indigent  neigbbouis,  for  dates,  sheep,  and  camels, 
which  they  stand  in  greater  need  of  than  they,  by 
reason  of  their  great  scarcity  of  grass  and  other 
proper  food ;  for  want  of  which,  those  that  are 
Drought  to  them,  seldom  thrive  or  live  long.  In 
this  territory  stood  the  famed  temple  of  Jupiter 
Ammon:  and  notwithstanding  the  pleasantness 
of  the  spot  where  it  stood,  this  part  ot  the  country 
is  said  to  have  been  the  most  dangerous  of  any, 
being  surrounded  with  such  quick  and  burning 
sands  as  are  very  detrimental  to  travellers ;  not 
only  as  their  feet  sink  into  theoi,  but  being  light 
and  heated  by  the  rays  pf  the  sun,  they  are  easily 
raised  by  every  breath  of  wind ;  which,  if  it  chance 
to  be  in  their  faces,  almost  bums  their  eves  out,  and 
stifles  them  for  want  of  breath ;  or,  if  vehement, 
often  overwhelms  whole  caravans.  Against  this 
temple  Cambyses,  king  of  Persia,  despatched  an 
army  of  50,000  men.  They  set  out  from  Thebes, 
in  Upper  Egypt,  and  under  the  conduct  of  pro- 
per guides,  reached  the  city  of  Oasis,  seven  aays 
journey  from  that  place  :  but  what  was  their  fate 
afterwards  is  uncertain ;  for  they  never  returned 
either  to  Egypt  or  to  their  own  country.  The 
Ammonians  informed  Herodotus,  that,  after  the 
army  had  entered  the  sandy  desert  which  lies  be- 
yond Oasis,  a  violent  wind  began  to  blow  from 
the  south  at  the  time  of  their  dinner,  and  raised  the 
sand  to  such  a  degree,  that  tlie  whole  army  was 
overwhelmed  and  buried  alive.  Concerning  the 
government  or  commerce  of  this  country  we  know 
nothing  certain.  The  maritime  towns  are  under 
the  nominal  protection  of  the  Porte,  and  the  whole 
country  is  subject  to  Tripoli,  the  bashaw  of  which 
appoints  a  sangiack,  who  resides  at  Deme,  the 
capital  of  Barca. 

Barca,  a  sea-port  town  in  the  territory  of  the 
same  name.     Long.  20*»  25'  E.,  lat.  32*  26'  N. 

BARCALAO,  a  Spanish  word,  Which  the 
French  pronounce  baccala,  or  baccaliau.  By 
this  last  name  the  Basques  most  commonly  call 
the  fish  which  we  style  cod ;  and  those  people 
call  also  the  island  which  we  call  Newfoundland, 
the  isle  of  Baccalian,  cod  island,  because  of  the 
great  plenty  of  cod  caught  there. 

BAKCALON,  an  appellation  given  to  the 
prime  minister  of  the  king  of  Siam,  who  super- 
intends every  thing  relating  to  commerce,  both 
foreign  and  domestic,  as  well  as  the  king's 
magazines. 

BARCA-LONGA,  a  large  Spanish  fishing- 
boat,  navigated  with  lug-sails,  and  having  two  or 
three  masts,  very  common  in  the  Mediterranean. 

BARCALORE,  a  town  of  Cochin,  twenty-two 
miles  east  of  Cranganore. 

BARCANS,  the  natives  of  Barca,  which  see. 

BARCARIA,  old  law  Lat,  a,  barkery  or  tan- 
house. 

BARCARY,  bergerie,  Fr.  a  sheep-cote. 

BARCAS,  a  town  of  New  Mexico,  in  the  in- 
tendancy  of  Guadalaxara,  which  has  a  numerous 
population  of  Spaniards,  Mestizoes,  and  Mu- 
lattoes.       

BARCATTY,  a  town  of  Cochin,  on  the  con- 
fines of  Dindigul,  sixty  miles  east  of  Cochin. 

BARGE,  the  chief  city  in  the  province  of 
Barca,  about  nine  miles  from  the  sea.  It  was 
founded  by  the  brothere  of  Arcesilaus,  king  of 
Cyrene,  515  years  before  the  Christian  era. 


BARCELONA,  a  handsome,  rich,  and  strong 
city  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Catalonia,  of 
which  it  is  the  capital.  It  is  situated  by  the  sea 
side,  of  a  form  between  a  square  and  an  oval; 
surrounded  with  a  good  brick  wall,  round  which 
is  another,  with  fourteen  bastions,  hom-works, 
ramparts,  and  ditches;  the  ramparts  are  high, 
broad  and  spacious.  This  city,  which  is  reckoned 
the  second  in  Spain  in  population,  b  dirided 
into  two  parts,  the  Old  and  the  New,  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  wall  and  a  large  ditch; 
the  streets  are  handsome,  well  paved  with  lar^e 
stones,  wide,  and  very  clean.  It  is  a  bishop's 
see,  the  seat  of  a  captain-general,  a  governor, 
and  a  royal  audiencia;  and  here  the  archives  of 
the  kingdom  of  Arragon  are  preserved. 

The  Barcelonians  have  also  a  fine  univeisity, 
and  various  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  lite- 
rature, arts  and  sciences;  the  academies  for  juris 
prudence,  natural  philosophy,  medicine,  history, 
and  the  fine  arts,  are  celebrated  throughout  Spain. 
The  most  remarkable  buildings  are  the  cathedral, 
which  is  adorned  with  two  high  towers;  the 
church  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  palace  of  the 
bishop,  that  of  the  inquisition,  and  several  religi- 
ous houses ;  add  to  these  the  palace  of  the  viceroy, 
the  arsenal,  which  contains  arms  for  1000  men, 
and  a  cannon-foundry,  the  exchange,  where 
the  merchants  meet,  the'  tersana,  where  they 
build  the  galleys,  and  the  palace  where  the  nobi- 
lity of  the  country  meet,  called  La  Casa  de  la 
Deputation.  This  last  is  built  with  fine  large 
free  stone,  and  adorned  with  columns  of  marble: 
there  is  in  it  a  large  hall,  with  a  handsome  por- 
tico. There  are  several  fine  squares,  particalarly 
that  of  St.  Michael,  into  which  adi  the  great 
streets  run. 

This  city  was  originally  founded  by  Hamilcar 
Barcas,  and  from  him  called  Barcino.  It  was 
reduced  by  the  Romans,  and  continued  subject 
to  them  till  Spain  was  over-run  by  the  Goths 
and  Vandals.  In  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
century  Barcelona  was  in  die  hands  of  the  Sara- 
cens, under  the  government  of  one  Zade.  The 
government  having  more  than  once  abused  the 
clemency  of  Chariemagne,  at  last  irritated  Louis 
king  of  Aquitain,  his  son,  to  such  a  degree,  that 
he  gave  orders  to  his  generals  to  invest  the  city, 
and  not  to  rise  from  before  it  till  they  had  put 
Zade  into  his  hands.  Zade  made  a  most  obsti- 
nate resistance,  so  that  the  siege  lasted  many 
months;  at  last,  finding  it  impossible  to  preserre 
the  city  much  longer,  and  being  destitute  of  all 
hopes  of  relief,  he  determined,  or  rather  was 
compelled  by  the  inhabitants,  to  go  to  the  Chris- 
tian camp  and  implore  the  emperor's  mercy;  and 
being  sent  prisoner  to  Charlemagne,  he  was  con- 
demned to  perpetual  banishment.  The  people 
gaining  nothmg  by  this  expedient,  continued  to 
hoi  d  out  for  six  weeks  longer,  when  Louis  him- 
self took  the  command  of  the  siege.  To  him 
they  made  a  proposal,  that  if  he  would  allow 
them  to  go  where  they  pleased,  they  would  sur- 
render. Louis,  having  agreed  to  this,  made  his 
Sublic  entry  into  Barcelona,  where  he  formed  a 
esign  of  extending  his  &ther*s  dominions  as  hx 
as  the  Ebro;  but  being  recalled  before  he  could 
put  his  design  in  execution,  he  appointed  ooe 
Bera,  count  of  Barcelona.    The  city  continued 


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subject  to  him  and  hii  successors,  who  enjoyed 
the  title  of  counts  of  Barcelona,  from  A.  D.  802 
to  1131;  during  which  time  nothing  remarkable 
occurred,  except  that  the  city  was  once  taken  by 
the  Moors,  but  soon  after  retaken  by  the  assist* 
ance  of  Louis  IV.  king  of  France.  In  1131  it 
was  united  to  the  crown  of  Arragon  by  the  mar- 
riage of  Raymond  V.  count  of  Barcelona  with 
the  daughter  of  Ramiro  the  monk,  king  of  Arra- 
gon. In  1465  the  Catalonians  revolted  against 
John  II.  king  of  Arragon,  out  of  hatred  to  the 
queen  Donna  Joanna ;  the  consequence  of  which 
was,  that  Ba»xielona  was  besieged  by  that  monarch 
in  1471.  Various  efforts  were  made  by  Louis 
XI.  of  France  and  the  duke  of  Lorraine  to  raise 
the  siege,  but  without  effect.  Things  at  length 
were  brought  to  the  utmost  extremity,  when  the 
king  offered  to  pardon  them  all,  without  the 
smallest  punishment  either  in  person  or  property, 
provided  they  would  submit;  but  these  terms 
they  rejected,  chiefly  through  Uie  influence  of  the 
count  ie  Pailhars,  who  had  been  pardoned  the 
year  before.  The  army  on  the  other  hand,  was 
very  earnest  in  being  led  on  to  the  assault,  in 
hopes  of  plunder.  'Ae  king,  however,  wrote  a 
letter  to  tne  citizens,  dated  the  6th  of  October,  in 
terms  as  affectionate  as  if  he  had  been  writing  to 
his  children,  bewailing  the  miseries  they  had 
brought  on  themselves,  and  concluding  with  a 
protestation  that  they,  and  not  he,  must  be 
answerable  for  the  consequences.  Upon  this, 
they  sent  deputies  to  the  king,  and  made  a  capi- 
tulation on  the  17th  of  that  month.  In  this  me 
king  acknowledged  they  had  taken  up  arms  on , 
iust  motives;  mcS  forgave  everybody  except  Pail-' 
hars,  who  wa^  however,  suffered  to  escape.  On 
the  22nd  of  October  the  king  made  his  entry  into 
the  city,  and  confirmed  all  their  ancient  privi- 
leges. In  1697  Barcelona  was  taken  by  the 
French,  after  a  bloody  siege  of  fifty-two  days ; 
and  the  loss  of  this  city  had  a  considerable  effect 
in  disposing  the  Spaniards  to  agree  to  the  treaty 
of  Ryswick.  In  queen  Anne's  time  it  was  taken 
by  the  allies,  under  the  earl  of  Peterborough, 
Oct.  4,  1705 ;  but,  being  afterwards  shamefully 
denied  assistance  by  the  English  ministry,  was 
obliged  to  submit  to  Philip  V.  by  whom  the 
whole  province  was  deprived  of  its  ancient  pri- 
vileges, in  1714;  for  a  particular  account  of 
which,  see  Spain. 

Th«  port  of  Barcelona  is  wide,  spacious,  deep, 
and  safe ;  defended  on  the  one  side  by  a  great 
mole,  and  on  the  other  sheltered  from  the  west 
wind  by  two  mountains  that  advance  into  the  sea, 
and  form  a  kind  6f  promontory ;  the  mole  is  750 
paces  long,  with  a  quay,  at  the  end  of  which  is 
a  light  house  and  a  smsdl  fort.  One  of  the  moun- 
tains, called  Montjoui  or  Mount  Joy,  is  very 
high,  and  rises  in  the  middle  of  the  plain  near 
the  city :  it  is  covered  with  gardens,  vineyards, 
groves  of  trees,  and  has  a  strong  fort  for  the 
defence  of  the  city;  this  mountain  being  a  rock, 
yields  an  inexhaustible  quarry  of  fine  hard  free- 
stone. Barcelona  is  a  place  of  great  trade.  Tlie 
number  of  ships  whicn  arrived  here  in  1803, 
before  its  commerce  was  impeded  by  the  penin- 
sular war,  has  been  stated  at  1333,  927  of  which 
were  Spanish,  and  the  remainder  belonged  to 
other  nations.  The  manufacturing  establish- 
ments are  calico  presses,  looms  for  silk,  wool. 


and  cotton,  hats,  laces,  ribbons,  stockings,  and 
soap.  Here,  also,  are  fabricated  excellent  mus- 
kets, pistols,  swo<ds,  and  other  small  arms,  not 
only  for  the  army  at  home,  but  for  Naples  and 
America.  There  are,  besides,  several  steel  and 
brass  works.  It  has,  also,  a  good  trade  in 
linen,  copper,  and  brass,  from  Germany.  An- 
other extensive  article  of  its  trade  is  salt  fish, 
from  Newfoundland,  the  chief  trade  for  which  is 
with  England. 

When  the  trade  with  Mexico  was  first  opened, 
in  1778,  the  Barcelonese  merchants  soon  distin- 
guished themselves  by  successful  enterprises  in 
it.  Twenty-three  ships,  whose  cargoes  of  Spa- 
nish produce  was  valued  at  £85,000  English, 
and  the  foreign  fireight  at  £25,000,  cleared  out 
here  the  first  year.  In  ten  years  after,  the  goods 
thus  exported  amounted  to  £400,000,  and  the 
return  cargoes  to  £450,000.  The  present  export 
and  iijiport  trade  are  taken  together  at  £1,750,000, 
and  the  population  at  about  112,000. 

At  Barcelona  Charles  III.,  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon,  landed  horn  Naples  in  1759,  to  take 
possession  of  the  throne  of^Spain.  On  the  16tb 
February,  1808,  it  was  ^surprised  by  a  body  of 
French  troops  under  general  Duhesme.  They 
arrived  in  the  neighlx>uhood  on  the  13th  of 
February  to  the  number  of  10,000;  and,  hav 
ing  requested  permission  to  halt  and  refresh 
themselves  on  tneir  way  to  Valencia,  the  gates 
were  opened  to  receive  them,  and  they  were 
hailed  as  friends  and  allies.  On  the  16th,  having 
assembled  on  the  parade,  as  if  for  die  purpose  of 
continuing  their  march,  they  filed  off  m  two 
divisions,  one  to  the  citadel,  the  other  to  Mon- 
jui,  a  fort  upon  a  hill  which  commands  the  town, 
and  having  summoned  those  posts,  they  were 
immediately  surrendered.  Barcelona  continued 
in  possession  of  the  French  until  the  year 
1814. 

Barcelona,  one  of  the  principal  provinces 
of  the  government  of  Cumana,  South  America: 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Cumana,  east  by  the 
Caraccas,  and  south  by  the  river  Orinoco,  which 
also  divides  it  from  Guiana.  Here  commence 
those  immense  plains,  covered  with  excellent 
pasturage,  which,  uniting  with  those  of  the  Ca- 
raccas, extend  as  far  south  as  the  Orinoco.  They 
were  formerly  well  stocked  with  cattle,  8000  or 
9000  head  beinz  killed  annually,  in  salting  of 
which  the  inhabitants  exhibited  great  skill.  In 
the  province  are  four  remarkable  ^t^pits ;  but  of 
late  the  supply  is  much  diminished.  This  pro- 
vince declared  its  independence  in  1811,  and  is 
now  a  part  of  (he  republic  of  Columbia. 

Barcelona  New,  the  capital  of  the  foregoing 
province,  is  situate  in  a  plain  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  Neveri,  half  a  league  distant  from 
the  sea,  in  10**  10*  N.  lat.  and  64«  47'  W. 
lon^.  It  is  twelve  leasues  from  Cumana  in 
a  direct  line ;  but  the  windings  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  to  avoid  bad  roads,  make  it  a 
journey  of  twenty  hours.  It  is  reckoned  ten 
marine  leagues  by  sea  from  the  port  of  Barcelona 
to  that  of  Cumana. 

On  ascending  on  the  east  side  of  the  river, 
about  four  miles  from  its  mouth,  we  observe,  on 
an  eminence  which  bears  the  name  of  the  city, 
a  fort  erected  for  the  protection  of  vessels  which 
anchor  not  far  from  it,  in  a  bay  so  shallow  as  not 


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to  be  capable  of  admitting  veesels  of  considerable 
size.  This  port,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  affords 
no  shelter  but  against  the  breeze :  but  at  the  dis- 
tance of  one  league  to  the  north,  the  island  of 
Borracha,  inhabited  by  fishermen,  presents,  on 
its  south  side,  a  safe  harbour  for  snips  of  the 
largest  size.  From  the  hill  of  Barcelona,  the 
coast  runs  to  the  north-east,  as  far  as  Cumana, 
'which  is  at  the  dbtance  of  two  leagues.  That 
space  is  filled  with  a  chain  of  islands,  not  far 
removed  from  tlie  coast.  Some  of  these  are  pro- 
vided with  bays  and  ports;  but  they  are  ot  no 
great  consequence. 

Barcelona  has  a  population  of  fourteen  thou- 
sand souls,  a  single  parish  church,  and  an  hospi- 
tal for  the  Franciscans  who  support  the  missions 
of  this  part.  It  is  neither  handsomely  nor  agree- 
ably constructed.  Its  unpaved  streets  are  ex- 
tremely muddy  in  rainy  weather;  and  in  dry 
seasons  they  are  covered  with  a  dust  so  light 
that  the  least  breath  raises  it  in  the  air.  The 
immense  quantity  of  hogs  fed  there,  induce  in 
the  city  a  number  of  stinking  and  infectious  sties, 
which  corrupt  the  air  and  frequently  create  dis- 
eases. In  1803,  however,  the  commandant  of 
the  place  took  measures  for  removing  from  the 
town  an  infection  which  could  not  but  poison  its 
residence.  This  town  had,  in  1807,  a  population 
of  1 5,000  persons ;  half  whites  and  halt  mulattoes 
and  negroes. 

Hides,  tallow,  oxen,  mules,  jirked  and  salted 
beef,  are  the  great  articles  of  trade  here;  in 
1800  eight  thousand  mules  left  this  port  for  the 
West  India  islands.  The  annual  value  of  the 
trade  is  computed  at  400,000  dollars. 

BARCELONETTA,  asmall  and  new  town  of 
Spain,  in  Catalonia,  a  suburb  of  Barcelona.  It 
stands  on  the  south-east  of  tliat  city,  between 
the  harbour  and  the  light-house,  and  was  built 
by  the  marquis  de  la  Mina,  then  captain-general 
of  Catalonia,  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century. 
In  consists  of  a  square,  laid  out  in  twenty-four 
streets,  composed  of  brick  houses,  all  built  upon 
the  same  plan,  which  gives  it  a  neat  appearance. 
The  number  of  houses  is  stated  at  600,  and  that 
of  the  inhabitants  at  10,000,  the  major  part  of 
whom  are  soldiers,  sailors,  and  persons  other- 
wise connected  with  the  navy.  Tne  church  is  a 
handsome  structure,  in  the  form  of  a  Greek 
cross. 

BARCELONNE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Gers,  arrondissement  of  Miran- 
de,  on  the  river  Adour.  Population  840.  Nine 
miles  south-west  of  Nogaro,  twenty-seven  W.  N. 
W.  of  Mirande. 

Barc£lonn£,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Drome,  arrondissement  of 
Valence,  five  miles  east  of  Valence. 

Barcelonnette,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Lower  Alps,  and  capital  of  the 
province  and  valley  of  this  name. 

The  arrondissement  contains  above  18,000 
inhabitants,  in  four  cantons.  Population  of  the 
town  1900.  The  only  objects  of  trade  are  com 
and  cattle,  particularly  sheep.  Near  this  place 
is  a  passage  across  the  Alps  to  Coni ;  ana  the 
district  was  the  scene  of  various  military  opera- 
tions in  the  campaign  of  1799.  Twenty-eight 
miles  north-east  of  Digne,  twelve  miles  south- 


east of  Embrun,  and  fifty-six  north-west  of  Nice- 
Long.  6°  44'  E.,  lat.  44°  23'  N. 

BARCELORE,  a  town  of  Hindostao,  in 
Canara,  on  tlie  banks  of  a  broad  river,  about 
four  miles  from  the  sea.  It  once  belonged  to 
the  Portuguese,  from  whom  it  was  captured  bv 
the  Dutch,  who  immediately  began  to  esUblish 
a  settlement  here.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of 
an  independent  state,  which  in  1575  was  ruled  by 
a  female  sovereign,  and  the  daughters  of  the 
family  have  since  succeeded.  Barcelore  canies 
on  considerable  trade  with  the  Arabs  of  Maskat, 
exporting  rice,  the  chief  product  of  the  country, 
and  pepper,  and  receiving  horses  and  dates  n 
return.  This  port  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
Barace  of  the  ancients.  Long.  74°  46'  E.,  lat 
13°  45'  N. 

BARCELOS,  a  town  of  Portugal,  in  Eotre 
Duero-e-Minho,  ten  miles  west  of  Braga,and 
twenty  north  of  Porto,  seated  on  the  river  Sou- 
rilla. 

Barcelos,  a  town  of  Portugal,  with  the  title 
of  a  duchy,  seated  on  the  river  Cavado,  o?er 
which  there  is  a  handsome  bridge. 

BARCES,  or  Berches,  were  formerly  a  kind 
of  ship  guns,  not  unlike  sakers,  only  shorter, 
thicker  in  metal,  and  wider  bored. 

BARCINO,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of 
the  Tarraconensis  in  Spain,  and  capital  of  the 
Laletani;  now  called  Barcelona. 

BARCLAY  (Alexander),  a  learned  monk  in 
the  reign  of  Heury  VIII.  Where  he  vtas  bom, 
has  been  subject  of  contention  among  his  biogra- 
phers. Bale,  his  contemporary,  says  he  was  lx>m 
in  Somersetshire.  There  is  indeed  a  village 
of  his  name,  and  a  numerous  fiunily,  in  thtk 
county.  Pits  thinks  he  was  bom  in  Devonshire. 
Mackenzie  is  positive  he  was  a  Scotchman;  bat 
without  proof,  unless  we  admit  as  such  his  name 
Alexander.  He  was,  however,  educated  at 
Oriel  College,  Oxford.  Afterwards  he  went 
abroad,  and  continued  some  time  in  France, 
Italy,  and  Germany,  where  he  acquired  a  com- 
petent knowledge  of  the  languages  of  those 
countries.  On  his  return  to  England  he  was 
made  chaplain  to  his  patron  the  bishop  of  Tyoe, 
who  appointed  him  a  priest  of  St.  Mary,  at 
Ottery  College  in  Devonshire.  After  the  bishop's 
death  he  became  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Ely. 
On  the  dissolution  of  that  monastery  he  obtained 
a  vicarage  in  Somersetshire;  and,  in  1549,  being 
D.  D.,  was  presented  to  that  of  Great  Baddow 
in  Essex.  In  1552  he  was  appointed  rector  of 
Ailhallows,  which  he  enjoyed  but  a  short  time; 
for  he  died  at  Croydon  in  June  following.  Be 
improved  the  Englbh  language,  and  was  nne  of 
of  the  politest  writers  of  his  time.  He  composed 
several  original  works;  but  was  chiefly  remaik- 
able  for  his  translations  from  the  I^tin,  Italian, 
French,  and  German  languages^  His  version  of 
Sailust's  Jugurthine  war  is  accurate,  and  even 
elegant.  His  lives  of  several  saints,  in  heroic 
verse,  are  still  in  MS.  His  Stultifera  Navis,  or 
The  ship  of  fools,  is  the  most  singular  of  bis  per- 
formances. It  was  printed  by  Richard  Pynson 
at  London,  1509,  in  folio;  and  contains  a  variety 
of  wooden  plates,  which  are  worthy  the  inspec- 
tion of  the  curious. 

Barclay  (John),  son  of  William,  was  bora 


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BARCLAY. 


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in  France,  at  Pont-a-Mousson,  and  was  lo  great 
favorite  of  the  Jesuits,  that  they  used  all  their 
efforts  to  engage  him  in  their  society.     But  his 
father  prevented  this,  and  carried  him  T^ith  him 
to  En^and.    Previously  to  this  young  John  had 
already  commenced  author,  for  he  had  published 
A  Commentary  upon  the  Thebais  of  Statins,  a 
X^atin  poem  on  the  coronation  of  King  James, 
and  the  first  part  of  Euphormio,  in  1603.    He 
returned  to  France  with  his  father  in  1604  ;  and 
after  his  death  went  to  Paris,  but  returned  soon 
after  to  London,  where  he  was  in  1606.    He 
published  The  History  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot, 
a  pamphlet  of  six  leaves,  printed  at  Amsterdam. 
He  puolished  at  London  in  1610,  An  Apology 
for  tne  Euphormio,  and  his  father*s  treatise  De 
PotesUte  Papae.     And  at  Paris,  in  1612,  he  pub- 
lished a  book  entitled  Pietas,  in  answer  to  Car- 
dinal Bellarmin,  who  had  written  against  his 
father*s  book,  on  the  power  of  the  Pope.    Two 
years  after  he  publisned  Icon  Animorum.    He 
.  was  invited  to  Rome  bv  Pope  Paul  V.  and  re- 
[  ceived  a  great  deal  of  civility  from  Cardinal 
Bellarmin,  though  he  had  written  against  him. 
He  died  at  Rome  in  1621,  while  his  Argenis  was 
printing  at  Paris.     This  celebrated  work  has 
since  gone  through  a  great  number  of  editions, 
and  has  been  translided  into  most  languages. 
M.  de  Peiresc,  who  had  the  care  of  the  first 
'-  edition,  caused  the  effigies  of  the  author  to  be 
'  placed  before  the  book ;  and  the  following  dis* 
tich,  written  by  Grotius,  was  pat  under  it : 

Gente'  Caledonios*  Gallot  naudibos,  hie  est, 
Romun  Romano  qui  docet  ore  loqoi. 

Babclat  (Robert),  one  of  the  most  eminent 
i   among  the  Quakers,  the  son  of  Colonel  David 
'    Barclay,  descended  of  an  ancient  family,  was 
bom  at  Edinburgh  in  1648     He  was  educated 
under  an  uncle,  who  was  principal  of  the  Scots' 
college  at  Paris,  where  the  Papists  used  all  their 
efibrts  to  draw  him  over  to  their  religion.    He 
joined    the    Quakers    in    1669,    and    distin- 
guished himself  by  his  zeal  and  abilities  in  de- 
fence of  their  doctrines.    His  first  treatise  in 
their  defence  was  published  atAberdeeninl670. 
.    His  father  the  colonel  had  joined  them  in  1666. 
In  1676  he  published  in  Latin  at  Amsterdam  his 
Apology  for  the  Quakers ;  which  is  the  most  ce- 
lebrated of  his  works,  and  esteemed  the  standard 
\    of   the  doctrine  of  the  Quakers.    His  Theses 
Theologicte,  which  were  the  foundation  of  this 
work,  and  addressed  to  the  clergy  of  what  sort 
.    soeter,  were  published  before  the  writing  of  the 
!     Apology,  and  printed  in  Latin,  French,  High 
Dutch,  Low  Dutch,  and  English.     He  trans- 
lated  his  apology  into  English,  and  published  it 
in  1678,  with  a  dedication  to  king  Charles  II. 
which  is  remarkable  for  the  uncommon  frankness 
and  simplicity  with  which  it  is  written.    Amongst 
many  other  extraordinary  passages,  we  meet  with 
the  following:  *  There  is  no  king  in  the  worid, 
who  can  so  experimentally  testify  of  God*s  pro- 
^     vidence  and  gcModness;  neither  b  there  any  who 
rules  so  many  free  people,  so  many  true  chris- 
tians ;  which  thins  renders  thy  government  more 
honorable,  thyself  more  considerable,  than  the 
^      accession  of  many  nations  filled  with  slavish  and 
superstitious  iouls.    Thou  hast  tasted  of  pros- 


perity and  adversity;  thou  knowest  what  it  is  to 
be  banished  thy  native  country,  to  be  overruled 
as  well  as  to  rule  and  sit  upon  the  throne ;  and 
being  oppressed,  thou  hast  reason  to  know  how 
hatefiil  the  oppressor  is  both  to  God  and  man : 
if,  after  all  mose  warnings  and  advertisements, 
thou  dost  not  tarn  unto  ue  Lord  with  all  thy 
heart,  but  forget  him  who  remembered  thee  in 
thy  distress,  and  give  up  thyself  to  follow  lust 
and  vanity,  surely  great  will  be  thy  conderonft- 
tion.'  He  travelled  with  the  fiunous  William 
Penn  through  the  greatest  part  of  England,  Hol- 
land, and  Germany,  and  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived with  the  highest  respect ;  for  though  both 
his  conversation  and  behaviour  were  suitable  to 
his  principles,  ,yet  there  was  such  liveliness  and 
spirit  in  his  discourse,  and  such  serenity  and 
cneerfulness  in  his  deportment,  as  rendered  him 
extremely  agreeable  to  all  sorts  of  people.  He 
returned  to  his  native  country,  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  a  quiet  and  retired  man- 
ner ;  and  died  at  his  house  at  Urie,  on  the  3rd  of 
October  1690,  aged  forty-two.  He  wrote  other 
works;  particularly,  1.  A  Treatise  on  Univer- 
sal Love.  2.  The  Anarchy  of  the  Ranters ;  a 
turbulent  sect  with  whom  the  enemies  of  the 
Quakers  endeavoured  to  confound  them.  3.  A 
Letter  to  the  Ministers  of  Nimeguen.  4.  The 
Possibility  and  Necessity  of  the  Inward  Revela- 
tion of  the  Spirit  of  God,  &c.  &c. 

Barclay  (William),  a  learned  civilian,  was 
bom  in  Aberdeenshire,  in  1541.  He  spent  the 
early  part  of  his  life,  and  much  of  his  fortune, 
at  the  court  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  firom  whose 
&vor  he  had  reason  to  expect  preferment.  In 
1673  he  went  to  France,  and  at  Bourges  com- 
menced student  of  civil  law  under  the  famous 
Cttjadus.  He  continued  some  years  in  that  se- 
minary, where  he  took  a  doctor's  degree ;  and 
was  soon  after  appointed  professor  of  civil  law 
in  the  university  of  Pont-a-Mousson,  then 
founded  by  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  That  prince 
afterwards  made  him  counsellor  of  state  and 
master  of  requests.  Barclay^  in  1481,  married 
Ann  de  Malleville,  a  Frencn  lady,  by  whom  he 
had  his  celebrated  son,  John.  This  j(mih  the 
Jesuits  would  gladly  have  received  into  their 
society.  His  fiuher  refused  his  consent,  fer 
which  reason  they  contrived  to  ruin  him  wiUi  the 
duke.  Barclay  embarked  for  Britain,  where 
James  I.  ofiered  him  preferment,  if  he  would 
join  the  church  of  England :  but  not  choosing 
to  comply,  he  returned  to  France  in  1604 ;  anc^ 
soon  after,  was  appointed  professor  of  civil  law 
in  the  university  of  Angers,  where  he  died  in 
1605,  and  was  buried  in  the  Franciscan  church. 
He  wrote  elaborately  in  defence  of  the  Divide 
Rights  of  Kings,  in  answer  to  Buchanan  and 
others.  His  works  are.  1.  De  Regno  et  Regali 
Potestate,  &c.  2.  Commentarias  in  tit  Pandec- 
tarum  de  Rebus  Creditis,  et  de  Jure-jurando. 
3.  De  Potestate  Papae,  &c.  5.  Praemetia  in  vi- 
tam  Agricolse. 

Barclay,  Castle  Hill  of,  and  Barclay 
Moat,  or  Merklavd  of,  two  relics  of  Danish 
forts,  on  the  banks  of  the  Urr,  in  the  parish  of 
Colvend,  in  Kircudbrightshire. 

BARCLOSH,  an  ancient  edifice  in  the  parish 
of  Kirkgunzeon,  which  seems  to  have  been  built 


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BARDS. 


as  a  place  of  refuge,  being  remote,  iDaccessibie, 
and  more  defended  by  nature  than  art.  It  belongs 
to  the  family  of  Henries. 

BARCOCHABy  or  Barcochebas,  a  Jewish 
impostor,  whose  real  name  was  Akiba ;  but  he 
took  that  of  Barcochab,  which  signifies  the  Son  of 
a  Star ;  in  allusion  to  the  prophecy  of  Balaam, 
*  There  shall  a  star  arise  out  of  Jacob.'  He  pro- 
claimed himself  the  Messiah;  aqd  talking  of 
nothing  but  wars,  victories,  and  triumphs,  made 
his  countrymen  rise  against  the  Romans,,  by 
which  means  he  was  the  author  of  innumerable 
disorders ;  he  ravaged  many  places,  took  a  great 
number  of  fortresses,  and  massacred  an  infinite 
multitude  of  people,  particularly  the  Christians. 
The  emperor  sent  troops  to  Rufus,  governor  of 
Judea,  to  suppress  the  sedition.  Ruius,  in 
obedience,  exercised  a  thousand  cruelties,  but 
could  not  fini^  his  attempt  The  emperor 
was  therefore  obliged  to  send  Julius  Severus^  the 
greatest  general  of  that  time ;  who  attained  his 
end  without  a  direct  battle :  he  fell  on  them  se- 
parately;  cut  off  their  provisions;  and  at  last 
the  whole  contest  was  reduced  to  the  siege  of 
Bitter,  in  the  ei^teenth  year  of  Adrian.  The 
impostor  perished  there.  This  war  cost  the 
Romans  a  great  deal  of  blood. 

BARCO-LONGA.    See  Barca-Longa. 

BARCONE,  a  short  broad  vessel,  of  a  middle 
size,  used  in  the  Mediterranean  sea  for  the  car- 
riage of  com,  wood,  salt  and  other  provisions, 
from  one  place  to  another. 

BARD',  J     Fr.  harder,  Dut.  bardereny  fha- 

Bard'cd.  5  Itrare,  phaleris  omare.  This  word, 
of  so  frequent  occurrence  in  the  ancient  chro- 
nicles, is  probably  no  more  than  a  corruption  of 
barb.  They  are  apparently  of  similar  origin, 
and  it  is  certain  tnat  they  are  used  synony- 
mously.   See  Barb. 

I  saw  the  miuter  of  the  new  band-men  of  arms,  &c. 
some  with  feathers,  ■tavet,  and  pencilt  of  their 
oolonn ;  some  with  sleeves  and  half  coats  ;  some  with 
torcb  and  sUves,  &c. 

BvmefB  Hktory  of  th§  Reformaium, 

Bard',        n     The  bard,  was  the  poet,  the 
Bar'dick,    f  musician,  and  the  historian,  of 
Bar'dish,    ^ancient  times.  The  kind  of  son? 
Bard'ling.  J  which  the  bards  sung,  is  called 
hardituty  by   Tacitus;  and  barditta  is  derived 
by  Waditer  from  the   Germ,  barteny  vugnare. 
The  bards  were,  therefore,  originally  tne  com- 
posers of  the  war-song,  the  sone  of  battle,  and 
their  task  was    to  inspire   ^e  love  of  martial 
fame,  by  impassioned  tales  of  heroic  deeds.  The 
title  is  now  given  to  poets  without  discrimina- 
tion. 

There  i*  among  the  Irish  a  kind  of  people  called 
hards,  which  are  to  them  instead  of  poeta ;  whose  pro- 
fession is  to  set  forth  the  praises  or  dispraises  of  men 
in  their  poems  or  rhime ;  the  which  are  had  in  high 
regard  and  estimation  among  them. 

I^pemmr  m  Jr^and, 

And  many  hardi  that  to  the  trembling  chord. 
Can  tune  their  timely  voices  cunningly. 

Faerie  Queene. 
Then  you  that  valiant  soules  and  slaine  in  warre. 
Do  celebrate  with  praise  that  neuer  dyes. 
Yon  barda  securely  sing  your  elegyes.      Mojf.  Lueam, 


And  indeed  my  jealousy  hath  oft  vtsed  me  vith 
particular  inquisition  of  whatsoever  recurs,  betring 
not  a  mark  of  most  apparent  truth,  ever  since  I  foond 
so  intolerable  antichronisms,  incredible  repoits,  tnd 
bardie  impostures ;  as  well  from  ignorance  as  sssumed 
liberty  of  invention  in  some  of  our  ancients.    SeUen. 

The  bard  who  first  adom'd  our  native  tongue 
Tun'd  to  his  British  lyre  this  ancient  song, 
Which  Homer  might  without  ai  blush  reheatse. 

IhyJen, 
Rapt  into  future  times,  the  bard  begun  ; 
A  virgin  shall  conceive,  a  virgin  bear  a  son ; 
Fh>m  Jesse's  root,  behold  a  branch  arise. 
Whose  sacred  flow*r  with  fragrance  fills  the  skies ; 
Th'  etherial  spirit  o'er  its  leaves  shall  move. 
And  on  its  top  descends  the  mystic  dove. 

Piqvf'c  JfoMi 

By  Pella's  hard,  a  magic  name. 

By  all  the  grieCi  his  thoughts  could  frame. 

Receive  my  humblest  rite : 
Long,  Pity,  let  the  nations  view 
Thy  sky-worn  robes  of  tenderest  blue. 

And  eyes  of  dewy  light ! 

CoOm's  (hU  to  PUg, 

Faith  let  him  'scape,  let  love  and  fame  sorvive,. 
With  your  kind  sanction  keep  bis  scenes  alive ; 
Try  to  approve  (applaiid  we  will  exempt) 
,   Nor  crush  the  bardimg  in  this  hard  attempt. 

Cmmkigham,  A  ProUtgao  to  Zoos  and  Fmt, 

The  Welsh,  kept  in  awe  as  they  weire  by  the  Ro- 
mans, harassed  by  the  Saxons,  and  eternally  jealou 
of  the  attadcs,  the  encroachments,  and  the  neighboor- 
hood  of  aliens,  were  on  this  account  attached  to  their 
Celtic  manners;  this  situation,  and  these  cixcnm- 
stances,  inspired  them  with  a  pride  and  an  obstinacy 
for  maintaining  a  national  distinction,  and  for  pre- 
serving their  ancient  usages,  among  which  the  hariie 
profession  is  so  eminent. 

Wartoii'i  Hittorp  of  Em/Ush  Poettjf, 

Their  ashes  flew ; 
No  marble  tells  us  whither.    With  their  names 
No  bard  embalms  and  sanctifies  his  song ; 
And  history,  so  warm  on  meaner  themes. 
Is  cold  on  this!  Cowper't  Totk. 

Bard,  in  antiquity,  denotes  one  who  was  a 
poet  by  genius  and  profession  ;  and  *  who  sun  j 
of  the  battles  of  heroes,  or  the  heaving  breast! 
of  love.'  Ossian's  poems,  i.  37.  Lord  Kaimei 
justly  observes.  Sketches  i.  sec.  2.  that  the  ca- 
riosity of  man  is  great  with  respect  to  the  trans- 
actions of  his  own  species;  and  when  such 
transactions  are  described  in  verse,  accompanied 
with  music,  the  performance  is  enchanting.  Aa 
ear,  a  voice,  skill  in  instrumental  music,  and 
above  all  the  poetical  genius,  are  reouisite  to 
excel  in  that  complicated  art.  As  sudi  talents 
are  rare,  the  few  that  possessed  them  were  highly 
esteemed ;  and  hence  the  profession  of  a  bsrd, 
which,  besides  natural  talents,  required  more 
culture  and  exercise  than  any  oUier  known  ait 

Bards  anciently  were  capital  persons  at  eveiy 
festival  and  at  every  solemnity.  Their  sopgs, 
which,  by  recording  the  achievements  of  kiogs 
and  heroes,  animated  every  hearer,  must  have 
been  the  entertainment  of  every  warlike  natioo. 
Demodocus  is  mentioned  by  Homer  as  a  ce- 
lebrated bard ;  and  Phemius,  another  bard,  is 
introduced  by  him  deprecating  the  wrath  of 
Ulysses,  Odyss  vii.  and  urging  him  to 


Digitized  by 


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BARDS, 


543 


—• "-  spare  the  poet's  erer  gentle  kind. 
A  deed  like  this  thy  future  fame  would  wrong. 
For  dear  to  gods  and  men  is  sacred  song. 
Save  then  the  poet,  and  thyself  reward 
^s  thine  to  merit,  mine  is  to  record.' 

Cicero  reports,  that  at  Roman  festivals,  an- 
ciently, the  virtues  and  exploits  of  their  great 
.men  were  sung.  The  same  custom  prevailed 
in  Peru  and  Mexico,  as  we  learn  from  Garci- 
lasso  and  other  authors.  We  have  for  our  au- 
thority Father  Gobien,  that  even  the  inhabitants 
of  tlie  Marian  islands  have  bards,  who  are 
greatly  admired,  because  in  their  songs  are  cele- 
brated ^e  feats  of  their  ancestors. 

Bards,  Celtic,  British,  &c.  In  no  part  of 
the  world  did  the  profession  of  bard  appear  with 
such  lustre  as  in  Gaul,  in  Britain,  and  m  Ireland. 
Wherever  the  Celtae  or  Gauls  are  mentioned  by 
ancient  writers,  we  seldom  fail  to  hear  of  their 
druids  and  their  bards  ;  the  institution  of  which 
two  orders,  was  the  capital  distinction  of  man- 
ners and  policy.  The  druids  were  philosophers 
and  priests ;  the  bards  their  poets,  and  recorders 
of  heroic  actions :  and  both  these  orders  seem 
to  have  subsisted  among  them,  as  members  of 
the  state  from  time  immemorial.  The  Celtae 
possessed,  from  many  remote  ages,  a  system  of 
diMcipline  and  manners,  which  appear  to  have 
had  a  deep  and  lasting  influence.  Ammianus 
Marcellinus,  lib.  xv.  c.  9.  gives  them  this  tes- 
timony, that  they  cultivated  the  study  of  the 
most  laudable  arts;  introduced  by  the  bards, 
who  sung  in  heroic  verse  the  gallant  actions  of 
illustrious  men;  and  by  the  ^ids,  who  lived 
together  in  colleges  or  societies,  after  the  Pytha- 
gorean manner,  and  philosophising  upon  the 
highest  subjects,  asserted  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  Though  Caesar,  in  his  account  of  Gaul, 
does  not  expressly  mention  the  bards,  yet  it  is 
plain,  that  under  tlie  title  of  Druids,  he  com- 
prehends that  whole  college  or  order ;  of  which 
the  bards,  who  probably  were  the  disciples  of 
the  druids,  undoubtedly  made  a  part.  According 
to  his  account,  the  druidical  institution  first  took 
rise  in  Britain,  and  passed  from  thence  into 
Gaul ;  so  that  they  who  aspired  to  be  thorough 
masters  of  that  learning  were  wont  to  resort  to 
Britain.  He  adds  too,  that  such  as  were  to  be 
initiated  among  the  Druids,  were  obliged  to 
commit  to  their  memory  a  great  nun&er  of 
verses,  insomach  that  some  employed  twenty 
years  in  this  course  of  education ;  and  that  they 
did  not  think  it  lawful  to  record  these  poems  in 
writing,  but  sacredly  handed  them  down  by  tra^ 
dition  from  race  to  race.  So  strong  was  the  at- 
tachment of  the  Celtic  nations  to  their  poetiy 
and  their  bards,  that  amidst  all  the  changes  of 
their  govemmetit  and  manners,  even  long  after 
the  order  of  the  Druids  was  extinct,  and  the 
national  religion  altered,  the  bards  continued  to 
flourish ;  not  as  a  set  of  strolling  songsters,  like 
the  Greek  'Aoi^oi  or  rhapsodists,  in  Homer's 
time,  but  as  an  order  of  men  highly  respected  in 
the  state,  and  supported  by  a  public  establish- 
ment. We  find  tnem,  according  to  Strabo,  and 
Diodorus,  before  the  age  of  Augustus ;  and  we 
find  them  remaining  under  the  same  name,  and 
exercising  the  same  functions  as  of  old,  in 
Ireland,  and  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  almost 


dovm  to  our  own  times.  It  is  well  known,  thati 
in  both  these  countries,  every  regul  as  or  chief,  had 
his  own  bard,  who  was  considered  as  an  officer 
of  rank  in  his  court. 

Of  the  honor  in  which  the  bards  were  held, 
many  instances  occur  in  Ossian.  They  were  the 
ambassadors  between  contending  chiefs;  and 
their  persons  were  held  sacred.  *  Cairbor  feared 
to  stretch  his  sword  to  the  bards,  though  his  soul 
was  dark.  Loose  the  bards  (said  his  brother 
Cathmor),  they  are  sons  of  other  times.  Their 
voice  shall  be  heard  in  other  ages,  when  the  kings 
of  Temora  have  failed.  *  Ossian  ii.  22.  Th^ 
and  the  Druids  were  exempted  from  taxes  and 
military  services,  even  in  times  of  the  greatest 
danger :  and  when  they  attended  their  patrons  in 
the  field,  to  record  and  celebrate  their  great  ac- 
tions, they  had  a  guard  assigned  them.  At  all 
public  assemblies  they  were  seated  near  the  per- 
son of  the  king  or  chieftain,  and  sometimes  even 
above  the  greatest  of  the  nobility  and  chief  officers 
of  the  court.  Nor  was  their  profession  less 
lucrative  than  it  was  honorable.  Besides  the 
valuable  presents  which  they  occasionally  received 
from  patrons,  they  had  estates  in  land  allotted 
for  their  support.  So  great  was  the  veneration 
which  the  princes  of  those  times  entertained  for 
their  poets,  and  so  highly  were  they  delighted 
with  tneir  strains  diat  they  sometimes  pardoned 
even  their  capital  crimes  for  a  song.  We  may 
reasonably  suppose  that  a  profession  so  honorable 
and  advantageous  would  not  be  deserted.  It  was 
indeed  much  cultivated,  and  the  accounts  which 
we  have  of  the  number  of  bards  in  some  countries, 
particularly  in  Ireland,  are  hardly  credible.  We 
often  read,  in  the  poems  of  Ossian,  of  100  bards 
belonging  to  one  prince,  singing  and  playing  in 
concert  for  his  entertainment.  £very  chief  bard, 
who  was  called  allah  redan,  oi  doctor  in  poetry, 
was  allowed  to  have  thirty  bards  of  inferior  note 
constantly  about  his  person ;  and  every  bard  of 
the  second  rank  was  allowed  a  retinue  of  fifteen 
poetical  disciples. 

Though  the  ancient  South  Britons  had  originally 
the  same  taste  and  genius  for  poetry  with  those 
of  the  north,  yet  none  of  their  poetical  composi- 
tions have  been  preserved.  Nor « can  we  be 
surprised  at  this.  After  the  provincial  Britons 
had  submitted  to  the  Roman  government,  yielded 
up  their  arms,  and  lost  their  martial  spirit,  they 
could  take  little  pleasure  in  hearing  or  repeating 
the  songs  of  their  bards,  in  honor  of  the  glorious 
achievements  of  their  brave  ancestors.  The  Ro- 
mans also,  though  they  did  not  exercise  tlie  same 
barbarous  policy,  which  was  long  after  practisedby 
Edvrard  I.  of  putting  the  bards  to  death,  would 
at  least  discourage  them,  and  discountenance  the 
repetition  of  their  poems.  These  sons  of  the 
song  being  thus  persecuted  by  their  conquerors^ 
and  neglected  by  their  countrymen,  either  aban- 
doned their  country  or  their  profession ;  and  their 
songs,  being  no  longer  heard,  were  soon  forgotten. 
It  is  probable  that  the  ancient  Britons,  as  well 
as  many  other  nations  of  antiquity,  had  no  idea 
of  poems  that  were  made  only  to  be  repeated, 
ana  not  to  be  sung  to  the  sound  of  musical  in- 
struments. In  the  first  stages  of  society  in  all 
countries,  the  two  sister  arts  of  poetry  and  mu- 
sic seem  to  have  been  always  united ;  every  poet 


O 


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544 


BAR 


was  a  muaician,  and  sung  his  own  verses  to  the 
sound  of  some  musical  instrument.  Tliis,  we  are 
directly  told  by  two  writers  of  undoubted  credit, 
was  the  case  in  Gaul,  and  consequently  in  Bri- 
tain, at  this  period.  '  The  bards, '  says  Diodorus 
Siculus,  lib.  Y.  sect,  31,  'sung  their  poems  to 
the  sound  of  an  instrument  not  unlike  a  lyre.' 

*  The  bards, '  according  to  Ammianus  Marcelli- 
nus,  lib.  XV.  c.  9,  '  celebrated  the  brave  actions 
of  Ulustrious  men  in  heroic  poems,  which  they 
sung  to  the  sweet  sound  of  tne  lyre.'  This  ac- 
count is  confirmed  hy  the  general  strain,  and  by 
many  particular  passages,  of  the  poems  of  Ossian. 

*  Beneath  his  own  tree,  at  intervals,  each  bard  sat 
with  his  harp.  They  raised  the  song  and  touched 
the  string,  each  to  the  chief  he  loved.  Vol.  ii.  p. 
112.  The  invention  of  writing  made  a  consider- 
able change  in  the  profession  of  the  bards.  It 
is  now  agreed,  that  no  poetry  is  fit  to  be  accom- 
panied with  music,  but  what  is  simple :  a  com- 
plicated thought,  or  description,  requires  the 
utmost  attention,  and  leaves  none  for  tne  music ; 
or,  if  it  divides  the  attention,  it  makes  but  a  faint 
impression.  The  simple  operas  of  Quinault 
bear  away  the  palm  from  eveiy  thing  of  the  kind 
composed  by  Boileau  or  Racine,  who  were  poets 
of  a  higher  order.  But  when  a  language  is 
enriched  with  variety  of  phrases,  fit  to  express 
the  mosi  elevated  thoughts,  men  of  genius  aspired 
to  the  higher  strains  of  poetry,  leaving  music 
and  song  to  the  bards ;  wnich  distinguished  the 
profession  of  a  poet  from  that  of  a  bard.  Homer, 
in  one  sense,  may  be  termed  a  bard ;  for  in  that 
character  he  strolled  from  feast  to  feast.  But  he 
was  not  a  bard  in  the  original  sense;  he,  indeed, 
i^ited  his  poems  to  crowded  audiences ;  but  his 
poems  are  too  complex  for  music,  and  he  probably 
did  not  sing  them,  nor  accompany  them  with  the 
lyre.  The  troubadours  of  Provence  were  baids 
in  the  original  sense,  and  made  a  capital  fi^nire  in 
the  days  of  ignorance,  when  few  could  read,  and 
fewer  write.  In  later  tiroes  the  songs  of  the  bards 
were  taken  down  in  writing,  which  gave  every 
one  access  to  them  without  a  bard ;  and  the  pro- 
fession sunk  by  degrees  into  oblivion.  Among 
the  Highlanders  of  Scotland  reading  and  writing, 
in  their  own  tongue,  is  not  common  even  at  pre- 
sent ;  and  that  circumstance  supported  long  the 
bard  profession  among  them,  aner  it  was  dropt 
among  the  neighbouring  nations. 

Among  the  ancient  British  bards  the  most  ce- 
lebrated is  the  great  Merl3m,  whose  true  name, 
according  to  Lhuyd,  is  Merdhym.  The  genea- 
logical sonnets  of  the  Irish  bards  are  still  the 
chief  foundations  of  the  ancient  history  of  Ireland. 
In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  there  are  consider^ 
able  remains  of  many  of  the  compositions  of  their 
old  bards  still  preserved.  But  the  most  genuine 
entire  and  valaable  remains  of  the  works  of  the 
ancient  bards,  and  ])erhaps  the  noblest  specimen 
of  uncultivated  genius,  are  the  poems  ot  Ossian 
the  son  of  Fingal,  a  king  of  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  who  flourished  in  the  second  or  third 
oentuiy ;  collected  by  Mr.  M'Pherson,  and  by 
him  translated  from  the  Erse,  or  Gaelic,  lan- 
guage into  English. 

BARDiE,  in  antiquity,  housings  for  horses. 

BABDANA,  or  Buedock.    See  Arctium. 


BARDARIOT/E,  in  antiquity,  a  kind  of  an 
cient  guards  attending  the  Greek  empeior,  armed 
.  with  rods,  with  which  they  kept  off  the  people 
from  crowding  too  near  the  prince  when  on  horse- 
back. Their  captain  or  commander,  was  deno- 
minated primivergius.  The  word  was  probably, 
formed  firom  the  Barda,  which  see. 

BARDAS,  the  brother  of  the  empress  Theo- 
dora, and  uncle  of  the  &mous  Photius,  is  said  to 
have  had  no  other  good  quality  besides  that  of 
loving  the  sciences,  which  he  establiriied  in  the 
Eastern  empire;  for  he  was  treacherous,  cruel 
and  ambitious.  In  A.D.  856  he  a<Ma«^w»aM 
Theoctistes,  general  of  the  emperor  Michael's 
forces,  and  obtained  his  post.  He  caused  the 
disgrace  of  the  Empress  Theodora ;  and  St.  Ig- 
natius, patriarch  of  Constantinople,  reproaching 
him  for  his  vices,  he  had  him  deposed  in  848,  to 
make  room  for  Photius.  He  was  f^^nf^natfd  in 
866  by  Basilius,  afterwards  emperor. 

BARDED,  in  heraldry,  is  used  in  speaking 
of  a  horse  that  is  caparisoned.  He  bears  sable 
cavalier  d'or,  the  horse  barded,  argent. 

BARDELLE,  in  the  menage,  a  saddle  made 
in  form  of  a  great  saddle,  but  of  cloth  stuffed  with 
straw,  and  tied  tight  down  with  packthread, 
without  either  leather,  wood,  or  iron.  In  Italy 
they  trot  their  colts  with  such  saddles;  and  those 
who  ride  them  are  called  Cavalcadours,  or 
Scozone. 

BARDESAKES,  a  Syrian  of  Edessa  in  Me- 
sopotamia,  bom  in  the  middle  of  the  second 
centuiy,  who  became  eminent,  after  his  conver- 
sion to  Christianity,  for  his  zeal  against  heretics; 
against  whom,  we  are  informed  by  St.  Jenmie 
and  Eusebius,  he  wrote  a  multitude  of  books; 
yet  he  himself  fell  into  the  errors  of  Valentinus, 
to  which  he  added  some  others  of  his  own.  He 
taught  that  the  actions  of  men  depend  altogedieron 
iate,  and  that  God  himself  is  subject  to  necessity. 

BARDESANISTS,  a  sect  of  ancient  heretics, 
thus  denominated  from  their  leader  fiaidesanes. 
They  went  fiirdier  than  their  teacher,  and  denied 
the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  the  incamatioD 
and  death  of  our  Saviour ;  holding  that  these  were 
only  apparent  or  fantastical,  l^ey  maintained 
that  the  supreme  God,  being  free  from  all  impo- 
fection,  created  the  world  and  its  inhabitants  pure 
and  incorrupt :  that  the  prince  of  darkness,  who 
is  the  fountain  of  aU  evil  and  miseiy,  enticed  men 
to  sin;  in  consequence  of  which,  God  permitted 
them  to  be  divested  of  those  ethereal  bodies,  with 
which  he  had  endued  them,  and  to  feU  into  slug- 
gish and  gross  bodies  formed  by  the  evil  princi- 
ple: and  that  Jesus  descended  firom  heaTen, 
clothed  not  with  a  real  but  aerial  body,  to  recover 
mankind  fixMn  that  body  of  corruption  which  they 
now  carry  about  them ;  and  that  he  will  raise  the 
obedient  to  mansions  of  felicity,  clothed  with 
aerial  vehicles,  or  celestial  bodies. 

BARDEWICK,  a  town  of  Germanr,  in  the 
circle  of  Lower  Saxony,  and  duchy  or  Loneo- 
burg;  formeriy  a  very  large  place,  but  being 
ruined  in  1 1 89,  by  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  has  never 
yet  recovered  itself.  It  is  seated  on  the  Ilmeoan, 
seven  miles  north-east  of  Lunenburg,and  seventeen 
south-east  of  Hamburg.  It  belongs  to  the  kiiig- 
dom  of  Hanover. 


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BAR 


BARDy  a  tmall  fort  and  town  in  the  valley  of 
Aosta,  in  Piedmont.  The  fort  commanded  the 
pass  from  the  Valais  into  Piedmont.  It  was  taken 
by  Buonaparte  in  1800»  after  his  passage  of  the 
Great  St  Bernard,  and  is  now  dismanded. 

BARDIy  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  duchy  of 
Placentia,  on  the  Genoese  frontier.  It  is  near 
the  river  Cero,  has  a  magnificent  castle,  and  is 
thirty  miles  south-west  of  Parma. 

BARDOWIE)  Loch,  a  lake  of  Stirlingshire, 
in  the  parish  of  Baldemock,  extending  about 
seventy  acres,  and  containing  plenty  of  pike  and 
perch.  The  mansion»house  of  Bardowie  lies 
within  a  few  paces  of  it» 

BARDSEY,  an  islan<A  in  the  Irish  sea,  on  the 
coast  of  Wales,  about  two  miles  long,  and  one 
broad,  with  a  small  harbour  on  the  sontl^^ast  side. 
There  is  good  anchorage  within  the  bay,  but  the 
entrance  is  difficnlt  for  large  ships.  It  forms 
the  nor&  point  of  Cardigan  bay,  and  formerly 
conbdned  a  well-endowed  monastery.  Long. 
5*»  4'  W.,  lat.  52**  4^  N. 

BARDT,  a  river  of  Germany,  in  Pomerania. 

Bardt,  a  strone  and  rich  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  duchv  of  romerania,  with  a  castle  and 
spacious  harbour.  It  was  subject  to  the  Swedes 
till  1815,  but  now  belongs  to  Prussia;  and  is 
situated  near  the  Baltic  sea,  twelve  miles  west 
by  north  of  Stialsund. 

BARDUS,  a  druid,  the  son  of  Dryis,  and  the 
fifth  king  of  the  Celtte. 

BARE',  V.  &  atg,  ^  Heb.  parah,  to  lay  bare, 
Bare'bomes,  and    har^    pure,     Goth. 

BareI'faced,  bairhtjan,   Germ,    haren, 

Barefa'cedlt,  Dut.  baereny  old  Sax. 
Barefacbd'mess,  abarian.  It  signifies  the 
Bare'foot,  absence  of  ornament,  of 

BARE'oVAWir,  ^concealment.  It  is  the 
Bare'heaDi  condition  of  nudity,    of 

Bare'legoed,  destitution,    of   leanness 

Bare'lt,  and  poverty,  of  rigid  com- 

Bare'necked,  pleteness,    without    any 

Bars'kess,  (he  least  appendage.  The 

Bare'worn.  J  verb  represents  the  act  of 
strippii^  ofi^,  of  uncoverinff,  ot  bringing  to  light 
and  exposing  what  was  hidden,  of  rendering  de- 
fenceless. Sarefaeed  denotes  the  absence  of  all 
disguise,  or  all  shame ;  when  applied  to  express 
impudence,  it  characterises  the  individual  as 
more  than  ordinarily  lost  to  all  sense  of  de- 
corum. 

Him  thought  ha  rode  al  of  the  newe  get ; 
Diachevele ;  enf  his  ceppe,  he  rode  idl  han ; 
Swiche  glucn  eyea  hadde  he  as  an  bare.      CAmost. 

Thereto  he  hath  a  groom  of  evil  guise. 
Whose  scalp  is  bare,  that  bondage  doth  bevray. 
Which  pols  and  pils  the  poor  in  piteous  wise. 
Bat  he  himself  upon  the  riche  doth  tyrannise. 

Spamr, 
For  other  meed  may  hope  for  none  of  mee. 
To  whom  nought  else  out  tan  lifo  doth  rcmame. 
And  that  so  wretched  one  as  ye  do  see. 
Is  liker  to  lingering  death  than  loathed  life  to  bee. 

^^ 
How  many  flies  in  hottest  sammer's  day. 
Do  seize  upon  some  beast,  whose  flesh  is  ban, 
fbat  all  the  place  with  swaimes  do  overlay. 
And  with  their  little  stings  do  feilv  fai9 
Vot.  TIL 


So  many  theeves  about  him  swarming  are. 
All  which  do  him  assayle  on  every  side. 
And  sore  oppress,  ne  anj  him  do  spare.  Id, 

You  have  an  exchequer  of  words,  and  no  other 
treasure  fur  your  followers ;  for  it  appears  by  theii 
bare  liveries,  that  they  live  by  your  bare  words. 

8halitpear9» 
So  you  serve  us 
TBI  we  serve  you ;  but  when  y6u  have  our  roses, 
Yoo  ftorely  leave  our  thorns  to  prick  ourselves. 
And  mock  us  with  our  bareneu.  Id, 

To  feed  were  best  at  borne. 
From  thence,  the  sauce  to  meat  is  ceremony. 
Meeting  were  bare  without  it.  Id, 

For  their  poverty,  I  kno^  not  where  they  had  that ; 
«mI  for  their  barmeu,  they  never  learned  that  of  me. 

Id. 
She  must  have  m  husband ; 
I  must  deaet  barejboi  on  her  wedding-day.         Id. 
Ambitious  love  hath  so  in  me  offended. 
That  barefoet  plod  I  the  cold  ground  upon 
With  sainted  vow.  Id, 

The  duke  of  Lancaster  is  dead ; 
And  living  too,  for  now  his  son  is  duke   ■    ■ 
^^^Barefy  in  title,  not  in  revenue. 

I^Rkhardll, 

He  bareheaded,  lower  than  his  proud  steed's  neck. 

Bespoke  them  thus.  Id. 

Here  comes  lean  Jack,  here  comes  bar^one ;  how 

long  is  it  ago.  Jack,  since  thou  sawest  thy  own  kacet 

JU.  Hemy  IV, 
Yonr  French  crowns  have  no  hair  at  all,  and  then 
you  will  play  barefaeed. 

Id.  Mideununer  Night't  Dreum 
«      Going  to  find  a  barefoot  brother  out. 
One  of  our  order.  Id.  Rotneo  and  JuUet, 

Know,  my  name  is  lost. 
By  treason's  tooth  baregrutton  and  cankerbit. 

Id.  King  Lear, 

The  external  administradon  of  his  word,  is  as  well 

by  reading  barely  the  Scripture,  as  by  explaining  the 

same.  Hooker, 

A  desire  to  draw  all  things  to  the  determination  of 

bare  and  naked  Scripture,  hath  caused  much  pains  to 

be  taken  in  abating  the  credit  of  man.  /dL 

That  which  offendeth  us,  is  the  great  disgrace  which 

they  offer  unto  our  custom  of  bare  reading  the  word  of 

God.  Id, 

Were  it  for  the  glory  of  God,  that  the  clergy  should 

be  left  as  bare  as  the  apostles,  when  they  had  neither 

staff  nor  scrip ;  God  would,  I  hope,  endue  them  with 

the  self-same  affection.  Id,  Prefaee. 

He  barely  nam'd  the  street,  promis'd  the  wine. 
But  his  kind  wife  gave  me  the  very  sign.  Dtnme, 

He  himself,  with  a  rope  about  his  neck,  bare/boted, 
came  to  offer  himself  to  the  discretion  of  Leonatus. 

ONllMsy. 

Next,  before  the  chariot,  went  two  men  bareheaded, 

Baeom, 

There  is  a  fabulous  narration,  that  an  herb  groweth 
in  die  likeness  of  a  lamb,  and  feedeth  upon  the  grass, 
in  such  sort  as  it  will  bare  the  grass  round  about. 

Id.  Natural  Hietory, 

Though  the  lords  used  to  be  covered  whilst  the  com- 
mons were  iore,  yet  the  comn|ons  would  not  be  hare 
before  the  Scottish  commissioners  ;  and  so  none  were 
covered.  Clarendon. 

The  animosities  increased,  and  the  parties  appear* 
ed  barefaced  against  each  other.  Id. 

According  to  their  growth  and  years,  they  did 
change  the  exercises  of  their  bodies  *,  they  did  shave 
their  hea«ls,-  ihey  went  &ar»-2ej|;^,they  were  constrain* 
rd  to  play  naked  together  the  most  part  of  their  time. 

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Being  tnmmer  he  would  go  ont  bare-neckid  to  the 
wasU  to  work  in  his  ground  among  his  servants  and 
other  workmen.  ^^- 

How  they  stood 
Their  glory  withcr'd :  as  when  heaven's  fire 
Hath  scath'd  the  forest  oaks,  or  mounuin  pines. 
With  singed  top  their  stately  growth,  though  bare. 
Stands  on  the  blasUd  heath.  MiUon, 

God  said. 
Be  gathered  now,  ye  waters  under  heav'n. 
Into  one  place,  and  let  dry  land  appear. 
Immediately  the  mountains  huge  appear 
Emergent,  and  their  broad  bare  backs  upheave 
Into  the  clouds,  their  tope  ascend  the  sky.  Id. 

He  scarce  had  said,  when  the  bare  earth,  till  then 
Desert  and  bare,  unsightly,  unadorn'd. 
Brought  forth  tlie  tender  grasn,  whose  verdure  clad 
Her  universal  face  with  pleasant  green.  Id, 

Nor  are  men  prevailed  upon  by  bare  words  only, 
through  a  defect  of  knowledge ;  but  carried,  with 
these  pufis  of  wind  contrary  to  knowledge.  South, 
Were  it  stripped  of  its  privileges,  and  made  as  like 
the  primitive  church  for  its  barenese  as  iu  purity,  it 
could  legally  want  all  such  privileges.  Id. 

He  held  a  stirrup,  while  the  knight. 
From  leathern  barebanea  did  alight.        Hudtbras. 
He  bar'd  an  ancient  oak  of  all  her  boughs  ; 
Then  on  a  rising  ground  the  trunk  he  plac'd. 

Drjfden. 

Then  stretched  her  arms  t'  embrace  the  body  bare ; 

Her  clasping  hands  inclose  but  empty  air.  Id. 

It  is  most  certain,  that  barefaced  bawdry  is  the 

poorest  pretence  to  wit  imaginable.  Id, 

In  the  old  Roman  statues,  these  two  parts  were 

always  bare,  and  exposed  to  view  as  much  vt\  our 

hands  and  face.  Addison. 

Envoys  describe  this  holy  man,  with  liis  Alcaydes 

about  him,  standing  barefoot,  bowing  to  the  earth.  Id. 

For  virtue,  when  I  point  the  pen. 

Bare  the  mean  heart  that  points  beneath  a  star ; 

Can  there  be  wanting  to  defend  her  cause. 

Lights  of  the  church,  or  guardians  of  the  laws?  Pope* 

Making  a  law  to  reduce  interest,  will  not  raise  the 

price  of  land  ;  it  will  only  leave  the  country  barer  of 

money.  Lodte. 

Though  only  some  profligate  wretches  own  it  too 

barefacedly,  yet,  perhaps,  we  should  hear  more,  did 

not  fear  tic  people  *s  tongues.  Id, 

If  to  some  common's  fenceless  limits  stray 'd. 
He  drives  his  flocks  to  pick  the  scanty  blade. 
Those  fenceless  fields  tlte  sons  of  wealth  divide. 
And  even  the  bare'VDom  common  is  deny'd. 

Goldsmith.   The  Deserted  VUlage. 
Nor  stoop'd  at  barren  bare  necessity ; 
But  still  advancing  bolder,  led  him  on. 
To  pomp,  to  pleasure,  elegance,  and  grace. 
And  breathing  high  ambition  through  his  soul. 
Set  science,  wisdom,  glory  in  his  view. 
And  bade  him  be  the  Lord  of  all  below.    TTumuom, 

O  may  no  winter  season,  bare  and  hoary. 
See  it  half  finished  :  but  let  autumn  bold. 
With  universal  tinge  of  sober  gold. 
Be  all  about  me  when  I  make  an  end. 

Kent's  Endymion. 
How  well  such  deed  becomes  the  turban'd  brave — 
To  bare  the  sabre's  edge  before  a  slave  ! 

Byron's  Corsair. 
Barefoot  Augustines,  Barefoot  Carme- 
LTTES,  are  religious  of  the  order  of  St.  Austin  and 
St.  Carmel,  who  live  under  a  strict  observance, 
and  go  without  shoes,  like  the  Capuchins.  There 
are  bai*efoot  fathers  of  mercy.  Formerly  there 
were  barefoot  Dominicans,  and  even  barefoot 
nuns  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustin. 


Barefoot  Festivals.  'Die  Greelu,  Romans, 
and  Barbarians,  have  a  feast  called  nudipedalit, 
or  the  barefoot  festival.  The  Abyssinians  nevtr 
enter  their  churches,  nor  the  palaces  of  kings  aad 
great  men,  but  barefooted. 

Barefooted,  in  antiquity.  Sagittarius  has  a 
dissertation  on  those  who  went  barefooted  %mong 
the  ancients,  De  Nudipedalibns  Veterani ;  where- 
in he  treats  1.  of  such  as  went  barefooted  in 
journeys,  either  out  of  choice  or  necessity:  2. 
of  barefooted  religtous  penitents;  and,  3.  of  the 
Levin. 

BAREGES,  or  Barreges,  a  rugged  valleyof 
Gascony,  now  included  in  the  department  of  the 
Upper  Pyrenees,  arrondissement  of  Aigellez.  The 
village  of  Bareges,  or  Barreges  les  Bains,  fics  at 
the  foot  of  the  I^renees,  contains  about  60  houses, 
and  670  inhabit^ts,  and  is  toied  for  iKA  mioeral 
waters,  the  principal  ingredient  in  which  is  so^ 
phurate  of  potash.  The  springs  are  of  diflerent 
degrees  of  heat,  from  73""  to  120''  of  FahrenheiL 
Their  water  is  limpid,  unctuous,  and  chiefly 
recommended  in  coosomptions,  and  in  itieunntic 
and  cutaneous  diseases ;  they  are  used  hodi  for 
bathing  and  drinking.  The  village  is  ten  miles 
south  of  Bagneres.  Long.  0"  8'  £,,  lat.  42''  63'N. 
Barebeaded  Women,  in  antiquity.  The 
Roman  women,  in  times  of  public  distress  and 
mourning,  went  bareheaded,  with  their  hiir 
loose. 

BAREILY,  a  district  of  Hindostsh,  to  fhe 
east  of  the  Ganges,  between  the  27th  and  29th 
degrees  of  northern  latitude.  Under  the  Mognl 
government  it  was  included  in  the  proTioce  of 
Delhi,  but  was  in  &ct  a  part  of  Kuttaher;  in 
modem  times  known  by  the  appellation  of  Ri^il- 
cund.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  well  watered.  The 
principal  towns  are  Bareily,  Anopsheher,  Bada- 
yoon,  Pillybcet,  Moradabad,  Rampoor,  Siuahol, 
and  Amroah.  Towards  the  end  of  tne  seteoteaidi 
century  this  country  was  taken  possession  of  by 
the  Afghan  chiefs  of  the  tribe  of  Roh,  and  re- 
maioed  in  their  possession  till  1774,  when  it  was 
conquered  by  Shuja  Addowleh,  under  whose, 
and  his  successor's  jurisdiction,  it  was  cnielly 
harassed  and  depopulated;  bnt,  having  been 
ceded  to  the  British  in  1802,  it  is  daily  reoom- 
ing. 

Bareily,  a  city  of  Hindostan^  and  capital  of 
the  above  district,  is  situated  on  Uie  banks  of  the 
Sunkra  river,  about  forty  miles  east  of  the  Ganges. 
It  was  the  capital  of  Haiiz  Rahmut,  Ae  Robilla 
chief,  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cutterah  in  1774;  it 
is  a  hurge  and  populous  town,  and  the  seat  of  the 
British  judicial  establishment  of  the  proriace. 
Long.  79**  21'  E.,  lat.  28**. 

BAREITH,  a  ci-devant  margravate  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  east  division  of  Fronconia,  subject 
to  the  Brandenbuig  fiimily,  and  thence  styled 
Brandenburg-Bareith. 

Bareith,  a  tpwn  of  Germany  in  Franconia, 
in  the  margrevate,  with  a  famous  college  belong- 
ing to  the  margrave  of  Brandenbui^gb-Bareith.  It 
is  fifteen  miles  south  by  east  of  CiUmbach. 

BARENTS  (Dieterich),  an  excellent  painter, 
born  at  Amsterdam,  and  the  son  of  an  industrious 
but  middling  artist.  He  studied  in  Italy,  and  becuM 
the&vorite  disciple  of  Titian,  with  whom  he  lind 
along  time;  but  at  length  returned  toAmstPidam, 


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Inhere  he  perfamied  amny  extnordinary  pieces. 
He  died  in  1582,  aged  forty-eight. 

BARENTON.  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Channel,  twenty  miles  £.  S.  E.  of 
Avranches. 

BARETTI  (Joseph),  an  ingenious  writer  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  was  the  son  of  an  archi- 
tect at  Turin.  We  hiave  no  account  of  the  early 
part  of  his  life ;  but  his  writings  show  that  he  had 
travelled  through  various  countries.  lie  came 
to  England  in  1750 ;  and,  in  a  short  time,  he  ac- 
quired such  a  knowledge  of  the  English  language 
as  to  write  it  with  fiicility  and  correctness.  Be- 
coming acquainted  with  Dr.  Johnson  about  1753, 
he  was  by  him  introduced,  as  a  teacher  of  the 
Italian  language,  to  the  family  of  Mr.  Thrale. 
In  1760  he  went  back  to  Italy,  and  commenced 
a  periodical  work,  entided  Frusta  Litteiaria, 
which  was  published  at  Venice;  but  the  freedom 
of  sentiment  which  appeared  in  it,  giving  offence, 
obliged  him  to  leave  that  country,  and  he  re- 
turned again  to  England.  He  was  tried  at  the 
Old  BaiW,  in  1769,  for  killing  a  man  who  had 
assaulted  him  in  the  Havmarket,  and  was  ac- 
quitted. In  1770  he  published  his  Travels  through 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  in  four  vols. 
8vb.  When  the  Royal  Academy  was  established, 
he  was  chosen  secretary ;  and  during  Lord  North's 
administration  he  obtained  a  pension.  He  died 
in  1789,  aged  about  seventy-tnreep  His  temper 
was  pleasant,  and  hb  disposition  liberal.  His 
works  are :  1.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Italian 
Poetry;  2.  An  Introduction  to  the  Italian  Lan- 
guage ;  3.  The  Italian  Library,  8vo. ;  4.  A  Dic- 
tionary, English  and  Italian,  2  vols.  4to. ;  5.  A 
Grammar  of  the  Italian  Language,  Bvo. ;  6.  An 
Account  of  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  Italy, 
3  vols.  8va ;  7.  An  Introduction  to  the  roost  use- 
ful European  Languages,  8vo.;  8.  A  Dictionary 
English  and  Spaniui,  4to. ;  9.  Tolondron,  Speeches 
to  John  Bowie,  about  his  edition  of  Don  Quixote, 
6vo. ;  and  bther  tracts. 

BAR-FEE,  a  fee  of  twenty  pence,  which  every 
person  acqmtted  of  felony  pays  the  gaoler. 

BARFLEUR,  a  Cape  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Channel,  twelve  miles  east  of 
bheibourg.  Near  this  cape  part  of  the  French 
navy  was  destroyed  in  1692,  the  day  after  the 
victory  of  La'  Hogue,  obtained  by  the  confederate 
fleet  under  Admiral  Russel. 

Barfleub,  a  town  of  France  in  the  depart- 
ment of  theCLannel,  arrondissementof  Valognes. 
It  contains  about  140  houses;  and  900  inhabi- 
tants. Its  haibouT,  which  is  now  choked  up  with 
sandy  was  in  former  times  the  best  on  the  coast. 
Here  William  the  Conqueror  equipped  the  ex- 
pedition which  effected  the  conquest  of  England. 
In  the  year  1346  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by 
the  English  army,  in  the  same  campaign  in  which 
^ey  fought  the  battle  of  Cressy.  Since  that  time 
the  port  has  been  neglected,  and  is  now  fre- 
quented only  by  stnall  vessels.  The  tnule  is 
confined  to  nsh,  fresh  and  salted.  Twelve  miles 
east  of  Cherbourg.  Long.  1*»  10'  W.,  lat.  49° 
40*  N. 

BARGA,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  grand  dudiy 
of  Tuscany,  on  the  Serchio.  It  is  the  capital  of 
h  vicariat,  bordering  on  the  principality  of  Lucca, 
«nd  contains  9000  inhabitants.    In  the  neigh- 


bouring Appenines  is  fonnd  beautiful  jasper* 
Six  miles  from  Lucca. 
BAR'GAIN,  V,  &  n.^   See  to  Bar.  Gotl*.6flir- 
'Bar'gaininc, 
Bar'gaineu, 
Bar'oaimer. 
To  make  a  confirmed  agreement.    A  contract 
either  with  or  without  purchase,  usually  held 
binding. 

I  do  thee  no  wrong.     IMd  I  not  hargojfns  wiih  ihoe, 
•o  that  thou  shouldcste  haue  a  denarye  for  thy  dajes 
laboure  ?    Thou  haste  done  thy  labouro,  ihou  haste 
thy  couenaunte  :  I  have  nothing  more  to  doe  with  thee* 
Udall.  Matthew,  chap.  xz. 
Henry  is  able  to  ennco  his  queen. 
And  not  to  seek  a  qneen  to  make  him  rich. 
So  worthless  peasants  bargain  for  their  wives. 
As  market'men  for  oxen,  sheep  or  horse. 

6hak»pear§, 

No  longer  than  we  well  could  wash  our  hands. 

To  clap  this  royal  bargain  up  of  peace • 

Heaven  knows  they  were  besmeared  and  overstained 
With  slaughter's  pencil.  Td. 

No  bargami  break  that  are  not  this  day  made.    Id, 

Hold,  sir,  for  God's  sake  :  now  your  jest  is  earnest : 
Upon  what  bafgMH  do  you  give  it  me.  Id. 

What  is  marriage  but  a  very  bargain?  wherein  \% 
sought  alliance,  or  portion,  or  repuution,  with  somo 
desire  of  issue  y  not  the  faithful  nuptial  union  of  man 
and  wife.  Bacon, 

For  those  that  are  like  to  be  in  plenty,  they  may 
be  btagaintd  for  upon  the  ground.  Id, 

There  was  a  difference  between  courtesies  received 

from  their  master  and  the  duke  \  for  that  the  duke's 

might  have  ends  of  utility  and  bargain,  whereas  their 

master's  could  not.  Id, 

No  more  can  be  due  to  me. 

Than  at  chs  bargain  made  was  meant.        Dunne, 

Where  sold  he  bargaint,  whipstitch  ?•  Drgden, 

As  to  bargaint,  few  of  them  seem  to  bo  excellent, 
because  they  all  terminate  in  one  single  point.  Swift. 
No  maid  at  court  is  less  ashamed, 
Howe'er  for  selling  bargaint  famed.  Ids 

Give  mo  but  my  price  for  the  other  two,  and  you 

shall  even  have  that  into  the  bargain,        i'Betrange, 

He  who  is  st  the  charge  of  a  tutor  at  home,  may 

give  his  son  a*  more  genteel  carriage,  with  greater 

learning  into  the  bargain,  than  any  at  school  can  do. 

Xodke. 
It  is  possible  the  great  duke  may  bargain  for  the  re- 
public of  littcca,  by  the  help  of  his  great  treasures. 

AdditoH  on  llalg. 
All  offer  incense  at  my  dirine. 
And  I  alone  the  bargtdn  sign.  Gag, 

What  is  all  righteousness  that  men  deyiee. 
What !  but  a  sordid  bnr^ain  for  the  skies ; 
But  God  as  soon  would  abdicate  his  own. 
As  stoop  from  heav'n  to  sell  the  proud  a  throne. 

Cowper, 
It  is  adjusted,  however,  not  by  any  accurate  mea- 
sure, but  by  the  higgling  and  bargaining  of  the  market, 
according  to  that  sort  of  rough  equality  which  though 
not  exact,  is  sufficient  lor  carrying  on  the  business. 

Smith,  Wedth  of  Nationt, 

Bargain,  in  the  old  Scottish  writers,  is  ap- 
plied to  an  armed  fight  or  battle.  A  battle 
where  both  parties  hare  settled  the  preliminaries 
of  weapons  and  manner  of-  fighting,  and  are  so 
fiu  on  equal  terms  of  security  and  defence.  In 
this  sense  it  is  used  by  Chaucer  in  the  Ilomaunt 
oftheRofe. 

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This  M  the  Btnfe,  and  eke  the  afliraie. 
And  the  baull  that  lasteth  aie. 
This  bergaine  end  may  neuer  take 
But  if  that  she  thy  peace  wil  make. 

Bargain  and  Sale,  in  the  English  law,  re- 
quires to  be  farther  explained.  It  is  a  contract 
whereby  the  bargainer,  for  some  pecuniary  con- 
sideration, bargains  and  sells,  that  is,  contracts  to 
conrey  the  land  of  the  bargainee;  and  becomes 
by  such  bargain  a  trustee  for,  or  seized  to  the  use 
of,  the  bargainee  ;  and  then  the  statute  of  uses 
completes  the  purchase  :  or,  as  it  hath  been  ex- 
pressed, the  bargain  first  vests  the  use,  and  theii 
the  statute  vests  the  possession.  But  as  it  was 
foreseen  that  conveyances  thus  made  would  want 
all  those  benefits  of  notonety  which  the  old  com- 
mon law  assurances  were  calculated  to  give ;  to 
prevent  clandestine  conveyances  of  freeholds,  it 
was  enacted  by  statute  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.  16.  that 
such  bargains  and  sales  should  not  enure  (be  avail- 
able) to  pass  a  freehold,  unless  made  by  indenture, 
and  enrolled  within  six  months  in  one  of  the 
courts  of  Westminster-hall,  or  with  the  custos 
rotulorum  of  the  county.  Clandestine  bargains 
and  sales  of  chattel  interests,  or  leases  for  years, 
were  thought  not  worth  regarding,  as  such  in- 
terests were  very  precarious  till  about  six  years 
before ;  which  also  occasioned  them  to  be  over- 
looked in  framing  the  statute  of  uses  :  and  there- 
fore such  bargains  and  sales  are  not  directed  to 
be  enrolled.  This  omission  has  given  rise  to  the 
Fpecies  of  conveyance  by  lease  and  release. 
"  Bargains,  in  commerce,  are  distinguished,  at 
Amsterdam,  into  three  kinds,  viz. 

Bargains,  Conditional,  for  goods  which 
the  seller  has  not  yet  in  his  possession;  but 
which  he  knows  have  been  bought  for  him  by  his 
correspondents  abroad,  and  which  he  obliges 
himself  to  deliver  to  the  buyer,  on  their  arrival, 
at  the  price  and  conditions  agreed  on. 

Bargains,  Firm,  those  wherein  the  seller 
obliges  himself  to  deliver  to  the  buyer  a  certain 
quantity  of  goods,  at  the  price  and  in  the  time 
agreed  on. 

Bargains,  Optional,  those  wherein  a  dealer 
obliges  himself,  in  consideration  of  a  premium 
received  in  hand,  either  to  deliver  or  take  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  goods  at  a  fixed  price,  and  within 
a  time  limited :  but  with  a  liberty  of  not  deli- 
vering or  not  receiving  them,  if  he  thinks  proper, 
upon  forfeiture  of  their  premium. 

Bargains,  Forehand,  are  those  wherein 
goods  are  bought  or  sold,  to  be  delivered  at  a 
certain  time  afterwards,  some  part  of  the  price 
being  advanced. 

BAR'GE,     -)     SeetoBAR.  Dut.6argi>,  low 

Bar'ger,       >Lat.  bargGf  Goth,  bairgany  to 

Bar'geman.  3  strengthen.  A  barge,  says 
Tooke,  is  a  strong  boat,  and  this  is  still  its  widest 
meaning,  as  in  coal  barge,  &c.  &c.;  but  it  has 
also  grown  to  mean,  not  merely  a  boat  massy  and 
sea  worthy,  but  one  of  pleasure;  light,  airy,  and 
elegant,  more  remarkable  for  beauty  dian  strength. 

So  mykcll  was  J^at  harge,  it  might  not  lightly  suit. 
And  so  bevy  of  charge,  and  |)e  wynde  gam  faile. 

R.  Brmne, 

He  knew  wel  alle  the  havens,  as  they  were, 
Fru  Gotland  to  the  Cape  de  Finistere, 


bar 


And  enery  creke  in  Bretagne  and  fca  flpaJna  ; 
His  barge  ydeped  was  the  Magdelaine. 

doMcsr.  Prologui. 

Many  wafarers  make  themselves  glee,  by  pntcing 

the  inhabitants  in  mind  of  this  privilege  ;  who  again, 

like  the  Campellians  in  the  north,  and  the  Londoo 

bargen,  forslow  not  to  baigne  them. 

Corew  9  Sumjf  cj  ContwaB, 
Eno.     I  will  tell  yon. 
The  barge  she  sat  in,  like  a  bumishM  throne. 
Burnt  on  the  water ;  the  poop  was  beaten  gold. 
Purple  the  sails ;  and  so  peifomed,  that 
The  winds  were  lovesick  with  them ;  the  oai»  weie 

silver ; 
Which  to  the  tune  of  flutes  kept  stroke,  and  made 
The  water,  which  they  beat,  to  follow  faster. 
As  amorous  of  their  strokes. 

Shakspeare.    Antoi^  and  CZsipafia 
Plac'd  in  the  gilded  barge. 
Proud  with  the  burden  of  so  sweet  a  charge ; 
With  painted  oars  the  youths  begin  to  sweep 
Neptune's  smooth  face.  WaOer, 

Barges  are  vessels  of  state,  furnished  wiih 
elegant  apartments,  canopies,  and  cushions; 
e(f nipped  with  a  band  of  rowers,  and  decorated 
with  Bags  and  streamers:  they  are  generally  used 
for  processions  on  the  water  by  noblemen,  offi- 
cers of  state,  or  magistrates  of  great  cit  ies.  Those 
annually  exhibited  on  the  Thames,  at  the  electira 
of  the  lord  mayor  of  London,  are  uncommonly 
elegant. 

Barges  for  the  use  of  admirals  and  awtaioi 
of  sliips  of  war,  are  smaller  and  of  a  lighter  name, 
and  may  be  easily  hoisted  into  or  out  of  the^ps 
to  which  they  belong. 

Barges  of  Burden,  are  for  lading  and  dis- 
charging ships,  and  removing  their  cargoes  from 
place  to  place  in  a  harbour. 

Barge,  in  ornithology,  a  name  used  liy  some 
authors  for  the  god  wit  or  stone-plover;  the  sgo- 
cephalus. 

Baroe,  or  Barges,  a  town  of  Piedmont  ia 
the  district  of  the  Four  Valleys;  seven  miles 
south  of  Pi^arolo,  or  Pignerol. 

Barge-couples,  in  architecture,  abeun  mov> 
tised  into  another,  to  strengthen  the  building. 

Barge-course,  with  bricLlayera^  a  term  used 
for  that  part  of  the  tiling  which  projects  over, 
without  the  principal  rafters,  in  aU  sorts  of 
buildings  where  there  is  either  a  gable  or  a  kirkin 
head. 

BARGH-MASTER,  Barker,  or  Bar-Mas- 
ter, from  beirg-meister,  Ger.  ie.  master  of 
mines ;  in  the  royal  mines,  the  steward  or  judge 
of  the  barmote.  The  bar-master  keeps  two 
great  courts  of  barmote  yearly ;  and  eve^  week 
a  small  one,  as  occasion  requires. 

Barge  MOTE,  or  Barmote,  a  oonit  whidi 
takes  cognizance  of  causes  and  disputes  between 
miners.  By  the  custom  of  the  mines,  no  penon 
is  to  sue  any  miner  for  ore  debt,  or  for  ore,  or 
for  any  ground  of  variance,  but  only  in  tiie  court 
of  barmote,  on  penalty  of  forfeiting  the  debt,  and 
paying  the  chai^fi^  at  law. 

BARGRAVE  (Isaac),  an  EngUsh  divine,  bom 
in  1586,  and  educated  at  ClarehaU,  Cambhdge. 
He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  James  I.;  and  in 
1 6^5  was  made  dean  of  Canterbury.  When  the 
civil  war  commenced  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Fleet,  'by  colonel  Sandys,  a  man  whom  he  bad 
saved  from  the  gallows !    He  died  in  164S. 


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BARIy  a  province  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
which  has  the  Gulf  of  Venice  to  the  north,  the 
Terra  d'  Otranto  to  the  east,  Basilicata  to  the 
south,  and  Capitanata  to  the  west.  It  contains 
1760  square  miles,  and  290,000  inhabitants,  and 
is  rich  in  grain,  wine,  oil,  cotton,  fruit,  and  saf- 
fron. The  chief  town,  called  Bari,  lies  on  the 
Gulf  of  Venice,  and  is  well  fortified ;  it  is  a 
trading  place  of  some  consequence,  with  18,000 
inhabitants.  The  principal  objects  of  its  trade 
are  wine,  oil,  and  fruit;  and  a  great  deal  of  linen 
is  woven  here  for  inland  consumption.  It  has 
he  title  of  a  duchy,  and  b  an  archbishop's  see. 
Eighteen  miles  east  of  Trani,  120E.N.E.  of 
Naples.    Long.  16^  52'  E.,  lat.  41*»  15'  N. 

Bari,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in  the  province 
of  Bejapoor,  thirty  miles  south-west  of  Raibaug. 

BAIUAPOOR,  Bejapoor,  or  Bija-pur,  (a 
cormption  of  Viiaya-puri,  the  impregnable,  the 
ancient  name  of  the  capital ;)  is  a  large  province  in 
tlie  Deccan,  extending  from  the  fifteenth  to  the 
nineteenth  degrees  of  north  latitude.  It  is  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  the  province  of  Aurungabad, 
south  by  the  Toombuddra  River  and  North 
Canaia  district,  east  by  Aurungabad  and  Beeder, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Indian  Ocean ;  including 
a  superficial  area  of  350  miles  in  length,  by  200 
the  average  breadth.  The  chain  of  the  western 
Ghants  traverses  the  province  at  a  moderate  dis- 
tance from  the  coast,  with  which  it  is  in  perfect 
parallel ;  the  surrounding  region  is  mountainous, 
but  the  eastern  part  is  more  level,  watered  by 
several  fine  rivers,  particularly  the  Krishna,  the 
Beemah,  the  Toomouddra,  and  the  Gutpurba; 
the  latter  of  which,  before  tiie  year  1790,  termed 
the  separating  boimdary  between  the  dominions 
of  Tippoo  and  the  Mahrattas.  The  productions 
ot  this  province  are  the  same  as  of  the  Deccan 
gnerally ;  the  internal  traffic  is  considerable,  and 
the  banks  of  the  Beemah,  celebrated  all  over  the 
continent  for  their  superior  breed  of  horses,  sup- 
ply the  best  cavalry  in  the  Mahratta  armies. 

The  most  remarkable  natural  features  of  the 
province  are  rivers,  of  which  the  Krishna,  de- 
riving its  name  firom  the  dark  color  of  its  waters, 
or  from  its  mythological  connexion  vrith  the 
Indian  Apollo,  the  Crishna  of  the  Hindoos,  is  the 
most  important  Emerging  firom  the  western 
Ghauts,  torty-two  miles  from  the  coast,  this  river 
takes  a  southrwest  direction,  fiadls  in  with  the 
Warnah  about  Merich,  and  then  rolling  its  vast 
stream  to  the  east  receives  the  principal  riVers 
whi1;h  diversify  this  part  of  India  in  its  course, 
and  at  last  empties  itself  by  three  channels  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Although  from  its  lofty 
banks,  which  do  not  admit  of  extensive  irriga- 
tion, tnis  river  contributes  less  to  the  fertilisation 
of  the  ccrantiy  than  others  of  inferior  importance, 
it  is  perhaps  more  abundant  in  gems  than  any 
other  river  of  India;  gold,  chalcedonies,  cats- 
eyes,  onyxes,  and  even  diamonds,  being  found 
10  its  bed. 

Of  tlie  province  generally,  four-fifths  have  long 
appertained  to  the  Mahrattas,  and  the  remainder 
to  the  government  of  Nizam.  The  Peshwa, 
though  nominal  lord  of  the  whole,  has  little 
effective  jurisdiction.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  seven  millions,  of  wnom  one-twentieth 
part  are  MaHommedans,  and  the  rest  Hindoos  of 


the  Brahminical  order.  Two  languages  gene- 
rally prevail ;  the  Canara  on  the  north,  the  Mah- 
ratta on  the  south  of  the  river  Krishna;  which 
also  forms  an  interesting  line  of  separation  be- 
tween the  two  different  sMcs  of  building,  the 
houses  to  the  south  being  covered  vrith  clay  or 
mud,  and  flat  roofed,  those  to  the  north  having 
the  roofs  pitched  and  thatched. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  war  between  the 
British  and  Sindia  in  1804,  the  Mahratta  terri- 
tories of  this  province  exhibited  a  scene  of  the 
greatest  anarchy.  The  authority  of  the  Peshwa 
was  resisted  by  the  chief  of  every  petty  village. 
Tlie  chiefs  of  the  various  banditti  were  almost 
innumerable;  amongst  whom  Goklah,  Appah 
Saheb,  and  Bala  Saheb  (the  sons  of  Purseram 
Bhow,  and  heads  of  the  Putwurden  family),  Ap- 
pah Dessaye,  Furkiah,  Bapoojee  Sindiah,  Mada- 
row  Rastiah,  the  Rajah  of  Colapoor,  Futteh  Sing 
Bhoonslah,  Chintamuny  Row  (the  nephew  of 
Pursenun  Bhow),  Tantia,  Pimt  Pritty  Niddy, 
and  others,  presented  formidable  obstacles  to  the 
return  of  peace  and  tranquillity.  The  country  had 
likewise  oeen  otherwise  ravaged  and  depopu- 
lated, from  the  laxity  of  its  internal  government, 
and  the  rapid  succession  of  governors  appointed 
by  the  Pesnwa,  the  preceding  one  uniformly  op- 
posing his  successor.  The  chie&  above-namec 
although  commonly  dbtineuished  by  the  name 
of  'Southern  Jaghiredars,  were  properly  the 
Serinjamy  Sirdars  of  the  Poonah  state ;  the  pos- 
session of  whose  lands  being  granted  for  the  pay- 
ment of  troops  employed  in  state  service,  might 
be  changed  annually;  although  in  this  instance 
the  landb  themselves,  vrith  several  other  species 
of  property,  had  been  retained  for  many  years. 

Amidst  the  confiisions  consequent  on  so  em- 
barrassed a  state  of  government,  the  British  em- 
pire interposed  her  arbitration,  ascertained  on  the 
part  of  the  Peshwa  to  what  extent  of  service  he 
was  entitled  from  the  Jaghiredars,  and,  on  the 
part  of  the  latter,  engaged  to  guarantee  their  pos- 
sessions, and  protect  Uiem  from  the  oppressions 
of  the  Peshwa's  government.  General  Welles- 
ley  (now  duke  of  Wellington)  expressed  his 
disapprobation  of  the  projects  of  vengeance 
which  the  above  sovereign  had  formed  against  the 
Putwurden  fiunily,  and  others  of  the  Mahratta 
state  in  immediate  subjection  to  Poonah ;  and 
in  his  inarch  southwards  in  1804,  entered  into 
negociations  with  the  chie£i,  adjusted  the  dissen- 
sions of  the  sovereign,  and  by  the  able  co-opera- 
tion of  Col.  Close  and  Mr.  Strachey  succeeded  in 
what  the  home  government  contemplated,  the 
final  settlement  of  these  complicated  claims. 
That  it  was  effected  without  bloodshed,  is  to  the 
honor  of  British  prudence  and  benevolence. 
MSS.  Ferishta,  Moor,  Wilks,  Scott,  &c. 

The  territorial  divisions  of  the  province  are  as 
follows :— 1.  The  C6ncan ;  2.  Cola-pur ;  3.  Mur- 
tezk-ab^d;  4.  Ased-nagar ;  5.  District  of  Bijk- 
pfir;  6.  Skaur;  T.Rai-chdr;  8.Mudgal;  9.Ga- 
jindra-gar'h;  10.  Anigiindi;  11.  Bauc^-pdr; 
12.  Gandac;  13.  NCirgul;  14.  Azim-nagar;  15. 
lUi-b&gh. 

1 .  The  first  of  these  divisions,  C6ncan,  Cancana, 
or  C6can,  includes  a  portion  of  territory  220 
miles  in  length,  and  thirty-five  in  breadth,  occu- 
pying the  whole  sea  coast  of  the  province.    It  is 


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BARJAPOOR. 


bouaded  on  the  north  by  the  river  Sliwatr), 
ivhich  separates  it  from  Calylint,  on  the  west  by 
the  Indian  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  Canara,  and 
on  tl)e  east  by  the  G'hats  or  Ghauts.  Formed 
by  the  gradual  decUyity  of  the  mountains  towards 
tlie  sea,  it  presents  a  very  unequal  surface,  inter- 
sected by  numerous  streams  and  torrents,  together 
with  a  coast  diversified  with  bays  and  inlets^ 
although  without  deep  and  spacious  harbours. 
The  soil  below  the  Ghauts  is  fertile,  producing 
grain,  hemp,  cocoa-nuts,  &c.  The  trees  planted 
near  the  coast  are,  however,  more  vigorous  and 
fertile  than  those  cultivated  higher  up  the  coun- 
try, which  is  commonly  attributed  to  the  sea  air. 

The  language  of  the  province  is  peculiar,  pos- 
sessing a  great  resemblance  to  the  Sanscrit,  from 
which  some  imagine  it  is  derived.  It  is  chiefly 
cultivated  by  the  Brahmans,  a  peculiar  race,  not 
acknowledged  by  their  brethren  in  the  rest  of 
India. 

The  principal  divisions  of  the  provirice  are 
Concan,  B^honsala,  and  Goa.  The  former  in- 
cludes Fort  Victoria,  a  fortress  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Banciit  river.  This  division,  comprehend- 
ing nine  villages,  was  taken  by  tJie  British  forces 
in  1756.  So  great  is  the  advantage  of  living 
under  the  British  government,  that  in  1812  the 
population  had  nearly  doubled  within  the  last 
ten  years.  B'honsala,  the  second  division  of  the 
Concan,  is  abeautiiiil  district  formed  by  a  gentle 
slope  of  hills  descending  from  the  western  Ghauts 
to  the  sea,  and  watered  by  numerous  rivers  and 
mountain  torrents.  like  the  former,  it  has  seve- 
ral strong  posts  or  rocky  heights,  difficult  of 
access. 

Though  thinly  peopled,  the  soil  is  extremely 
fertile,  producing  cocoa,  betel  nuts,  ginger, 
sugar,  cardamoms,  pepper,  and  other  tropical  ve- 
getables in  great  abundance.  Iron  is  also  found 
in  the  mountains,  tliough  wrought  in  a  very 
clumsy  manner  by  the  natives.  Goa,  now  in 
possession  of  the  Portuguese,  forms  the  southern 
division  of  the  Concan.  Its  capital,  bearing  the 
same  name,  although  digniAed  by  many  noble 
churches  and  publicbuildings,  is  nearly  deserted 
from  the  unhealthiness  of  its  climate  and  the 
terrors  of  the  Inquisition.  So  great  is  the  fecun- 
dity of  the  Roman  church  in  this  settlement,  that 
in  the  year  1808  were  found  no  fewer  than  2000 
ecclesiastics,  although  the  whole  extent  of  the 
territory  does  not  excee(l  400  square  miles.  Tlie 
trade  has  very  much  declined,  and  the  wretched- 
ness of  the  country  presents  a  very  strikinj^  con- 
trast with  the  English  settlements  in  its  vicinity. 
where  every  luxury  is  to  be  found.  It  had  for- 
meriy  a  considerable  manufacture  of  arack,  a 
spirituous  liquor  made  from  toddy,  or  tAri,  ex- 
tracted from  the  trunks  of  palm  trees ;  but  this  is 
now  superseded  by  a  similar  spirit  at  Batavia,  of 
which  rice  and  sugar  are  the  principal  ingre- 
/iients.  The  dialect  that  is  used  here  is  a  bar- 
oarous  mixture  of  the  Portuguese,  Canarai  and 
Mahratta  languages.  This  place  has  beenv  ren- 
dered interesting  to  the  Eniflisji  reader  by  the 
visit  which  Dr.  Buchanan  paid  to  it,  a  full  ac- 
count of  which  is  inserted  in  his  Christian 
Researches. 

a.  ColA-pir,  or  Cola-poor,  according  to  the 
finrmer  division  of  the  province,  was  in  the  Ser- 


car  of  R6ib&gh,  and  snbsequently  formed  a  small 
independent  state,  composed  of  several  districts 
above  and  below  the  mountains,  but  so  inter- 
mingled with  the  neighbouring  states  as  not  to  be 
easily  discriminated. 

3.  Mortezabad,  a  contraction  of  Mortesa-abad, 
is  a  small  hilly  division  of  the  province,  at  a  much 
greater  elevation  above  the  sea  than  the  Cdncan, 
and  is  traversed  by  the  Krishna,  which  rises  at 
Mah&baliser,  within  the  same  division  of  Bf)4p 
p^r.  Among  the  most  remaricable  places'  of  this 
province  is  the  hill-fort  of  Satarah,  a  strong-hold 
of  no  small  celebrity  in  the  Mahratta  annals, 
standing  in  lat.  17**  AX  N.,  and  long.  74**  12  E., 
on  the  pinnacle  of  a  lof^  hill,  ami  accessible 
only  by  a  narrow  winding  path,  which  admits  no 
more  than  one  person  at  a  time.  Its  name, 
which  signifies  '  seventeen,'  answers  to  the  re- 
puted number  of  its  towers.  A  wall  of  solid 
rock  encloses  it  on  all  sides  to  die  height  of  thirty 
or  forty  feet.  Similar  sites  are  Sound  in  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  are  occupied  by  fortresses, 
which,  to  a  native  army,  must  be  neariy  im- 
pregnable. Kelingah  is  considered  as  ^most 
capable  of  baffling  European  skill  if  resolutely 
defended. 

4.  Ased-nagar  (the  city  of  Lions)  is  another 
division  of  this  province.  Its  chief  town  is  Pun- 
dar-p6r,  a  large  well-built  handsome  town,  and, 
what  is  more  extraordinary  in  au  Indian  city, 
has  several  broad  well-paved  streets.  The  mar- 
Icets  are  supplied  with  native  productions  and 
English  manufactures.  The  banks  of  die  river 
are  lined  with  stone  walls,  and  handsome  flights 
of  steps  lead  down  to  the  water.  The  soil  around 
is  fertile,  but  little  cultivated;  the  Brahmins 
considering  it  too  sacred  to  be  used  for  the  un- 
holy purposes  of  producing  fruit  for  mortals. 

5.  Bejapoor,  or  Vijayapura,  the  Impregnable, 
The  chief  city,  of  the  same  name  as,  and  formerly 
the  capital  of,  the  province,  h^s,  by  European 
travellers  of  the  last  three  centuries  been  deno- 
minated Viriapoor. '  The  wall  of  the  city  was 
twenty  feet  thick^  surrounded  by  a  ditch  of  vast 
dimensions,  excavated  out  of  the  solid  rock,  from 
the  berme  of  which  the  curtain  rises  nearly  forty 
feet,  composed  of  huge  stones  strongly  cemented, 
and  frequently  adorned  with  sculptural  repre- 
sentations of  lions,  tigers,  &c.  llic  tov^ers  whidi 
flank  the  wall  are  numerous  and  of  vast  siie, 
occurring  at  intervals  of  100  yards.  The  fort  i* 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  and,  measured 
by  the  counterscarp  of  the  surrounding  ditch,  is 
no  less  than  eight  miles  in  circumference,  and 
adorned  with  a  spacious  courtway  firom  150  to 
200  yards  broad.  Within  the  citadel  were  the 
king  s  palace,  the  houses  of  the  nobility,  together 
with  several  large  magazines ;  and  wiUiout  the 
walls  were  large  suburbs,  adorned  widi  noble 
palaces. 

The  rock  on  which  the  city  stood  furotdied 
abundance  of  stone  for  public  and  private  build- 
ings, and  die  style  of  their  architecture  unites 
elegance  with  solidity.  The  dty  is  well  watered 
and  the  soil  rich :  large  sums  of  money,  with 
other  valuable  articles^  are  also  found  among 
its  ruins.  It  is  said,  in  its  most  flourishing  state, 
to  have  contained  984»000  inhabited  bouses  and 
1600  mosques. 


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BAR  561  BAR 

Sftvend  enormoos  pieces  of  cannon,  to  the  its  growing  on  a  still  drier  Salter  earth,  consa- 

namber  of  twelve,  are  to  be  seen  here,  corres-  quently  it  is  impregnated  with  a  stronger  salt, 

pondingwith  the  magnitude  of  the  fort,  of  which  It  does  not  rise  above  two  inches  out  of  the 

the  three  largest  are  of  the  following  dimen-  ground,    spreading    out  into    little   tufb.    lU 

flioos  :  sprigs  are  much  flatter  and  more  pulpy  than  those 

1.  A  Malabar  gun.  of  barilla,  and  are  still  more  like  samphire.    It 

Feet.  Inchet.  is  sown  but  once  in  three,  four,  or  five  years, 

Diameter  at  the  breech 4        5  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.    Soza,  when 

Length  from  breech  to  muzzle  .  .  21        5  of  the  same  size,  has  the  same  appearance  as 

Ciioumference  of  the  trunnions   .47  gazul,  but  in  time  grows  much  larger,  as  its  na- 

Diameter  at  the  muzzle 4        3  tural  soil  is  a  strong  salt  marsh,  where  it  is  to  be 

Ditto  of  the  bore 1        9  found  in  large  tufts  of  sprigs,  treble  the  size  of 

2.  A  brass  gun  cast  by  Aurengzebe  to  comme-  ^'^^^  and  of  a  bright  g^««°/^^«^' ^^^^^^ 

mor^  the  conquest  of  Bejapoor.  ^^^  ^^  ^«  \«*V  ^T  5     v.Tw  Wnm^^ 

Feet  Inchef     9^^^^  color,  incUnmg  to  red,  which  last  becomes 

Diameter  at  the  breech 4*     lOi  *    by  degrees  the  color  of  the  whole  plant    From 

Ditto  at  the  muzzle 4        8        ^^  beginning  it  grows  upnght,  and  much  resem- 

Ditto  of  the  bore  ..  : a        4        bles  a  bush  of  young  rosemary.    Its  natur^ 

Le^j-jjj  14        1        soil  IS  on  the  declivities  of  hiUs  near  the  salt 

Circumfe'r^^'inthe  middli  !  1  '.  13        7        ^arshw,  or  on  the  edges  of  the  small  drains  or 

channels  cut  by  the  husbandmen  for  the  purpose 

3.  The  gua  called  High-flyer.  of  watering  tlie  fields ;  before  it  has  acquired  iu 

Feet  Incbe*.    foU  growth,  it  is  very  like  the  barilla  of  those 

Length 30        3|      seasons  in  which  the  ground  has  been  dunged 

Circumference  at  the  breach  ...    9        2        before  sowing.    In  those  years  of  manuring,  ba 
Circumference  over  the  smallest  riUa,  contrary  to  its  usual  nature,  comes  up  with 

part  of  the  moulding 6        0        a  tinge  of  red,  and  when  burnt  falls  far  short  of 

Diameter  of  the  bore 1        1        its  wonted  goodness,  being  bitter,  more  impreg- 

Tbe  brass  gun  is  fixed  on  its  centre  on  an  im-  nated  with  salt  than  it  should  be,  and  raismg  a 
mense  iron,  festened  in  the  ground,  and  grasping  blister  if  applied  for  a  few  minutes  to  the  tongue. 
its  trunnions  in  the  manner  of  a  swivel,  its  Barilla  contains  less  salt  than  the  others;  when 
breech  resting  on  a  block  of  wood  supported  burnt,  it  runs  into  a  mass  resembling  a  spongy 
by  a  thick  wall,  so  that  it  cannot  recoil.  For  the  stone,  with  a  faint  cast  of  blue.  Gazul,  after 
calibre  of  this  gun  an  iron  ball  weighing  2646  burning,  comes  as  near  barilla  in  its  outward 
pounds  would  be  required.  The  two  other  guns  appearance  as  it  does  while  growing  in  its  ve- 
are  constructed  of  bars  of  iron  hooped  round,  getable  form ;  but,  if  broken,  the  inside  is  of  a 
not  upon  carriages,  but  lying  on  blocks  of  wood,  deeper  and  more  glossy  blue.  Soza  and  salicor 
The  other  provinces  above  enumerated,  as  be-  are  darker,  and  almost  black  within,  of  a  heavier 
longing  to  the  territory  of  Barjapoor  are  of  minor  consistence,  with  very  little  or  no  sign  of  spon- 
importance,  and  capable  of  affording  but  little  giness.  All  these  ashes  contain  a  strong  alkali ; 
interest.  but  barilla  the  best  and  purest,  though  not  in 

BAR-JESUS,  or  Elymas,  a  Jew,  who  pre-  the  greatest  quantity.  Upon  this  principle,  it  is 
tended  to  be  a  magician ;  and  endeavouring  to  fittest  for  making  glass  and  bleaching  linen ;  the 
obstruct  Paul  and  Barnabas,  was  miraculously  others  are  used  in  making  soap.  Each  of  them 
struck  blind,  Acts  ziii.  8. — 12.  would  whiten  linen;  but  all  except  barilla  would 

BARILHA,  or  Babilla,  in  botany,  a  plant  bum  it.  A  good  crop  of  barilla  impoverishes 
cultivated  in  Spain  for  its  ashes,  from  which  the  the  laud  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  cannot  bear 
purest  kinds  of  mineral  alkali  are  obtained,  good  barilla  a  second  time^  being  quite  ex- 
There  are  four  plants,  which  in  the  early  part  of  hausted.  For  this  reason  the  richer  farmers 
their  growth,  bear  so  strong  a  resemblance  to  lay  manure  on  the  ground,  and  let  it  lie  fallow 
each  other,  that  they  would  deceive  any  but  the  for  a  season,  at  the  end  of  which  it  is  sown  afresh 
&rmer  or  critical  botanist.  These  four  are,  ba-  without  any  danger,  as  the  weeds  that  have 
rilla  gazul,  or  as  some  call  it,  algazul,  soza,  and  sprung  up  in  the  year  of  rest  have  carried  ofl*  all 
salicomia,  or  salicor.  They  are  all  burnt  to  tne  pernicious  effects  of  the  dung.  A  proper 
ashes,  but  applied  to  different  uses,  being  pos-  succession  of  crops  is  thus  secured  by  manuring 
sessed  of  different  qualities.  Some  of  the  far-  and  following  the  different  parts  of  the  farm, 
jners  mix  more  or  less  of  the  three  last  with  the  each  in  their  turn.  The  poorer  cultivators  cannot 
first;  and  it  requires  a  complete  knowledge  of  pursue  the  same  method  for  want  of  capital ;  and 
the  color,  taste,  and  smell  of  the  ashes  to  be  able  are  therefore  under  the  necessity  of  sowing  their 
to  detect  their  knavery.  Barilla  is  sown  afresh  lands  immediately  after  manuring,  which  yields 
every  year.  Its  greatest  height  above  ground  is  them  a  profit  just  sufficient  to  afford  a  present 
four  inches :  each  root  pushes  out  a  vast  number  scanty  subsistence,  though  the  quality  and  price 
of  little  stalks,  which  again  are  subdi? ided  into  of  their  barilla  be  but  trifling, 
^mailer  sprigs  resembling  samphire;  and  altoge-  Babilla,  Babillia,  or  Babiglia,  in  the 
ther  form  a  large  spreading  bush.  The  color  is  glass  trade,  is  a  sort  of  pot  aslies  imported  from 
bright  green ;  as  the  plant  advances  towards  ma-  Spain,  inferior  in  goodness  to  those  of  the  levant, 
turity,  this  col^  gradually  changes  to  a  dull  called  polverine  when  loose,  small,  and  in  pow 
green  tinged  with  brown.  Gazul  bears  the  der,  and  rochetta  when  in  hard  rocky  lumps 
greatest  affinity  to  barilla,  both  in  qualitr.  and  The  frit  made  of  these  becomes  fine  and  clear 
appearance .  the  principal  difference  consists  in    crj'stal  glass,  especially  that  from  the  rochetar,  or 


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the  polTchne  in  lumps ;  but  the  barilla  of  Spaiuy 
though  it  be  usually  fatter,  yet  makes  not  a  glass 
so  white,  but  usually  inclining  to  a  bluish  color. 
The  method  used  in  making  barilla  is  the  same 
as  that  followed  in  Britain  in  burning  kelp.  The 
plant  as  soon  as  ripe  is  plucked  up  and  laid  in 
heaps,  and  then  set  on  fire.  The  salt  juices  run 
out  below  into  a  hole  made  in  the  ground,  where 
they  run  into  a  vitrified  lump,  which  is  left  about 
a  fortnight  to  cool.  An  acre  may  give  about  a 
ton. 

BARILLARIUS,  an  ancient  officer  in  monas- 
teries and  great  households,  who  had  the  care  of 
the  casks  and  vessels  of  wine,  &c. 

BARJOLS,  a  small  populous  town  of  France, . 
in  the  department  of  the  Var,  (a  part  of  the  ci- 
devant  province  of  Provence,)  nineteen  miles 
from  Riez« 

BAR-JONAS,  a  Syriac  designation  of  St. 
Peter,  importing  that  he  was  the  son  of  Jonas. 

BARITONO,  in  music,  denotes  a  voice  of 
low  pitch,  between  a  tenor  and  a  base. 

BARIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  pf 
Apulia,  on  the  Adriatic;  so  called  from  the 
founders,  who*  being  expelled  from  the  island 
Bara,  built  this  town. 

Barium,  the  metallic  basis  of  the  earth  barytes, 
and  so  called  by  its  discoverer,  Sir  H.  Davy. 
Take  pure  barytes,  make  it  into  a  paste  with 
water,  and  put  this  on  a  plate  of  platinum.  Make 
a  cavity  in  the  middle  of  the  barytes,  into  which 
a  globule  of  mercury  is  to  be  placed.  Touch 
the  globule  with  the  negative  wire,  and  the  pla- 
tinum with  the  positive  wire  of  a  voltaic  battery 
of  about  100  pairs  of  plates  in  good  action.  In  a 
short  time  an  amalgam  will  be  formed,  consisting 
of  mercury  and  barium.  This  amalgam  must  be 
introduced  into  a  little  bent  tube,  nuuie  of  glass 
free  firom  lead,  sealed  at  one  end,  which  l^ing 
filled  with  the  vapor  of  naphtha,  is  then  to  be 
hermetically  sealed  at  the  otner  end.  Heat  must 
be  applied  to  the  recurved  end  ofthe  tube,  where 
the  amalgam  lies.  The  mercury  will  distil  over, 
while  the  barium  will  remain. 

*  This  metal,'  says  Dr.  Ure,  *  is  of  a  dark  gray 
color,  with  a  lustre  inferior  to  that  of  cast-iron. 
It  is  fusible  at  a  red  heat.  Its  density  is  supe- 
rior to  that  of  sulphuric  acid ;  for,  though  sur- 
rounded witfi  globules  of  gas,  it  sinks  imm^iately 
in  that  liquid.  When  expc^  to  air  it  instantly 
becomes  covered  with  a  crust  of  barytes ;  and 
when  gently  heated  in  air,  bums  with  a  deep  red 
light.  It  effervesces  violently  in  water,  convert-' 
ing  this  liquid  into  a  solution  of  barytes.'  Sir  11. 
Davy  thinks  it  probable  that  barium  may  be 
procured  by  chemical  as  well  as  electrical  decom- 
position. When  chloride  of  barium,  or  even 
the  dry  earth,  ignited  to  whiteness,  is  exposed  to 
the  vapor  of  potassium,  a  daik  gray  substance  is 
found  difiusea  through  the  barytes  or  the  chloride, 
not  volatile,  which  effervesces  copiously  in  water, 
and  possesses  a  metallic  appeeurance,  which  dia* 
appeaijs  in  the  air.  The  potassium,  by  being  thus 
transmitted,  is  converted  into  potash.  From  in- 
direct experiments  Sir  H.  Davy  was  inclined  to 
consider  barytes  as  composed  of  89*7  barium  -|- 
10-3  oxygen  =  100.  This  would  make  the 
prime  equivalent  of  barium  8*7,  and  that  of  ba- 
rytes  9-7,  compared  to  that  of  oxygen  1-0 ;  a 


determination  ncariy  eiacL  Dr.  Clazke  of  Cam- 
bridge, by  exposing  dry  nitrate  of  barytes  on  char« 
coal,  to  the  intense  heat  ofthe  condensed  bydroxy- 
gen  fiame,observedVnetalUo-looking  globules  in  the 
midst  of  the  boiling  fluid,  and  the  charcoal  was 
found  to  be  studded  over  with  innumerable  globules 
of  the  most  brilliant  lustre  and  whiteness.  On  let- 
ting these  globules  fall  from  the  diAicoal  into 
water,  hydrogen  was  evolved  in  a  continued 
stream.  When  the  globules  axe  plunged  m 
naphtiha,  they  retain  their  brilliancy  fasit  a  few 
days.  Barium  combines  with  oxygen  in  two 
proportions,  forming,  1st  barytes,  and  3d.  the 
deutoxide  of  barium.  See  Barytes. 
BAR'K,  v.  &  n.  "v  These  have  the  same  ori- 
Bar'kbabed,  f  gin  with  the  words  barge, 
Bar'ky,  i&c.       The     root     from 

Bar'ker.  J  which   th^   are    derived 

conveys  the  idea  of  security  and  defence.  Sec 
Bar.  The  defence  of  a  tree  is  its  bark.  It  is 
that  which  protects  it  from  the  weather.  Hence 
the  application  of  the  term  to  the  rind  or  out- 
side covering  of  the  trees.  To  burkj  is  used  in 
opposite  senses.  It  signifies  either  to  strip  off, 
or  to  cover,  as  with  baxk. 

And  M  in  winter  leaves  ben  binft, 
Ech  after  other  til  trees  be  bare. 
So  that  there  nis  but  barke  and  braunch  ylaft. 

Chameer.  TroUm  umd  Cftmk, 
In  a  walnote,  without  yt  a  byter  hmrke. 
And  often  |iat  biter  harke,  be  ^  shall  awcye, 
Ys  a  cnmal  of  oomfort.  Pmt  Phugknm 

Thy  palate  then  did  deign 
The  roughest  berry  on  the  mdest  hedge ; 
Yea,  like  the  stag,  when  snow  the  pastors  sheets. 
The  barh  of  trees,  thon  brow'sd. 

Shaktpeare,  AmUm^  mid  CUopaln, 
So  doth  the  woodbine  the  sweet  honeysuckle. 
Gently  entwist ;  the  female  ivy  so 
Enrings  the  barkif  fingers  of  the  elm. 

Id,  Miimmmer^9  Nighi  Dnmu 
What  craftsman  ait  thou,  said  the  king, 

I  pray  thee  tell  me  trowe, 
I  am  a  barker,  sir,  by  my  trade ; 

Now  tell  me  what  ait  thoaf 
Bduard  IV.  amd  Tamter  of  Tmmoartk,  m  Peng. 
The  cause  is,  for  that  trees  last  according  to  the 
strength  of  their  s^  and  juice ;  being  -well  mnnited 
by  their  bark  against  the  injuries  of  the  air. 

Bacon's  Naimr^  Hidery, 
Perhaps  some  cold  bank  is  her  bolster  now. 
Or  'gainst  the  bark  of  some  broad  elm. 
Leans  her  nnpillow'd  head  fraught  with  sad  feais. 


The  slant  lightning,  whose  thwazt  flame  driv'n  dova. 
Kindles  the  gummy  bark  of  fir  or  pine. 
And  sends  a  oomfoitable  heat  from  fax. 
Which  might  supply  the  sun.  Id* 

111  carve  thy  name  on  ftsHb  of  trees. 
With  true  love  knots  and  flourishes. 
That  shall  infuse  eternal  spring 
And  everlasting  flourishing. 
For  oft  engendered  by  the  hazy  novth. 
Myriads  on  myriads,  insect  armies  warp 
Keen  in  the  poison'd  breese,  and  wasteful  eat 
Through  buds  and  bark  into  the  blackened  core. 
Their  eager  way. 

Wand 'ring  in  the  dark. 
Physicians  for  the  tree  have  found  the  bark* 

Drydm. 

The  severest  penalties  ought  to  be  put  npon  barkiaf 

any  tree  that  is  not  felled.  TempU^ 


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Th«to  tnm,  after  thaj  am  b&HM  and  cat  into 
fthape,  an  tombled  down  from  the  moontaius  into  the 
atream.  Adduen, 

Excorticated  and  barh-bared  txeet  maj  be  preserved 
bj  noarifthing  op  a  ahoot  from  the  foot,  or  below  the 
■tripped  place,  catting  the  bodj  of  the  tree  sloping  off 
K  little  above  the  shoot,  and  it  will  heal,  and  be  covered 
with  hark,  Mortimer, 

In  the  kingdom  of  Honomotapay  thej  have  a  me* 
tKod  of  deddhig  lawsuits  equally  whimsiaJ  and  imeer* 
tain.  The  witness  for  the  plaintiff  chews  the  bark  of 
a  tree,  endued  with  an  emetic  quality ;  which,  being 
ruflieiently  masticated,  is  then  infused  in  water,  which 
is  given  the  defendant  to  drink. 


Bae'k,  o.  &  ».    )     Derived  from  the  same 
Bar'ker,  )  word  as  the  preceding.    Its 

primary  sense  is  to  guard  and  defend.  Thus 
w  bark  of  &  dog  is  his  own  defence  and  ours. 
It  apprises  of  danger,  expresses  anger,  and  ex- 
cites fear.  To  barkj  therefore,  is  to  make  a 
noise,  either  to  annoy  others,  or  to  protect  our- 
selves. 

Tile  is  the  vengeance  on  the  ashes  cold. 
And  envy  base,  to  imrk  at  sleeping  fame. 

Spmttr*i  Faerie  Queene, 
You  dare  patronage 
Hie  envious  harHttg  of  your  saucy  tongue 
Against  my  lord. 

Sent  before  my  time 

Into  this  breathing  world,  scarce  half  made  up. 

And  that  ao  lamely  and  unfashionably. 

That  dogs  bark  at  me.  Id.     Biehard  IIL 

Why  do  your  dogs  beirk  sof  be  there  bears  i'  th' 

townt  Id,MerryWtnetofWind9or, 

What  hath  he  done  more  than  a  base  cur?  barked 

«nd  made  a  noise  ?  had  a  fool  or  two  to  spit  in  his 

mou^hf    But  they  are  rather  enemies  of  my  fame 

than  me,  these  barken.  Ben  Joiutm, 

Her  clacking  mill,  driv'n  by  her  flowing  gall, 
Gould  never  stand,  but  chide,  rail,  bark,  and  bawl. 
Her  shield  no  word  could  find,  her  tongue  engrossed 
them  all.  Fleteher't  Parple  ItUmd. 

And  when  mere  age  and  strength  more  fierceness 
lent. 
She  taught  him  in  a  dark  and  deaart  wood* 
With  force  and  guile  poor  passengers  to  slay,  * 
And  en  their  flnh  his  barbag  stomach  stay. 
And  with  their  wretched  blood  his  fiery  thirst  allay. 

U. 
I  have  oft  heard 
My  mother,  Cbce,  with  the  graces  three. 
Amidst  the  iow'ry  kirtled  Naiades, 
Culling  their  potent  heibs  and  baleful  drugs. 
Who  as  they  sung  would  take  the  prison'd  soul. 
And  lap  it  in  Blysium ;  Scylla  wept, 
Xnd.  chid  her  baekie^  waves  into  attention. 
And  fell  Charybdis  murmur'd  soft  applause. 

JtfiSloii. 
Bak'k,  )  The  barh  are  all  of  a  family ; 
Bar'kmek,  )  for  their  great  progenitor,  see  to 
Bar.  a  barky  says  Tooke,  is  a  stout  vessel,  in 
the  same  sense  that  barge  is  a  strong  boat,  im- 
plying safety  and  defence.  The  word,  however, 
does  not  always  convey  this  its  primary  meaning. 
It  is  frequently  appliecf  indiscriminately  to  small 
ships  employed  either  for  commerce  or  plea- 
sure. 
Like  as  a  ship  with  dreadful  storme  long  tost. 

Having  qient  all  her  mastes  and  her  ground-hold, 
Now  fsr  from  harbour,  likely  to  be  lost. 

At  last  some  fisher  harhe  doth  neare  behold. 
That  giveth  comfort  to  her  courage  cold.  Spenter. 


And  I,  in  such  a  desperate  bay  of  death. 
Like  a  poor  bark,  of  sails  and  tackling  reft,   ' 
Rush  all  to  pieces  on  thy  rocky  bosom. 

SMkepeartt 
The  duke  of  Parma  must  have  flown,  if  he  would 
have  come  into  England:  for  he  could  neither  get 
bark  nor  mariner  to  put  to  sea. 

Bacom,  on  ike  War  wilh  S^pam, 
O  my  soul's  joy : 
If  after  every  tempest  come  such  calms. 
May  the  winds  blow  till  they  have  waken'd  death ! 
And  let  the  labouring  bark  dimb  hilb  of  seas, 
Olympus-high  ^  and  duck  again  as  low 
As  hell's  from  heaven  I  If  it  were  now  to  die, 
Twere  now  to  be  most  happy ;  for,  I  fear. 
My  soul  hath  her  content  so  absolute. 
That  not  another  comfort  like  to  this 
Succeeds  in  unknown  fate.  'd. 

Whilst  I,  in  vale  of  teais,  at  anchor  ride 
Where  winds  of  earthly  thoughts  my  sails  misguide. 
Harbour  my  fleshly  bark  safe  in  thy  wounded  side. 

Fletcker'i  Purple  hlnad. 
Some  have  the  boots  of  their  own  life  to  guide. 

Some  of  whole  families  doe  row  the  bar^. 
Some  govern  pttty  townships  too,  beside 
(To  those  compar'd  which  of  small  barkea  have 
charge) 
Some  others  ruli  great  provinces,  and  they 

Resemble  captains  of  huge  Argosies ; 
But  when  of  kingdomes  any  gayne  the  sway. 
To  generals  of  fleeU  we  liken  these.  GeorgeWUker. 
When  they  come  near  the  shore  the  frorAssMii  leap 
out  of  the  barke  into  the  sea  to  keep  the  barke  right, 
that  she  cast  not  thwart  the  shore. 

BaMifft.     Vojfagei,  4^ 
It  was  that  fatal  and  perfidious  bark 
Built  in  th'  eclipse,  and  rigg'd  with  curses  dark. 
That  sunk  so  low  that  sacred  head  of  thine,  ifiiton. 
Who  to  a  woman  trusts  his  peace  of  mind, 
TtomH  a  frail  bark  with  a  tempestuous  wind. 

GroMoiDe. 
Like  a  flag  floating  when  the  bark*9  ingulph'd. 
It  floats  a  moment,  and  is  seen  no  more ; 
One  Cvsar  lives,  a  thousand  are  forgot.      Yemig. 
Ill  fares  the  bark  with  trembling  wretches  charg'd 
That  toes'd  amid  the  floating  fragments,  moors 
Beneath  the  shelter  of  an  icy  isle 
While  night  o'erwhelms  the  sea,  and  honor  looks 
More  horrible.  Tkomton. 

My  sole  resourses  in  the  path  I  trod 
Were    these — ^my   bark — my  sword — ^my  love — my 

God' 
Hie  last  I  left  in  youth — ^he  leaves  me  now— - 
And  man  but  works  his  will  to  lay  me  low. 

Byroa  i  Cortatr. 

Bark,  in  the  anatomy  of  plants,  is  that  exte- 
rior coat  of  trees,  corresponding  to  the  skin  of  an 
animal.  For  its  organisation,  &c.  see  Botany. 
As  animsis  are  furnished  with  a  panniculus  adi- 
posiis,  usually  replete  with  iat,  wnich  invests  and . 
covers  all  the  fleshy  parts,  and  screens  them  from 
external  cold;  plants  are  encompassed  with  a 
bark  replete  witn  &tty  juices,  by  means  whereof 
the  cold  is  kept  out,  and  in  winter  the  spiculse 
of  ice  prevented  from  fixing  and  freezing  the 
juices  in  the  vessels :  whence  it  is  that  some  sort 
of  trees  remain  ever-green  all  the  year  round,  their 
barl^s  containing  more  oil  than  can  be  spent  and 
exhaled  by  the  sun,  &c.  The  bark  has  its  pecu- 
liar diseases,  and  is  infested  with  insects  pecu- 
liar to  it.  It  appears  from  the  experiments  of 
Buffon,  that  trees  stripped  of  their  bark  the  whole 


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lenf^th  of  their  steins  die  in  about  three  or  four 
years.  But  it  is  very  remarkable,  that  trees  thus 
stripped  in  the  time  of  the  sap,  and  suffered  to 
die,  afford  timber  heavier,  more  uniformly  dense, 
stronger,  and  fitter  for  service,  than  if  the  trees 
had  been  cut  down  in  their  healthy  state.  Some- 
thing of  this  nature  was  observed  by  Vitruvius 
and  Evelyn.  The  ancients  wrote  their  books  on 
bark,  especially  of  the  ash  and  lime  tree,  not  on 
the  exterior,  but  on  the  inner  and  finer  bark 
called  philyra ;  and  this  custom  is  yet  frequent 
in  the  east.  Many  kinds  of  bark  are  used  in  the 
arts.  Some  in  agriculture  and  in  tanning  lea- 
ther, as  the  oak  bark ;  some  in  physic,  as  the 
Jesuit's  &c.  others  in  dyeing,  as  the  bark  of 
alder  and  walnut  trees ;  others  in  spicery,  as  cin- 
namon, mace,  cassia  lignea,  &c. ;  and  others  for 
divers  uses,  as  the  bark  of  the  cork  tree,  &c.  In 
the  East  Indies  they  prepare  the  bark  of  a  cer- 
tain tree  so  as  to  spin  like  hemp.  After  it  has 
been  beaten  and  steeped  in  water,  they  extract 
long  threads  from  it,  which  are  something  be- 
tween silk  and  common  thread ;  being  neither 
so  soft  nor  so  glossy  as  silk,  nor  so  rough  and 
hard  as  hemp.  They  mix  silk  with  it  in  some 
stuffs,  and  these  are  called  millaes,  and  cherque- 
molles.  The  Japanese  make  paper  of  the  bark 
of  a  species  of  mulberry  tree.  See  Morus.  In 
the  island  of  Otaheite,  the  natives  make  their 
cloth,  which  is  of  three  kinds,  of  the  bark  of 
different  trees ;  the  paper-mulberry  above  men- 
tioned, the  bread-fruit  tree,  and  the  cocoa-tree. 
That  made  of  the  mulberry  is  the  finest  and 
whitest,  and  worn  chiefly  by  the  principal  peo- 
ple. Of  the  bark,  too,  of  a  tree  which  they  call 
poerou,  the  hibiscus  tiliaceus  of  Linnfeus,  they 
manufacture  excellent  matting;  a  coarse  sort 
which  serves  them  to  sleep  upon,  and  a  finer  to 
wear  in  wet  weather.  Or  the  same  bark  they 
also  make  ropes  and  lines,  from  the  thickness  of 
an  inch  to  the  size  of  a  small  packthread. 

Bark,  Jesuit's,  or  Bark  by  way  of  eminence, 
quinquina,  or  cinchona.    See  Cinchona. 

BiRK,  Indian,  Thuris  cortex,  a  medicinal 
bark,  brought  from  the  East,  rolled  up  like  cin- 
namon ;  of  a  rusty  color,  a  warm  aromatic  bitter 
taste^  and  pleasant  smell ;  sometimes  used  in  fu- 
migation against  fits  of  the  mother. 

Bark,  in  navigation,  is  a  general  name  given 
to  small  ships ;  it  is  however  sometimes  peculiar- 
ly appropriated  to  those  which  carry  three  mari- 
ners, who  are  trained  up  in  the  coal  trade.  Some 
apply  this  distinction  to  a  broad  stemed  ship, 
which  carries  no  ornamental  figure  on  the  stem 
or  prow. 

Bark,  Long,  is  a  small  ressel  without  deck, 
and  longer  and  lower  than  the  common  barks, 
being  sharp  before,  and  commonly  going  both 
with  sails  and  oars.  It  is  built  after  the  manner 
of  a  sloop,  and  in  many  places  is  called  a  double 
sloop. 

Bark,  Water,  a  little  vessel  used  in  Holland 
for  the  carriage  of  fresh  water  to  places  where  it 
is  wanting,  as  well  as  for  the  fetcning  sea-water 
to  make  salt  of.  Water  barks  have  a  deck,  and 
are  filled  with  water  up  to  the  deck. 

Bark  Bed,  in  gardening,  is  that  sort  of  hot- 
bed which  is  either  wholly  or  principally  con- 
stituted of  tanner's  bark.  This  bed,  from  its  pre- 


ienring  the  most  nniferm  and  regular  degrees  of 
heat,  is  found  by  much  the  most  useful  in  the 
propagation  and  culture  of  all  kinds  of  tender 
exotic  plants  that  are  brought  from  warm  cli- 
mates, and  which  stand  in  need  of  the  continued 
assistance  of  artificial  heat  in  this  part  of  the 
world.  Beds  of  this  nature,  with  a  little  trouble 
in  the  management  of  them,  are  found  sometimes 
to  support  a  pretty  uniform  and  regular  terape 
rature  for  a  considerable  length  of  tame.  Tb^ 
are  generally  employed  in  hot-houses,  being 
formed  in  pits  or  carities'  constructed  for  the 
purpose,  frequently  the  whole  length  of  the 
nouse,  six  or  seven  feet  in  width,  and  three  in 
depth,  being  enclosed  by  means  of  brick-woik. 
See  Bark  Pit. 

In  these  beds  the  pots  of  tender  exotics  are 
plunged  and  supportea ;  while  they  at  the  same 
time  afford  the  nouses  or  stoves  degrees  of  heat 
that  may  be  proper  for  the  growth  and  support 
of  other  plants  tnat  do  not  require  to  be  plunged 
into  the  oeds.  Bark  hotrbeds  are  likewise  occa- 
sionally formed  in  pits,  constructed  for  tfaem  in  the 
open  ground,  seplarately  and  detached  from  the 
hot-house.  "These  are  walled  round  with  bricks, 
chiefly  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  bavin?  a 
frame  or  coping  of  wood  upon  the  top,  on  which 
glass  lights  are  fixed  so  as  to  slide  with  facility. 
See  Bark  Pit. 

Beds  formed  of  bark  are  also  employed  with 
success  in  various  sorts  of  early  productions,  as 
early  strawberries,  melons,  peas,  French  beans, 
&c.,  and,  by  the  regular  and  moderate  heat 
they  afford,  they  mostly  bring  them  forward  in  the 
greatest  perfection.  They  are  likewise  made  use 
of  in  forcing  different  sorts  of  curious  flowers, 
of  the  bulbous,  tuberous,  and  fibrous*rooked  kinds, 
into  early  bloom — as  hyacinths^  dwarf-tulips, 
narcissus,  jonquils,  anemonies,  ranunculuses, 
pinks,  &c.  also  many  flowering  plants  of  the 
small  shrubby  kind,  as  roses,  hypericoms,  fcc. 
Bark  beds  are  also  employed  with  great  advan- 
tage in  forcing  frames  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing early  fruit  of  the  apricot,  peach,  and 
grape  kinds.  See  Forcing  Frames  and  Hot- 
Walls. 

Hot-beds  constituted  of  bark,  from  the  slow 
and  regular  manner  in  which  the  heat  is  in 
common  evolved,  are  not  so  liable,  as  those  of 
dung,  to  injure  die  plants  by  their  steam ;  tbej 
are  therefore  to  be  preferred  for  all  the  more  im- 
portant purposes  of  forcing,  where  the  material 
can  be  obtained.  The  heat  of  them  may  be  per-* 
petuated  for  a  great  length  of  time,  by  faATing  le- 
course  occasioinlly  to  &e  practice  of  forking  or 
turning  them  over,  adding  in  such  operatiolis 
about  a  third  part  of  new  tan  or  bark.  The  beds 
are,  however,  to  be  wholly,  or  in  great  part,  n- 
newed  every  autumn  and  spring. 

Bark  Mill,  a  mill  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  grinding  and  preparing  bark  till  it  is  fit 
for  the  use  of  the  tanner.  Bark  mills,  like  most 
other  mills,  are  worked  sometimes  by  means  of 
horses,  at  others  by  water,  at  others  by  wind,  or 
by  steam.  Several  of  these  mills  are  described 
in  different  volumes  of  the  Repertory  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures,  and  an  ingenious  one  in  Gregory's 
Mechanics,  vol.  ii.  Mr.  Chapman*s  simple  ma- 
chinery for  this  purpose  (for  which  he  took  out  a 


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patent  in  July  1605)  is  thus  daieribed,  as  bdaw, 
in  No.  3,  of  cfae  Retrospect  of  Arts  and  Manu- 
factufes.    It  may  be  worked  by  lioxses,  or  in  any 
of  the  usual  ways.  A  large  horizontal  face-wheel 
gives  motion  to  a  horizontal  tumbling  shaft, 
which  unites  with  the  gudgeon  of  a  large  rag- 
bariel :  two  other  cylinders  are  posited  horison- 
tally  with  respect  to  this  rag-barrel,  one  on  each 
side;  one  of  these  is  a  smaller  rag-barrel,  the 
other  is  a  'spike^roller.    A  moderate-eized  wheel 
at  one  end  of  the  larger  rag-barrel  has  its  teeth  to 
play  into  the  leaves  of  a  pinion  on  the  end  of  the 
spike-roller,  thus  communicating  motion  to  that 
roller  and  to  a  large  ily-wheel  turning  on  the 
same  axis:  two  or  three  other  smaller  wheels 
and  pinions  communicate  motion  from  the  lareer 
to  the  smaller  barrel,  and  in  such  manner  that 
the  latter  has  a  considerably  less  Telocity  than  the- 
former,  and  turns  the  contrary  way.    A  hori- 
zontal hollow  frame  contains  the  barrels  and 
spike-roller,  and   the  bottom  plate  of  this  is 
movable  by  means  of  screws,  so  as  to  be  capable 
of  adjustment,  and  placed  at  a  suitable  distance 
from  the  rag-barrel,  to  act  as  a  grinding-plate. 
Two  screws,  whose  heads  are  at  one  end  of 
this  frame,  serve  to  place  the  smaller  rag-barrel 
at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  larger.    This 
large  barrel  has  about  twenty  rows  of  plates  with 
their  indentations  turning  downwards,  while  the 
indentations  of  the  smaller  barrel  project  up- 
wards ;  so  that  this  latter  barrel  gathers  the  bark 
and  holds  it  fast,  while  the  larger  one  tears  it  to 
pieces ;  and  the  spike-roller  on  the  other  side  of 
this  larger  barrel  keeps  it  clean.     A  sloping 
spout  conveys  the  torn  bark  flrom  the  grinaing- 
plate  to  an  inclining  cylinder,  posited  like  the 
cylinders  in  dressing  machines  for  flour-mills: 
tlie  wires  of  this  cylinder  are  of  two  difif^rent 
kinds  with  respect  to  fineness,  the  coarsest  beins 
lowermost ;  and  beneath  it  two  bins  are  placeo, 
the  one  to  receive  the  finer  dust,  the  otner  the 
coarser  or  hand-dust  from  the  cylinder;  and 
next  to  these  stands  a  basket  to  receive  the  torn 
bark  as  it  passes  through  the  cylinder. 

Bark  Fit,  a  pit  or  cavity  of  a  long,  square,  or 
other  form,  a  yard  or  more  in  depth,  appertain- 
ing to  a  hot-hbase  or  stove,  &c.  and  being  formed 
internally,  or  detached  externally,  in  which  to 
make  tan  or  bark  hot-beds,  commonly  called 
bark  beds.  The  dimensions  are  four,  five,  or 
six  feet  in  width,  or  more,  having  length  in  pro- 
portion to  that  of  the  hot-house,  &c.,  and  when 
in  detached  pits,  such  as  may  be  required.  In 
both  methods  they  are  formed  by  a  low  surround- 
ing brick-wall,  about  a  yard  in  height  in  the  in- 
ternal pits,  and  in  the  external  ones  three  or  four 
feet  in  front,  by  four  or  five  in  the  back  wall, 
riiese  different  sorts  of  pits  are  indispensably  ne- 
cessary, where  bark  beds  are  intended,  to  make 
:he  beds  in,  as  the  short  loose  nature  of  the  tan 
wrill  not  admit  of  being  formed  into  compact  re- 
nilar  beds  without  the  aid  of  such  kinds  of  en- 
closed pits  to  confine  it  close  together  within  the 
imits  that  are  requisite  in  the  formation  of  the 
3eds. 

Bark  pits  are  neces.«ary  for  various  purposes, 
11  all  hot-houses  or  stoves,  and  occasionally  in 
orcing-houses,  &c.  And  detached  bark  pits, 
listinct  from  the  hot-housf',  are  likewise  very 


xuefiU  in  aU  extensive  gavdeos  oa  many  oooa* 
sions,  being  of  great  service  in  the  culture  of 
many  sorts  of  tender  exotics,  and  in  raising  va- 
rious kinds  under  different  methods  of  propaga- 
tion, as  well  as  for  raising  and  nursing  those  of 
similar  kinds  in  their  young  and  tender  growth ; 
also  occasionally  for  forcing  and  raising  early 
productions  of  several  sorts  of  hardy  plants  in 
the  greatest  perfection. 

Hot-houses,  or  stoves  of  the  common  widtb> 
have  in  geneml  only  one  pit,  extending  length- 
ways of  them,  as  described  above ;  but,  if  they  are 
of  considerable  extent  in  length,  the  pit  is  some- 
tiroes  divided  in  the  middle  by  an  intervening 
passage,  to  render  it  more  convenient  in  per- 
forming tlie  necessary  culture  of  the  plants. 
Some  hot-houses,  however,  of  very  great  width, 
have  two  internal  bark  |its  ranging  parallel 
lengthways,  with  an  alley  or  passage  extending 
between  them,  which  renders  tnem  more  commo- 
dious in  giving  the  requisite  culture  to  the  plants 
that  are  plunged  in  the  beds,  than  if  the  whole 
was  in  one  extremely  wide  pit,  in  which  it  would 
often  be  very  inconvenient  to  come  at  the  plants 
placed  towards  the  middle  of  them ;  so  that  two 
parallel  pits,  four  or  five  feetwide  each,  become 
more  eligible  than  one  of  eight  or, ten  feet,  and, 
by  having  an  intervening  passage,  give  a  larger 
scope,  and  afford  a  better  current  of  air,  for  the 
growth  of  the  plants  in  the  beds,  as  well  as  ad- 
rait  of  viewing  them  to  greater  advantage  and 
effect. 

Detached  bark  pits  should  always  be  erected 
in  warm  dry  situations,  in  a  southerly  aspect, 
and  be  constantly  ranged  lengthways  in  the  di- 
rection of  east  and  west,  or  nearly  so,  in  order 
to  have  the  whole  flront  incline  ftillv  to  the  south 
sun,  in  a  sloping  manner,  on  which  to  place  the 
glasses  in  the  same  position,  being  |enerally  sta- 
tioned either  contiguous  to  the  hot-house  or 
stove,  but  at  a  proper  distance  in  front  of  it,  as 
the  situation  and  convenience  of  the  place  may 
admit ;  or  they  may  be  erected  at  one  or  at  bom 
ends,  extending  in  a  line  with  it  but  separated 
by  a  passage, between  them.  But  detached  bark 
pits  are  sometimes  fi>rmed  with  ridged  tops,  like 
the  roo6  of  houses,  the  glasses  sloping  tp  both 
sides,  being  ranged  lengthways  north  and  south, 
in  order  to  have  the  benefit  of  the  sun  equally  on 
boA  sides,  and  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
the  otfiera;  though  the  common  south-fronting 
pits,  extending  east  and  west,  are  more  generally 
adopted,  being  less  expensive  in  glass-work,  &c. 
and,  in  general,  more  convenient  for  different 
purposes  of  the  forcing  kind.  They  should  be 
constructed  with  walls  of  brick-work,  forming 
the  upright  sides  and  ends  nine  inches  thick ; 
and  where  fire-flues  are  intended,  the  back  wall 
should  be  of  a  proper  thickness  from  the  bottom 
to  admit  of  having  flues  in  the  upper  parts,  a 
fire-place  being  contrived  externally  at  the 
bottom  at  one  end;  or,  in  considerably  ex- 
tended pits  a  double  fire-place  may  be  fonned 
in  the  middle,  beliind,  or  one  at  each  end,  either 
endways  or  in  the  back  part,  as  may  be  fought 
the  most  convenient.  Some  detached  pits  are 
formed  of  wood-work  only,  by  means  of  post 
and  planking,  serving  for  particular  occasions, 
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purpose  cannot  be  admitted  in  fuch  kinds  of 
pits  ;  where  additional  heat  is  occasionally  ne- 
cessary in  such  pits,  it  is  effected  by  applying  a 
strong  lining  oi  hot  dung  to  the  outsides;  by 
which  a  go^  constant  heat  may  be  supported. 
In  these  bark  pits  sometimes  the  younger  pine- 
apple plants  are  deposited  and  nursed  for  the 
first  year;  they  are  likewise  occasionally  used 
for  the  purposes  of  propagating,  raising,  and 
nursing  tender  plants  in  spring  and  summer,  &c. 
also  for  forcing  early  esculent  crops,  flowers,  &c. 

The  principal  detached  bark  pits  should,  bow* 
ever,  be  formed  with  brick-work  walls ;  as  being 
the  most  effectual  for  general  use,  and  of  the 
greatest  duration. 

BARKARY,  a  tan-house,  or  place  to  keep 
bark  in,  for  tanners. 

BARK-BINDING,  a  distemper  incident  to 
trees ;  cured  by  slitting  the  bark,  or  cutting  along 
the  grain. 

'  BARK-GALLING,  is  when  the  trees  are 
galled  with  thorns,  &c.  It  is  cured  by  binding 
clay  on  the  galled  places.  . 

BARK  HAM  (Dr.  John),  a  learned  dirine  and 
antiquary,  bom  at  Exeter  about  1572,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  He  possessed  successively  se* 
veral  preferments,  and  died  at  Booking  in  £isex, 
of  which  he  was  rector  and  dean,  1642.  He 
was  an  accomplished  scholar,  and  an  exact  his- 
torian. He  had  an  excellent  collection  of  coins 
and  medals,  which  he  gave  to  archbishop  Laud, 
and  which  Laud  afterwards  left  to  the  university 
of  Oxford.  Speed  acknowledges  the  assistance 
he  had  from  Barkhara,  whom  he  styles  '  a  gen- 
tleman, composed  of  learning,  virtue,  and  cour- 
tesy.' The '  Annals '  of  John  and  Henry  II.  are 
reckoned  to  be  chiefly  of  his  writing.  He  had 
also  the  principal  hand  in  <  Guillim's  Display  of 
Heraldry,?  1610,  fol. 

Barkam-sted.    See  Berkhamstead. 

BARKING  OF  Trees,  the  peeling  off  the 
nnd  or  bark.  This  must  be  done,  in  our  climate, 
in  the  month  of  May,  because  at  that  time  the 
sap  separates  the  bark  from  the  wood.  It  would 
be  very  difficult  to  perform  it  at  any  other  time  of 
the  year,  unless  the  season  was  extremely  wet 
and  rainy ;  for  heat  and  dryness  are  a  very  great 
hindrance  to  it. 

Barking,  a  town  of  Essex,  on  the  river 
Roding,'  near  the  Thames,  chiefly  inhabited  by 
fishermen.  It  once  had  a  large  monastery.  The 
Danes  destroyed  the  town  in  870,  but  it  was  re- 
built soon  after  the  coronation  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  The  soil  of  the  vicinity  is  remark- 
ably rich,  but  the  air  is  unhealthy.  Goods  are 
brought  up  from  the  Thames  in  vessels  to  its 
quay.  It  is  seven  miles  from  London,  has  a 
fair  October  22d,  and  a  market  on  Saturday. 

BARKSDALE  (Clement),  a  learned  writer, 
bom  at  Winchcombe,  in  Gloucestershire,  in 
1609.  He  received  the  first  part  of  his  educa- 
tion at  Abingdon-school,  ana  afterwards  went 
to  Oxford.  He  became  master  of  the  grammar- 
school  at  Hereford;  but  when  the  rebels  took 
that  city,  he  removed  to  Hawling,  in  Glouces- 
tershire, and  opened  a  school  there.  At  the  Re- 
storation he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Naun- 
ton,  and  died  there  in  1687.  His  writings  are, 
1.  Monumenta  Literaria:    sive  obitus  Elogia 


Dactoram  virorum,  ex  Historiis  J.  A.  Uniim, 
4to.  2.  Nympha  Libethtis,  or  the*  Cotswold 
Muse,  8vo.  1651.  3.  life  of  Hugo  Grotius, 
12mo.  1652.  4.  Memorials  of  WorSiy  Persons, 
12mo.  1661 ;  and  other  tracts.  He  also  pub- 
lished several  sermons. 
BARKWAY,  a  town  of  Hertfordshire,  on  the 

nroad  from  London  to  York;  three  mfies 
Royston,  eighteen  from  Cambridge,  aad 
thirty-five  from  London.  It  has  a  £ur  July  20, 
and  a  market  on  Friday. 

BARLAAM,  a  learned  monk  of  the  fourteendi 
century,  was  a  native  of  Calabria.  Having  gone 
to  Constantinople  to  study  the  Greek  language, 
he  gained  the  mvor  of  the  emperor  Androniciis, 
of  whom  he  received  the  abb«y  of  Sl  Sarionr, 
and  was  employed  to  negociate  a  reunion  between 
the  two  churches.  The  emperor  also  employed 
him  to  solicit  the  assistance  of  the  Christian 

Erinces  against  the  infidels  j  and  on  his  retara 
e  occupied  his  pen  in  writing  against  tlfe  La- 
tins. He,  however,  quickly  changed  his  princi- 
ples on  being  made  bishop  of  Gerace,  in  Italy, 
and  commenced  an  opponent  of  the  Greeb. 
He  died  in  134'8.  His  letters  were  printed  in 
Ingolstadt  in  1604.  He  was  a  great  oppooeni 
of  Greg.  Palama  and  the  He^chasts. 

Barlaamites,  in  church  history,  the  foUoweis 
of  Barlaam. 

BARL^US  (Caspar),  professor  of  philosophy 
at  Amsterdam,  and  one  of  the  best  Latin  poets 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  defended  Ar- 
minius;  and  showed  hb  abilities  as  an  historian 
by  his  relation  of  what  passed  in  Brasil,  during 
the  government  of  prince  Maurice,  of  Nassau^ 
published  in  1647.    He  died  in  1648. 

Barl£US  (Lambert),  professor  of  Greek  at 
Leyden.  In  conjunction  with  Rivius,  he  trans- 
lated the  confession  of  the  reformed  churches 
into  Greek,  and  published  the  Timon  of  Ludan, 
with  notes;  also.  Annotations  on  Hesiod's 
Theogony.    He  died  in  1655. 

BARLAND  (Adrian),  a  learned  Dutch  critic, 
was  professor  of  eloquence  at  Louvain.  He 
published  Notes  on  Terence,  Virgil,  Pliny  the 
younger,  and  Menander;  Aji  Abridgement  of 
Universal  History ;  The  Chronicles  of  the  Dukes 
of  Brabant ;  De  Literatis  urbis  Romae  Priocipi- 
bus,  &c.    He  died  at  Louvain  in  1542. 

BARLERIA,  Snap-Dragon,  in  botany,  a 
genus  of  the  angiospermia  order,  and  didy- 
namia  class  of  plants,  ranking  in  the  natural 
method  under  the  fortieth  order  personate:  cau 
quadripartite,  two  of  the  stamina  much  less 
than  the  rest ;  the  capsule  quadrangular,  bilo- 
cular,  bivalved,  elastic,  and  without  claws ;  and 
the  seeds  are  two.  There  are  tea  speaes; 
all  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of  America,  and 
therefore  required  to  be  kept  in  a  stove,  and 
treated  like  other  tender  exotics.  They  possess 
no  great  beauty  nor  any  remarkable  property. 

BARLETTA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Italy,  in  Na- 

files,  in  the  Terra  di  Bari,  with  a  bisbop*s  see. 
t  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  diirty  miles 
south-east  of  Manfredonia. 

Barletta  (Gabriel),  a  Dominican  of  singular 
feme  in  the  fifteenth  centuiv.  He  was  bora  at 
Barietta,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  about  1400. 
'His  sermons>'  says  Dr.  Watkinsi  < exhibit  such 


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a  Biixlan  of  feligioas  and  eomic  expressions, 
•oblime  and  vulgar  ideas,  the  serious  and  the  ri- 
diculous, and,  what  is  more  remaricable,  the 
whole  written  in  such  a  haiharous  language, 
compounded  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian,  as  to 
have  rendered  them  one  of  the  most  extraordi- 
naiy  productions  of  literature.  Such,  however, 
was  his  £Eune  among  his  contemporaries,  as  to 
bave  occasioned  this  proverb:  ^nescit  piedicare 
qui  nes^it  Barleitare/  From  this  singular  and 
raie  merit,  his  sermons  were  eagerly  sought  after 
and  lead,  and  thej  quickly  passed  through  more 
than  twenty  editions.  The  best  is  that  of  Ve- 
nioe,  in  1577,  two  vols.  8vo. 

BAHLEY,  n.  i.  derived  by  Junius  from  13 
hordeum . ;  grain  of  which  malt  is  made.  It  hath 
a  thick  spike ;  the  calyx,  husk,  awn,  and  flower, 
are  like  those  of  wheat  or  lye,  but  the  awns  are 
rough;  the  seed  b  swelling  in  the  middle,  and^ 
for  the  most  part,  ends  in  a  sharppoint,  to  which 
the  hvaka  are  closely  united.  Tne  species  are, 
1.  Common  long-eared  barley.  2.  Winter  or 
equarebarley,  by  some  called  htg.  3.  Sprat  bar- 
ley, or  bati  edoor  barley.  AW  these  sorts  of  bar- 
ley are  sown  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  in  a  dry 
time.  In  some  venr  dry  light  land,  the  barley 
is  sown  early  in  March ;  but  in  strong  clayey 
•oils  it  is  not  sown  till  April.  The  square  barley, 
or  bigf  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land and  in  Scotland;  and  is  hardier  than  the 
other  wotts.^—MiUer,  Barley  is  emollient,  moist- 
ening, and  expectorating ;  barley  was  chosen  by 
Hippocrates  as  a  proper  food  in  inflammatory 
distempers.— *ilr6tf<Aiii><  on  Aliments. 

Ba'rletbbake,  n.  t .  a  kind  of  rural  play. 

By  neighboun  pnis'd  she  went  abroad  thereby, 
At  haiUjfhrakt  her  sweet  swift  feet  to  tiy.     Siiu^. 
Ba'blet-bboth,  n.  $.  from  barley  and  broth; 
t       a  low  word  sometimes  used  for  strong  beer. 
I  Can  sodden  water 

A  drench  for  sarreyn'd  jades,  their  lariey  hnth. 
Decoct  their  cold  blood  to  such  valiant  heat  f 
t  Shakspean. 

Barley-cobn,  n.  $,  from  barley  and  corn ;  a 
!       grain  of  barle;^ ;  the  begmning  of  our  measure  of 

length;  the  tmrd  part  of  an  inch, 
f        A  long,  long  Journey,  choak'd  with  brakes  and  thorns, 
b        HI  meator'd  by  ten  thoosand  barkjf  conu.         TiekeU 

Bablbt-vow,  n.  t .  from  bariey  and  mow ;  the 
place  where  reaped  barley  is  stowed  up. 
inienever  by  yon  haHey  mow  I  pass. 

Before  my  eyes  win  trip  the  tidy  Uss.      0^. 

\  Babley  Bibd,  in  zoology,  a  name  given  in 

,       Sussex  to  the  fringilla  spinus,  or  siskin,  on  ao- 
,       count  of  its  visiting  them  in  barley  time. 

Babley,  in  botany.  See  Hobdeum  and 
Agbicultvm.  The  principal  use  of  barley  in 
England  is  for  makingbeer;  in  order  to  which 
it  is  first  malted.  See  Bbewivo.  The  Spaniards, 
among  whom  malt  liquors  are  little  known,  feed 
their  horses  with  barley  as  we  do  with  oats.  In 
this  country  barley  is  a  frequent  ingredient  in 
broths. 

6\BLEY,  Fbekch,  and  Babley,  Pxabl, 
barley  freed  of  the  husk  by  a  mill ;  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  being,  that  the  pearl 
barle?  it  reduced  to  the  size  of  small  shot,  all 


but  the  very  heurt  of  the  grain  being  ground 
away. 

Babley-Wateb  is  a  decoction  of  either  of 
these,  reputed  soft  and  lubricating,  of  frequent 
use  in  physic.  This  well  known  decoction  is  a 
very  useful  drink  in  many  disorders;  and  is  re- 
commended, with  nitre,  by  some  authors  of  re- 
putation, in  slow  fevers. 

Babley-Bboth.    See  Bablby. 

Babley-Cobn ,  is  used  to  denote  a  long  mea- 
sure, containing  in  length  one-third  of  an  inch, 
and  in  breadth  one-eighth.  The  French  carpen-* 
ters  also  use  barley«K»m,  grain  d*orge,  as  equi- 
valent to  a  line,  or  one-twelfUi  of  an  inch. 

Babley-Cobn,  grain  d'orge  Fr. ;  is  also  used 
in  building  foY  a  little  cavity  betireen  the 
moulding  of  joiners'  work,  serving  to  separate 
or  keep  them  asunder;  thus  called,  because 
made  with  a  kind  of  plane  of  the  same  name. 

BARLOW  (Francjs),  ^  an  English  painter, 
bom  in  Lincolnshire.  On  his  coming  to  London, 
he  was  placed  with  a  limner ;  but  his  genius  led 
him  chiefly  to  drawing  of  birds,  fish,  and  otlier 
animals.  There  are  six  books  of  animals  from 
his  drawing^,  and  his  etchings  are  numerous; 
his  illustrations  of  i&sop  is  his  greatest  work. 
He  died  in  1702.  There  is  something  pleasing 
in  his  composition  and  manner,  though  neither 
is  excellent.  His  birds,  in  general,  are  better 
than  his  beasts. 

Bablow  (Thomas),  bom  in  1607,  was  ap- 
pointed fellow  of  Queen's  college,  Oxford,  in 
1633,  and  two  years  after  was  chosen  reader  of 
metaphysics  to  the  university.  He  was  keeper 
of  the  Bodleian,  and  in  1657  was  chosen  provost 
of  Queen's  college.  After  the  Restoration,  he 
was  nominated  one  of  the  commissioners  for  re- 
storing the  members  expelled  in  1646.  He 
wrote  at  this  time  The  Case  of  Toleration  in 
Matters  of  Religion.  In  1675  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Lincoln.  After  the  popish  plot,  he 
published  several  tracts  against  the  Roman  Car 
tholics;  in  which  he  shows  an  uncommon  ex- 
tent of  learning  and  polemical  skill.  When  the . 
duke  of  York^  however,  was  .proclaimed  king,  ho 
took  every  opportunity  of  expressing  bis  affec- 
tion towards  him ;  but  after  the  Revolution,  as 
readily  voted  that  the  king  had  abdicated  his 
kingdom;  and  was  very  zealous  in  excluding 
those  clergymen  who  refused  the  oaths.  His 
moderation,  to  call  it  by  the  softest  name,  was 
very  great ;  so  great,  indeed,  as  often  to  bring 
the  firmness  of  his  character  into  question.  But 
casuistry,  which  was  his  most  distinguished  ta- 
lent, reconciles  seeming  contradictions.  He  died 
at  Buckden,  in  Huntingdonshire,  in  1691,  aged 
e^h^r-five. 

Bablow  (Joel),  an  American  poet,  the 
author  of  the  Columbiad,  was  bom  at  Reading, 
in  the  state  of  Connecticut,  in  the  year  1 757.  He 
.  received  his  education  at  Dartmouth  Colle^ ; 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  straggle  which  hb 
country  maintained  for  independence,  served  in 
he  armv.  When  his  services  were  no  longer  re- 
tuired  m  the  capacity  of  a  soldier,  he  commenced 
the  task  of  benefiting  his  country,  and  promoting 
his  own  fortune  as  a  public  wnter;  and,  having 
enpged  in  partnership  with  a  bookseller  and 
prmter  at  Hulford^  conducted  a  newsraper  there 


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for  two  yekn.  His  edncatioli  had  been  directed 
tn  the  profession  of  law,  although  the  troubles  of 
tlie  American  union  had,  for  a  time,  diverted  his 
mind  fvorn  legal  pursuits ;  and  on  the  restoration 
of  tranquillity,  and  the  establishment  of  inde- 
pendence, he  resumed  his  original  determination. 
He  was  accordingly  called  to  the  bar  in  17B5, 
and  practised  for  some  time  with  success.  Two 
years  afterwards  he  published  his  Vision  of  Co- 
lumbus, a  poem  in  nine  books,  which  em- 
braced almost  all  the  events  of  the  epic,  which 
^e  subsequently  gave  the  world  under  the  title 
of  the  Columwad.  In  the  same  year,  or  nearly 
about  the  same  time,  he  accepted  of  the  situation 
of  agent  to  the  Ohio  Land  Company.  In  this 
t».pacity  he  came  to  England  to  sell  their  lands, 
and  to  engage  settlers  to  occupy  them.  The 
same  employment  led  him  to  France,  where  he 
remained  durhig  the  era  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion ;  and  as  he  witnessed  in  his  own  country  a 
straggle  for  liberty  and  independence,  ending  in 
the  most  brilliant  success,  so  he  sympathised, 
without  reserve^  in  the  feelings  of  the  French 
popular  party,  and  anticipated  from  th^r  efforts 
the  most  glorious  results.  Neither  the  precipi- 
tate violence  with  which  the  demagogues  pro- 
secuted their  objects  of  reform,  nor  the  atrocities 
df  a  licentious  mob,  who  received  the  watch- 
word of  havoc  and  bloodshed  from  the  fierce 
spirits  now  called  into  action,  nor  the  acts  of 
tyrannical  injustice  committed  under  the  sacred 
<name  of  liberty,  could  deter  this  intrepid  repub- 
lican from  admiring  and  applauding  tne  work  of 
revolutiOtt.  Nor  was  he  satisfied  with  bestowing 
%n  ft  his  own  individual  tribute  of  encourage- 
ment and  approbation.  He  offered  himself  as 
one  of  the  aeputies  from  the  London  Constitu- 
tional "Society,  who  should  carry  to  ^e  hall  of 
'the  French  convention  lihe  congratulations  of 
Eneland  upon  the  glorious  prospect  of  a  regener- 
ated people,  and  to  unite  their  wishes  with  that 
assembly  for  the  general  diffusion  over  the  world, 
df  the  freedom  that  assembly  had  conferred  on 
their  country.  About  the  same  time  he  pub- 
lished three  political  pamphlets,  containing  his 
opinions  on  passing  events,  and  preaching  the 
doctrine  of  reform.  One  of  these  is  entitledt 
Advice  to  the  privileged  Orders,  and  was  a, 
Ihe  time  read  with  great  avidity.  His  political 
lucubraitions,  and  the  part  he  took  in  conveying 
to  the  national  convention  of  France  the  address 
of  English  subjects,  were  regarded  with  a  jealous 
eye  by  the  administration  of  this  country,  and 
rendered  it  unadvisable  in  him  to  return  to 
Brttiiin.  He  continued  therefore  at  Paris,  and 
was  much  connected  with  ttie  leaders  of  the  Gi- 
ronde  party.  Washington,  being  then  president 
Of  tke  United  States,  appointed  him,  in  1795, 
envoy  to  the  Batrbary  powers,  and  with  them,  in 
the  following  year,  he  negocialed  treaties  of 
peace.  From  the  year  1796  till  1804,  he  prin- 
cipally resided  at  Paris,  kept  an  elegant  house, 
entertained  occasionally  the  Americans,  or  the 
Yew  English  who  could  visit  that  city,  and  gained 
the  esteem  of  the  natives  by  the  politeness  and 
urbanity  of  his  manners,  lie  thus  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  see  the  tree  of  liberty,  Whose  roots  had 
been  watered  with  the  best  blood  of  France,  cut 
dotra  by  the  axe  of  a  military  despot    He  had 


the  misfortune  to  see  tbo«e  ferocfons  eitiBBiit 
who,  at  first,  pretended  a  desire  to  lediw  under 
its  shadow,  only  maddened  with  its  fruits,  and, 
in  the  paroxysms  of  the  fury  which  they  inspifed, 
rushing  forth  to  conquer  and  oppress  the  nafim. 
In  1804  Mr.  Barlow  resolved  to  return  lo  Ame- 
rica, and  in  his  way  thither  visited  Strand,  in 
the  metropolis  he  was  well  received  by  muiy  who 
had  experienced  his  hospitality  at  Paris,  and  re- 
mained for  a  few  months  to  enjoy  their  society. 
He  was  cured  of  his  admiration  for  French 
liberty,  and  deplored  the  estaUishment  of  the 
imperial  power ;  but  bis  preference  for  a  re* 
puDlic  seemed  to  have  remained  undiaaged. 
After  returning  to  America,  he  occupied  him- 
self with  revising,  emending,  and-  enlarfring  his 
poem  on  American  history,  which,  upoa  republi- 
cation>  he  entitled  the  Columbiad.  It  appeared  hi 
1808,  in  a  splendid  volume,  printed  at  Phiia< 
delphia,  adorned  with  engravings,  and  was  Ihe 
most  magnificent  work  that  had  issued  f  roAi  the 
American  press.  But  its  reception  in  the  lite- 
rary worid  was  not  coaformable>  with  the  splen- 
dor of  its  appearance.  It  was  read  and  criti- 
cised in  this  country  when  it  first  appeared,  but 
it  never  bad  much  cireulatioB,  and  we  believe  | 
as  now  almost  forgotten.  Mr.  Barlow's  prin- 
ciples and  conduct  could  not  ^1  to  render  hin 
a  favorite  with  the  ruling  party  in  the  American 
states^  and  as  he  was»  from  long  residence  in 
Paris,  well  acquainted  with  the  French  chaiM- 
ter,  and  the  principles  of  the  French  gOTeranent, 
he  was  employed  by  president  Maddison,  m 
1812,  in  amission  to  r ranee.  The  relaiioas  ef 
America  with  the  French  empire  were  then  in  a 
very  intricate  undecided  state,  but  requiring  a 
speedy  understanding  and  prompt  adjustment ; 
and  as  the  emperor,  in  his  Russian  expeditioa, 
had  carried  the  powers  of  the  government  along 
with  him,  Mr.  Barlow  set  out  from  Paris  to  en« 
counter  Uie  severities  of  a  Polish  winter  in  ob- 
taining an  interview  with  the  Great  Napoleon. 
He  was  not  favored  with  a  sight  of  the  empe^ 
ror ;  and  though  he  lived  till  he  returned  from 
Moscow,  the  swords  of  the  Cossacks  had  ren- 
dered his  lustre  less  dazzling,  and  a  treaty  of 
alliance  with  him  of  less  importance.  He  died 
near  Cracow,  in  Poland,  about  the  beginning  of 
December,  1812. 

Barlowe  (William),  bishop  of  Chidieitery  de- 
scended of  an  ancient  famfly  in  Wales,  was 
bom  in  the  county  of  Essex.  In  Ins  JT^nth  he 
favored  the  Reformation ;  and  went  to  Uennany 
to  be  instructed  by  Luther  and  other  preaehers 
of  the  new  doctrine.  How  long  he  continued  a 
Protestant  is  uncertain:  but  he  wa»  a  r^ular 
canon  in  the  Augustine  monastery  of  St  O^rth, 
in  Essex^  and  studied  at  Oxford  with  the  bromers 
of  diat  order,  where  he  took  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
He  was  then  made  prior  of  the  convent  at 
Bisham,  in  Berkshire ;  and  afterwards  succeeded 
to  the  several  priories  of  Blackmore,  T>ptree, 
Lega,  Bromhole,  and  Haverford  West.  On  the 
dissolution  of  abbeys,  he  resigned  not  only  with 
a  good  grace,  but  persuaded  several  abbots  to 
follow  his  example.  Henry  VII.  was  so  pleased 
with  his  ready  obedience  on  this  occasion,  that 
he  sent  him,  in  1535,  on  an  embassy  to  Scot- 
land; in  the  same  year  made  him  bidiop  of  Su 


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Asaph;  m  two  months  after  transUilfid  him  to 
the  see  of  St.  David's,  and  in  1547  to  that  of 
Bath  and  Welb.    During  diis  time  our  good 
bishop,  as  Appears  from  his  epistle  to  the  king, 
was,  or  pretended  to  be,  a  staunch  papist.    It 
was  written  in  1533,  tod  in  it  he  regrets  that  he 
had  *  made  certayn  bokes,  and  soffired  them  to  be 
imprinted,  as  the  tretise  of  buryaU  of  the  masse, 
&c.     In  these  tretises  I  perceive  and  acknow- 
ledge myself  grievously  to  have  erred  against  the 
blessed  sacrament  of  the  altare ;  disallowing  the 
masse  and  denying  purgatory,  widi  slanderous 
infamy  of  the  pope  and  my  lord  cardinal,'  &c. 
However,  when  £dward  Vi.  came  to  Ae  crown, 
he  was  ^in  a  protestant;  and  for  that  reason, 
on  queen  Mary^  accession,  was  deprived  of  his 
bishopric,  and  sent  prisCner  to  the  fleet,  where 
he  continued  some  time.    At  length  he  found 
means  to  escape,  and  join  die  other  Ebglish  Pro- 
testants in  Germany.    Upon  queen  Elizabeth's 
accession,  he  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Chichester, 
and  soon  after  made  a  prebendary  of  Westmin- 
ster.    He  died  in  1568,  and  was  boried  at  Chi- 
chester.   He  had  five  daughters,  each  of  whom 
married  a  bishop.    He  wrote,  1.  The  BuryaU  of 
the    Masse.    2.  The  Climbing  of  Fryers  and 
Religious  Persons,  portred  with  Figures.     9. 
Christian  Homelies.    4.  A  Book  upon  Cosmo- 
graphy.   5.  The  Godly  and  Pious  institution  of 
a  Christum  Man,  commonly  called  the  Bishop's 
Book ;  and  several  other  works.    He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  translator  of  the  Apocrypha,  as 
far  as  the  Book  of  Wisdom.  •  His  letters  to  M. 
Parker,  are  in  MS.  in  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge,  Misc.  i.  445. 

Bablowe  (William),  a  mathematician  and  di- 
vine, the  son  of  the  bishop,  was  bom  in  Pem^ 
brokeshire,  whilst  his  father  was  bishop  of  St 
David's.    In  1560  he  was  entered  ot  Baliol 
college,  Oxford;  and  in  1564  took  a  degree  in 
arts,  which  having   completed  by  determina- 
tion, he  left  the  imiversity  and  went  to  sea; 
hut  in  what  capacity  is  uncertain:  however,  he 
acquired  consiaerable  knowledge  in  the  art  of 
navigation.    About  1573  he  became  prebendary 
of  Winchester,  and  rector  of  Easton  near  that 
'crtY.    In  1 588  he  was  made  prebendaiy  of  Litch- 
field, which  he  exchanged  tor  the  place  of  trea- 
surer.   Some  years  after,  he  was  made  chaplain 
to  prince  Henry,  the  son  of  king  James  I. ;  and 
in  1614  archdeacon  of  Salisbury.    He  was  the 
first  writer  on  the  magnet     He  died  in  1625, 
aodwas  buried  at  Easton.    His  works  are,  1. 
The  Navigator's  Supply,  containing  manv  things 
of  principal  importance  belonging  to  Naviga- 
tion, and  the  use  of  divers  instruments  framed 
chiefly  for  that  purpose.    Load.  1597,  4to.    De- 
dicated to  Robert,  earl  of  Essex.   2.  Magnetical 
Advertisements,  or  divers  pertinent  observations 
and  approved  experiments  concerning  the  natuite 
and  properties  of  the  Loadstone.    Lond.  1616, 
4io.   3.  A  Brief  Discovery  of  the  idle  animadver- 
sions of  Mark  Ridley,  M.  D.  upon  a  treati:fe  en- 
titled Magnetical  Advertisements.  Lota.  1618, 4t0. 
BARM.    Goth,  barm,  Ang.  Sax.  barm,  beatm. 
To  cherish ;  to  foster  as  in  the  bosom. 

And  in  hire  bamte  this  litel  child  the  leld. 
With  fall  sad  face,  and  gan  the  child  to  bletse. 
And  lolled  it,  and  a&er  gan  it  kinsc. 

Chaucer,  The  Clerhm  Tdir. 


A  aeint  tke  wered,  barred  all  of  ailk, 
A  barmeeUah  eke  at  white  as  morwe  milk. 

Id.  The  Mmsree  TeXs. 

BAaif',   )    Welsh,  hurm.  Sax.  beOjim.  Yeast : 
Barm'y.  S  the  ferment  put  into  drink,  to  make 
it  work ;  and  into  bread  to  lighten  and  swell  it. 

Are  3roa  not  he 
That  eoine*ime  makes  the  drink  to  bear  no  fterm  $ 
Mifliead  ni|^t  waad'ien,  Imnghing  at  their  harm  T 


Try  the  force  of  Imagination  ii|Km  staying  the  woick. 
ing  of  beer,  when  the  ftorm  is  )^  infte  it*  JSomh. 

Tfaeir  jovial  nights  in  frolics  and  in  play 
They  pass,  to  drive  the  tedious  hours  away  ; 
And  their  cold  stonuichs  with  orewn'd  goblets  cheer. 
Of  windy  cidw,  and  of  Aomiy  beer.  Drpdmt* 

Barm  is  ssdd  to  have  been  first  used  by  the 
Celtie  in  the  composition  of  bread.  About  the 
time  of  Agricola's  entrance  into  Lancashire,  a  new 
sort  of  loaf  had  been  introduced  at  Rome ;  which 
Was  formed  only  of  water  and  flour>  and  much 
esteemed  ibr  its  lightness ;  and  it  was  called  the 
water-cake  from  its  simple  composition,  and  die 
Parthian  roH  from  its  original  inventors.  But 
even  this  was  not  comparable  to  the  French  or 
Spanish  bread  for  its  lightness.  The  use  of 
curmi,  see  Ale,  and  the  knowledge  of  brewing, 
had  acquainted  the  Celtse  with  an  ineredient 
for  their  bread,  which  was  much  better  calculated 
to  render'it  light  and  pleasant,  than  the  leaven, 
the  eggs,  the  milk,  or  the  wine  and  honey  d 
other  natiops.  This  was  the  spume  which  arose 
on  the  surface  of  their  curw  in  fermentation,  and 
which  the  Welch  denominate  burm,  and  we 
barm.  The  Celtse  of  Gaul,  of  Spain,  and  most 
probably,  therefore,  of  South  Britain,  had  long 
used  it;  and  their  bread  was,  in  consequence  of 
this,  superior  in  lightness  to  that  of  any  ether 
nation  in  the  world.  See  Baking,  Bread,  and 
Yeast. 
'BAR-MASTER.    See  Bargh-Masteb. 

BARMEKIN,  a  hill  of  Scotland,  in  thepa^ 
rish  of  Echt,  in  Aberdeenshire^  of  a  corneal 
shape.  On  die  top  of  it  are  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  fortification,  respecting  which  tradition  is 
silent.  Two  dry  stone  walls  and  three  ditches, 
all  circular,  are  visible.  The  inner  wall  ap* 
pears  to  have  been  twelve  feet  thick,  and  330 
yards  in  circumference:  the  outer  about  six 
feet  thick  and  the  outer  ditch  560  yards  in  cir- 
cumference. 

BARMOU'ni,  a  small  market  and  sea<>ort 
town,  in  Merionethshire,  South  Wales.  It  is 
very  pleasantly  situated,  and  is  much  frequented 
as  a  bathing-place :  222  miles  from  London,  aod 
ten  from  Dalgellv, 

BARMINE  denotes  such  mine  or  ore  as  is 
adjudged  at  a  court  of  Barghmote. 

BARMOTE.    See  Barghmbte. 

BARN,  17.  &  n.  See  to  6ar,  bakgain,  Goth,  to 
defend;  to  protect.  A  covered  enclosure  in 
which  grain,  &c.  is  protected  and  defended. 

But  of  herr  songe  it  was  as  load  and  yeme 

As  any  swallow  sitting  on  a  heme  -, 

Therto  she^coad  skip  and  make  a  game 

As  any  kid  or  calf  Ibllowing  Us  dame.    Ckneir. 


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Wh51e  tha  cock  wl^  UtcIj  din 
Scatten  the  rear  or  darknees  thin. 
And  to  the  stack  or  the  ham  door 
StouUj  stmts  his  dames  before.  MKUam. 

And  as  an  owl  that  on  a  batm 
Sees  a  mouse  creeping  in  the  com 
Sits  stUl,  and  shuts  his  round  blue  eyes 
As  if  he  slept,  until  he  spies 
The  little  beast  within  his  reach. 
Then  starts  and  seises  on  the  wretch.    Hudihnt. 
In  vain  the  harm  expect  their  promis'd  load ; 
Nor  harm  at  home,  nor  reeks  are  heap'd  abroad. 

Diyden. 
I  took  notice  of  the  make  of  harm  here:  having 
laid  a  frame  of  wood,  they  place,  at  the  four  comers, 
four  blocks,  in  such  a  shape,  as  neither  mice  nor 
vermin  can  creep  up.  >  Addiron, 

An  owl  of  grave  deport  and  mien. 
Who  (like  the  Turk)  was  seldom  seen« 
Within  a  ham  had  chose  his  station 
As  fit  for  prey  and  contemplation.  €fajf» 

As  near  a  ham,  by  hunger  led, 
A  peacock  with  the  poultry  fed  ; 
All  viewed  him  with  an  envious  eye 
And  mock'd  his  gaudy  pagaentry.  Id. 

Barn.  See  Bearn.  The  past  participle  of 
hemxM^  to  bear  a  child;  bearem  or  bom;  still  in 
use. 

Goodlucke  (and't  lae  thy  will),  what  have  we  here  ! 
meicy  on's,  a  harm,  a  very  pretty  harm, 

Shahpeare.    Wiater  Nighf*  7ai^ 

BARNABAS  (St.),  was  bom  at  Cyprus,  and 
descended  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  whose  Jewish 
ancestors  are  thought  to  have  retired  thtdier  to 
secure  themselves  from  violenoe  during  the 
troublesome  times  in  Judea.  His  proper  name 
was  Joses,  to  which,  after  his  conversion  to 
Christianiw,  the  apostles  added  that  of  Barna- 
bas, signifying  the  son  of  consolation.  The 
time  of  hv  o^nveision  is  uncertain;  but  he  is 
generally  esteemed  one  of  the  seventy  disciples 
chosen  by  our  Saviour  himself.  At  Antioch. 
Paul  and  Barnabas  had  a  contest,  which  ended 
in  their  separation :  what  foUowi^  with  respect 
to  St.  Barnabas  is  not  related  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  Some  writers  say,  he  went  into  Italy, 
and  founded  a  church  at  Milan.  He  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Salamis,  where  some  Jews,  being 
come  out  of  Syria,  assailed  him  as  he  was  dis- 

Suting  in  the  synagogue,  and  stoned  him  to 
eath.  He  was  buried  by  his  kinsman  Mark, 
whom  he  had  taken  with  him,  in  a  cave  near 
that  city.  The  remains  of  his  body  are  said  to 
hare  been  discovered  in  the  retgn  of  the  emperor 
Zeno,  with  a  copy  of  St  Matthew's  Gospel, 
written  with  his  own  hand,  lyins  on  his  breast. 

Barnabas's  Day  (St.),  a  Christian  festival, 
celebrated  on  the  11th  of  June. 

Barnabas's  Epistle  (St.),  an  apocryphal 
work  ascribed  to  St.  Barnabas,  and  frequently 
cited  by  St.  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen. 
It  was  first  published  in  Greek,  from  a  copy  of 
father  Hugh  Menard,  a  Benedictine  monk.  An 
ancient  yersion  of  it  was  found  in  a  MS.  of  the 
abbey  of  Corbe^,  near  1000  years  old.  Vos- 
sius  published  it  in  1656,  with  the  epistles  of 
St.  Ignatius. 

Barnabas's  Gospel  (St.),  another  apocryphal 
work,  ascribed  to  St.  Barnabas,  the  Apostle, 
wherein  the  history  of  Jesus  Christ  is  related  in 
a  oMnner  very  different  from  the  account  given 


us  by  the  four  EyangeUsts.  The  Mahommedana 
have  this  gospel  in  Arabic,  and  it  corresponds 
very  well  witn  those  traditions  which  Mahomet 
followed  in  his  Koran.  It  was,  probably,  a 
forgery  of  some  nominal  Christians ;  and  aner«> 
ward^  altered  and  interpolated  by  the  Mahom- 
medans,  the  better  to  serve  their  purpose. 

BARNABITES,  a  religious  order,  founded  in 
the  sixteenth  century  by  £ree  Italian  gentlemen, 
who  had  been  advised  by  a  famous  preacher  of 
those  days  to  read  carenilly  the  epistles  of  St. 
Paul.  Th^  are  regular  priests  of  die  conzr^a- 
tion  of  St.  Paul ;  hence  they  were  called  Clerks 
of  St.  Pa!ul;  and  Bamabites,  because  they  per- 
formed their  first  exercise  in  a  church  of  St* 
Barnabas,  at  Milan.  Their  habit  is  black;  and 
their  office  is  to  instruct,  catechise,  and  serre  in 
mission. 

BA'RNACLE,  n.  t.,  probably  of  beajin.  Sax.  a 
child,  and  aac.  Sax.  an  oak.  A  kind  of  thell- 
fish  that  grows  upon  timber  that  lies  in  the  sea. 
A  bird,  like  a  goose,  fiibulously  supposed  to 
grow  on  trees. 

It  is  beyond  even  an  elheiit'e  crcdnlity  and  impo- 
denee  lo  affinn,  that  the  lint  men  Bki^t  grow  upom 
trees,  ae  the  ttery  goee  aboat  haniaeler;  or  might  be 
the  lice  of  some  vast  prodigious  animals^  whose  spe- 
cies is  now  extinct. 


And  from  the  most  refin'd  of  sainta 
▲s  naturally  grow  miscreants. 
As  hamocUr  turn  Soland  geese 
In  th'  islands  of  the  Orcades. 

Barnacle,  an  instrument  made  commonly  of 
iron  for  the  use  of  farriers,  to  hold  a  horse  by  the 
nose,  to  hinder  him  from  struggling  when  an  in- 
cision is  made.  It  is  also  called  horse-twitcber, 
or  brake.  The  barnacle  differs  from  pinchers,  as 
the  Utter  have  handles  whereby  to  npld  then ; 
whereas  the  former  is  &stened  to  the  note  with 
a  lace  or  cord. 

Barnacle,  in  ichthyology,  a  kind  of  shell- 
fish, which  cleaves  to  the  bottoms  and  sides  of 
ships  in  certain  seas;  the  same  with  .what  is 
called  by  sailors  clam;  by  naturalists,  cond>a 
anatifera.  There  are  divers  species  of  shell  fishes 
included  under  the  denomination  barnacles: 
some  reduce  them  to  two,  vis.  the  balanus  and 
pinna  marina.  See  an  account  of  several  rare 
species  of  barnacles,  by  John  Ellis  Eaq.  Philoao- 
pnical  Transactions,  vol.  i.  part  u.  No.  113. 

Barnacle  or  Bernaclb,  a  species  of  Anas, 
common  in  the  western  isles  of  Scotland. — See 
Anas.  Concerning  the  origin  and  species  of 
this  bird  many  fables  have  b^  advanced.  Seve- 
ral authors  have  represented  it  as  the  produce  of 
a  shell-fish ;  but  later  naturalists,  on  better 
grounds,  refer  it  to  the  natural  manner  of  gene- 
ration; making  it  a  real  goose,  produced  like 
others  from  an  egg.  Some  redcon  the  barnacle 
the  same  vrith  the  anser  Scoticus,  or  Soland  goose ; 
others  will  have  it  to  be  the  same  widi  the  French 
macreuse.  Dr.  Robinson  makes  the  barnacle  to 
be  of  die  goose,  and  the  macreuse  of  the  dnck 
kind.  The  same  author  shows,  that  the  mac- 
reuse is  the  scoter,  or  anas  niger  minor,  described 
by  Ray  and  Willugliby,  contrary  to  die  opinion 
of  Mr.  Cattier,  who  took  it  for  the  greater  coot 
of  Bellonius. 

BARNADESIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the 
polygamia  sequalis  order,  belonging  to  the  syn- 


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genesia  class  of  plants ;  the  characten  of  which 
are:  the  cor.  is  radiated;  the  cal.  is  naked, 
iiflbricated,  and  pungent;  the  pappus  of  the 
rays  feathery,  of  the  disk  bristly  and  retrofracted. 
There  is  but  one  species,  yiz.  B.  spinosa,  a  native 
of  America. 

BARNARD,  or  BBRNAan  (John),  the  son  of 
John  Barnard,  gent,  was  born  at  Castor  in  Lin- 
colnshire, and  educated  at  Cambridge.  After 
several  preferments,  he  was  made  a  prebendary 
of  the  church  of  Lincoln.  He  wrote  Censura 
Clerica,  against  scandalous  ministers  not  being 
fit  to  be  restored  to  church  livings ;  the  Life  of 
.  Dr.  Hey  1  in ;  and  several  other  works.  He  died 
at  Newark,  Aug.  17th,  1783. 

Barnard  (Sir  John),  M.P.  for  London,  a 
spirited  member  of  the  opposition  party,  in  the 
reigns  of  Geo.  L  and  II.  He  was  bom  at  Read- 
injg^  in  Berkshire  ^in  1685.  His  &ther  was  a 
wine  merchant,  to 'whose  business  he  succeeded. 
He  particularly  distinguished  himself,  on  being 
appointed  by  the  body  of  wine  merchants  to 
state  before  the  house  of  lords  their  objections  to 
a  bill  then  pending  in  that  house ;  and,  from  the 
abilitities  he  displayed  on  that  occasion,  was  no- 
minated, in  1721,  candidate  for  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, and  elected  the  following  year.  In  1 725 
he  receiyed  the  thanks  of  the  common  council, 
for  opposing  a  bill  introducing  a  change  in  the 
city  ejections.  In  1727  he  presented  a  bill  for 
the  better  regulation  of  seamen.  In  1730  he 
made  a  violent  opposition  to  the  bill  prohibiting 
British  subjects  from  lending  money  to  foreign 
princes.  In  1732  he  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood  from  Geo.  II.  whom  he  attended 
with  an  address;  and,  in  1733,  he  acquired 
much  popularitv  in  opposing  Sir  R.  Walpole's 
excise  bill,  which  was  at  last  obliged  to  be  relin- 
quished. In  1735  he  introduced  a  bill  to  limit 
the  number  of  play-houses,  which  passed  two 
years  after,  and  is  still  in  force.  In  1737  he 
formed  a  scheme  for  reducing  the  interest  on  the 
national  debt,  which  was  idterwards  adopted. 
In  1786  h^  and  his  brother-in-law,  Sir  R.  Gods- 
chall,  were  elected  sheriffs,  and  in  1738  he  was 
chosen  lord  mayor  of  London.  He  died  at 
Clapham  in  1766,  aged  eighty,  after  repeatedly 
receiving  the  thanks  of  his  fellow  citizens  for  hi^ 
public  conduct. 

Barnard,  a  township  of  Vermont,  in  Wind- 
sor county;  sixty-five  miles  north-east  of  Ben- 
nington. 

Barnard's  Castle,  a  town  and  barony  on 
the  Tees,  in  the  county  of  Durham,  belonging  to 
the  earl  of  Darlington.  It  is  fifteien  miles  from 
Richmond,  thirty  south-west  of  purham,  and 
244  north-west  of  London ;  has  a  market  on 
Wednesday,  and  fairs  on  Whit-wednesday,  St. 
James's  day,  and  25th  July. 

BARNAUL,  a  town  of  Siberia,  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  which  lalls  into  the  Obi.  It 
consists  of  1000  houses,  built  chiefly  of  wood, 
with  several  pubnc  edifices  of  stone.  This  town 
is  the  seat  of  the  supreme  chancery  of  the  mines 
contained  in  thi>  great  Altaian  mountain  chain, 
and  has  under  its  Jurisdiction  40,000  peasants. 
Many  of  the  found nes,  however,  are  alnmdoned 
from  the  want  of  fuel,  which  has  been  exhausted. 
There  is  still  ono  mine  in  the  vicinity  of  Barnaul, 

Vol.  UI. 


very  productive  both  in  gold  and  silver.  A 
foundry  of  bells,  and  manufactories  of  tiles  and 
glass,  are  carried  on  in  the  town.  Distant  100 
miles  south-east  of  Kolhyvane. 

BARNAVE  (Anthony),  a  victim  of  French 
republicanism,  was  bom  in  1762.  Having  be- 
come a  member  of  the  national  assembly,  he  was 
there  distinguished  by  the  warmth  and  zeal  which 
he  displayed.  On  the  stopping  of  the  king  at 
Varennes,  he  was  appointed  to  conduct  his  mar 
jesty  and  family  to  Paris,  in  doing  which  he 
showed  the  most  resnectful  attention  to  the  royal 
captives.  He  was  afterwards  accused  of  being  a 
royalist,  and  guillotined  at  Paris  in  1794.    . 

BARNAY,  an  ancient  fort  of  Dunse,  in  Ber- 
wickshire. Dr.  Anderson  of  Chimside  says, 
these  Bamays,  or  Bamekins,  were  a  kind  of  forts 
commonly  placed,  during  tiie  feudal  system,  at 
some  distance  from  the  baron's  castle,  to  defend 
the  bridge  or  passage  to  it 

BARN£S  (Joshua),  a  learned  divine,  bom  in 
London  in  1654.  He  was  educated  at  Christ's 
hospital,  from  whence  he  removed  to  Emanuel 
college,  Cambridge,  where  he  was  chosen  queen's 
proitNSor  of  Greek  in  1695 ;  a  language  he  wrote 
and  spoke  with  the  utmast  fiicility.  His  first 
publication  was  a  whimsical  tract,  entitled  (/cra- 
nia, or  a  New  Discovery  of  the  little  sort  of  people 
called  Pygmies.  After  that  appeared  his  Life  of 
Edward  III.  In  1700,  when  he  had  published 
many  of  his  works,  Mrs.  Mason,  of  Hemmingfbrd, 
in  Huntingdonshire,  a  widow  lady  of  between  forty 
and  fifty,  with  a  jointure  of  x200  per  annum, 
came  to  Cambridge,  and  desired  leave  to  settle 
£100  a-year  upon  him  after  her  deaUi ;  which  he 
politely  refused,  unless  she  would  also  con- 
descend to  make  him  happy  with  her  person ; 
and  they  were  accordingly  married.  He  wrote 
several  other  books,  viz.  Sacred  Poems;  the  Life 
of  Oliver  Cromwell,  the  Tyrant;  several  dramatic 
pieces ;  a  Poetical  Paraphrase  on  the  History  of 
Esther,  in  Greek  verse,  with  a  Latin  translation, 
&c.;  and  he  published  (editions  of  Euripides^ 
Anacreon,  and  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  with 
notes  and  a  Latin  translation.  This  excellent  man 
died  in  1712,  in  the  fifty-eighth  year  of  liis 
age. 

Barnes  (Robert),  a  martyr  for  the  doctrines  of 
Luther,  was  brought  up  to  the  church,  obtained 
the  degree  of  D.  D.,  and  became  chaplain  to 
Henry  VIII.,  by  whom  he  was  sent  to  Germany, 
to  consult  with  the  divines  of  diat  countv  re- 
specting the  lawfulness  of  his  divorce.  While 
in  that  country  he  adopted  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation,  and  on  his  return  to  England  pro- 
pagated his  new  opinions  with  such  xeal  that  he 
was  taken  into  custody,  brought  to  the  stake, 
and  burnt  at  Smithfield  in  1540.  He  was  author 
of  a  treatise  on  Justification,  and  several  other 
tracts. 

BARNET,  Chipping  Barnet,  or  High  Bar- 
net,  a  town  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  partly  in  Mid- 
dlesex, and  partly  in  Hertfordshire,  eleven  miles 
north  by  west  of  London.  It  is  a  great  thorough- 
fiire;  has  a  market  on  Wednoday,  and  two 
fairs,  on  April  8th,  9th,  lOth,  and  September  4th, 
5th,  6th.  Near  it  two  great  battles  were  fought 
between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  in 
1468,  and  1471 ;  in  the  last  of  which  the  earl  of 

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Warwick  and  10,000  men  weK  alain.  Iq  If 40 
Sir  Jeremy  Samhrooke,  Bait,  erected  a  stone 
column  with  an  inscription  on  the  spot. 

BARN  £V  FXDT  (John  d'Olden),  thecelebmted 
statesman,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  civil 
liberty  of  Holland,  was  born  about  1550.  He 
haid  a  noble  bold  air,  an  exproaisive  eye,  and 
wa»  an  able  speaker.  He  possessed  a  genius 
equally  suited  to  coipmeroe,  finance,  and  nego- 
eiatien;  the  art  of  pushing  any  favoiite  point 
wi^out  seening  importunate,  and  of  withdraw- 
ifig  without  appearing  indolent;  the  singular 
ialent  of  penetrating  the  secrets  of  others,  whilst 
be  concealed  his  own.  His  merit  raised  him  to 
the  first  dignitiee  in  the  goyemment,  where  he 
showed  himself  an  enemy  to  injustice,  bribery, 
.parties,  and  novelties,  even  though  they  might 
appcnr  useful.  He  undertook  to  restore  the 
credit  of  his  country,  and  had  the  good  fbitune 
to  succeed.  He  was  the  chief  author  of  the  truce 
in  1599,  which  was  concluded  for  twelve  years, 
A>etween  the  Arch  Duke  and  the  states.  He 
bad,  by  his  assiduity  prevented  the  latter  from 
takiag  part  in  the  troubles  of  Bohemia,  of  which 
•Maurice,  prince  of  Oran^,  was  willing  to  avail 
himself,  to  advance  his  fortune.  Rarneveldt, 
who  petfceive4  the  designs  of  this  ambitions 
^wrinee,  judged  it  was  his  duty  to  oppose  him, 
4ind  Maurioe  never  pardoned  his  seal  fov  the  li- 
berty of  tbe  republic ;  but  having  got  his  partisans 
p>  iMscoae  him  of  a  design  to  deliver  his  eonntr^ 
into  the  hands  of  the  Spanish  moneroh»  fn  this 
Absurd  eharge,  he  was  tried  by  twenW-fix  com* 
inissaries  deputed  from  the  seven  provmqee,  oooi-f 
demped  to. lose  hisU(e  and  his  fortuieoimfiscated. 
lie  heard  the  sentence  with  great  eompwure, 
*  I  have  served  the  states,'  said  he,  *  thirty  yean 
«9  pensionary  of  Holland,  and  the  city  of  Rotter-> 
dcim  ea  pennonary  tea  years  before.  My  laboft 
•Dd  fidelity  deserved  another  reward.  If  you 
will  bave  my  blood,  it  should  seeei^  thf4  yQ\i 
might  spave  my  fortane,  and  not  min,  en  my 
«M9Q0unt,  my  wife  aad' children.'  He  was  be« 
tiei^ed  in  1619. 

.BAaNi:vEu>T(HenatusandWilliam),soBsefthe 
tbQvc,  with  a  vww  of  revenging  their  ftither*» 
death,  formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  stadtbolder^ 
wbich  was  discovered-  William  fled ;  but  B««atus 
was  teken  and  condemned  to  die ;  which  ftital 


Mauaehuielt^  bounded  on  tke  east  and  asuth 
by  the  Atlaalic  Ocean,  north  by  Cape  Cod  Ba^ 
west  by,Buzsard's  Bay,  and  aortfa-weit  b3r  Fly- 
mouth  oounty,  where  it  is  but  Ibur  miles  bmd 
This  oounty  lies  neariy  in  the  form  of  a  msn's 
arm  when  bent,  with  his  hand  turned  inwards. 
The  whole  ettent  on  tlie  outer  shore,  from  Wood- 
end  to  Buzaard*s  Bay,  is  about  120  miles;  and 
the  inner  shore  on  Cape  Cod  is  nearly  seventy ; 
its  greatest  breadth  ia  not  more  than  two  milei. 
It  is  in  general  a  barren  sandy  soil,  perhaps  more 
en  than  amy  other  part  of  the  eastern  states.  Tin 
trees  which  grow  here  are  mostly  piteb-pine. 
it  abounds  with  ponds  of  fresh  wat^r,  generalW 
well  stored  with  nsh.  The  princi^  nreduee  is 
Indian  com  and  rye.  It  is  divideo  into  ten 
townships,  via.  Bamataple,  Falmouth,  Sandviii, 
Yarmouth,  Harvrioh,  Eastham,  WdlBeet,  Chat* 
ham,  Truro,  and  Province-town.  The  chief 
towns  are  Barnstable  and  Falmouth. 

Bahnstablb,  a  port  of  entry  and  post  town  of 
Massachusetts )  situated  in  the  above  county,  st 
the  bead  of  a  bay  of  its  own  ^me.  it  ii 
seventy-two  miles  south*«ast  by  soutb  ef  Bofiton, 
and  119  of  Philadelphia,  Long. '(^  5' B.  ht, 
44°  43'  N. 

Baiitstabls,  or  BAftifSTAFi.^  a  •mrmrt 
t«WB  of  Devonshire,  eeated  on  t^  nvw  Taw, 
over  which  there  is  a  good  bridge.  ItiiikcsN 
poratien  town,  and  sends  two  memben  to  par- 
tivnent.  It  liet  thiity-sU  miles  north  ef  Esettr, 
and  191  from  liOndon,  has  a  market  on  Fridsy, 
and  ^ra,  Friday  befiDre  April  91,  Septembei  19, 
4od  second  Friday  in  Deoemhv,  which  lait  te 
dmp  toll  free. 

BAANSTEAD,  a  tonmdup  of  New  Hsnp* 
shire,  in  Stafford  cottnty,  thirty-^o  mil«s  noim- 
wMt  of  Portfmou^ 

BARNWELU  i  e.  Bcifu'e  Well,  a  vBm 
about  half  fi  mile  north-east  of  Cambridge.  Is 
1091^,  ^  P^<^7  ^^i  fbunded  in  Cambridge  » 
honor  Of  St.  Giles,  by  liugplina,  a  Nonnan  lady, 
t^aganiu  Peverell,  a  fevorite  of  Henry  U  re- 
ceived a gra^t  of  the  property;  and  fiitop 4e 
vte  upon  which  i\  had  been  commn«4  K» 
4ma)Uhe  transferred  i|  to  the  spot  now  called 
Bt^well,  where  mai\y  of  the  ancient  wnlli  still 
remaiti.  A  pottery  i^r  is  held  yearly  heie>  (m  i 
common  called  Midsummer-ereen,  whidi  cMr 
menoes  on  Srt.  John's  day,  and  lasu  a  lortnigbt 


eircivmstfMK^e  has  immortalised  the  memory«f  his      ... ,_  ^,_„__  _    ,_,,    .     _._    .    .     _ 

moU^er,  of  whom  the  following  aaeodote  is  re-  It  assumed  a  legal  form  as  early  as  the  lei^  ^ 

corded,  She soliclteda  pardon  for  Henatua;  upon  Henry  III.,  and  is  proclaimed  by  the  heads  of 

which  Maurice  expreraed  his  surprise,  that  she  the  university.    Another  fiur,  called  ^M>ndge 

should  do  that  for  her  son  which  she  had  not  to,  azmually  held  in  a  meadow  in  this  fW^ 

done  for  her  husband*  To  this  jhe  replied  with  in-  has  been  traoe<  by  Dr.  Stnkely  to  the  timei  of 

^igl^ation,  <  {  would  not  aak  a  ]M^on  for  my  Caiaoains.    Assured  dooumenu  fiace  it  up  to 

h«)9baod,  be<»iise  he  was  innocent.    I  solicit  it  king  John,  who  granted  it  for  the  use  and  lasia- 

for  my  son,  because  he  is  guilty.'  tenance  of  a  hospital  of  lepers,  whi<^  beiepoi^ 

QAB|fEVBi.irr,  an  island,  south  of  Terra  del  sessed  a  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Mary  Mag4eles» 

Fuego.    Long.  66°  58*  W.,  lat.  55*»  49'  S.  which  is  atiU  in  existence.     By  a  charter  w 

BAHNFIARP,  in  ornithology,  the  name  of  a  Henry  VIIL  this  fhir  was  traiftned  to  tt» 
bird  usually  seen  at  sea,  and  esteemed  as  a  fore-  mayor  and  eorporation  of  Cambridge  <*  "^ 
Wier  of  bad  weather.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  payment  of  1000  marks.  On  the  fourth  of  Sen- 
sparrow,  its  neck  and  back  are  black,  and  ito  tember  the  ground  is  marked  out  Ob  «« 
WeasI  and  belly  gray;  its  fetA  are  red,  and  ito  eighteenth,  the  university  officers  fint,aiid  men 
hill  black  and  lomewhat  broful.  It  skims  very  the  oiJicers  of  the  corporation,  proclaim  the  wr. 
nimibly  along  the  sur^Eioe  of  the  vrater.  which  lasto  fourteen  daya.    One  of  these  days 

BaHNSTABI^E.  a  cQiftn^  and  peninsuU  of  (September  %5)  is  a^pioprialed  to  ^  m«  ^ 


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hoiscs.  It  was  fonxMrly  the  largtet  Mt  in  Bag- 
had;  and  vna  attended  in  the  jrear  1605  by 
Hackney  coaches  from  London. 

BARO,  or  Baron  (Peter),  was  born  at  Estam- 
pes  in  France,  and  educated  in  the  university  of 
fiourges,  where  he  was  admitted  a  licentiate  in 
the  law :  but,  being  of  the  Protestant  religion, 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  his  native  countiy  to 
avoid  persecution ;  and  withdrawing  into  Eng- 
land, was  kindly  entertained  by  Lord  Burleigh. 
He  ^fterw^^ds  settled  at  Cambridge;  and  by 
Lord  Burleigh's  recommendation,  was,  in  1674, 
choien  proi^or  of  divinity  there.  For  some 
years  he  quietly  enjoyed  his  professorship ;  but 
at  last  a  restless  motion  was  raised  against  him, 
by  his  opposing  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predes- 
tination, which  rendered  his  place  so  uneasy  that 
he  left  Ae  university,  and  settled  in.  London. 
He  wrote,  1.  In  Jonam  Prophetam  Pr«lectiones 
mix;  2.  De  Prestantia  et  Dignitate  Divins 
Legis;  and  other  pieces.  He  died  in  London, 
about  1600. 

BAROCCI,  or  Bamozzi  (Francis)»  a  noUe 
Venetian,  who  distinguished  himaelf  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixteenth  centuiy  by  his  erudition, 
and  his  e^ensive  knowledge  of  mathematics.  He 
had,  however,  the  weakness  to  believe  in  magic, 
and  his  attempts  to  practise  it  brought  him  into 
the  hands  of  the  Inquisition,  from  which  he  es- 
caped with  difficulty,  by  the  payment  of  a  heavy 
fine.  His  published  works  are,  Translations 
from  Proclus  and  Hiero ;  four  books  o6  a  Treatiat 
OB  Cosmography ;  a  Treatise  on  Geometry ;  and 
a  curious  volume,  intituled^  U  liobilisamo  ed 
Antichissimo  giuco  Pitagorico  chiamata  Bitmi>- 
machia,*  ciofe  battaglia  di  consonanze  di  ouined, 
with  figures,  imitated  from  the  Latia  of  Buxerius. 
Among  his  MSS.  is  a  description  of  Crete. 

BAROCCIO  (Frederic),  a  celebrated  painter, 
bom  at  Uibino.  In  his  youth  he  travelled  to 
Rome,  where  he  painted  several  things  in  fresco. 
K«  then  returned  to  Urbino :  and  giving  himself 
up  to  intense  study,  acquired  a  gnat  name  in 
painting.  His  genius  particularly  led  him  to 
religious  subjects.  At  his  leisure  hours  he 
etdied  a  few  prints  from  his  own  designs ;  which 
are  highly  finished,  and  executed  with  great  soft- 
ness and  delicacy.  The  Salutarion  is  his  capital 
performance  in  that  w^ :  of  which  we  addom 
meet  widt  aov  impressions,  but  those  taken  from 
the  retouofaed  plate^  which  ace  very  harsh.  He 
died  at  Urbino  in  101 3>  at  the  age  of  eigh^-four. 
BAROCHAN,  a  barony  in  the  pariah  of 
HonstouB,  va  Rcnfrewshise,  bdonging  to  an  an- 
cient foinily  of  the  name  of  Fleming,  whose  an- 
cestors came  from  Flanders  in  &e  reign  of  David 
I-y  and  one  of  whom  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Floddon.  It  had  a  very  ancient  cross  on  libe 
ride  of  the  public  road,  which  was  removed 
by  the  proprietor,  Malcolm  Fleming,  £sq.  to  a 
hiU  where  tne  old  mansion-boose  stood.  In  the 
fo>Bt  of  this  cross,  there  sire  two  rows  of  images, 
four  in  each  row,  with  long  garments  and  dubs 
mr  their  shqulders.  Tradition  is  silent  respect- 
ing it.  The  barony  abounds  in  free-stone,  coals, 
and  liQie-stone,  aind  the  mansion-house  is  ocna^ 
mented  with  plantations  of  ash^  piane,  oak,  lanph, 
and  fir. 
BAROGHE,  ox  Bmacb,  capital  of  a  district 


of  tb«  s%me  woe,  in  the  proirinoe  of  Qujrat,  on 
the  north  biwk  of  tl^  NoA^wld^ti.  (t  is  Trailed 
round,  and  wi|s  formerly  ^  plaofi  of  grea^  trade. 
It  is  now  inhabited  by  ^reavers  and  maviufapturem 
of  cotton  cloth.  Her^  th^  have  the  best  cotton 
in  the  world,  and  of  consequence  the  best  b^fras 
are  manufactured  in  this  p^ce.  The  waters  of 
the  Nerbuddah  ar«  «Jso  s^id  to  bav<  the  peculiar 
property  of  bleaching  cloth^  tp  a  pure  white. 
Baroche  was  ceded  to  Madbajee  Siudia  ii)  1782, 
but  was  retaken  from  his  successor,  Dowlet  Row. 
in  1803,  by  Sir  Arthus  Wellesley,  and  has  ever 
since  remained  iu  possessiofi  of  the  British. 
Long.  7a°  5'  £.,  Ut.  a2**  IS  N. 

BAROCO,  in  logic,  a  term  given  to  the  fourth 
mode  of  the  ^eoond  qgure  of  syllogisms.  A  syllo* 
gism  iu  barooo  has  the  irsjt  proposition  u^iv^rsal 
and  affirmative,  but  the  secopd  and  die  third  par- 
ticular and  negative,  ^d  the  middle  term  is  the 
predicate  in  the  t^  tol  propositions.   Example : 

Ba  Every  maq  is^  a  two-legged  animal : 

Ro  But  every  apiqial  ^  not  two-legged ; 

GO  Therefore  every  animal  is  not  a  man. 

BAROM'ETER, )  From  /Sapoc,  weight,  and 
Barometr'ical.  i  uiTpoVf  measure.  A  ma- 
chine for  measuring  tne  weight  and  variations 
of  the  atmosphere, '  in  order  to  determine  the 
changes  of  the  weatfier,  the  elevation  of  particular 
parts  of  the  earth's  surfece,  &c. 

The  measuring  the  heights  of  mountains,  and 
finding  the  elevation  oif  places  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  ^ath  been  much  promoted  by  bmrometrieal  expe- 
riments, founded  upon  that  essential  pronerty  of  the 
air,  its  gravity  or  pressure.  As  the  column  of  mercoxy 
in  the  karomHm'  w  counterpoised  by  a  cohmm  of  aif 
of  equal  weight,  so  whatever  causes  make  the  air 
heavier  or  lighter,  the  pressure  of  it  will  be  thereby 
inoeased  or  lessened,  and  of  oonseqoenee  the  mercwy 
will  rise  or  hWi  Barri$, 

He  is  very  accurate  in  making  harometrieai  and 
thermometncal  instruments.        Bmh,  PhjfnethThBoL 

Barometilr.  The  name  baroscope,  signifying 
an  isMiicaiioB  of  weight)  was  originally  given  te 
the  mercurial  tube  by  Sinclair,  professor  of  ohilo- 
sopby  in  the  university  of  Glasgqw,  in  Charles 
II.  reign:  but  Uie  more  definite  one  of  b^iro- 
meter,  obtained  universally  a  short  time  after'- 
wards.  The  barometer  is  founded  upon  the 
Torricellian  experin^ent,  so  called  from  Torricelli 
the  inventor  of  it,  f^  Flpiepee,  iu  1633  i  it  if  a 
glass  tube^  fiUfd  wi^  mercury,  horixontally  «e9le4 
at  one  end ;  the  other  opea. ao4  immerged  in  a^ 
basin  of  stagnant  ta^rcury  ;  sp  that,  as  the  w^ght 
of  the  atmoflq[4iere  dimiujsheft,  the  inensuii  in  the 
tube  will  descend,  an4,  as  it  incrfases,  th^  mer-. 
cury  will  aspepd;  tii»  oolumii  o^  mercury  sus- 
pended iq  the  tiibe  being  al^^ays  «qual  to  the 
weight  pf  tbp  ineuw^ent  ?itn|Ofpher^.  It  was 
long  the  camimm  opifiipp  ^^npng  phUoao- 
phen,  that  the  weol  Qf  ifater  in  numps  wa» 
owing  to  what  tb^y  ofOl^ti  nature's  abhorrence  of 
a  vacuum ;  and  thiit  thuf  flui4$(  might  be  raised 
by  suction  to  any  h^f^ht  wH^t^er.  But  an  acci- 
dent having,  ^y  in  t)ie  qey^nt^enth  century, 
disoQvcff^  th9^  wH^  9puld  RQt  be  lai^d  in  i^ 
pump,  ^%»  thfi  inciter  lyfM^bpd  to  within  thirty- 
three  fefft  ef  the  water  in  the  well,  '^  was  con- 
jectuied  by  Galil^,  yA^  flf)uri4he4  ^bou|  tb|$ 


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BAROMETER. 


time,  that  there  might  be  some  other  cause  of  the 
ascent  of  water  in  pumps,  or  at  least  that  this 
abhorrence  was  limited  to  the  finite  height  of 
thirty-three  feet.  Being  unable  to  satisfy  himself 
on  this  head,  he  recommended  the  consideration 
91  the  difficulty  to  Torricelli,  who  had  been  his 
disciple.  After  some  time  Torricelli  suspected 
that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  was  the  cause 
of  the  ascent  of  water  in  pumps ;  that  a  column 
of  water  thirty-three  feet  high  was  just  a  counter- 
poise to  a  column  of  air  of  the  same  base,  and 
which  extended  up  to  the  top  of  the  atmosphere ; 
and  that  this  was  the  true  reason  why  the  water 
did  not  follow  the  sucker  any  farther.  And  this 
suspicion  was  soon  after  confirmed  by  various 
exjpieriments.  Torricelli  considered,  that  if  a 
column  of  yater  thirty-three  feet  high  were  a 
counterpoise  to  a  whole  column  of  the  atmos- 
phere, then  a  column  of  mercury  of  about  two 
feet  and  a  half  high  would  also  be  a  counterpoise 
to  it,  since  quicksilver  is  nearly  fourteen  times 
heavier  than  water,  and  so  the  fourteenth  part  of 
the  height,  or  nearly  two  feet  and  a  half,  would  be 
.as  heavy  as  the  column  of  water.  This  reasoning 
he  soon  verified ;  for  having  filled  a  glass  tube 
with  quicksilver,  and  inverted  it  into  a  basin  of 
the  same,  the  mercuij  presently  descended  till 
its  height,  above  that  m  the  basin,  was  about  two 
feet  and  a  half,  just  as  he  expected.  And  this  is 
what  has,  from  him,  been  called  the  Torricellian 
experiment.  The  new  opinion,  with  this  confirm 
mation  of  it,  was  readily  acquiesced  in  by  most 
philosophers,  who  repeated  the  experiment  in 
various  ways.  Some,  however,  still  adhered  to 
the  old  doctrine  of  Linus,  and  raised  sevenu 
obj^ions  aginst  the  new  one ;  such  as  that  there 
was  a  film  or  imperceptible  rope  of  mercury, 
extended  through  the  upper  part  of  the  tube, 
which  suspended  the  column  of  mercury,  and 
kiept  it  from  falling  into  that  in  the  basin.  But 
this  and  other  objections  were  soon  overcome  by 
^additional  confirmations  of  the  true  doctrine; 
particularly  by  varying  the  elevation  of  the  place. 
It  was  hinted  by  Descartes  and  Pascal,  that  if 
tiie  mercury  be  sustained  in  the  tube  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere,  by  carrying  it  to  a  higher 
situfttion  it  would  descend  lower  in  the  tube, 
having  a  shorter  column  of  the  atmosphere  to 
sustain  it,  and  vice  versa.  And  Pascal  engaged 
his  brother-in-law,  M.  Perier,  to  try  that  experi- 
ment for  him,  being  more  conveniently  situated 
for  that  purpose  than  he  was  at  Paris.  This  he 
accordingly  executed,  by  observing  the  height  of 
the  quicksilver,  in  the  tube,  first  at  the  bottom  of 
a  mountaia  in  Auvergne,  and  then  at  several 
different  altitudes ;  wherein  it  was  found  that  the 
mercury  fol^  lower  and  lower  all  the  way  to  the 
top  of  the  mountain ;  and  so  confirming  the  truth 
of  the  doctrine  relating  to  the  universal  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  conseauent  suspen- 
sion of  the  mercury  in  the  tube  of  the  barometer. 
Thus,  by  the  united  endeavours  of  Torricelli, 
Descartes,  Pascal,  Mersenne,  Huygens,  and 
others,  the  cause  of  the  suspension  of  the  quick- 
silver in  the  tube  of  the  barometer  became  pretty 
generally  established.  It  was  some  time,  how- 
ever, after  this  general  consent  before  it  was 
known  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  was  various  at 
different  times  at  the  same  place.    This  could 


not,  however,  remain  long  unknown.    The  fre- 

Suent  measuring  of  the  column  of  mercury  soon 
lowed  its  variations  in  altitude ;  and  experienos 
and  observation  taught  that  those  variarions  in 
the  mercurial  column  were  always  succeeded  )>y 
certain  changes  in  the  weather,  as  to  rain,  winJ, 
frosts,  &c.  Hence  this  instrument  soon  came 
into  use,  as  the  means  of  foretelling  the  changes 
of  the  Weather ;  and  on  this  account  it  obtained 
the  name  of  the  weather-glass,  as  it  did  that  of 
barometer  from  its  measuring  the  weight  or  pres- 
sure of  the  air. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  Pascal  and  his 
brother-in-law  seem  clearly  to  have  seen  the  po^ 
sibility  of  those  numerous  experiments  of  modem 
times,  for  ascertaining  the  altitude  of  mountains  by 
the  barometer.  Early  in  the  moming-of  the  1 9th  of 
Sept.  1648,  the  latter  assembled  with  a  few  friends 
in  the  garden  of  a  monastery,  situate  near  the  lowest 
part  of  the  city  of  Clermont,  where  he  had 
brought  a  quantity  of  mercury,  and  two  glass 
tubes  hermetically  sealed  at  the  top.  Having 
filled  and  inverted  them  as  usual, he  found  the  mer- 
cury to  stand  in  both  at  the  same  height,  namely, 
26  inches  and  3f  lines,  or  28  English  inches ; 
when  leaving  one  behind,  in  the  ci]^tody  of  the 
subprior,  he  proceeded  with  the  other  to  the 
summit  of  the  mountain,  and  repeated  the  expe- 
riment. Here  the  party  were  surprised  and  de- 
lighted to  see  the  mercury  sink  more  than  three 
inches  under  the  former  mark,  and  remain  sus- 
pended at  the  height  of  23  inches  and  2  lines,  or 
24*7  English  inches.  In  his  descent  from  the 
mountain,  he  observed,  at  two  several  stations, 
that  the  mercury  successively  rose;  and,  on  his 
return  to  the  monastery,  found  it  stood  exactly 
at  the  same  point  as  at  first.  Encouraged  by  the 
success  of  this  memorable  experiment,  Perier  re- 
peated it  on  the  highest  tower  of  Clermont,  and 
noted  a  difference  of  two  lines  at  an  elevation  of 
twenty  toises.  Pascal,  as  soon  as  the  intelligence 
reached  him  at  Paris,  made  similar  obseivatioiis 
on  the  top  of  a  high  house,  and  in  the  belfry  of 
the  chur<m  of  St.  Jacques  des  Boucheries,  near 
the  border  of  the  Seine ;  and  so  much  was  he 
satisfied  with  the  results,  that  he  immediately 
proposed  the  application  of  the  barometer  fx 
measuring  the  relative  height  of  distant  places  on 
the  earth's  surface.  The  substance,  uierefore,. 
of  all  that  has  since  been  more  accurately  ascer- 
tained, was  thus  at  once  discovered.  Pascal,  it  is 
well  known,  was  attacked  and  persecuted  as  a 
heretic  by  the  Jesuits,  for  these  and  similar  par- 
suits  ;  and  when  no  other  weapon  would  avail, 
they  contested  the  originality  of  his  experiments. 
Their  base  conduct  on  this  occasion,  however.only 
stimulated  his  anlor,  and  gave  a  keener  eage  to 
that  wit,  which  he  afterwards  directed  with  such 
overwhelming  energy  against  this  insidious  order 
of  the  priesthood.  In  1653,  he  composed,  thoo^ 
they  were  not  published  till  after  his  d«ilh,two 
short  but  perspicuous  treatises,  On  the  Equili- 
brium of  Liquors,  and  On  the  Weight  of  the 
Mass  of  Air.  Hie  laws  of  the  equilibrium  of 
fluids  are  here  beautifully  deduced  from  asinf^ 

Srinciple.  In  those  tracts,  he  likewise  gives  a 
ascription  of  the  hydraulic  press.  It  has,  how- 
ever, been  truly  remarked,  tnat  the  intention  of 
*heae  philosophers,  was  merely  to  ascertain  wbe- 


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ther  the  height  of  the  mercury  was  affected  by 
being  carried  to  different  altitudes,  and  it  was 
some  time  afterwards  that  theorems  and  formulae 
were  invented  for  the  purpose  of  barometrical 
measurement ;  the  balance  between  the  mercury 
and  the  atmosphere  was  indeed  known,  but  the 
▼alue  of  the  weights  remained  to  be  determined. 
The.  first  thing  necessary  to  be  ascertained  was 
the  law  of  the  cond^ension  of  air  under  different 
pressures.  Mariotte  in  France,  and  Boyle  and 
Xownley  in  £n|land,  found  from  experiment 
that  the  density  of  this  fluid  was  proportional  to 
the  compressing  weight;  but  this  law  is  only 
true  when  the  temperature  of  the  air  remains 
constant ;  and  attention  was  not  at  first  paid  to 
this  important  restriction,  which  in  feet  could 
not  be  indicated  by  experiments  where  the  com- 
pressed volumes  of  air  differed  but  little  from 
each  other  in  respect  to  temperature. 

The  law  of  compression  bemg  otherwise  known, 
Halleymade  use  of  it  f^r  calculating  the  decrease 
of  density  in  the  beds  of  the  atmosphere  at  vsr 
rious  altitudes;  and  thus  led  to  the  mathematical 
formuls,  by  means  of  which  the  difference  of 
altitude  of  two  places  may  be  calculated  fi-om  the 
heights  of  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  observed 
at  each  of  them.  Newton,  in  his  Principia,  per- 
i^ted  Halley's  theory,  by. showing  that  reganl 
was  to  be  paid  to  the  diminution  of  gravity,  ac- 
cording as  tlie  distance  from  the  surfece  of  tlie 
earth  increased ;  but,  what  is  very  remarkable, 
he,  as  well  as  Halley,  omitted  to  consider  the 
effect  of  the  variations  of  heat,  and  of  the  pro- 
gressive decrease  of  the  temperature  and  density 
of  the  different  stiata  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
barometrical  formuls  thus  obtained,  without  the 
correction  which  renders  them  applicable  to  all 
temperatures,  could  only  furnish  a  very  imper- 
fect approximation,  and  therefore  philosopners 
and  mathematicians,  who  endeavoured  to  apply 
tliem,  found  that  they  succeeded  only  in  a  few  in- 
stances, and  that  generally  the  results  seemed  to 
be  subject  to  various  errors,  vrhich  appeared  to 
follow  no  law.  Hypotheses  were  theretbre  formed 
for  explaining  these  irregularities ;  but  some 
maintained  that  no  dependence  whatever  was  to 
be  placed  upon  such  tneorems ;  and  others,  that 
they  ought  to  be  wholly  excluded  from  works  of 
science.  No  person  seems  to  have  conjectured 
tite  true  cause ;  and  the  omission  is  the  more  re- 
markable, when  we  reflect  that  Bouguer  and 
Lambert,  men  of  such  peculiar  and  opposite  ta- 
lents; the  one  a  most  accurate  observer  and 
philosopher,  and  the  other  a  very  inventive  and 
acute  mathematician,  were  both  much  occupied 
with  this  instrument^  and  its  application. 

Deluc  at  last  discovered  the  true  source  of 
these  errors  and  anomalies,  by  searching  in  the 
observations  themselves  for  the  correspondence 
between  the  temperature  of  the  air  ana  the  cor- 
rection which  the  general  formula  required.  Nu- 
merous experiments  on  the  comparative  expan- 
sions of  air  and  mercury  enabled  nim  to  perceive 
the  law  that  those  corrections  ou^bt  to  follow, 
and  the  quantity  in  all  cases  which  should  be 
assigned  to  them. 

TmB  remarkable  discovery,  by  giving  to  the 
b.'uometrical  formula  an  unexpected  accuracy, 
;»aimated  the  zeal  of  philosophers,  and  obstrrva- 


tions  were  multiplied  to  a  great  extent.  Dr.  Mas-* 
kelyne  undertook  to  reduce  the  new  formula  into 
English  measures,  while  Playfair  added  a  correc- 
tion for  the  variation  of  gravity  in  diffeicnt 
latitudes^  Sir  George  Shuckburgh,  by  very  exact 
measures,  verified  the  results  of  M.  Deluc,  and 
gave  them  a  greater  degree  of  precision :  General 
Roy  also  made  an  application  of  it  at  a  great 
number  of  places  in  the  progress  of  his  survey  : 
the  Alps  were  levelled  by  MM.  Saussure  and 
Pictet ;  the  Pyrenees  by  M.  Ramond,  and  the 
Andes  by  Humboldt ;  and  the  barometer  ren- 
dered portable,  became  an  indispensable  instru- 
ment to  all  well-informed  travellers. 

Still  the  theory  of  barometrical  levelling  was 
far  from  being  brought  to  its  most  simple  terms. 
M.  Deluc  had  adapted  the  constant  co-efficient 
of  his  formula  to  a  certain  degree  of  the  thermo- 
meter, which  he  called  the  normal  temperature, 
and  which  he  had  fixed  from  the  condition,  that, 
for  this  temperature,  the  difference  of  level  be- 
came a  decimal  multiple  of  the  difference  of  the 
tabular  logarithms  of  the  observed  barometrical 
heights.    All  the  corrections  relative  to  tempe- 
rature which  the  formula  required,  commenced, 
therefore,  according  to  M.  Deluc,  at  the  normal 
temperature ;  in  consequence  of  which  this  point 
of  commencement  changed  whenever  the  formula 
was  applied  to  any  other  measures  than  French 
toises.  These  variations  were  very  inconvenient : 
and  it  appeared  much  more  natural  to  make  all 
the  corrections  commence  at  some  fixed  term,  as, 
for  example,  the  freezing  point,  which  is  given 
by  experiment,  and  common  to  observers  of  all 
countries.    Iliis  is  what  Laplace  has  done,  in  a 
chapter  pf  his  M^canique  Celeste,  in  which  he 
has  established  the  requisite  formula  upon  the 
most  simple  and  accurate  data.    He  determines 
the  correction  for  temperature  relative  to  the  ex- 
pansion of  air,  according  to  the  experiments  of 
M.  Gay  Lussac  ;  but  he  has  modified  his  resuUi 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  take  into  the  account  the 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere ;  and,  what  is  very 
fortunate,  the  sum  of  this  correction  and  the  co- 
efficient of  the  expansion  of  air  is  just  equal  to 
1^.    With  respect  to  the  expansion  of  mercury^ 
Laplace  employed  the  values  obtained,  in  con- 
junction with  Lavobier,  in  experiments  on  the 
expansion  of  bodies,  of  which  tliere  unhappily 
remains  only  a  small  number  of  results.    Finally, 
he  determined  the  general  co-efficient  of  the  for- 
mula from  barometrical  observations  themselves, 
by  combining  for  this  purpose,  a  great  number  of 
experiments  made  in  the  Pyrenees  by  M.  Ra- 
mond, with  a  degree  of  care  and  an  accuracy 
before  unknown  in  this  science.    The  value  of 
this  co-efiicient  has  since  been  confirmed  in  a  di- 
rect manner  by  the  experiments  made  by  M. 
Arago  and  M.  Biot,  on  the  comparative  weight 
of  air  and  mercury ;  so  that  all  tne  elements  of 
the  barometrical  formula,  the  research  of  which, 
has  cost  travellers  so  much  labor,  has  been  ob- 
tained directly,  and  with  great  accuracy,  without 
quitting  the  chemical  laboratory.     Laplace's  for- 
mula, founded  upon  data  so  exact  and  so  ably 
combined,  coincides  vrith  observations  better  than 
any  other  in  which  these  advantages  are  not 
united,  and  the  rigdrous  proofs  to  which  MM. 
Ramond  and  Daubusson  have  submitted  it  ex- 


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perimentaUy,  have  demonstrated  its  utility^  It 
still  remaikied,  however,  to  render  die  observa- 
tions comparable  with  each  other,  though  made 
with  different  barometers ;  which  has  also  been 
done  by  Laplace,  who  has  shown  that  the  diffe- 
rent indications  of  these  instruments^  in  circum- 
stances otherwise  equal,  are  the  effect  of  capillary 
attraction,  aAd  has  given  tables  for  correcting  this 
effect. 

The  barometrical  formula  being  thus  improved, 
observations  with  that  instrument  have  been  con- 
siderably multiplied^  and  carried  to  a  degree  of 
pecisiou  almost  incredible ;  a  precision  which 
nas  already  led  to  the  idea  of  distinguishing  every 
place  on  the  globe  (in  addition  to  its  latitude 
and  longitude)  by  its  height  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  or  rather  by  its  distance  from  the  centre 
of  the  earth  ;  which  corresponds  in  principle 
with  the  determination  of  the  position  oi  a  point 
in  absolute  spacer,  by  means  of  three  rectangula/ 
.co-ordinates ;  widi  this  view  various  tables  have 
been  computed,  and  principles  of  approximation 
and  compensation  invented,  highly  creditable  to 
their  respective  authors. 

It  remains  only  for  us  to  describe  the  progres- 
sive improvement  of  this  instrument.  1.  The 
common,  or  Torricellian  barometer,  is  repre- 
sented in  our  plate  Barometers,  %•  1  •  A  B  is  a 
glass  tube,  of  i,  or  |,  or  ^  inch  wide  (the  wider 
the  better),  and  about  thirty-four  inches  long^ 
being  close  at  the  top  A,  and  the  open  end  B  im- 
mersed in  a  basin  of  (juicksilver  C  D,  which  is 
the  better  the  wider  it  is.  To  fill  this,  or. any 
other  barometer,  take  a  clean  new  glass  tube,  of 
the  dimensions  as  above,  and .  pour  into  it  well 
purified  quicksilver,  with  a  small  funnel  either  of 
glass  01^  paper,  in  a  fine  continued  stream,  till  it 
wants  about  half  an  inch  or  an  inch  of  being  fliU; 
then  stopping  it  close  with  the  finger,  invert  it 
slowly^, and  the  air  in  the  emp^  part  will  aacend 
gradually  to  the  other  end,  collecting  into  itself 
such  other  small  air  bubbles  as  unavoid$ibly  get 
into  the  tube  among  the  mercury^  in  filling  it 
With  the  funnel :  and  thus  continue  to  invert  it 
several  times,  turning  the  two  ends  alternately 
upwards,  till  all  the  air  bubbles  are  collected  and 
brought  up  to  the  open  end  of  die  tube,  and  till 
the  part  filled  shall  appear,  without  speck>  like, 
a  fine  polished  steel  rod.  This  done,  pour  in  a 
little  more  quicksilver  to  fill  the  empty  part  quite 
full,  and  SD  exclude  all  air  from  the  tube ;  then 
stopping  the  orifice  agaip  with  the  finger,  invert 
the  tube,  and  immerse  the  finger  and  endy  thus 
stopped,  into  a  basin  of  purified  quicksilver.  In 
this  position  withdraw  the  finger,  6o  shall,  the 
mercury  descend  in  the  tube  to  some  place^  as  G^ 
between  twenty-eight  and .  thirty-one  inches 
above  that  in  the  basin  at  F,  as. these  are  the 
limits  between  which  it  alwavs  stands  in  this 
pountry,  on  the  common  surmce  of  the  earth. 
Then  measure,  from  the  surfece  of  the  quicksilver 
in  the  basin  at  F,  twenty-eight  inches  to  K,  and 
thirty-one  inches  to  I,  dividing  the  space  be- 
tween Ihem  into  inches  and  tenths,  wnich  sure 
marked  on  a  scale  placed  against  the  side  of  tne 
lube;  ana  the  tenths  are  subdivided  into  hundredth 
parts  of  an  inch  by  $l  sliding  index  carrying  a 
vernier  or  nonius.  .These  three  inches,  between 
twenty-eight  and   diirty-one,  so   divided,   will 


aft^er  for  ^l  the  ordinary  ^urtobses  of  a  ili- 
tionary  or  chamber  barometer ;  but  for  expeif- 
ments  oh  altitudes  and  depths,  it  is  proper  to 
have  the  divisions  carried  on  a  little  higher  np, 
and  a  great  deal  kywer.  In  the  proper  filling 
and  otherwise  fitting  up  of  the  barometer,  se?eiil 
circumstances  are  to  be  carefiilly  .noted ;  as,  that 
the  bore  of  the  tube  foe  pretty  wide,  to  allow  Ok 
freer  motion  of  the  quicksUver^  without  beiiig 
impeded  by  an  adhesion  to  the  sides ;  that  the 
basin  below  it  be  also  pretty  large,  in  order  that 
the  surface  of  the  mercury  at  F  may  not  sensibly 
rise  or  fall  with  that  in  the  tube.;  (iiat  the  bottma 
of  the  tube  be  <cut  off  rather  obliquelv,  that  whea 
it  rests  on  the  bottom  of  tiie  basih  mere  may  be 
a  firee  passage  for  the  quicksilver;  and  tiiat,  to 
have  tlie  quiduilver  very  pure^  It  is  best  i6  Ml 
it  in  the  tube,  which  \vill  expel  all  the  air  (mm 
it.  This  barometer  is  commonly  fitted  on  in 
a  neat  mahogany  case,  together  with  a  mer- 
momefier  %nd  hygrometer,  as  represented  in 
fig.  2.  As  the  scale  of  variation  is  smatt^  benig 
included  within  three  inches  'm  the  commoii 
barometer,  several  contrivances  hav%  been  de- 
vised to  enlarge  tlie  scale,  or  to  rtader  the  mo- 
tion oAhe  quicksilver  more  sensible. 

Descartes  su§^;ested  a  method  of  increasng  die 
sensibility  of  this  instrument,  which  was  exbcated 
by  Huygens.  t*hi8  was  effected  b^  making  the 
barometrical  tube  end  in  a  pretty  tirge  cylindri- 
cal vessel  at  top^  into  which  was  inserted  abo 
the  lower  or  open  end  of  a  mudh  finer  tube  than 
the  former,  wnich  was  partly  filled  with  water, 
to  give  little  obstruction  by  its  weight  to  the  mo- 
tion of  the  mercury^  while  it  moved  through  a 
pretty  long  A>ace  of  the  yery  fine  tube  by  a  small 
variation  of  tne  mercury  below  it,  and  so  rendered 
the  small  changes  in  the  state  of  the  air  very  sen- 
sible. But  the  inconvenience  was.  that  the  air 
contained  iti  the  water  gradually  disengaged  it- 
self, and  escaped  into  the  vacuum  in  the  top  of 
the  small  tube,  till  it  was  collected  in  a  body 
there,  and  by  its  elasticity  preventing  the  free 
rise  of  the  fluids  in  the  tubes,  spoiled  the  instrq- 
ment  as  a  barometer.  And  inis  is  the  reason 
why  a  water  barometer  cannot  succeed.  Thb  in- 
strument)  however,  is  represented  in  fig.  3. 
C  D  is  the  vessel^  in  which  is  united  the  upper 
or  small  water  tube  A  C,  with  the  lower  or  mer- 
curial one  C  B.  To  remedy  this  inconvenience, 
Huygens  thought  of  placing  the  mercury  at  top, 
and  the  water  at  bottom,  which  he  thus  contrived. 
ADG,  fig.  5>  is  a  bent  tube  hermetically  sealed 
at  A,  but  open  at  G,  of  about  one  line  in  diameter, 
and  passing  through  the  two  equal  cyhadrical 
tessels^  B  C>  EF,  which  are  about  twenty  inches 
apart^  and  df  fifteen  lines  diameter,  their  length 
being  ten.  The  mercury  being  put  into  the  tube, 
will  stand  between  the  middle  of  the  vessels  £  F 
and  BC,  the  remaining  space  to  A  being  void 
both  of  air  and  mercuty.  Lastly,  commoe  Water, 
tinged  with  a  sixth  part  of  aqua  regia,  to  prevent 
its  freezing,  id  poured  into  the  tub^  VQ,  till  it 
rises  a  foot  above  the  mercury  in  D  F.  To  pie- 
vent  the  water  from  evaporating,  a  drop  e<f  6il  of 
sweet  almonds  floats  on  the  top  of  i\.  But  the 
column  of  water  will  be  sensibly  affected  fa^-  heat 
and  cold,  which  spoils  the  accuracy  of  the  instru- 
ment.   Although  the  invention  of  this  baroneif  c 


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BAROMETER. 


467 


W98  claimed  by  Huygens,  and  aboby  De  la  Hire,  the  tube^  to  which  is  connected  another  ball,  H, 

it  appears  first  to  have  been  contrived  by  Dr.  by  a  cord,  hanging  freely  over  a  pulley,  taming 

HooVe  in  1668,  and  described  in  Phil.  Trans.,  an  index^  KL,  about  its  centre.    When  themer- 

No.  185.    It  is  most  delicately  movable ;  and,  cury  rises  in  the  part  FG,  it  raises  the  ball^  and 

when  properiv  managed,  by  &r  the  fittert  for  a  the  ether  ball  descends  and  turns  the  pulley, 

chamber,  or  for  amasement,  by  observations  on  with  the  index,  round  a  graduated  circle  trora  N 

the  changes  of  the  atmospheric  pressure.    The  towards  M  and  P ;  and  the  contrary  way  when 

slightest  breeze  causes  it  to  ris»e  and  &ll,  and  it  is  ^the  quicksilver  and  the  ball  sink  in  the  bent  part 

continually  in  motion.    But,  for  philosophical  of  the  tube.    Hence  the  scale  is  easily  enlarged 


£ 


turposes,  tbis^  and  all  other  instruments  of  the 
ina,  are  inferior  to  the  common  barometeri, 
both  on  account  of  their  being  less  manageable^ 
and  also  in  point  of  accuracy.  For  their  scale 
must  be  determined  in  all  its  parts  by  the  com- 
mon barometer,  and  therefore,  notwithstanding 
their  great  range,  they  are  susceptible  of  no 
greater  accuracy  than  mat  wiUi  which  the  scale 
of  a  common  barometer  can  be  observed  and 
measured. 


ten  or  twelve  fold,  being  increased  in  proportion 
of  the  axis  of  the  pullev  to  the  length  or  the  index 
KL.  But  then  the  friction  of  the  pulley  and 
axis  is  some  obstruction  to  the  free  motion  of  (ht 
quicksilver.  Contrivances  to  lessen  the  friction^ 
4c.,  may  abo  be  seen  in  the  Phil.  Tram.  ▼ol.<52y 
art  29.,  and  vol.  60,  art.  10. 

In  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  53,  No. 
29,  Fitzgerald's  improvement  of  the  wheel 
barometer  is  described  as  furnished  widk  twa 


The  horizontal  or  rectangular  barometer  of   pulleys,  which  move  on  friction  wheels ;  each  of 


Bernoulli  and  Cassini  is  shown  in  fig.  4.  AD 
is  a  pretty  wide  cylindrical  part  at  the  top  of  the 
tube,  which  latter  is  bent  at  right  angles  at  B ; 
the  lower  part,  BC,  being  turned  into  the  Kori* 
zontal  direction  and  closed  above  at  A,  but  open 
at  the  lower  end,  where  however  the  mercitry 


which  turns  an  index  on  the  centre  of  a  graduated 
circle.  The  smallest  circle  is  four  inches  in 
diameter,  and  divided  into  three  equal  parts^ 
each  again  being  subdivided  decimally ;  uid  the 
changes,  corresponding  to  the  rise  or  4ll  of  the 
mercury  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty-one  inches^ 


<aumot  run  out,  being^  opposed  by  the  pressure  are  marked  on  the  margin  of  it,  as  they  are  on 
of  the  atmosphere.  Thi8»  and  the  foregding  con-  the  scales  of  the  eoasmon  barometers.  The  large 
trivance  of  Huygens,  are  obviously  founded  on  circle,  which  is  proposed  by  the  inventor  to  be 
the  known  principles  of  hydrostatics,  *  that  fluids  thirty  inches  in  diameter,  is  divided  into  three 
of  the  same  base  press  according  to  their  per-  hundred  equal  parts,  and  the  index  belonging  to 
pendicular  altitude,  and  not  according  to  the  it  will  therefore  mark  distinctly  to  the  six- 
quantity  of  their  matter ;'  so  that  the  same  pves-  hundredth  part  of  an  inch  in  the  rise  and  fiaJI  of 


sure  ot  the  atmosphere  sustains  the  quicksilver 
that  fills  the  tube  BDA  and  the  cistern  D,  as 
^ould  support  the  mercury  in  the  tube  alone. 
Hence  having  fixed  upon  the  size  of  the  scale,,  as, 
for  example,  the  extent  of  twelve  inches  instead 
of  three,  that  is  four  times  as  long ;  the  area  of  a 
section  of  the  cylinder  D  must  be  four  times 
that  of  the  tube,  and  consequently  its  diameter 
double ;  so  that  for  every  natural  variation  of  an 


the  mercury.  On  the  centre  of  this  circle  two 
registers  are  fixed,  which  are  placed  along  the 
index  when  the  instrument  is  adjusted;  one  of 
them  is  carried  round  as  the  index  advances,  and 
left  round  on  its  return ;  so  that  their  distanee 
will  determine  the  limits  of  the  variation  from 
one  observation  to  another. 

Mr.  CaswelPs  barometer,  described  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  24,  seems  to  be 


inch  of  air  in  the  cylinder  A  D,  there  will  be  a  as  sensible  and  exact  as  any.  Suppose  A  B  C  D^ 
variation  of  four  inches  in  the  tube  C  B.  But  on  fig.  8,  is  a  bucket  of  water,  in  whicn  is  the  baros- 
accotmt  of  the  friction  against  the  sides  of  the  cope  xreygotm^  which  consists  of  a  body 
l^ass,  the  quicksilver  is  liable  to  break ;  and  the  x  r  i  m,  and  a  tube  ey  z  o,  which  are  both  con- 
vise  and  fall  is  then  no  longer  equable ;  besides  cave  cylinders,  made  of  tin,  or  rather  glass,  and 
the  mercury  is  in  danger  of  being  thrown  out  of  communicating  with  each  other.  The  bottom  of 
the  orifice  at  C,  by  any  sudden  motion  of  the  the  tube,  g  y^  has  a  leaden  weight  to  sink  it,  so 
machine.  that  the  top  of  the  body  nuiy  just  swim  even  with 
The  diagonal  barometer,  invented  by  Sir  the  surface  of  the  water  by  the  addition  of  some 
Samuel  Moreland,  fig.  6,  is  another  method  of  grain  weights  on  the  top.  When  the  instroment 
enlarging  the  natural  scale  of  three  inches  per-  is  forced  with  its  mouth  downwards,  the_water 


pendicular,  C  D,  by  extending  it  to  any  length, 
BC,  in  an  oblique  direction.  This  is  liable  in 
some  degree  to  the  inconvenience  of  friction  and 
breaking ;  and  hence  it  is  found  that  the  diagonal 
part,  B  C,  cannot  properly  be  bent  from  the  per- 
pendicular more  than  in  an  angle  of  45%  which 


ascends  into  the  tube  to  the  height  2u,  To  the 
top  is  added  asmsdl  concave  cylinder,  or  pipe,  to* 
keep  the  instrument  from  sinking  down  to  the 
bottom :  m  d  is  a  wire ;  and  mt^  de,  are  two- 
threads  oblique  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  which 
perform  the  office  of  diagonals :  for  while  the  in- 


only  increases  the  scale  nearly  in  the  proportion    strument  sinks  more  or  less  by  an  alteration  in 


of  seven  to  five. 

But  the  most  perfect  of  all  these  instruments, 
on  an  enlarged  scale,  unquestionably  is  Dr. 
Hook's  wheel  barometer,  fig.  7.  This  was  in- 
vented about  1668,  and  Lh  meant  to  render  the 
alterations  in  the  air  more  sensible.  Here  the 
barometer  tube  has  a  large  ball,  AB,  at  top,  and 
is  bent  up  at  the  lower  or  open  end,  where  an 
iron  ball,  G,  ^oau  on  the  top  of  the  mercury  in 


the  gravity  of  the  air,  where  the  surface  of  the 
water  cuts  the  thread  is  formed  a  small  bubble^ 
which  ascends  up  the  thread  while  the  mercury 
of  the  common  baroscope  ascends,  and  vice  versa. 
It  appears  from  a  calculation  which  the  author 
makes,  that  this  instrument  shows  the  alterations 
in  the  air  1200  times  more  accurately  than  the 
common  barpmeter.  He  observes,  that  the  bob- 
ble is  seldom  knofwn  lo  stand  still  even  for  a 


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BAROMETER. 


minute;  that  a  small  blast  of  wind,  which  cannot 
be  heard  in  a  chamber,  will  sensibly  make  it 
sink ;  and  that  a  cloud  passing  over  it  always 
makes  it  descend,  &c. 

Rowning's  Compound  Barometer  has  se- 
Teralconthvances  for  enlarging  the  scale,  and  that 
in  any  proportion  whatever.  One  of  these  is 
described  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  No.* 
427,  and  also  in  his  Natural  Philosophy,  part  2 ; 
and  another  in  the  same  part,  which  is  repre- 
sented in  fig.  9.  ABC  is  a  compound  tube, 
hermetically  sealed  at  A,  and  open  at  C ;  empty 
^m  A  to  D,  filled  with  mercury  from  thence  to 
B,  and  from  hence  to  £  with  water.  Hence,,  by 
varying  the  proportions  of  the  two  tubes  AF  ana 
F  C»  the  scale  of  variation  may  be  changed  in  any 
degree.' 

A  Steel-yard  or  Lever  Barometer,  is  repre- 
sented by  fig.  13,  which  enlarges  the  scale  in  pro- 
portion of  the  shorter  to  the  longer  arm  of  a  steel- 
yard. AB  is  the  barometer  tube,  close  at  A  and 
open  at  B,  immersed  in  a  cylindrical  glass  cistern 
Cf  D,  which  is  but  very  little  wider  than  the  tube 
A  B  is.  The  barometer  tube  is  suspended  to  the 
ihorter  arm  of  an  index  like  a  steel-yard,  moving 
3D  the  fulcrum  £,  and  the  extremity  of  its  longer 
arm  poipting  to  the  divisions  of  a  graduated 
irch,  with  which  index  the  tube  is  nearly  in 
equilibrio.  When  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
is  lessened,  the  mercury  descends  out  of  the  tube 
mto  the  cistern,  which  raises  the  tube  and  the 
shorter  arm  of  the  index,  and  consequently  the 
extremity  of  the  longer  moves  downwards,  and 
passes  over  a  part  of  the  graduated  arch.  And 
on  the  contrary  this  moves  upwards  when  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  increases. 

Artists,  however,  have  of  late  directed  their 
efibrts  rather  to  adapt  barometers  for  particular 
purposes,  and  to  improve  their  accuracy  of  action, 
than  to  enlarge  the  scale. 

An  instrument  called  the  Chamber  Barome- 
ter, constructed  by  Messrs.  Jones,  opticians^  is 
shown  in  fig.  11.  It  consists  of  a  barometer  d, 
thermometer  a  a,  and  hygrometer  r,  all  in  one 
mahogany  frame.  The  thermometer  or  hygro- 
meter of  this  apparatus  may  be  separated  from 
the  frame,  and  occasionally  used  apart  if  neces- 
sary. The  thermometer  is  soparated  by  means 
of  two  screws  a  a :  and  the  hygrometer  by  un- 
screwing a  brass  pin  at  the  back  of  the  frame. 
Th^  index  of  the  Hygrometer  is  set  at  any  time, 
merely  by  moving  with  the  finger  the  brass 
wheel  seen  at  c ;  and  the  two  sliding  indexes  of 
the  barometer  and  thermometer  are  moved  by 
rack  work,  set  in  action  by  the  key  g,  placed  in 
the  holes  h  and  i.  The  divisions  of  the  barome- 
ter, plate  h,  are  in  tenths  of  an  inch,  from  twenty- 
eight  to  thirty-one  inches,  and  these  are  subdivided 
into  hundreddis  by  the  nonius  or  vernier  scale, 
on  a  sliding  slip  of  brass.  The  vernier  scale  is 
divided  into  ten  equal  parts,  which  are  equal  to 
eleven  on  the  scale  of  inches,  or  to  eleven-tenths 
of  an  inch.  By  this  means  the  height  of  the  mer- 
cury at  E  is  evident  merely  by  inspection  Jo  the 
one-hundredth  part  of  an  inch,  according  to  the 
principle  of  the  vernier  scale. 

A  more  common  sort  of  barometer  is  frequently 
made,  which  difiers  from  the  one  above  princi- 
pally in  tbisy  that  in  general  it  is  not  supposed  to 


register  to  the  same  degree  of  accuracy,  having 
no  vernier,  and  being  meant  for  the  common  pnr^ 
poses  of  a  weather-glass,  its  face  is  marked  with 
different  words  indicating  the  probable  shades  of 
weather  peculiar  to  different  altitude^  of  the  mer- 
cury. As  the  lowest  state  of  the  mercury  in  this 
country  is  not  less  than  twenty-eight  inches,  nor 
the  highe:it  above  thirty-one  inches,  this  lowest 
point  on  the  scale,  on  the  &ce  of  the  instrument, 
u  marked  stormy,  and  the  latter  very  dry  for 
summer,  and  on  the  other  side  very  hard  frost  for 
winter.  To  the  next  half-inch  below  this  highest 
point  are  written  set.  &ir  on  the  one  side,  and  set. 
fro»t  on  the  other.  At  thirty  inches,  the  word 
lair  is  placed  on  the  one  side,  and  frost  on  the 
other ;  and  at  twenty-nine  inches  and  a  half  there 
is  marked  changeable,  both  for  summer  and  win* 
ter.  At  twenty- nine  inches  we  have  rain  on  the 
one  side,  and  snow  on  the  other ;  and  at  twenty- 
eight  inches  and  a  half,  much  rain  on  the  sum- 
mer side,  and  much  snow  on  the  winter ;  these 
terms,  for  want  of  room,  are  omitted  in  the  figure. 

In  the  better  sort  of  these  chamber  barometers 
the  reservoir  of  mercury  is  a  leathern  bag,  which 
is  more  or  less  compressed  by  the  atmosphere, 
according  to  its  greater  or  less  pressure,  and  the 
scale  is  supposed  to  commence  from  the  bottom 
of  the  tube ;  there  is  also  a  screw  at  the  bottom, 
fig.  29,  by  which  the  mercury  may  be  fi^rced  to 
the  top  of  the  tube,  and  thus  prevented  from  oscil- 
lating when  the  instrument  is  removed.  This 
construction,  however,  is  not  sufficiently  accurate 
for  those  instruments  designed  for  the  mensura- 
tion of  altitudes ;  portable  barometers,  therefore, 
have  several  adjustments  peculiar  to  this  purpose. 

Portable  Barometer. — Onq  of  the  best  in- 
struments of  this  kind,  by  Troughton,  is  exhibited 
in  figs.  12, 13,  14,  and  15,  (Barometers,  plat^ 
II.)  Its  distinguishing  characteristic  consists  in 
the  excellent  manner  in  which  the  mercury  in 
the  cistern  is  set  to  the  zero  in  the  scale  of  inches. 
For  this  purpose  a  glass  cylinder,  of  about  two 
inches  and  a  half  diameter,  and  as  much  in 
length,  contains  the  mercury.  An  external  cover- 
ing of  hollow  brass,  terminating  in  an  interior 
screw  a  little  above  and  below  the  glass,  admits 
external  screw  pieces,  whose  ends,  well  leathered, 
being  pressed  hard  against  the  ends  of  the  glass, 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  fluid.  Near  the  upper 
end  of  the  brass  cover  are  two  slits,  made  non- 
zontally,  one  before,  and  the  other  behind,  ex- 
actly similar,  and  opposite  to  each  other.  At 
bottom  is  a  screw,  seen  better  in  the  section,  fii^. 
13,  which,  acting  upon  the  usual  l^alhem  bag, 
'  forces  the  quicksilver  upwards  at  pleasure,  and, 
by  filling  every  part,  renders  the  instniment  por- 
table. But  the  primary  design  of  the  screw  is, 
to  furnish  the  means  of*^  adjusting  the  surface  of 
the.  merciiry  in  the  glass  cistern,  so  as  just  to  shut 
out  the  light  from  passing  between  it  and  the 
upper  edges  of  the  slits  in  the  brass  cover.  This 
is  the  mode  of  adjusting  to  zero ;  and  it  follows 
tliat  the  upper  edges  of  the  sUts  must  represent 
the  t>eginning  of  3ie  scale  of  inches.  The  firaroe 
is  entirely  made  of  brass  tube,  and  above  the  cis- 
tern is  of  about  1*1  inch  in  diameter.  The  fiisi 
ten  inches  of  the  lower  end  are  occupied  by  a 
thermometer,  whose  bulb,  bent  inwards,  is  con- 
ceited within  the  frame.    At  about  three  indwt 


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higher,  it  is  attached  to  the  stand  by  a  ring,  in 
which  the  frames  turn  round  with  a  smooth  and 
steacly  motion,  for  the  purpose  of  placing  the  in- 
stniment  in  the  best  light  for  reading  off,  &c. 
The  actually  divided  scale  commences  at  about' 
fifteen  inched  above  the  zero,  and  is  continued  as 
hi^h  as  thirty-three  inches;  and,  by  the  usual 
help  of  a  vernier,  is  subdivided  down  to  -001  of 
an  mch.  A  longitudinal  slit,  from  end  to  end  of 
the  divided  part,  exposes  to  view  the  glass  tube 
and  mercury  within  it.  The  whole  of  this  part 
consists  of  two  tubes  of  brass :  in  the  inside  of 
tiie  interior  one,  slides  a  cylindrical  piece,  and  on 
this  is  divided  the  vernier  scale,  the  index  to 
which  is  the  lower  end  of  the  piece.  In  taking 
the  height  of  the  mercury,  this  piece  is  brought 
down  so  as  just  to  exclude  the  light  from  passing 
between  itself  and  the  spherical  surface  of  the 
mercury.  The  screw  at  top,  although  but  a  short 
one,  performs  this  office  in  whatever  part  of  the 
scale  the  vernier  piece  may  be ;  for  it  acts  upon 
the  interior  long  tube,  in  the  inside  of  which  the 
piece  is  sustained  by  friction,  and  in  which  it  is, 
on  every  occasion,  to  be  set  by  hand  nearly. 
The  tripod  is  altogether  similar  to  what  Mr. 
Ramsden  used  for  the  same  purpose,  as  (ar  back 
as  the  year  1775.  It  affords  when  closed,  fig. 
15,  a  safe  and  convenient  packing-case  for  the 
instrument :  the  structure  ot  the  staff  head  is  cu- 
rious: the  principal  part  b  a  circle  fig.  16, 
about  *75  of  an  inch  broad,  joined  in  three  pieces; 
these,  althouph  they  seem  in  principle  to  be  in- 
capable of  motion,  yet,  in  practice,  produce  what 
is  fully  adequate  to  the  purpose.  The  three 
joint-pins  extend  inwards,  so  as  to  pass  through 
a  circular  rim,  which  they  hold  fast ;  within  this 
rim  is  hang  a  similar  one,  by  two  pivots;  and, 
inside  the  latter,  at  right  angles  to  the  pivots,  are 
£utened  twoy's,  or  anj^les,  in  which  the  barome- 
ter hangs  by  its  gudgeons.  Thus  are  brought 
about,  in  a  small  compass,  the  means  of  ex- 
tending the  legs,  of  turning  the  instrument 
about  in  the  tripod,  and  an  universal  joint, 
whereon  it  readily  places  itself  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon. 

The  importance  of  these  instruments  at  sea, 
where  every  real  indication  of  the  approaching 
weather  must  be  important,  early  suggested  a  Ma-^ 
HIKE  Barometer,  first  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke.* 
It  is  contrived  so  as  not  to  be  affected  or  injured  by 
the  motion  of  a  ship.  His  contrivance  consisted 
of  a  double  thermometer,  pr  a  couple  of  tubes 
half  filled  with  spirit  of  wine ;  the  one  sealed  at 
both  ends,  with  a  quantity  of  air  included ;  the 
other  sealed  at  one  end  only.  The  former  of 
these  is  affected  only  by  the  warmth  of  the  air ; 
but  the  other  is  affected  both  by  the  external 
warmth  and  by  the  variable  pressure  of  tlie  at- 
mosphere. Hence,  considering  the  spirit  ther- 
mometer as  a  standard,  the  excess  of  tne  rise  or 
^l  of  the  other  above  it  will  show  the  increase  or 
decrease  of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  This 
instru^nent  is  described  by  Dr.  Ualley,  in  the 
Phil.  Trans.  No.  269,  where  he  says,  *  I  had 
one  of  these  barometers  with  me  in  my  late 
.  southern  voyage,  and  it  never  failed  to  prognos- 
ticate and  give  early  notice  of  all  the  bad  weather 
we  had,  so  that  I  depended  thereon,  and  made 
provision  accordingly ;  and  from  my  own  expe- 
heaoe  I  conclude,  dial  %  more  useful  contrivance 


hath  not  for  this  long  time  been  offered  for  the 
benefit  of  navigation.'  Mr.  Naime,  an  artist  of 
London,  invented  another  kind  of  Marine  Baro- 
meter, bavins:  the  lower  part  of  the  tube,  for  about 
two  feet  long,  made  very  small,  to  check  the  vi- 
brations of  the  mercury,  which  i^ould  otherwise 
arise  from  the  motions  of  the  ship.  This  was  also 
assisted  by  being  hung  in  gimbals,  by  a  part 
which  subjects  it  to  be  the  least  affected  by  such 
motions.  It  was  constructed  for  the  use  of  Cap- 
tain Phipps  in  his  celebrated  vdyage  to  the  North 
Pole.  A  marine  barometer  has  also  been  in- 
vented by  M.  Passemente,  an  ineenious  artist  of 
Paris.  This  contrivance  consists  only  in  twist- 
ing the  middle  of  the  tube  into  a  spiral  of  two 
revolutions ;  by  which  contrivance  the  impulses 
which  the  mercury  receives  from  the  motions  of 
the  ship  are  destroyed,  by  being  transmitted  in 
contrary  directions. 

Troughton's  Marine  Barometer  may  be 
considered  the  best,  perhaps,  at  present  known. 
The  upper  part  of  the  tube  here  is  four-tenths  of 
an  inch  diameter,  and  the  smaller  part  only  one- 
fiftieth  ;  and,  to  counteract  more  effectually  the 
effects  of  the  ship's  motion,  the  instrument,  like 
the  above,  is  suspended  in  gimbals,  as  shown  in 
figs.  17  and  18.  The  whole  is  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  cabin  by  two  brass  tubes,  which  slide 
one  within  the  other,  and  render  the  instrument 
capable  of  being  suspended  at  different  distances 
from  the  place  of  support ;  that  the  bottom  of  it 
may  not  strike  the  side  of  the  cabin  during  any 
heavy  rolling  of  the  vessel,  the  iqner  tube  carries 
the  gimbal.  The  external  frame  of  the  barometer 
is  a  cylindrical  tube  of  wood,  on  which  the  brass 
sockets  slide ;  and  in  this  is  inserted  the  inner- 
most pair  of  pivots,  or  universal  joint,  which 
furnishes  the  instrument  with  a  movable  point  of 
suspension.  The  top  is  terminated  with  a  brass 
ball,  of  a  weight  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  mer- 
cury, &c.  at  &e  lower  end.  With  respect  to  the 
position  of  the  point  of  suspension,  no  general 
rule  can  be  given  applicable  to  every  case, 
though  it  is  a  circumstance  on  which  the  oscilla- 
tions of  the  mercury  greatly  depends ;  it  is  indeed 
obvious,  that,  though  this  point  were  accurately 
determined  for  one  particular  height  of  the  mer- 
cury, it  would  not  correspond  with  every  other. 
By  this  ingenious  contrivance  of  the  counterpoise 
to  the  weight  of  the  mercury,  the  centre  of  gra- 
vity of  the  whole  will  be  about  the  middle ;  and 
if  the  instrument  were  of  the  same  specific  gra- 
vity throughout,  the  point  of  suspension  that 
would  produce  the  smallest  oscillation,  would  be 
about  one-third  of  the  length  of  tlie  instrument 
from  the  top,  considering  the  lower  part  as  a 
fixed  point ;  but  as  this  is  not  strictly  the  case, 
the  point  of  suspension  is  best  ascertained  by  ex- 
periment. The  graduation  is  on  two  scales  of 
ivoiy,  about  four  incheji  long,  for  the  reception  of 
which  two  opposite  quarters  of  the  cylindrical 
frame  are  sunk  through  that  length,  their  planes 
pointing  towards  the  centre  of  the  tube,  and  the 
index  is  very  light,  and  slides  on  the  t^lass  tube, 
without  touching  any  other  part.  At  the  bottom 
is  the  usual  screw,  which,  pressing  up  the  leather 
bag,  prevents  the  mercury  from  oscillating  when 
the  instr»iment  is  removed.  For  an  instrument 
of  thia  kind,  lately  invented  by  Mr.  Adie,  see 
Stmftkioheter. 


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BAROMETER. 


Among  bftiometers,  or  barcnoopesi  might  be 
tanked  a  weather  instrument  to  ascertain  the 
▼ariation  of  the  atmosphere^  by  the  sound  of  a 
wire,  mentioned  by  M.  Lazowski  in  his  Tour 
through  Switzerland,  and  discovered  by  accident. 
A  clergyman,  who  was  near-sighted,  often  amused 
himself  with  firing  at  a  mark,  and  contrived  to 
stretch  a  wire  so  as  to  draw  the  mark  to  him  to 
see  how  he  had  aimed.  He  observed  that  the 
wire  sometimes  sounded  as  if  it  vibrated  like  a 
ibusical  chord ;  and  that  after  such  soundings  a 
change  alwlys  ensued  in  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere ;  from  ^hence  he  came  to  prediet  rain  or 
fine  weather.  On  making  farther  experiments, 
it  was  found  that  the  sounds  were  most  distinct 
whien  extended  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian. 
According  to  the  'breather  which  was  to  follow, 
the  sounds  were  more  or  less  sofk,  or  more  or  less 
continued.  Fine  weather  was  announced  by  the 
tones  oi  counter-tenor,  and  rain  by  those  of  bass. 
It  has  been  said  that  M.  Volta  mounted  fifteen 
chords  in  this  way  at  Pavia,  to  bring  this  method 
to  some  precision,  bnt  no  accounts  have  appeared 
«f  his  success. 

Marine  barometers  are  now  generally  used  on 
board  all  ships  of  war  add  Indiamea.  To  Ht- 
«iUt«te  the  keeping  of  a  register  of  barometrical 
observations,  Mr.  Ho^bu^,  hydrogmpher  to 
the  East  India  Company,  Ins  iately  published  « 
«pt  of  engraved  ruled  sheets,  adapted  for  the 
teonvenience  of  navigators.  In  these  plates  the 
height  of  the  mercury,  from  twenty-seven  to 
thirty-one  inches,  is  represented  in  iodies  and 
tehth  parts,  by  horizon^  lines ;  while  each  suo- 
tsessive  day  has  a  space  apportioned  to  it  by  ver- 
rical  ban.  The  state  of  the  barometer  at  eVery 
ebservation  is  marked  with  a  dot;  and  these  dots 
being  afterwards  connected  together,  exhibit  an 
irregular  wated  line,  stretching  across  the  sheet, 
and  indicating  the  series  of  the  changes  of  the 
weather.  At  the  lowest  points,  from  which  the 
^eurve  again  returns,  a  gale  generally  follows. 
From  the  observations  made  off  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  during  the  month  of  May  1816,  by 
Captain  fiasil  Hall,  of  his  Majesty's  sloop  Vic- 
tor, k  appears  that  whenever  the  mercury  fell  to 
y,  ^9*60  incnes,  a  storm  always  ensued;  thecolunhn 
always  rose  when  the  gale  abated,  and  when  it 
reached  near  thirty  inch^,  the  weather  became  fair. ' 
Those  gales  often  came  on  suddenly,  vrithout 
any  visible  change  in  the  aspect  of  the  sky, 
but  the  marine  bammeter  never  failed  to  give 
warning  of  their  approach. 

The  following  observations,  upon  the  move- 
ments and  state  of  the  mercury  in  the  marine 
barometer,  were  made  by  Captain  Flinders, -of 
his  majes^'s  ship  Investigator,  during  his  ex- 
amination of  the  coasts  of  New  Holland  and 
New  South  Wales,  the  Terra  Aastralis  of  the 
earlier  charts,  in  the  years  of  1601,  1802^  and 
1803.  Phil.  Trans.  180$,  Part.  2.  lite  ba- 
rometer, with  which  these  observations  wefe 
made,  was  constructed  by  Naime  and  Blunt,  and 
had  been  used  in  Capuin  Cook^  voyages.  The 
height  of  the  mercury  was  taken  regularly  at 
day-break,  at  noon,  and  at  eight  o'clock  in  the 
evening  The  temperature  of  the  thermometer 
was  also  registered  at  the  same  periods.  The 
circumstances  that  led  Captain  Flinders  to  think 
his  observations  worth  attention  were,  the  coin- 


cidence that  took  place  between  the  rising  and 
^ling  of  the  mercury,  and  the  setting  in  of 
wind  that  blew  from  the  sea  and  from  off  tbe 
land,  to  which  there  seemed  to  be  at  least  as 
much  reference  as  to  the  strength  of  the  wind, 
or  the  state  of  the  atmosphere.  Among  the  ex- 
amples selected  from  the  captain's  journals,  are 
nine  that  relate  to  the  south  coast ;  from  these 
it  appears,  generally,  that  a  change  of  wind  from 
the  northern,  to  any  point  in  the  southern  half 
of  the  compass,  caused  the  mercury  to  rise,  and 
a  contrary  change,  to  fell ;  and  that  thp  mercury 
stood  considerably  higher  when  the  wind  was 
from  the  south  side  of  east  and  west,  than  it  did 
in  similar  weather  when  the  wind  came  from  die 
north  side.  The  cause  of  this  appears  to  be, 
that  the  first  proportion  of  air  brought  in  from 
the  sea,  is  impelled  upwards  by  the  land  whidi 
it  encounters,  and  along  the  inclined  sur&ce  of 
the  land,  in  a  sloping  direction :  the  next  portioo 
is»  in  the  same  manner,  stopped  and  forced  up- 
wards ;  but  it  has  a  shorter  space  to  pass  throoga, 
because  the  former  portion  goes  along  two  of  the 
sides,  and  the  tatter  along  die  third  side  of  as 
obtuse-angled  triangle:  thus,  the  socceedis; 
portions  oi  air  meet  the  summit  oi  land  before 
the  first  portions,  and  cause  the  latter  to  eddj  and 
stagnate;  while  the  stream  blowing  above  this 
portion,  compresses  it,  and  augments  its  demitj, 
whence  the  increased  height  of  the  barometer. 

*  The  barometer,'  says  Captain  Flindeis,  *  was 
of  great  service  to  me  in  the  investigation  of  this 
dangerous  part  o^  the  east  coast,  where  the  ship 
.was  commonly  surrounded  widi  rocks,  shoals, 
islands^  or  coral  ree&.  Near  the  main  land,  if 
the  sea-breeze  was  dying  off  at  night,  and  thfc 
mercury  descending,  I  made  no  scruple  of  an- 
choring near  the  shore,  knowing  that  it  woold 
eilherbe  a  calm,  or  a  wind  would  come  off  fron 
the  land ;  but  if  the  mercury  kept  up,  I  stretched 
off,  in  the  expectation  that  it  woula  freshen  op 
again  in  a  few  hours.  Amongst  the  barrier-reefr, 
when  the  wind  was  dying  away,  the  barometa 
told  me,  almost  certainly,  from  what  quarter  it 
would  next  spring  up.  If  the  mercuiy  stood  at 
30°  15'  or  near  it,  and  vfas  risiiig,  I  expected  the 
proper  trade  wind ;  and  if  higher,  that  K  frould 
be  well  from  the  southward,  or  would  blow 
fresh ;  and,  if  it  was  up  to  30^  SO'  both.  The 
fiilling  of  the  mercury  to  30°  10'  was  an  indica- 
tion of  a  breeze  from  the  north-eastwaid;  a«l 
its  descent  below  thirty  inches,  that  it  woald 
spriAg  up^or  shift  round  to  the  westward.'  Hence, 
it  appears,  that  this  skilful  commander  navigated 
his  vessel  throughout  those  dangerous  parts  of 
the  eastern  coast  that  are  betvireen  the  latitudes 
of  23°  and  17°,  pursuant  to  a  confident  deduc- 
tion from  his  own  theory. 

Da.    Halley*s    Rulbs  foe   juDOfao   or 

THB    WEATHER    BY    BABOMBTEftS.— I.  In   OSbfi 

weather,  when  the  air  is  inclined  to  lain,  the 
mercury  ia  commonly  low.  U.  In  scieDO,  good, 
and  setded  Weather,  the  mercury  is  geeoally 
high.  III.  Upon  very  great  winds,  thoogb  d«y 
be  not  accompanied  with  great  rain,  the  mercury 
sinks  lowest  of  all,  according  to  ^  Ppi<>^  ^^ 
compass  the  wind  blows  from.  IV.  The  greatest 
heigms  of  the  mercury  are  found  upon  sastedy  or 
north-easterly  winds,  other  circumstances  alike. 
V.  Ifl  calm  frosty  weather^  the  mercury  comaaoBly 


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8tan<its  liigh.  VI.  After  very  great  storms  of  Wind, 
when  the  mercury  has  been  very  low,  it  generally 
rises  again  very  fast.  VII.  The  more  northerly 
places  nave  greater  alterations  of  the  barometer 
than  the  more  southerly,  near  the  equator. 
VIII.  Within  the  tropics,  and  near  them,  there 
is  lit^e  or  no  variation  of  the  barometer,  in  all 
weathers.  For  instance,  at  St.  Helena  it  is  litde 
or  nothing,  at  Jamaica  three-tenths  of  an  inch, 
and  at  Naples  the  variation  hardly  ever  ex- 
ceeds an  Inch ;  whei^s  in  England  it  amounts 
to  two  indies  and  a  half,  and  at  Petersburgh  to 
3^1  nearly. 

Mr.  Kowning  justly  remarks,  that  it  is  not  so 
mucli  the  absolute  height  of  the  mercury  in  the 
tube  that  indicates  the  tveatbet,  as  its  motion  up 
and  down,  and  therefore,  to  pass  a  right  iudg^ 
menl  of  what  t?eather  is  to  be  expected,  we 
ought  to  kno^  whether  the  mercury  is  actually 
rising  or  falling;  to  which  ^nd  the  following 
rules  are  of  use.  I.  If  the  surface  of  the  mer- 
cury is  convex,  standing  higher  in  the  middle  of 
the  tube  than  at  the  sides,  it  is  a  sign  that  the 
mercury  is  then  rising.  11.  But  if^tbe  surikce 
19  concave,  or  hollow  in  the  middle,  it  is  then 
sinking.  And,  III.  If  it  be  plain,  or  rather  a 
veiy  little  convex,  the  mercnry  is  stationary  ;  for 
mercury  being  put  into  a  glass  tube,  especially 
a  small  one,  naturally  has  its  surface  a  little 
convex,  because  the  particles  of  mercury  attract 
one  another  more  forcibly  than  they  are  attracted 
by  glass.  IV.  If  the  glass  be  small,  shake  the 
tube ;  then  if  the  air  be  grOWn  heavier,  the  mer- 
curv  will  Vise  about  half  i  tenth  of  aki  inch 
higher  than  it  stood  before ;  bvd  if  it  be  growh 
lighter,  it  will  sink  as  much.  And,  it  itoay  be 
added,  in  the  wheel  6t  circular  barometer,  tap 
the  instrument  gently  with  the  finger^  and  the 
index  will  visibly  stah  forwards  or  backwards 
according  to  the  tendeiicy  to  rise  or  ikil  at  that 
time.  Tlfis  proceeds  from  the  mercury's  sticking 
to  the  sides  of  the  tube,  which  prevents  the 
free  taction  of  it  till  it  be  disengaged  by  the 
shock ;  atid  therefore,  wheh  atl  obtervation  is  to 
be  made  with  such  a  tube,  it  ought  to  be  iitst 
shaken ;  for  sometimes  \he  Mercnry  will  not  vary 
of  its  own  accord,  till  the  weather  is  present 
which  it  ought  to  have  indicated. 

Variations  of  the  BARoltstEli.  Several 
members  oT  a  Gerrato  meteorogical  society  bave 
registered  observations  upon  the  bah>meter.  The 
most  noted  of  those  observers  art,  Steilehner, 
Planer,  Chirninello,  and  Heiftmer. 

The  first  of  these  gentlemen  says,  riiat  he 
found,  by  several  compiiralive  observations,  that 
the  greatest  fall  of  the  barom€?ler  does  not  happen 
in  very  rehiote  places  at  the  same  time;  but  that 
it  is  earlfer  towaVds  the  West,  amd  later  towards 
the  east ;  and  that  the  diflference  bf  the  time  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  meridians 
of  the  places;  an  AsserUon  Which  deserves  to  be 
accurately  examined. 

M.  Planer  observed  the  barometer  for  a  whole 
year,  six  times  every  day,  viz.  at  two,  six,  and  ten 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  at  the  saine  hottrs  in 
the  alflernoon ;  and  found,  ih  ^neral,  that  the 
barometer,  between  tCb  in  the  morning  and  two 
in  the  aflemoon,  and  between  ten  at  night  and 
two  in  the  morning,  was  less  in  its  rising,  and 
greater  in  its  fidl ;  and  that  the  contrary  was  the 


case  fo^t^een  the  boors  of  six ,  and  ten  in  the 
evening  and  morning. 

Chiminello  observed  the  barometer  twenty-two 
times  a  day,  for  three  years,  but  he  left  a  chasm 
in  the  night.  Which  he  supplied  by  calculation. 
The  principal  positions  which  he  then  deduced 
are,  that  tile  barometer  falls  towards  noon,  as 
well  as  towards  midnight. 

Heirimer  deduced  the  three  following  general 
rules  from  a  gfeat  number  of  accurate  observa'^ 
tions :  1.  When  the  sun  passes  the  meridian, 
the  barometer,  if  in  the  act  of  falling,  continues 
to  fall,  and  the  falling  is  accelerated.  2.  When 
the  sun  passes  the  meridian,  the  barometer,  if  in 
the  act  of  rising,  falls,  or  becomes  stationary,  or 
rises  more  slowly.  3.  When  the  sun  passes  the 
meridian^  the  barometer,  which  is  stationary^ 
falls,  if  it  has  not  risen  before  or  after  being  sta- 
tionary ;  in  which  case  it  usually  becomes  sta- 
tionary during  the  sun's  passage. 

From  a  register  kept  by  a  Mr.  Dunbar,  near 
the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  in,N.  lat.  31^  28', 
we  ind  diat,  for  the  space  of  about  four  days 
before,  and  six  days  after,  the  summer  solstice, 
the  barometer  legnh^ly  rises  from  nine  P.  M.  to 
about  six  A.  M.  then  falls  till  the  return  of  the 
former  hour  in  the  evening,  then  rises  again  ad 
before,  fcc.  in  alternate  periods.  In  the  first 
four  days  the  direction  is  ascending,  and  the 
elevation  of  a  line  drawn  through  the  mean  is 
about  ih  of  an  inch.  In  the  latter  six  days  the 
mean  line  is  perfectly  horizontal,  the  elevation 
each  night  amounting  to  Jj^,  and  the  depressioh 
each  day  to  ibe  same,  but  occupying  double 
time. 

The  celebrated  Humboldt  made  some  inter- 
esting observations  at  Caraccas,  in  South  America, 
tMar  the  equator.  There  are,  he  says,  four  at- 
mospherical tides  every  twenty-four  hours,  which 
depend  only  on  the  attraction  of  the  sun.  The 
mercury  fails  from  nine  in  the  morning  to  four 
in  the  evening:  it  rises  from  four  to  eleven 
o'cfock :  it  fieills  from  eleven  o'clock  till  past  four 
in  the  inon^ing  {  and  it  re-ascends  from  that  time 
till  nine  o'clock.  Neither  winds,  storms,  nor 
earthquakes^  have  any  influence  on  this  motion. 

Horsburgh,  in  his  last  voyage  to  Bombay, 
employed  two  marine  barometers,  one  made  br 
Troughton,  and  the  other  by  lUmsden;  with> 
which  he  made  very  minute  observations ;  which 
were  published  in  the  second  part  of  the  PhiL 
Trans,  for  1805;  and  in  the  Hist.  Roy.  Soc. 
Edin.  of  the  same  year,  we  have  a  comparison 
of  the  diurnal  variations  of  the  barometer,  made 
in  Peyrouse's  voyage  round  the  world,  with  those 
made  at  Calcutta^  by  Dr.  Balfour. 

The  agreement  between  these  observation* 
seems  very  remarkable.  Dr.  Balfour  found  that,. 
during  the  whole  lunation,  in  which  he  observed 
the  barometer  from  half  hour  to  half  hour,  the 
mercury  constantly  fell  firom  ten  at  night  to  six 
in  the  morning ;  from  six  to  ten  in  the  morning 
it  rose ;  from  ten  in  the  morning  to  six  at  night. 
it  fell  again ;  and,  lastly,  rose  from  six  to  ten  ai 
night.  The  maximum  height  is,  therefore,  at  ten 
at  night  and  ten  in  the  morning ;  and  the  mini- 
mum at  six  at  night  and  six  in  t)ie  momini^'. 
The  only  difference  is,  that  in  M.  Lamanon*^ 
observations,  thie  minimum  is  stated  to  havehap•^ 
pened  at  about  four  instead  of  six.    This,  how-^ 


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BAROMETER. 


ever,  will  not  seem  a  very  matenal  difference, 
when  it  is  remembered,  that  the  instant  when 
any  quantity  attaitks  either  its  greatest  or  its  least 
state  is  not  easily  ascertained  with  precision. 
From  the  observations,  as  detailed  by  M.  Lamar 
non,  the  time  of  the  minimum  seems  to  answer 
fully  as  well  to  five  as  to  four ;  so  that  the  dif- 
ference of  the  results  is  in  every  view  incon- 
siderable, and  their  coincidence  on  the  whole 
not  a  little  sin^lar.  The  variation  in  Dr.  fial- 
four's  barometer  between  the  nearest  maximum 
and  minimum  is  sometimes  about  ^  of  an  inch, 
though,  in  general,  considerably  less. 

Maiiy  hypotheses  have  been  advanced  to  ex- 
plain the  cause  of  the  variations  of  the  barometer. 
The  various  and  often  imaginary  effects  of 
vapors  of  heat  and  winds  have  been  employed 
in  framing  an  explication  of  the  changes  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  fact  that  the  mercurial  column 
generally  falls  before  rain,  seemed  at  complete 
variance  with  the  intimation  of  the  senses ;  it  being 
a  notion  universally  prevalent,  that  the  air  is 
heavier  when  the  sky  appears  lowering  and  ovei^ 
cast;  another  proof,  it  it  were  wanted,  how 
fidlacious  are  all  current  opinions  in  matters  6f 
science. 

Leibnitz  endeavoured,  by  a  sort  of  metaphysi- 
cal argument,  to  demonstrate  that,  though  a  body 
adds  its  own  weight  to  the  pressure  of  a  fluid  in 
which  it  is  suspended,  yet  it  will  cease  to  be 
ponderous  in  the  act  of  falling.    This  alleged 
principle  will  not,  in  the  actual  state  of  science, 
be  thou^t  to  require  any  serious  refutation.  Dr. 
Halley  diought  the  winds  and  exhalations  safficient 
to  account  for  these  variations ;  and  on  this  prin- 
ciple gives  a  theory,  the  substance  of  which  may 
be  comprised  in  what  follows :  1st  That  the  winds 
must  alter  the  weight  of  the  air  in  any  particular 
country ;  and  this,  either  by  bringing  together  a 
greater  Quantity  of  air,  and  so  loading  the  atmos- 
phere or  any  place,  which  will  be  the  case  as 
ofVen  as  two  wmds  blow  from  opposite  'parts,  at 
the  same  time,  towards  the  same  point ;  or  by 
sweeping  away  some  part  of  the  air,  and  giving 
room  for  the  atmosphere  to  expand  itself,  which 
will  happen  when  two  winds  blow  opposite  ways 
from  the  same  point  at  the  same  time :  or  lastly, 
by  cutting  off  the  perpendicular  pressure  of  the 
air,  which  is  the  case  when  a  single  wind  blows 
briskly  any  way ;  it  being  found  by  experience, 
that  a  strong  blast  of  i^ind,  even  made  by  art, 
will  render  the  atmosphere  lighter :  and  hence  the 
mercury  in  a  tube   below  it,  as  well   as    in 
others  more  distant,  will  considerably  subside. 
See  Phil.  Trans.  No.  292.    2dly,  That  the  cold 
nitrous  particles,  and  even  the  air  itself  condensed 
in  the  northern  regions,  and  driven  elsewhere, 
must  load  the  atmosphere,  and  increase  its  pres- 
sure.    3dly,  That  heavy  dry  exhalations  from  the 
earth  must  increase  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere, 
as  well  as  its  elastic  force :  as  we  find  the  speci- 
fic gravity  of  menstruums  increased  by  salts  and 
metals  dissolved  in  them.    4thly,  That  the  air 
being  rendered  heavier  by  these  and  the  like 
causes,  is  thence  better  able  to  support  the  vapors ; 
which  being  likewise  intimately  mixed  with  it,make 
the  weather  serene  and  fair.    Again  the  air  being 
made  lighter  from  the  contrary  causes,  it  becomes 
unable  to  support  the  vapors  with  which  it  is 


replete;  these  therefore  precipitating^  are  collect- 
ed into  clouds,  the  particles  of  which  in  their 
progress  unite  into  drops  of  rain.  Hence  be 
mfers,  that  the  same  causes  which  increase  the 
weight  of  the  air,  and  render  it  more  able  to 
support  the  mercury  in  the  barometer,  likewise 
produce  a  serene  sky,  and  a  dry  season;  and 
that  the  same  causes  which  render  the  air  lighter, 
and  less  able  to  support  the  mercury,  lil^wiie 
generate  clouds  and  ram. 

Dr.  James  Hutton^  in  his  Theory  of  Raio, 
printed  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh,  vol.  1,  gives  ingenious  and  plau- 
sible reasons  for  thinking  that  the  lessening  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  bv  the  fall  of  rain,  is 
not  the  cause  of  the  fall  of  the  barometer,  bat 
that  the  principal,  if  not  the  only  cause,  arises 
from  the  commotions  in  the  atmosphere,  which 
are  chieiiy  produced  by  sudden  changes  of 
heat  and  cola  in  the  air.  The  barometer,  says 
he,  is  an  instrument  necessarily  connected  with 
motions  in  the  atmosphere ;  but  it  is  not  equally 
affected  with  every  motion  in  that  fluid  body. 
The  barometer  is  chiefly  affected  by  those  motions 
by  which  they  are  produced,  accumulations  and 
abstractions  of  this  fluid,  in  places  or  regions  of 
sufficient  extent  to  affect  tne  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  upon  the  surface  of  tne  earth.  Bat 
as  every  commotion  in  the  atmosphere  may, 
under  proper  conditions,  be  a  cause  for  rain,  and 
as  the  want  o^  commotion  in  the  atmosphere  is 
naturally  a  cause  of  fair  weather,  this  instrument 
may  be  made  of  great  importance  for  the  purpose 
of  meteorological  observations,  although  not  in 
the  certain  and  more  simple  manner  in  which  it 
has  been  with  the  increase  of  science,  so  sq(s 
cessfiilly  epplied  to  the  measuring  of  heights. 
See  Rain. 

Hauksbee*s  celebrated  experiment  has  been 
quoted  as  confirming  the  theory  of  Dr.  Halley. 
That  ingenious  experimentalist,  about  the  year 
1 704,placed  two  barometers,  about  three  feet  asun- 
der, with  their  naked  cisterns  in  two  close  square 
wooden  boxes,  connected  by  a  horizontal  brass 
pipe ;  one  of  these  boxes  had,  inserted  at  right 
angles,  an  open  pipe  on  the  one  side,  and  a  second 
pipe,  terminating  m  a  screw,  on  the  other  ade ; 
to  this  end  he  adapted  a  strong  globular  receiver 
of  about  a  foot  m  diameter,  which  had  been 
charged,  by  injection  from  a  syringe,  with  three  or 
four  atmospheres;  then  suddenly  opening  the 
s^op-cook,  and  giving  vent  for  the  escape  of  the 
air  through  the  box  and  over  the  sur&ce  of  the 
included  cistern  the  mercury  sunk  equally  in  both 
barometers  more  than  two  inches.  This  experiment 
might  be  deemed  entirely  conclusive,  if  a  minute 
cireumstanoe,  on  which  its  success  depends,  had 
not  unfortunately  been  overlooked.  It  will  be 
perceived  frem  tne  inspection  of  the  figure  which 
Hauksbee  has  given,  tnat  the  e%it  pipe  of  the  box 
was  considerably  wider  than  the  pipe  which  con- 
veyed into  it  the  stream  of  air.  This  fluids 
escaping  from  compression,  would,  therefore,  be 
carried  by  its  elasticity  as  much  beyond  the  state 
of  equilibrium ;  while  the  width  of  the  orifice, 
by  facili^ting  its  emission,  would  allow  the  por- 
tion occupying  the  box  and  the  connected  reser- 
voir- to  preserve  its  acquired  expansion.  If  the 
pipe  of  discharge  from  the  box  had  been  rouc^ 


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&73 


nanower  than  ttie  otiier,  an  opposite  effect  must 
have  taken  place;  for  ^e  air  accumulated  over 
the  cistern,  not  finding  a  ready  vent,  would  remain 
in  a  state  of  condensation. .  This  fiict  is  a  remark- 
able indication  of  the  great  delicacy  required 
in  performing  such  experiments. 

The  same  result,  however,  can  be  exhibited  by 
a  very  simple  apparatus.  Let  a  small  box,  or 
rather  a  glais  ball,  have  a  short  narrow  tube 
inserted  in  the  one  side,  and  another  wide  tube 
opposite  to  this,  with  a  cross  slider  of  brass,  for 
contracting  the  orifice  at  pleasure ;  and,  to  the 
under  part  of  the  ball,  join  a  long  perpendicular 
tube.  Dent  back  like  a  syphon  to  more  than  half 
its  height  and  containing  a  double  column  of 
water.  Now,  blow  through  the  narrow  tube  into, 
the  cavity  of  the  ball,  while  the  orifice  of  emission 
is  quite  opened,  and  .the  liquor  will  rise  several 
inches  in  a  lon^  stem ;  but^  still  continuing  the 
blast,  let  the  onfice  be  gradually  contracted,  and 
the  column  will  first  descend  to  its  ordinaiy  level, 
and  then  sink  considerably  below  it. 

It  is  clear  that  the  fall  and  rise  of  the  meicary 
in  the  barometer  must  evidently  be  occasioned 
by  some  corresponding  reduction  or  accumulation 
of  tlie  atmospnere  at  the  place  of  observation. 
Whatever  augments  the  elasticity  of  the  air  will 
cause  part  of  the  incumbent  finid  to  evade  and 
leave  fov  the  time  a  diminished  vertical  pressure. 
The  ef9ux  of  wind  might  also  produce  a  tempo- 
rary reduction  of  the  atmospheric  column.  But 
the  real  difCculty  consists  in  explaining  why  the 
variations  of  the  barometer  should  be  greater  in 
the  high  latitudes  than  between  the  tropics,  and 
why  they  30  much  exceed  in  all  cases  the  quantities 
"which  calculation  might  assign.  On  the  whole, 
the  present  state  of  physi^  science  presents 
nothing  but  a  series  of  conjectures  on  this  subject 
The  auffmented  elasticity  communicated  to  the 
air  by  tlie  action  of  heat  or  the  presence  of  hu« 
midity,  and  the  reduction  of  the  incumbent  mass 
by  the  efflux  of  winds>  have  doubtless  each  their 
distinct  influence,  in  disturbing  the  equilibrium 
of  the  atmospheric  ocean.  But  the  effects,  par- 
ticularly in  the  high  latitudes,  much  surpass  the 
regular  operation  of  those  causes.  The  only 
node,  pernaps,  of  rempving  the  difficulty,  is  to 
take  into  consideration  the  comparative  slowness 
'With  which  any  force  is  propagated  through  the 
▼ast  body  of  atmosphere.  Aa  inequali^  may 
continue  to  accumulate  in  one  spot,  before  the 
counterbalancing  influence  of  the  distant  portions 
of  the  aerial  fluid  can  arrive  to  modify  the  result. 
In  the  higher  latitudes,  the  narrow  circle  of  air 


may  be  considered  as,  in  some  measure,  insulated 
from  the  expanded  ocean  of  atmosphere,  and 
hence,  perhaps,  the  variations  of  the  barometet 
are  concentrated  there,  and  swelled  beyond  th« 
due  proportion. 

The  use  «nd  application  of  barometers  in 
measuring  altitudes,  has  of  late  attracted  more 
of  the  attention  of  philosophers  tlian  their  fa^ 
culty  of  indicating  the  weather.  As  before  ob- 
served, this  use  of  the  instrument  was  first 
proposed  by  Pascal  and  Descartes.  Succeeding 
philosopben  have  been  at  great  pains  to  ascer- 
tain the  proportion  between  the  fall  of  the  ba^ 
rometer  and  the  height  to  which  it  is  carried ; 
as  Halley,  Mariotte,  Maraldi,  Scheuchzerj  J. 
Cassini,  D.  Bernoulli,  Horrebow,  Bouguer, 
Shuckburgh,  Roy,  and  more  especially  De  Luc, 
who  has  given  a  critical  and  historical  detail  of 
most  of  the  attempts,  that  have  at  different  times 
been  made,  for  applying  tlie  motion  of  the  mer- 
cury in  the  barometer  to  the  measurement  of 
accessible  heights.  We  have  noticed  the  re- 
searches of  Dr.  Halley  and  De  Lite,  who  intro- 
duced the  corrections  of  the  columns  of  mercury 
and  air,  on  account  of  heat.  The  following 
rules  for  computing  heights  (the  principles  <^ 
which  the  reader  will  find  explained  under 
Pneumatics,)  are  given  by  Dr.  Maskelyne,  in 
his  Introduction  tp  Taylor's  Tables  of  Loga- 
rithms. The  altitudes  of  the  barometer  at  two 
stations,  with  the  heights  of  Fahrenheit's  ther- 
mometer attached  to  the  barometer,  and  the 
heights  of  two  thermometers  of  the  same  kind, 
exfK»sed  to  the  air  but  sheltered  from  the  sun,  at 
the' two  stations  being  given,  to  find  the  perpen- 
dicular altitude  of  the  one  station  above  the 
other? — Put  B  for  the  observed  height  of  the 
barometer  at  the  lower  station,  and  6  for  that 
at  tlie  upper  station,  D  for  the  difference  of 
heights  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  attached  to 
the  barometer  at  the  two  stations,  and  F  for  tho 
mean  of  the  two  heights  of  Fahrenheit's  thermo- 
meter, exposed  freely  for  a  few  minutes  to  the 
open  air,  in  the  shade  at  the  two  stations.  The 
altitudes  of  the  upper  station  above  the  lower, 
in  English  fathoms,  will  be  expressed  as  follows, 
according  to  the  respective  observations  of  M. 
de  Luc,  the  late  General  R<>y,  and  Sir  George 
Shuckburgh,  in  which  the  upper  sign  —  is  to  be 
used  when  the  thermometer  attached  to  the  baro- 
meter is  highest  at  the  lower  station,  (which  is 
most  usual,)  and  the  lower  sign  4-  when  it  is 
lowest  at  the  lower  station. 


M.  De  Lnc  .....  Log.  B  —  Log,  6 q: 0-452 D  x  1  +  F  — 40^  x  000223. 
General  Roy  ....  Log.  B— Log.  b  if  00-468  D  x  1  -f  1^  —  32°  x  0-00245. 
Sir G. Shuckburgh  .  .  Log^  B  — Log.  6^:0-440  0  x  l  +  f"— 33°X  000243. 


Mean  of  the  two  last .  Log.  B  —  Log.  b  ip  0454  D  x  1  -f^*  — 32''x  000244. 

The  observations  of  General  Roy  and  Sir  George  vided  by  Mr.  Ramsden,  and  with  the  detached 
Shuckburgh  having  been  made  with  barometers  thermometers  never  exposed  to  the  sun,  appear 
and  thermometers  constructed  and  accurately  di-    clearly  to  deserve  the  preference  above  those  of 


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574 


BAROMETER. 


M.  de  Lug.  The  bit  of  the  above  rales,  which 
is  a  mean  between  those  of  General  Roy  an4  Sir 
George  Shuckbur^,  may  be  expressed  in  words 
at  lengthy  as  follows :  take  the  difieienoe  of  the 
tabular  logarithms  of  the  observed  heights  of  the 
barometer  at  the  two  stations,  considering  the 
four  first  figures,  exclusive  of  the  index,  as  whole 
numbers,  and  the  remaining  figures  to  the  rieht 
as  decimals,  and  subtract  or  s2kl  <^  of  the  di^ 
ftrence  ef  altitude  of  Fahrenheit'-s  thermometer, 
attached  to  the  baxometer  at  the  two  stations,  ao*- 
.  cording  as  it  '^as  highest  at  the  lower  or  upper 
station;  thus- the  height  of  the  upper  station  abov4 
the  lower  in  Englnsh  fathoms,  will  be  found 
nearly;  to  be  corrected  as  follows: — ^Multiply 
the  height  found  nearly  by  the  dtfierence  between 
the  mean  of  the  two  altitudes  of  Fahrenheit's 
thermometer  exposed  to  the  air  of  the  two  sta- 
tions and  39^,  and  by  the  decimal  fiaction 
(H>0?44 ;  the  product  will  be  the  correction  of 
the  approximate  height,  which  added  to,  or  sub- 
tracted from  the  same,  according  as  the  mean 
of  the  two  altitudes  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer 
^Bosed  to  the  air  was  higher  or  lower  than  39^, 
will  give  the  true  height  of  the  upper  station 
above  the  lower  in  Bnglish  fothoips;  which  mul- 
tiplied by  6,  will  give  the  true  height  in  English 
foet. 

Example.  Let  the  state  of  the  barometers 
and  thermometers  be  as  follows^  to  find  the  al- 
titude. 


Thermometers. 


Detached. 
57 
42 

Mean  49| 


Attached. 
57 
43 


Barometers* 

29*68  lower. 
25*28  upper 


Diff.  14    II 

Heights.  Log. 

29*68  4724*689 

«5-28  40277T1 


from        696*868 
Subtract  ^  x  14  =      6*356 


Height  nearly  z=  690*519 
Multiply  by  49i— 32  =     17J 

Heidit  nearly  =  690*512 

•    Froduct  =  21083*960 

Multiply  by         00244 

Correction  =:    39*485 
Height  nearly  =  690*512 
I 
Correct  height  in  fathoms  z=  719*997 

Professor  Play  fair,  in  a  learned  paper,  printed 
in  the  first  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the 
,  Royal  Sodety  of  Edinburgh,  has  examined  all 
the  circumstanpes  which  can  afiect  barometrical 
measurements,  with  his  usual  correctness  and 
perspicuity.  La  Place  resumed  the  subject  in  his 
Mecanique  Celeste,  and  brought  all  the  condi- 
tions together  in  a  very  complicated  formula,  to 
which  we  )k$ive  before  alluded.  Such  an  appear- 
ance of  extreme  accuracy,  however,  is  perhaps 
to  be  regarded  rather  as  a  theqretical  il\usion, 
Chan  a  view  of  results  founded  on  the  real  state  of 


practice,    ^iot  al^,  in  attempting  to  arrive  at 
similar  conclusion,  confine  hmiself  to  the  san 


a 
same 


remark.  He  sets  out  4  priori  from  some  eiteful 
experiments  on  the  relative  density  of  air  and 
mercury,  performed  by  htm  in  cooiunccien  with 
Arago.  He  thence  infers,  that  in  tne  latitude  of 
Paris,  and  at  the  point  of  congelatioB,  air,  under 
a  mercurial  pressure  of  76  metres,  or  29*939 
Bnglish  inches,  is  10,463  times  lighter  thanmeN 
cur^  at  the  temperature  of  w%ter  at  its  lowest 
contraction.  This  would  give  26*090  feel  kt 
the  height  of  a  oolumn>  of  hMuogeneoos  fluid, 
whose  pressure  is  equivalent  to  the  eiastiGity  <if 
the  atmosphere.  The  coefficient  adapted  to  oom- 
mon  logarithms,  and  adjusted  to  the  force  of  at^ 
traction  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  woiUd  thersfiMe 
be  60,148  feet,  or  18,334  metres;  scarcely  dif- 
fering sensibly  from  the  quantity  which  Raaiend 
had  deduced  from  a  very  numerous  set  of  expe- 
riments made  by  him  on  the  Pyrenees.  Bat 
Biot  prefers,  as  the  coefficient,  the  niunber 
18,993,  answering  for  an  elevation  of  1200  ne- 
tces,  or  about  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  whieh  is 
not  far  from  the  general  level  of  such  bbsem- 
tions.    The  Ibimula  is  henoe,  in  English  feet, 

60,346  (l+*001f837  cp,s.  2^^)  (  1  +  ^^^^) 

If 
)fi9*  Y't  ^^^'f^  V^  denotas  the  latitiylft  of  tlie 

place,  T  and  t  the  temperatures  of  tiie  air  at  the 
two  stations,  as  indicated  by  the  centesimal  ther- 
mometer, and  H  and  A  the  heights  of  mercurial 
columns  corrected  for  the  effects  of  heat 

This  writer  has  likewise  given  tables  for  ex- 
pediting the  calculation  of  b^metrical  measure- 
ments; in  which  l^e  w^s  anticipated,  however, 
by  Oltmans  of  Berlin,  who  published,  in  1809, 
large  Hypsometrical  Tables,  as  they  are  called, 
accopimodated  to  the  complex  formula  of  La 
Place.  Such  tables  might,  no  doubt,  prove  ase- 
fi)l  where  very  freai^ent  computations  are  wanted, 
as  in  the  case  of  tne  reduction  of  the  numerous 
observations  brought  home  by  Baron  Humboldt, 
for  which,  indeed,  they  were  first  designed.  Bat 
still  they  contain  a  needless  profusion  of  figures, 
and  hold  forth  a  show  of  extreme  accuracy  whicii 
the  nature  of  the  observations  themselves  can  never 
justify.  By  barometrical  admeasurements,  prin- 
cipally sciei^tific,  travellers  have  of  late  years 
been  able  to  form  vertical  sections  of  different 
countries,  which  contribute  further  to  our  know- 
ledge of  ^eir  geological  character  than  any  pre- 
vious mode  of  delii^eation.  Thus  Humbc^dt,  in 
his  Geog;raphy  of  Plants,  gives  a  secrion  across 
the  American  continent,  one  of  the  best  and  most 
interesting  that  has  yet  appeared.  It  coosists, 
in  fact,  of  four  combined  sections,  traversing 
through  an  extent  of  425  miles.  The  line  b^ins 
at  Acapulco  on  the  shore  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  runs  195  miles,  about  a  point  of  the  compes 
towards  the  east  of  north,  to  the  dty  of  Mexico ; 
then  eighty  miles^  a  point  to  the  south  of  east,  to 
La  Puebla  de  los  Angeles ;  again  it  holds  a  noftb- 
east  direction  of  seventy  miles,  to  tbe  Cms 
Blanca ;  and  finally  bends  eighty  miles  east  by 
soutli,  to  Vera  Cruz,  o^  the  coast  of  t|ie  Atlantic. 
A  scale  of  altitudes  is  annexed,  which  shows  tbe 
vast  elevation  of  the  table-land  at  Mexico, 

This  mode  of  distant  levelling  has  originated 
a}so  a  very  interesting  discovery,  recently  made 
by  £ngelliardt  and  Parrot,  two  Prussian  ttsvei- 


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BAROMETER. 


lers,  in  anotker  quarter  of  oor  globe ;  they  pro- 
ceeded, on  the  13th  of  July,  1814,  from  the 
naoQth  of  the  Kuban,  at  the  island  of  Taman,  on 
the  BladK  Sea;  and,  czanining  carefallv  e?ery 
day  the  slate  of  the  barometer,  they  adyanoed 
with  fifty-one  observations,  the  distance  of  990 
fersts,  or  711  Sngiish  miles,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Terek,  on  the  margin  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Si- 
milar observations  were  repeated  and  multiplied 
OB  their  return^  From  a  ailigent  comparison  of 
the  whole,  it  ibllews  that  the  Caspian  is  334 
English  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Black  Sea. 
That  the  Caspian  really  occupies  a  lower  level 
than  the  ocean,  had  been  suspected  before,  from 
a  oomparison  of  some  registers  of  barometers  kept 
at  9t  Petersburgh,  and  on  the  borders  of  that 
inknd  sea ;  but  the  last  observation  places  the 
Question  beyond  all  doubt.  It  fiurther  appears, 
mat  vrithin  950  versts>  or  189  miles,  of  the  Cas- 
pian, the  country  is  already  depressed  to  the  level 
of  the  ocean,  leaving,  dierdbre,  an  immense 
hasia,  from  which  the  waters  are  suppoeed'  to 
kave  vatiied  by  a  subterranean  percolation. 

Wo  iubjoin  a  table  of  the  altitude  of  some  of 
the  most  remarkable  mountains,  Ice.  on  tlie  earth 
above  the  surface  of  the  ocean : — 

Bag.lMi 
Mount  Puy  de  Dome  in  Auvergne,  the 
first  mountain  measured  by  the  baro- 
meter         5088 

Mount  Blapc  x  15669 

MoBteRosa  f*.  15048 

Aiguille  d'Argentieia  ( ^'P*  '        '  13409 

Monastery  of  St  Bernard  3  7044 

Mount  Cenis 9919 

Fie  de  los  Reyes^  ....  7690 
Pic  du  Midi         ( p^.„^  9800 

Picd'Ossano       ?*7^«»ees  .        .        .  ^^^^ 

Canegou  J         .        .        .        .    8544 

Lake  of  Geneva 1239 

Mount  £tna 10964 

MoDut  Vesuvius  .*....  8938 
Mount  Hecla  ip  Iceland  .    4887 

BMwdon       ......    3555 

BenMoir 3799 

Ben  Lawen 3858 

Ben  Gloe 3479 

Schihallion 3461 

Ben  Lomond         .        .  .    3180 

Tinto  .         .    9349 

Table  UUl,  Cape  of  Good  Hope  .  .  3454 
Ooadar,  city  in  Abyssinia  .    8440 

Source  of  the  Nile         ....    8089 

PicofTeneriffB 14096 

Chimbora^o 19595 

Cayambouro 19391 

Antisaqa 19990 

Pichincha 13670 

CiUr  of  Quito  .  .  ,  .  .  9977 
The  mean  height  of  the  barometer  in  London, 
upon  an  average  of  two  observations  in  every 
day  of  the  year,  kept  at  the  house  of  the  Royal 
Society,  fop  many  years  past,  is  29'88';  the  me- 
dium temperature,  or  height  of  the  thermometer, 
according  to  the  same,  being  58^.  But  the  me- 
diniB  height  at  the  surface  of  the  sea,  according 
to  Sir  George  Shuckburgh.  (Phil.  Trans.  1777. 
p.  586.)  b  80*04  inches,  the  heat  of  the  thermome- 
ter btiBg  55%  and  of  the  air  69"?. 


BAaoMETRiCAL    PHOSPHORUS.      See    Phos- 


phorus. 
BA'RON,    ^ 
Ba'ronage, 
Ba'iionbss, 
Ba'ronet, 
Ba'ronial, 
Barony. 


Fr.  baron;  Ital.  barone;  Sp. 
ron.  See  to  Bar.  Btarganf 
^to  arm ;  to  defend ;  to  strengthen. 
^The  etymology  of  this  word  is 
very  uncertain.  Baro,  amon^ 
the  Romans,  signified  a  brave 
warrior,  or  a  brutal  man ;  and,  {ix)m  the  first  of 
tbesie  significations.  Menage  derives  baron,  as  a 
term  of  military  dignity. — Others  suppose  it 
originally  to  signify  only  a  man,  in  whicn  sense 
baron  or  varon^  is  still  used  by  tlie  Spaniards; 
and,  to  confirm  this  conjecture,  our  law  yet  uses 
baron  and  femme,  husband  and  wife.  Others 
deduce  it  from  6er,  an  old  Gaulish  word,  signi- 
fy'm^  commander ;  others  from  the  Hebrew  '\22, 
of  the  same  import.  Some  think  it  a  contractiop 
of  par  hofnmey  or  peer,  which  seems  least  pro- 
bable. Allowing  the  derivation  to  be  nx)m 
bairgan,  which  is  the  suggestion  of  Tool^e,  then 
the  simple  idea  of  baron  is  a  man  of  power, 
armed  and  surrounded  with  abundant  means  of 
defence.  This  generally  implies  rank ;  and  baron 
is  a  title  of  nobility,  it  is  likewise  a  name  of 
office. 

When  loue  has  told  herr  his  extent 
The  baronage  to  coimsaile  went. 
In  many  sentences  they  fill. 
And  dinersly  they  saied  her  will. 

Chaucer.     Itonunmt  o/Ag  Roen 
My  lord,  ill  tell  yon  what,— 
If  my  yovng  lord,  year  son,  have  not  the  day. 
Upon  nine  hmuror  for  a  silken  point 
I'll  give  my  tenny.  Shakapeare, 

Whew  throngs  of  knight*  and  barvme  bold 
In  weeds  q£  peace  high  triumph  hold. 
With  store  of  ladies,  whose  bright  eyes 
Rain  influence,  and  judge  the  prize 
Of  wit  or  arms,  while  both  contend 
To  win  her  grace  whom  all  commend.       MtUem, 
Sir  Edward  Walker,  garter  and  secretary  of  war 
to  King  Charles  the  First,  observes,  '  That  in  all 
Queen  Elisabeth's  forty-four  years  reign,  she  created 
hut  six  earls  and  eight  or  nine  banm,* 

1%e  second  was  the  banma§e,  the  nobility  and 
gently  who  held  their  AervMCf  of  the  king,  and  the 
third  was  the  boroughs,  who  held  of  the  kii^g  by  lie-, 
roi^,  though  in  a  conmiunity ',  so  that  the  parliament 
was  truly  the  hatremage  of  the  kingdom.  The  Issser 
ftorofu  grew  weary  of  this  attendance. 

BwDMl.    HittoryofhiMowmTmm, 
Coflee  (which  makes  the  politician  wise. 
And  see  thro'  all  things  with  his  half  shut  eyes) 
Bent  up  in  vapours  to  the  bamm'e  brain 
New  stratagems  the  radiant  lock  to  gain.        Pope. 

Here  qiight  you  see 
Banm  and  peasants  on  the  embattled  field, 
81ain  or  half  dead,  in  one  huge  ghastly  heap 
Promiscuously  amassed.  Philippe  Cider,  b.  u. 

The  titl^  of  hamnei,  inyented  by  Saltshury,  was 
sold;  and  two  hundred  patent^  of  that  species  of 
knighthood  were  disposed  of  for  sq  many  thousand 
pounds.  Hwne,  HUterjf  of  England.  King  Jamee  let* 
A  baron  is  the  most  general  and  universal  title  of 
nobility ;  for  originally  every  one  of  the  peers  of  supe- 
rior rank  had  also  a  barinjf  annexed  to  his  other 
titles.  But  it  hath  sometimes  happened,  that  when 
an  ancient  baron  hath  been  raised  to  a  new  degree  of 
peerage,  in  the  ooufse  of  a  few  generations  the  two  titles 
have  descended  difiHrenUy.  BhekefoMTtC 


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BARON. 


Baron  (Robert),  a  dramatic  author,  who 
lived  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  and  the 
protectorship  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  after  which  he  became  a 
member  of  tlie  society  of  Gray's  Inn.  During 
his  residence  at  the  university  he  wrote  a  novel, 
called  the  Cyprian  Academy,  in  which  he  in- 
troduced the  first  two  of  the  dramatic  pieces 
mentioned  below.  The  third  of  them  is  a  much 
more  regular  and  perfect  play,  and  was  probably 
written  when  the  author  had  attained  a  riper 
age.  Their  names  are,  1.  Deorum  Dona,  a 
masque.  2.  Gripus  and  liegio,  a  pastoral.  3. 
Mirza,  a  tragedy.  Mr.  Baron  was  intimate  with 
the  celebrat^  Mr.  James  Howell,  the  traveller, 
in  whose  collection  of  letters  there  is  one  to  this 
gentleman,  vol.  iii.let.  418,  who  was  then  at  Paris. 
To  Mr.  Howell,  and  tl^ie  ladies  and  gentlewomen 
of  England,  he  dedicated  his  romance. 

Baron.  This  title  in  ancient  records  was  ap- 
plied to  all  the  nobility  of  England,  because 
regularly  all  noblemen  were  barons,  though  they 
had  also  a  high'^r  dignity..  But  it  has  sometimes  , 
happened,  that  when  an  ancinnt  baron  has  been 
raised  to  a  new  degree  of  peerage,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  generations  the  two  titles  have  descended 
differently ;  one  perhaps  to  the  male  descendants, 
the  other  to  the  heirs  general;  whereby  the 
earldom  or  other  superior  title  has  subsisted 
without  a  barony :  and  there  are  also  modem 
instances,  where  earls  and  viscounts  have  been 
created  without  annexing  a  barony  to  their  other 
honors:  so  tiiat  now  the  rule  does  not  hold 
universally  that  all  peers  are  barons.  The  origin 
and  antiquity  of  barons  has  occasioned  great 
enquiries  among  antiquaries.  The  most  pro- 
bable opinion  is,  that  they  were  the  same  with 
our  present  lords  of  manors.  It  is  said  the 
original  name  of  this  dignity  in  England  -was 
vavassour,  which  by  the  Saxons  was  changed 
into  thane,  and  by  tne  Normans  into  baron.  It 
may  he  collected  from  king  John's  magna  charta, 
that  originally  all  lords  of  manors,  or  barons,  had 
seats  in  the  great  council  of  parliament;  but 
such  is  the  deficiency  of  public  records,  that 
the  first  precept  to  be  found  is  of  no  higher 
date  than  the  49  Henry  III.  which,  although 
it  was  issued  out  in  the  king's  name,  was  neither 
by  his  authority  nor  by  hk  direction :  for  the 
king  himself,  his  son  prince  Edward,  and  most 
of  the  nobility  who  stood  loyal  to  him,  were  then 
prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the  rebellious  barons ; 
having  been  taken  in  May  preceding,  at  the 
battle  of  LeweSy  and  so  continued  until  the  battle 
of  Evesham,  in  August  the  year  following; 
when,  by  ttie  escape  of  prince  Edward,  he 
rescued  the  king  and  his  adherents  out  of  the 
hands  of  Simon  Mountford,  Earl  of  Leicester. 
It  cannot  be  doubted,  but  that  several  parliaments 
were  held  by  Henry  III.  and  Edward  I.  yet  no 
record  is  to  be  found,  giving  any  account  of 
them,  except  the  fifth  of  Edward  I.  until  the 
twenty-second  year  of  that  king's  reign. 

Before  the  49  Henry,  III.  the  ancient  par- 
liaments consisted  of  the  archbishops,  bishops, 
abbots,  earls,  and  barons.  Of  these  barons 
there  were  two  sorts;  the  greater  barons,  or 
the  king's  chief  tenants,  who  held  of  him  in 
(capite  by  barony;  and  the  lesser  barons,  who 


held  of  the  first  by  military  service  in  c\pite. 
The  former  had  summons  to  parliament  by 
several  writs ;  and  the  latter  (i.  e.  nil  those  who 
were  possessed  of  thirteen  knight's  fees  and  a 
quarter)  had  a  general  summons  from  the  sheriff 
in  each  county.  Thus  things  continued  till  the 
49  Henry  III.  when,  instead  of  keeping  to  the 
old  form,  the  prevailing. powers  thought  fit  to 
summon,  not  all,  but  only  those  of  the  greater 
barons  who  were  of  their  party ;  and,  instead 
of  the  lesser  barons  who  came  widi  large  retinues, 
to  send  their  precepts  to  the  sheriff  of  each 
county  to  cause  two  knights  in  every  shire  to  be 
chosen,  and  one  or  two  burgesses  for  each 
borough,  to  represent  Uie  body  of  the  people 
residing  in  those  counties  and  boroughs ;  whidi 
gave  rise  to  the  separation  into  two  houses  of 
parliament.  By  deirrees  the  title  came  to  be 
confined  to  the  greater  barons,  or  lords  of  par- 
liament only ;  and  there  were  no  other  barons 
among  the  peerage  but  such  as  were  summoned 
by  writ,  in  respect  of  the  tenure  of  their  lands 
or  baronies,  till  Richard  II.  first  roide  it  a  mere 
title  of  honor,  by  conferring  it  on  divers  persons 
by  his  letters  patent. 

Barons  by  ancient  tenure,  were  those  who 
held  certain  territories  of  the  king,  who  still  re- 
served the  tenure  in  chief  to  himself.  We  also 
read  of  barons  by  temporal  tenure ;  who  are 
such  as  hold  honors,  castles,  manors,  as  heads  of 
their  barony,  that  is,  by  grand  seijeantry ;  by 
which  tenure  they  were  anciently  summoned  to 
parliament.  But  at  present  a  baron  by  tenure 
IS  no  lord  of  parliament,  till  he  be  called  thither 
by  writ.  The  barons  by  tenure,  after  the  con- 
quect,  were  divided  into  majores  and  minores, 
and  were  summoned  accordingly  to  parliament; 
the  majores,  or  greater  barons,  by  immediate 
writ  from  the  king ;  the  minores,  or  lesser  barons, 
by  general  writ  from  the  high  sheriff,  at  the  king's 
command.  Anciently  they  distinguished  the 
greater  barons  from  the  less,  by  attributing  high, 
and  even  sovereign  jurisdiction,  to  the  former, 
and  only  inferior  jurisdiction  over  smaller  matien 
to  the  latter. 

Wlien  a  baron  is  called  up  to  the  hoose  of 
peers  by  writ  of  summons,  the  writ  is  iu  the 
king's  name,  and  he  is  directed  to  come  to  the 
parliament  appointed  to  be  held  at  a  oertain 
time  and  place,  and  there  to  treat  and  advistf 
with  his  majesty,  the  prelates,  and  nobility,  about 
the  weighty  affairs  of  the  nauon.  The  cereoMJoy 
of  his  admission  into  the  house  of  peers  is  this : 
He  is  brought  into  the  house  between  two  barons, 
who  conduct  him  to  the  Lord  Chancellor,  his 
patent  or  writ  of  summons  being  carried  by  a 
king-atrarms,  who  presents  it  kneeling  to  the 
Chancellor,  who  reads  it,  and  then  congratulates 
him  on  his  becoming  a  member  of  the  honse  of 
peers,  and  invests  him  with  his  pariiamentaiy 
robe.  The  patent  b  then  delivered  to  the  clexk 
of  the  pariiament,  and  the  oaths  are  administered 
to  the  new  peer,  who  is  conducted  to  his  seat  on 
the  barons'  bench.  Some  barons  bold  their 
seats  by  tenure.  The  coronation  robes  of  a  ba> 
ron  are  the  same  as  an  earl's,  except  that  he  has 
only  two  rows  of  spots  on  each  shoolder.  In 
like  manner  his  parliamentary  robes  h&ve  bat 
two  guards  of  white  fur,  with  rows  of  gad  laca. 


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tn  other  respects  they  are  th«  same  wHh  those 
of  other  peers. 

A  Baron's qoronety  in  herald- 
ry, is  a  gold  circle,  on  iwhicfa  are 
six  pearls,  which  were  assigned 
to  barons  by  king  Charles  II. 
after  the  Restoration.  Previously 
to  this  time  the  barons  wore 
scarlet  caps,  turned  up  with 
ermine,  and  on  the  top  a  tassel 
of  gold.  Though  called  pearls,  the  -globes  round 
*he  coronet  are  always  made  of  silver.  His  cap 
is  the  same  as  a  viscount's.  His  style  is  Right 
Honourable ;  and  he  is  addressed  by  the  king  Of 
queen,  Right  Trusty  and  Well  Beloved.  See 
Sabont. 

Barom  and  Fexme,  in  English  law,  husband 
and  wife.  They  are  deemed  but  one  person ;  so 
that  a  wife  cannot  be  witness  for  or  against  her 
husband,  nor  he  for  or  against  his  wife,  except 
in  cases  of  high  treason. 

Baron  and  Femme,  in  heraldry,  is  when  the 
coats  of  arms  of  a  man.  and  his  wife  are  borne 
par  pale  in  the  same  escutcheon,  the  man's  being 
always  on  the  dexter  side,  and  the  woman's  on 
the  sinister;  but  here  the  woman  is  supposed 
not  an  heiress,  for  then  her  coat  must  be  t>ome 
by  the  husband  on  an  escutcheon  of  pretence. 

Baron,  Lord  Chief,  the  president  of  the 
court  of  Exchequer. 

Barons  of  the  Cinque-Ports,  are  members 
of  the  bouse  of  commons,  elect^  by  the  five 
ports,  two  for  each  port.  Those  who  have  been 
mayors  of  Corfe-castle,  in  Devonshire,  are  like- 
wise styled  barons ;  and  formerly  the  principal 
citizens  of  London  were  honored  with  the  title 
of  baron.    See  Cinque-Ports. 

Barons  of  the  Exchequer,  four  judges  in 
England,  and  five  in  Scotland,  to  whom  the  ad- 
ministiation  of  justice  is  committed,  in  causes 
between  the  king  and  his  subjects,  relating  to 
matters  concerning  the  revenue.  They  were 
formerly  barons  of  the  realm,  but  of  late  are  ge- 
nerally persons  learned  in  the  laws.  Their  office 
is  also  to  look  into  the  accounts  of  the  king,  for 
which  reason  they  have  auditors  under  them.  See 
Exchequer. 

BAHONAGIUM.    See  Barony. 

Baronets  of  England.  The  dignity  of 
baronet  is  given  by  patent.  The  order  was 
founded  by  King  James  I.  at  the  suggestion  of 
Sir  Robert  Cotton,  in  1611,  when  200  baronets 
were  created  at  once ;  to  which  number  it  was 
intended  they  should  always  be  restrained  :  but 
it  is  now  enlarged  at  the  king's  pleasure,  without 
limitation.  They  had  several  considerable  pri- 
vileges given  them,  with  an  habendam  to  them 
and  their  heirs  male.  They  were  allowed  to 
charge  their  coat  with  the  arms  of  Ulster,  which 
are,  in  a  field  argent,  a  sinister  hand,  gules ;  and 
that  upon  condition  of  their  defending  the  pro- 
vince of  Ulster  in  Ireland  against  the  rebels, 
who  then  harassed  it  extremely :  to  which  end 
they  were  each  to  raise  and  keep  up  thirty 
soldiers,  at  their  own  expense,  for  three  years 
together,  or  to  pay  into  the  exchequer  a  sum 
sufficient  to  (io  it ;  which,  at  eight-pence  per  day 
per  head,  was  £1095.  So  that,  including  fees, 
tlie  expense  of  this  dignity  may  be  about  £1200 
Vol.  III. 


sterling.  To  be  qualified  for  it,  one  must  b«  a 
gentleman  bom,  and  have  a  clear  estate  of  £1000 
per  annum.  Baronets  take  place  according  to 
the  dates  of  their  patents ;  by  the  terms  of  which 
no  honor  is  to  be  erected  between  barons  and 
baronets.  The  title,  Sir,  is  granted  them  by  a 
peculiar  clause  in  their  patents,  though  they  be 
not  dubbed  knights :  but  both  a  baronet  and  his 
eldest  son,  being  of  fiill  age,  may  claim  knight- 
hood. The  first  English  baronet  was  Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon,  of  Redgrave,  in  Suffolk,  whose  successor 
is  therefore  styled  primus  baronetorum  Anglis. 
If  a  baronet  be  named  at  an  installation  as 
proxy  for  a  knight  of  the  Bath,  it  appears  es- 
sential that  he  should  be  knighted  for  the 
occasion ;  thus  Sir  George  Osborne,  Bart,  was 
knighted  by  king  George  III.  A  baronet  takes 
precedence  of  all  knights,  except  bannerets. 
Baronets'  mark ;  the  arms  of 
the  province  of  Ulster,  viz. 
argent,  a  hand,  gules,  in  a 
canton,  or  in  escutcheon,  are 
borne  by  every  baronet,  as  in 
the  annexed  example.  'He 
beareth,  or,  between  two 
chevronels, three  trefoils,  slip-, 
ped,  sable,'  as  in  the  arms  of  the  Abdy  family. 

Baronets  of  Ireland.  In  Ireland,  an  he- 
reditary dignity  somewhat  similar  to  knighthood, 
appears  to  have  been  occasionally  conferred  in 
the  earliest  times ;  and  the  knights  of  Kerry  and 
of  Glyn  are  yet  permitted  to  bear  distinctions 
bestowed  on  their  ancestors  by  the  ancient  so- 
vereigns of  the  country.  The  order  of  baronets, 
however,  was  likewise  instituted  here  by  James 
I.  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign,  for  the 
same  purpose,  and  with  the  same  privileges 
within  the  kingdom  of  Ireland  as  he  oad  con- 
ferred on  the  like  order  in  England ;  for  which 
the  Irish  baronets  paid  the  same  fees  into  the 
treasury  of  Ireland.  The  first  of  that  kingdom 
who  was  advanced  to  this  hereditary  dignity  was 
Sir  Francis  Blundell,  then  secretary  for  the 
affairs  of  Ireland.  Several  more  have  been 
added,  no  number  being  limited ;  but  since  the 
union  in  1801,  none  have  been  created  otherwise 
than  as  baronet<i  of  the  united  kingdom. 

Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  Baronets 
OF  Scotland.  The  order  of  knights  baronets 
was  also  designed  to  be  established  in  Scodand 
in  1621,  by  James  I.  for  the  plantation  and  cul- 
tivation of  the  province  ot  Nova  Scotia,  ia 
America ;  but  it  was  not  actually  instituted  till 
the  year  1625,  by  his  son  Charles  I.  when  the 
first  person  dignified  with  this  title  was  Sir  Ro- 
bert Gordon,  of  Gordqnstone,  a  younger  son  of 
the  Earl  of  Sutherland.  The  king  granted  a 
certain  portion  of  land  in  Acadia  or  New 
Scotland,  to  each  of  them,  which  they  were  to 
hold  of  Sir  William  Alexander,  afterwards  Earl 
of  Stirling,  for  their  encouragement  who  should 
hazard  their  lives  for  the  good  and  increase  of 
that  plantation,  with  precedency  to  them,  and 
their  heirs  male  for  ever,  before  all  knights  called 
equites  aurati,  and  all  lesser  barons  called 
lairds,  and  all  other  gentlemen,x  except  Si: 
William  Alexander,  his  majesty's  lieutenant  in 
Nova  Scotia,  his  heirs,  their  wives  and  children ; 
that  the  title  of  Sir  should  be  prefixed  to  their 

2P 


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BAR 


Christian  namey  and  Baronet  added  to  their  sur- 
name ;  and  their  own  and  their  eldest  sons'  wives 
should  enjoy  the  title  of  Lady,  Madam,  or  Dame. 
His  majesty  was  so  desirous  of  adding  every 
mark  of  dignity  to  this,  his  favorite  order,  that 
four  years  after  its  institution,  he  issued  a  royal 
warrant,  granting  them  the  privilege  of  wearing 
an  orange  ribbon  and  a  medal :  which  last  was 
present^  to  each  of  them  by  the  king  himself, 
according  to  the  words  of  the  warrant  All  the 
privileges  of  the  order,  particularly  thu  of 
wearing  the  medal,  were  confirmed  at  the  king's 
request  by  the  convention  of  estates  in  the  year 
1630 ;  and,  in  order  to  establish  them  on  the 
most  solid  foundation,  they  were  again  con- 
firmed by  an  act  of  the  parliament  of  Scotland 
in  1633.  The  premier  baronet  of  Scotland,  at 
present,  is  Sir  Richard  Strachan ;  and  the  num- 
ber of  the  order,  exclusive  of  such  titles  as  are 
merged  in  peerages,  is  135.  Since  the  union 
the  power  of  the  king  to  create  new  baronets 
withm  Scotland  is  held  to  have  ceased. 

BARONI  (Adriana),  baroness  of  Piancaretta, 
in  Mantua,  an  eminent  singer,  sumamed  the  fair, 
on  account  of  her  uncommon  beauty.  See  next 
artide. 

Baronx  (Leonora),  and  her  mother,  Adriana, 
were  both  distinguished  for  their  extraordinary 
musical  talents.  Leonora  was  born  at  Naples, 
f>ut  spent  the  greatest  part  of  her  life  at  Rome. 
She  had  less  beauty  than  her  mother ;  but  ex- 
celled her  in  profound  skill  in  music,  the  fineness 
of  her  voice,  and  the  delicacy  of  her  manner. 
Mr.  Bayle  styles  her  one  of  the  finest  singers  in 
the  world ;  she  was  equally  eminent  as  a  com- 
poser, and  was  accordingly,  as  well  as  her 
mother,  celebrated  by  the  wits.  In  1639  there 
was  published,  at  firacciano,  a  collection  of 
Latin,  Greek,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  French 
poems,  in  her  praise,  with  this  title,  Applausi 
roetici  alle  Glorie  della  Signora  Leonora  Ba- 
roni.  Among  the  Latin  poems  of  Milton  there 
are  three  addressed,  Ad  Leonoram  Romae  ca^ 
nentem,  wherein  this  lady  is  celebrated  for  her 
singing,  with  an  allusion  to  her  mother's  ex- 
quisite performance  on  the  lute.  A  fine  eulogium 
on  her  is  contained  in  a  discourse  on  the  music 
of  the  Italians,  printed  with  the  life  of  Malherbe, 
and  some  other  treatises  at  Paris,  in  1672,  in 
12mo.  It  was  composed  by  M.  Maugars,  prior 
of  St.  Peter  de  Mac,  the  king's  English  inter- 
preter, who  says,  <  her  singing  threw  me  into 
such  raptures,  that  I  forgot  my  mortality,  and 
thought  myself  amon?  the  angels,  enjoying  the 
felicity  of  the  blessed  r 

BARONLff:  Caput.    See  Caput. 

BARONIS,  a  mountain  of  Chaus,  in  Barbary, 
three  miles  north  of  Fez.  It  produces  red  grapes, 
of  which  they  make  good  wine,  and  is  surrounded 
by  villages. 

BARONIUS  (Caesar),  vras  bom  at  Sora,  in 
1538,  and  studied  at  Rome,  under  Philip  de 
Neri.  In  1593  he  was  made  general  of  the  con- 
gr^tion  of  the  Oratory,  on  the  resignation  of 
PhUip  de  Neri,  the  founder.  Pope  Clement  VIIL 
made  him  his  confessor,  and  created  him  a  car- 
dinal in  1496.  He  was  afterwards  librarian  to 
the  Vatican;  and  died  in  1605,  at  sixty-eight 
years  cf  age.    He  wrote  several  wotks,  tlie  prin- 


cipal of  which  is  his  Anoales  EccMastici,  from 
A. D.  1  to  1198,  in  twelve  vols,  folio;  which 
has  been  abridged  by  several  persons,  paiticnlaify 
by  Henry  Spondaeus,  Bkovius,  and  Ludovioo 
Aurelio. 

BARONSTOWN,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in 
the  county  of  Loudi,  six  miles  W.N.  W.  of 
Dundalk. 

Baaovy,  Babonia,  or  Babovagium,  may 
be  considered  as  a  lordship,  held  by  some  service 
in  chief  of  the  king,  coinciding  with  what  is 
otherwise  called  grand  serjeanty.  Baronies,  in 
their  first  creation,  moved  from  the  king  hinnel^ 
the  chief  lord  of  the  whole  realm,  and  cookl  be 
holden  of  no  other  lord.  For  example,  the  king 
enfeoffed  a  man  of  a  great  seigneorie  in  land,  to 
hold  to  the  person  enfeoffed  wad  his  heirs,  of  the 
king  and  his  heirs,  by  baionial  service;  to  wit, 
by  the  service  of  twenty,  forty,  sixty,  knights, 
or  of  such  other  number  of  knights,  as  the  king 
by  his  feofl^ent  limited  or  appointed.  In  the  ' 
ages  next  after  the  conquest,  when  a  gnat  loid 
was  enfeoffed  by  the  king  of  a  large  seigneaiie, 
such  seigneurie  was  called  barony,  bat  mote 
commonly  an  honor;  as,  the  honor  of  Okwces- 
ter,  the  honor  of  Wallingford,  and  the  like. 
There  were  in  England  certain  honors,  which 
were  called  sometimes  by  English  and  somrtimpi 
by  foreign  names.  This  happened  when  the 
same  person  was  lord  of  an  honor  in  Normandy, 
or  some  other  foreign  country,  and  also  of  an 
honor  in  England.  For  example,  WilHasa  de 
Forz,  de  Force,  or  de  Fortibus,  was  lord  of  the 
honor  of  Albemarle  in  Normandy:  he  was  abo 
lord  of  two  honors  in  England ;  to  wit,  the  honor 
of  Holderoess,  and  the  honor  of  Skipton  in  Cn- 
vene.  These  honors  in  England  were  sometimes 
called  by  the  Norman  name,  the  honor  of  Albe- 
marle, or  the  honor  of  the  ea^l  of  Albemaile.  In 
like  manner  the  earl  of  Briunnie  was  lord  of  the 
honor  of  Britannie  in  France,  and  also  of  the 
honor  of  Richmond  in  England;  the  honor  jof 
Richmond  was  sometimes  <^led  by  the  foreign 
name,  the  honor  of  Britannie,  or  the  honor  of 
the  Earl  of  Britannie.  This  serves  to  explain 
the  terms  honor  Albemarlie,  or  comitis  Albe- 
marlise  in  Anglia ;  honor  Britannia,  or  oomitis 
Britannie  in  Anriia;  not  that  Albemarle  or  Bri- 
tannie were  in  England,  but  that  the  same  per- 
son respectively  was  lord  of  eadi  of  the  nid 
honors  abroad,  and  of  each  of  the  said  bonon  in 
England.  Tlie  baronies  bebnging  to  ~ 
are  by  some  called  regalia,  as  bemg  held 
on  the  king^s  liberality.  These  do  not  coo 
one  barony  alone,  but  in  many;  for  tot  < 
baronift  quot  majora  predia.  A  barony,  accord- 
ing to  Bracton,  is  a  right  indifisible.  Where- 
fore, if  an  inheritance  be  to  be  divided  among 
co-partners,  though  some  capital  messuage  may 
be  divided,  yet  if  the  capital  messnage  be  the 
head  of  a  county  or  barony,  it  may  not  be  par- 
celled :  and  die  reason  is,  lest  by  this  division 
many  of  the  rights  of  counties  and  baronies  by 
degoses  come  to  nothing,  to  the  preiudice  of  the 
realm,  which  is  said  to  be  composed  of  oomties 
and  baronies. 

Baront  of  Glasgow.    See  Glasgow. 

BAROPTIS,  or  Baroptinus  lapis^  among 
ancient  naturalistSi  a  species  of  stone^  supposed 


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to  have  woDderful  Tirlnef  against  ▼enemons  bites, 
externally  applied.  Pliny  has  left  us  but  a  very 
short  description  of  it;  he  says,  it  was  black  ia 
color,  but  variegated  with  large  spots  of  red 
and  white. 

BAROSy  or  Bakios,  a  sea-port  of  the  island 
of  Celebes,  having  a  Dotdi  factory  and  settle- 
ment. There  is  a  good  trade  here  in  opium. 
Long.  119*"  15'  E.,  lat.  1*  24'  S. 

BA'ROSCOPE,  n.  s.  Bopoc  and  fntortm,  an 
instrument  to  show  the  weight  d  the  atmosphere. 
See  Barometer. 

If  therfl  vat  alwmyt  »  calm,  the  eqnilibriom  could 
only  be  changed  by  the  contents ;  where  the  winde 
are  not  variable,  the  altcratioat  of  the  barotoopp  are 
veiT  imall.  ArbtMmai, 

BAROTH,  a  market-town  of  Transylvania, 
on  the  Aluta. 

BARQUETTE,  or  Barchbtta,  denotes  a 
lesser  sort  of  bark^  used  in  the  Mediterranean, 
for  the  service  of  galleys,  as  boats  and  shallops 
are  for  other  ships. 

BARQUISIMETO,  a  city  of  South  America, 
in  the  niovince  of  Venezuela,  founded  by  the 
Spaniaros  iti  1552.  It  is  placed  on  an  elevated 
plain,  and  enjoys  great  compaiakive  coobess. 
The  most  constant  and  equal  wud  which  prevails 
IS  the  north-east,  and,  whenever  the  rays  of  die 
sun  are  not  tempered  by  it,  ihe  thermometer  of 
Fahrenheit  rises  to  82^  and  84^.  In  the  surround- 
ing plains  and  hills  excellent  pasture  encou- 
rages the  rearing  of  all  sorts  of  cattle.  Many  of 
the  dtizens  prefer  this  speculation,  and  find  it 
to  their  advantage,  although  at  the  same  time 
they  cultivate  the  sugar-cane  and  wheat.  Fmm' 
a  freshness  preserved  by  irrigation  the  vales  pro- 
duce cacao  abnndantW,  and  of  a  good  quality ; 
and  the  sides  of  the  hills  have  lately  been  em- 
ployed in  the  culture  of  coffee.  Inere  axe  in 
this  place  from  11,000  to  12,000-  inhabitants, 
and  the  upect  of  the  city  announces  ease  and  ^ 
affluence.  The  houses  are  well  built;  the  streets 
straight,  wide,  and  airy.  The  parish  church  is 
handsome,  and  served  by  two  priests.  The  judi- 
cial and  police  duties  are  dis(:harged  by  a  com- 
mon council  and  lieutenant.  Barquisimeto  is 
120  miles  W.S.W.  of  Caraccas,  450  N.N.E.  of 
SanU  F^  and  ibrty-five  N.  N.  E.  of  Tocuyo. 

BAR  Dice,  a  species  of  fidse  dice,  so  formed 
as  that  they  will  not  easily  lie  on  certain  sides, 
or  turn  up  certain  points.  Bar  dice  stand  oppo^ 
sed  to  flat  dice,  which  come  up  on  certain  pomts 
oftener  than  they  should  do. 

Barr,  or  Barra,  a  smaH  kingdom  of  Africa. 
See  Barra. 

Barr,  St.  the  tutelar  saint  of  the  island  of 
Barray,  which  was  named  after  him.  His  holi- 
liday  is  the  25th  of  September.  On  thn  day  the 
priest  says  mass,  and  all  those  of  the  Romish 
religion  used  punctually  to  attend.    See  Barry. 

BAHRA,  a  hill  of  Scotland  in  Aberdeenshire, 
in  the  parish  of  Bourtie,  on  the  top  of  which  are 
still  distinctly  visible  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
camp,  of  a  circular  form,  surrounded  with  ditches, 
and  extending  to  near  three  acres. 

Barra,  in  commerce,  a  long  measure  used  in 
Portugal  and  some  parts  of  Spain,  to  measure 
woollen  cloths,  linen  cloths,  and  serges.  There 
are  three  kinds;  the  barra  of  Valencia,  thirteen 


of  which  make  twelve  yards  and  six  seventh. 
English  measure;  the  barra  of  Castile,  seven  of 
which  make  six  yards  and  four  sevenths ;  and  the 
barra  of  Arragon,  three  of  which  make  two  yards 
and  four  seventlis  English. 

Barra,  in  law.    See  Bar. 

Barra,  a  kingdom  of  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  fourteen 
leagues  in  breadth,  and  eighteen  long,  according 
to  Golberry.  It  contains  a  population  of  200,000 
souls,  chiefly  of  the  Mandingo  race,  lealous 
Mahommedans,  and  acute  in  commercial  trans- 
actions.   The  capital  is 

Barra  Ikding,  where  a  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  to  Barraconda  in  maize,  elephants' 
leeth,  gold  dust  and  cotton  cloth.  Every  vessel 
entering  the  Gambia  here  pays  a  tax  of  about 
£20  sterling  to  the  king  of  Barra. 

BARRABA, .  or  Barrada,  a  tract  of  land  in 
Siberia,  lying  between  the  rivers  Irtisch  and  Oby, 
in  the  province  of  Tobolsk.  It  is  uninhabited, 
but  not  through  an^  deficiency  of  the  soil;  for 
that  is  excellent  for  tillage,  and  part  of  it  might 
also  be  laid  out  in  meadows  and  pastures.  It  is 
interspersed  with  a  great  number  of  lakes,  which 
abound  with  carp/  and  the  country  produces 
great  numbers  of  elks,  deer,  foxes,  ermine,  and 
squirrels.  Between  the  Irtisch  and  Oby  are  some 
copper-mines. 

BA'RRACAN,  n,t.  Fr.  bouracan,  or  barracan, 
a  strong  thick  kind  of  camelot. 

Barracan,  or  Barracan,  is  something  like 
camlet  but  of  a  coarser  grain.  It  is  used  to  make 
cloaks,  surtouts,  &c.  to  keep  off  rain.  Barracans 
are  chiefly  made  in  France,  as  at  Valenciennes, 
Lisle,  Abbeville,  Amiens,  and  Rouen.  Those  of 
Valenciennes  are  the  most  valued. 

BARRACIDA,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of 
pike.    See  Esox. 

BA'RRACK,  n.  i.  Span,  harracca.  Little 
cabins  made  by  the  Spanish  fishermen  on  the  sea 
shore;  or  little  lodges  for  soldiers  in  a  camp. 
It  is  generally  taken  among  us  for  buildings  to 
lodge  soldiers.  It  is  not  found  in  our  early  lexi- 
cographers. Perhaps  from  barricadOy  barrique. 
See  Barricado. 

Like  onn  it  should  wholly  be  composed  of  natural 
subjects ;  it  ought  only  to  be  enlisted  for  a  short 
and  limited  time ;  the  soldiers  also  should  live  inter- 
mixed with  the  people ;  no  separate  camp,  no  6ar- 
foob,  no  inland  fartrewes^  should  be  allowed. 


Modem  military,  men  have  alwajrs  thought 
barracks  very  convenient,  when  there  u  suflicient 
room  to  make  a  large  square,  surrounded  with 
buildings;  because  the  soldiers  are  easily  con- 
fined to  their  quarters,  and  the  rooms  being  con- 
riguous,  orders  are  executed  with  prinu^y  ftnd 
expedition;  and  ^e  troops  have  not  the  least 
connexion  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  place. 
This  prevents  quarrels  and  riots.  Those  for  the 
horse  were  formeriy  called  barracks,  and  those  for 
the  foot,  huts;  but  now  barrack  is  used  indiffer- 
ently for  both. 

Much  opposition  was  made  in  paxUament  dur- 
ing the  late  war  to  the  erection  of  barradcs,  as 
inimical  to  the  liberties  of  Britain,  by  tending  to 
estrange  the  soldiers  from  the  citizens;  thus  ren- 
dering the  former  fit  tools  to  enslave  the  latter, 

2P2 


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580  BARRACK. 

should  any  future  kiog  or  ministry  wish  to  change  5.  Soutli-westera,  containijig  Hampshire  and 

the  constitution,  or  compel  the  people  to  submit  Dorsetshire. 

to  unpopular  and  arbitrary  measures.     Plausible  6.  Isle  of  Wight. 

as  these  arguments  may  appear,  there  are  othen  7.  Western,  containing  DeTonsihire,  Cornwall, 

that  have  also  considerable  weight,  on  the  side  and  Somerset. 

of  these  establishments :  in  regard  to  the  morals  of  8.  Seyem,  containing  Gloucestershire,  Wor- 

the  people,  we  are  persuaded  the  most  virtuous  cestershire,  Herefordshire,  Monmouthshire,  and 

country  town  or  village  will  be  proportionally  South  Wales. 

corrupt  as  soldiers  are  quartered  among  them ;  9.  North-western,  containing  Cheshire,  Shrop- 

and  the  (act  is,  that  the  soldiers  land  the  citizens  shire,  Lancashire,  North  Wales,  and  the  Isle  of 

may  be  too  much  as  well  as  too  little  inter-  Man. 

mixed.  10.  London. 

Until  the  year  1793,  barracks  were  neither  11.  Home,  containing  Middlesex,  Surry, 
numerous  in  Great  Britain,  nor  were  they  under  Hertfordshire,  and  part  of  Kent, 
the  control  and  management  of  a  separate  and  12.  North-inland,  containing  Derbyshire,  Not- 
peculiar  board.  In  January  1793,  a  superinten-  tinghamshire,  Staffordshire,  Warwickshire,  I^- 
dant-general  of  the  barracks  was  appointed ;  and,  cestershire,  and  Rutlandshire, 
on  the  1st  of  Ma^  that  year,  the  king's  warrant  13.  South-inland,  containing  Bedfordshire, 
was  issued  for  their  regulation.  Greater  powers  Northamptonshire,  Oxfordshire,  and  Bucking- 
were  given  to  him  in  the  year  1794 ;  but  as  these  hamshire. 

seemed  to  interfere  with  the  duties  and  powers  14.  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and  Aldemey. 

of  *the  Board  of  Ordnance,  a  new  warrant  was  ^^ 

issued  in  the  year  1795,  defining  and  limiting  ScoxLANn. 

the  respective  duties  and  powers  of  the  Board  of  Northern,  containing  Caithness,  SndietlaDd, 

Ordnance,  and  the  superintendant-general,  or  Ross-shire,  Invemess-shire,  Nairnshire,  Moiay- 

barrack-master-general,  as  he  was  now  called,  shire,  and  Bamflbhire. 

The  salaries  and  extra  pay  of  the  barrack-master-  Western,  containing  Aberdeenshire,  Argyle- 

general  and  his  officers  amounted  in  1796  to  shir^,  Ayrshire,  Bute,  Kincardineshire,  Lanark- 

£9524.  17s.  2d.    The  establishment  was  after-  shire,  Renfrewshire,  and  Wigtonshire. 

wards  considerably  increased,  in  proportion  as  Centre,  containing  Angusshire,  Clackmannan- 

the  number  of  barracks  throughout  the  kingdom  shire,  Dunbartonshire,  Fifeshire,  Kinross-shire, 

increased,  and  by  the  creation  of  some  new  offi-  Perthshire,  and  Stirlingshire, 

cers,  among  whom  was  a  law  clerk.    In  1806,  Southern,  containing  the  I/>thians,  Berwidk- 

their  salaries  amounted  to  £19,329.  4s.  lOd.  shire,  Peeblesshire,  Selkirkshire,  Roxbuigfashire, 

During  this  year  the  commissioners  of  military  and  Dumfriesshire, 

enquiry  recommended  that  the  offices  of  barrack-  On  the  14th  of  July,  1805,  there  were  in 

master-general,  and  deputy  barrack-master-gene-  Great  Britain  and  Jersey,  &c. 

ral,  should  be  totally  abolished,  and  that  the  Bstablished  barracks  of  brick  and  stone    .  .  84 

superintendence  of  the  barrack   establishment    wood 12 

should  be  vested  in  commissioners.     This  sug«  Temporary  barracks 75 

gestion,  and  some  others  relative  to  the  mode  of   rented         41 

transacting  the  business  of  the  department,  and  — 

preventing  useless  and  extravagant  expenditure,  2^^ 

have  been  followed;  and  the  barrack  establish-  The  following  statement  exhibits  the  several 

ment  is  now  under  the  direction  of  four  commis-  particulars  of  the  total  expense  incurred  by  ilie 

sioners,  one  of  whom  is  generally  a  military  man.  nation  for  barracks,  and  the  barrack-office,  in 

As  It  frequenUy  hapjpened  that  it  was  abso-  Great  Britain,  between  the  25th  of  December 

lutely  necessary  to  bmld  barracks  on  an  emer-  1792,  and  the  10th  of  November  1804: 
gency,  government  was  often  obliged  to  pay  an 

extravagant  price  for  the  land  which  they  needed  ,       *           '•  "' 

for  their  erection;  in  Older  to  remedy  this  evil,  it  Buildings  and  purchases  of  land  3,930,223    5    8 

was  provided  by  the  act,  usually  called  the    Forage 846,246    7  10 

defence  act,  43d  Geo.  III.  ch.  55,  that  justices  Beer    ........    .  643,030    9    6 

of  the  peace  might  put  any  general  officer  into  ^^^^als,  candles,  furniture,  rents,  repairs, 

the  possession  of  such  ground  as  he  might  deem  supplied  by  barrack-masters,  and 

fit  for  the  erection  of  barracks;  the  value  of  it  to  salaries 1,685,487    8    0 

be  setUed  afterwards  by  a  jury;  provided,  how-  Office-establishment      .    .    .     256,129  10    4 

ever,  the  necessity  for  such  ground  was  certified    Fees  at  War-office 80,346    3    6 

by  the  lord  lieutenant,  or  two  deputy  lieutenants    Insurance 1,519    2    2 

of  the  county.     The  foUowing  are  the  barrack    Additional  renU 36,860  13    5 

districts  in  Great  Britain :  Lodging  money  to  officers  .     .     139,582  16    0 

1.  Northern,     containing     Northumberland,    Eng:ines 11,866    0    5 

Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  Durham.  Bedding,  furniture,  «cc.  issued  by  the 

2.  York,  containing  Yorkshire.  barrack-office,  and  in  store  1,357,215    7    3 

3.  Eastern,  containing  Norfolk,  Suffi>lk,  Cam-  Miscellaneous    ....     .    .    35,498    4    8 

bridge,  Huntingdonshire,  and  all  Essex,  except  _     ,  TTHTITT^ 

Tilbunr-fort.    ^            '                      '        ^  Total,  £9,024,005    8    9 

4.  Southern,  containing  Kent,  Tilbury-fort,  The  annual  expense,  during  the  last  war, 
and  Svstex.  rtried  from  £350,000  to  £500  000;  in  the  year 


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BAR 


1814,  it  was  £309,826.  The  peace  estimate  for 
1816  is  £173,500.  In  Ireland,  where  barracks 
are  more  numerous,  the  expense,  in  1814,  was 
£360,515,  and  the  peace  estimate  for  1816  was 
£213,000. 

See  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  Reports  of 
the  Commissioners  of  Military  EnquiiY,  1806; 
Finance  Reports  and  Estimates  laid  bemre  Par- 
liament for  1814  and  1816,  &c. 

Barrack  Allowance,  a  snecific  allowance 
of  bread,  beer,  coals,  &c.  to  the  regiments  sta- 
tioned in  barracks. 

Barrack  Guard,  the  principal  guard  of  a 
regiment  in  barraclu;  the  officer  of  which  is 
responsible  for  the  r^fularity  of  the  men,  and 
for  all  prisoners  duly  committed  to  his  charge 
while  on  that  duty. 

BARRACK-XASTER-OBiiERAt,  a  staffofficer  at 
the  head  of  the  barrack-department,  who  has 
a  number  of  barrack-masters  and  deputies 
under  him,  that  are  stationed  at  the  different 
barracks.  He  has  an  office  and  clerks  for  the 
despatch  of  business;  and  to  this  office  all 
reports,  &c.  respecting  the  barrack  department 
'.   are  made. 

BARRACOL,  in  ichthyology,  a  name  given 
by  Artedi,  firom  the  Venetians,  to  the  species  of 
ray  fish  called  by  Bellonius  and  Gesner  mirale- 
tus,  and  by  others  raia  oculata  Isvis.  The  spe- 
cific name  of  Artedi  carries  in  it  a  much  better 
character  of  the  fish;  he  calls  it  the  ray,  with  a 
'  smooth  back  and  belly ;  and  with  the  eyes  sur- 
rounded with  a  series  of  spin^,  and  three  other 
rows  of  them  on  the  tail. 

BARRACONDA,  a  considerable  town  in  cen- 
tral Afirica,  about  400  miles  up  the  Gambia,  where 
'  very  formidable  cataracts  obstruct  the  navigation 
of  the  river,  and  prevent  any  but  the  smallest 
canoes  from  passing.  The  tide  flows  up  to  this 
pUce.    Long.  13*»  W.,  hit  13**  36'  N. 

BARRACUDA,  a  species  of  esox. 

BARRADA,  or  Barraoys,  a  river  of  Syria, 
risiog  at  Barraud,  twenty-four  miles  west  of  Da^ 
mascus.  Receiving  the  Fich6e,  it  divides  into 
seven'  branches,  six  miles  firom  that  city ;  the 
fourth  alone,  which  washes  the  northern  walls, 
preserving  the  original  name.  All  the  different 
branches  sAerwaras  rejoin  the  main  stream, 
which  is  discharged  <into  a  lake  twenty-one 
miles  north-east. 

BARRAGAN,  a  river  of  the  province  and 
government  of  Buenos  Ayres,  which  runs  north, 
and  enters  the  Plata. 

BARRAGAN,  Bay  or,  in  the  La  Plata,  about 
twelve  miles  below  Buenos  Ayres,  to  the  south- 
east. Ships  discharge,  in  lighters,  their  car^ 
goes  in  the  roadstead  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
theo  go  to  the  bay  of  Barragan  to  wait  for 
their  cargoes  out.  The  land  about  it  is  low,  and 
tlie  bay  therefore. much  exposed,  nor  can  ships  of 
any  burden  come  within  two  or  three  miles  of 
the  shore.  Some  banks  under  water,  how- 
ever, meet  the  force  of  breakers,  but  there  is 
little  security,  when  a  storm  comes  on,  against  a 
ship's  parting  from  her  ground-tackle,  and  being 
driven  on  them.  The  river  running  into  the  bay 
can  receive  vessels  drawing  twelve  feet  water, 
but  none  larger. 

BARRAI  SciABiAT,  the  Arabian  name  given 
to  the  desert  of  Natron  in  Egypt,  situated  to  the 


west  of  the  Delta,  and  the  south  of  lake  Maz«o» 
tis.  It  contains  the  two  hikes  Nedebe  and  Lebe, 
from  which  the  Natron  is  drawn,  and  is  pervaded 
by  a  vast  and  deep  ravine,  called  the  Bahr  Be- 
kone,  or  river  without  water.  This  desert  is 
celebrated  for  the  great  number  of  monasteries 
which  were  founded  in  it  at  a  former  period. 

BARRAMAHAL,  adistrict  in  Southern  India, 
situated  between  twelve  and  fourteen  degrees  of 
north  latitude,  consisting  of  twelve  places,  which 
the  name  is  said  to  signify.  These  are  Krish- 
nagiry,  Jacadeo,  Varinaghada,  Maharay-gfaada, 
Bujungaghada,  Tripatura,  Vanambady,  Ghan-* 
ganaglmda,  Sudarsaanarghada,  and  TatucaUu. 
This  district  was  ceded  to  the^British  by  Tippoo, 
m  1793.    The  inhabitants  are*  Hindoos. 

BARRATI,  Barred,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
an  appellation  given  to  the  Carmelites,  after  they 
were  obliged  to  lav  aside  the  white  cap,  and 
wear  cowls  striped  black  and  white. 

BA'RRATOR,  1. 1     From  6ara<,old  French; 

Ba'rratry,  t.  S  from  which  is  still  retained 
hanUeiBr,  a  cheat;  from  the  Dano^orman  baret, 
our  lawyers  have  hareiter^  barettry,  a  wrangler 
and  encourager  of  law-suits;  one  who  harasses 
the  bar  or  courts  with  importunate  litigations. 
Lord  Coke  defines  barrator  to  be  a  common 
mover  and  maintainer  of  suits,  in  disturbance  of 
the  peace.  This  exciting  and  fomenting  of  liti- 
gious quirreU  is  an  offence  by  common  law,  and 
punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment;  and  if  the 
iMnator  be  an  attorney,  a  statute  of  the  12th  of 
George  the  First  provides  that  he  shall  be  inca- 
pacitated firom  practising  for  the  future,  under 
pain  of  seven  years'  transportation. 

Will  it  not  reflect  as  much  on  thy  character,  Nic, 
to  tun  barrator  in  thy  old  dayt,  a  itirrer-ap  of  qnar- 
reU  amongst  thy  aeighbonn  t 

Arbaikmoet  Huiory  ofJolm  BM, 
Th  arrant  icwralry,  that  bears 
Point  blank  an  action  'gainst  our  lawa. 


Barratry,'  in  commerce.      See  Baratry 
and  Insurance. 

Barratry,  in  the  law  of  England,  has  been 
noticed.  See  Baratry.  The  term,  however,  is 
of  foreign  origin;  and  in  Italy,  and  other  coun- 
tries, seems  ordinarily  to  have  been  applied  to 
the  traffic  of  ecclesiastical  benefices ;  but  was 
afterwards  used  in  a  more  general  sense,  as  ap- ' 
plicable  to  all  corrupt  buying  and  selling  of  jus- 
tice. In  Scotland  it  signified  the  corrupt  pur- 
chasing of  benefices  or  offices  of  collection,  from 
the  see  of  Rome,  by  persons  who  left  the  realm 
for  that  purpose ;  a  practice  which  had  become 
fi«quent,  and  was  in  various  respects  injurious 
to  the  realm ;  as  a  means  of  carrymg  money  out 
of  it,  without  any  return  of  value,  as  prejudicial 
to  the  right  of  patronage  in  the  king  or  others, 
and  to  the  free  elections  of  the  monks  in  the  mo- 
nasteries, both  which  the  pope  by  prevention 
pretended  to  exclude;  and  as  contributing  to 
raise  the  rate  of  taxation  upon  benefices,  by  the 
false  accounts  which  those  suitors  for  the  office 
of  collector  carried  to  the  pope. 

BARRAUX,  or  Fort  jBarreaux,  a  fortress 
of  France,  iq  Dauphiny,  on  the  borders  of  Savoy, 
now  included  in  the  department  of  the  Isere,  ar- 
rondissement  of  Grenoble.  It  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  tlie  river  Isere,  near  the  entrance 


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of  the  valley  of  Gretivaudaii,  on  the  road-  from 
Grenoble  to  Chambeny^  eighteen  miles  north- 
east of  the  former  town.  The  fort  was  erected 
at  a  great  expense  by  Charles  Emannel,  duke  of 
SaToy,  in  1597,  and  is  strong  both  by  nature  and 
art.  The  French,  howefer,  got  possession  of  it 
in  a  single  night,  and  is  retained  it  at  the  peace  of 
Vervins,  on  the  plea  that  it  was  built  on  French 
ground.    Population  1320. 

BARRE  (Louis  Francis  Joseph  de  la),  an  in- 
genious writer,  bom  at  Toumay,  in  1688.  He 
received  his  education  at  the  college  of  St  Barbe, 
at  Paris,  where  he  assisted  Anselm  Banduri  in 
his  extensive  work,  Imper.  Orientale,  Recueils 
de  Medailles  des  empereurs,  after  which  he  had 
a  pension  given  him  by  the  grand  duke  of  Tus- 
cany. He  also  published  Memoirs  for  the  His- 
tory of  France  and  Burgundy,  and  various  other 
works.    He  di^  in  1738. 

Biere'  or  Barry  (Madame  Du),  the  favorite 
mistress  of  Louis  XV.  She  is  said  to.  have  been 
one  of  the  richest  women  in  France.  She  was 
condemned  by  Ihe  revolutionary  tribunal  of  Paris, 
as  a  conspirator  against  the  republic.  Her  beha- 
viour was  marked  by  unusual  cowardice.  The  ex- 
ecutoiner  was  obliged  to  support  her  all  the  way 
to  the  scaffold,  and  he  required  two  assistanu 
to  lift  her  upon  it ;  after  which  she  exerted  all 
her  strength  to  prevent  being  fastened  to  the 
pkmk.  She  was  guillotined  on  the  9th  December 
1793. 

Bares',  a  township  of  Worcester  county,  Mas- 
sachusetts, twenty-four  miles  north-west  of  Wor- 
cester, and  sixty-six  west  of  Boston.  Also  a 
township  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Huntingdon  county. 

BA'RREL,  V.  &  n.  Fr.  barril,  Ital.  barrUe, 
Span,  barril.  Junius  says,  perhaps  from  barrey 
rtpagulum  (see  To  Bar);  because  liquids  are 
held  or  contained  in  a  cask,  quasi  in  quondam 
repagulo ;  as  if  under  bar,  or  in  a  stout  strong 
vessel  stopped  dose.  It  is  applied  to  any  thing 
hollow,  as  to  the  ear,  the  barrel  of  a  fl;nn,  a  cy- 
linder about  whiph  any  thing  is  wound.  It  also 
denominates  a  particular  measure. 

I  woald  have  their  beef  beforehand  harrdUd,  which 
nay  be  used  as  it  needed.  Spuuer  on  Irtiamd. 

Barrel  up  earth  and  tow  some  seed  in  it,  and  pat 
it  in  the  bottom  of  a  pond.  Boetm, 

It  hath  been  observed  by  one  of  the  andents,  that 
an  emp^  bami,  knocked  upon  with  the  finger,  giveth 
a  diapason  to  the  sound  of  the  like  bofrrA  fiilL        Id, 
Trembling  to  approach 
The  little  barrel  which  he  fean  to  broach. 

Drydem. 

Several  colleges,  instead  of  limiting  their  rents  to 
a  certain  sun,  prevailed  with  their  tenants  to  pay  the 
price  of  so  many  ftarr«Ii  of  com,  as  the  market  went. 

Swiji. 

Take  the  bami  of  a  loog  gun  perfectly  bored,  set 
it  upright,  with  the  breech  upon  the  ground,  and  take 
a  bullet  exactly  fit  for  it;  then,  if  you  suck  at  the 
month  of  the  harrA  ever  so  gently,  the  bullet  will 
come  up  so  forcibly,  that  it  will  haard  the  striking 
oat  your  teeth.  -I^^* 

Your  string  and  bow  most  be  accommodated  to 
your  drill ;  if  too  weak,  it  will  not  cany  about  the 
barrvl.  JfMron. 

Barrel,  in  mechanics,  a  term  given  by 
watch  makers  to  the  cylinder  about  which  the 
spring  is  wrapped ;  and  by  gun-emiths  to  the 


cylindrical  tube  of  a  gun,  pistol,  Ice.  through 
which  the  ball  is  discharged. 

Barrel  of  a  Pump,  is  the  wooden  tube 
which  makes  the  body  of  the  engine,  and  whoe- 
in  the  piston  moves. 

Barrel  of  Eels  and  Barrel  of  Salmov, 
ought  to  contain  forty-two  gallons  each. 

Barrel  of  Soap  must  weigh  2661b. 

Barrel,  or  Barille  of  Florence,  is  a  liquid 
measure,  containing  twenty  flasks*  or  one-third 
of  a  star  or  staio. 

Barrel,  or  Barique  of  Paris,  contains  310 
pints,  or  twenty-six  septiers  and  a  half;  fear 
Dariques  make  Uiree  muids,  or  one  tun. 

Barrels,  in  artillery,  are  used  lor  holding 
powder,  small-shot,  flmts, .  sulphur,  salt-petre, 
resin,  pitch,  quick-match,  &c  Bairels  filled 
with  earth  serve  to  make  a  parapet  to  cover  the 
men,  like  gabions  and  canvas  bags. 

Barrels,  Fire,  are  casks  of  (fivers  canncities, 
filled  vrith  bombs,  grenadoes,  fire  pots,  ecc  and 
mixed  with  great  quantities  of  tow  soaked  in 
petroleum,  turpentine,  pitchy  &c.  used  by  the  be- 
sieged to  defend  breaches.  .Some  are  mounted 
on  wheels,  filled  with  composition,  and  inter- 
mixed widi  loaded  grenades,  and  the  outside  fiill 
of  sharp  spikes;  some  are  placed  under  ground, 
which  have  the  effect  of  small  mines  i  othen  are 
used  to  roll  down  a  breach,  to  prevent  die  ene- 
my's entrance.  Composition,  oomed  powder, 
thirty  pounds,  Swedish  pitch  twdve,  nltpetre 
six,  and  tallow  three.  Not  used  now.  See  Firs 
Ship 

Barrels  of  Gunpowder  are  about  sixteen 
inches  diameter,  and  thirty  or  Adrty-two  inches 
long,  holding  100  pounds  of  powder;  bnt  die 
quantity  put  into  a  whole  barrel  is  only  ninety 
pounds,  mto  a  half  barrel  forty-five  pounds,  and 
a  quarter  barrel,  used  for  rifle  powder,  <wly 
tweoty-two  pounds  and  a  half;  this  propoi^ 
tlon  leaves  a  space  for  the  powder  to  aepaiate 
when  rolled,  or  otherwise  it  would  always  be  in 
lumps,  and  liable  thereby  to  damaae. 

Barrels,  Budge,  hold  ficom  foittj  to  sixty 
pounds  of  powder ;  at  one  end  is  fixed  a  leathern 
iMg  with  orass  nails :  they  are  used  an  actual 
service  on  the  batteries,  for  loading  the  gnns  and 
mortars,  to  keep  the  powder  firom  firing  by  ac- 
cident. • 

Barrels's  Sound,  on  the  north-west  ooast  of 
America,  is  situated  aJiout  six  leagues  north-west 
of  Washington,  or  Charlotte  Islands.  Long.  131* 
W.,  lat  52**  N. 

Barrelling  of  Hbrrincs.  See  HsaRivo 
Fishery. 

BA'RREN,  adj.  ^  Barren,  i.  e.  ivr^, 
Ba'rrenly,  atft;.>  stopped,  shut,  strongly 
Ba'rrenness,^.  3  closed  up,  which  cannot 
be  opened,  from  which  can  be  no  spirit  or 
issue.— Too/ce.  See  To  Bar.  Thus  it  is  ap- 
plied to  sterile  ground,  unfiruitfiil  trees,  unpro- 
lific  animals;  to  unimaginative  and  uninstructed 
minds ;  to  professedly  intellectual  works,  desti- 
tute  of  thought,  and  originality;  to  whatever  is 
useless  and  unproductive. 

But  I  that  am  exiled ;  and  lwrm§ 
Of  alle  grace,  aad  in  so  gret  despaire. 
That  there  n'u  ecthe,  water,  fiic>  ne  aire. 


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Ne  cimtut  that  of  him  maked  !• 

That  may  me  hale,  or  don  comfoit  in  thia. 

Chcmetr» 

Glad  waa  the  markis,  and  hia  folk  therefore. 
For  though  a  maiden  child  come  all  before 
She  may  unto  a  knave  child  atteine,) 
By  likelyhed,  lin  ahe  n'is  not  harrwt*.  Id, 

It  ia  a  darkaome  delve,  farre  under  ground, 
With  thomea  and  harrmi  brakea  environed  round. 
That  none  the  aame  may  eaaily  out-win ; 
Yet  many  waiea  to  enter  may  be  found. 
But  none  to  iaaue  forth  when  one  ia  in  : 
For  diacord  harder  ia  to  end  than  to  begin. 


Thou  iamwM  ground,  whom  winter'a  wrath  hath 
waated. 
Art  made  a  mirror  to  behold  my  plight. 
Whilome  thy  freah  apring  flowr'd,  and  after  haated 
Thy  summer  proude  with  daSbdilleea  dight ; 
And  now  ia  come  thy  winter'a  atormie  state. 
Thy  mantle  mard  wherein  thou  maakedst  late.       li* 

Yet,  O  moat  bleaaed  Spirit !  pure  Lampe  of  Light, 
Eternal  Spring  of  Grace  and  Wiaedom  trew, 
Vottchaafe  to  ahed  into  my  hamm  apright 
Some  little  drop  <rf  thy  celcatial  dew. 
That  may  my  rimea  with  aweet  anfnae  embrew. 
And  give  bm  worda  equal  unto  my  thought. 
To  tell  the  marveilea  by  Thy  merde  wrought.        /d. 

It  is  one  eapecial  praise  of  many,  which  are  due  to 
thb  poet,  that  he  hath  laboured  to  reatore  aa  to  their 
rightfull  heritage  anch  good  and  naturall  Engliah 
wordea  aa  have  beene  long  time  out  of  use  and  almoat 
dean  diahcrited,  which  ia  the  only  cauae  that  our 
mothn  tongue,  which  truly  of  itaelf  u  both  full  enough 
lor  proae,  and  atately  enough  fer  verae,  hath  long  time 
been  counted  moat  ftorrm  and  bare'  of  both. 

(MhfM  M  ^pmmr,  prefixed  to  hit  Workt. 

There  ahall  not  be  male  or  fomale  lorrieii  among 
you,  or>among  your  cattle.  Jwrfeiwieay. 

Give  me  no  help  in  lamentationa  \ 
1  am  not'ftorraM  to  bring  forth  laments.     Bhaktpean, 

There  be  of  them  that  will  make  themaelvea  laugh, 
to  set  on  aome  quantity  of  harrmi  apecutora  to  laugh 
too.  Id, 

Forget  not  in  your  speed,  Antoniua, 
To  touch  Calphnmia ;  iat  our  elders  aay 
The  borrm,  touched  in  this  holy  chaae. 
Shake  off  Uieir  ateril  curae.  Id, 

The  aituation  of  thia  dty  ia  pleaaant,  but  the  wmtw 
ia  naught,  and  the  ground  hamm^  2  Kmg^ 

Within  the  aelf  aame-hamlet,  landa  have  divera 
degrees  of  value,  through  the  diveraity  of  their  fer- 
tility or  harrameu,  Bcnm, 

The  importunity  of  our  adversaries  hath  conatrain- 
ed  ua  longer  to  dwell  than  the  harremeu  of  to  poor  a 
cauae  could  have  aeemed  either  to  require  or  to  admit. 

Hooker, 

Straight  mine  eye  hath  caught  new  pleaaurea 
Whilat  the  landarape  round  it  meaaurea ; 
Ruaaet  lawna  and  follow*  gray. 
Where  the  nibbling  flocka  do  atray ; 
Mountaiaa,  on  whoae  hamm  breaat 
The  lab'ring  douda  do  often  reat ; 
MeadowB  trim,  with  daiaiea  pied. 
Shallow  brooka,  and  rivera  wide.  Mitan, 

They  led  the  vine 
To  wed  her  elm;  ahe  spoua'd  aiwut  him  twinea 
Her  marriageable  anna,  and  with  her  brings 
Her  dow'r,  th'  adopted  cluatera,  to  adorn 
His  6arran  leavea.  Id 

I  pray'd  for  children,  and  thought  hameimm  . 
In  wedlock  a  reproach.  Id. 

No  more  be  mentioned  then  of  violence 

Againat  ouadvea  \  and  wilfol  toranmii 

That  cata  off  ua  from  hope;  Id, 


The  adventorea  of  Ulytaea  are  imitated  in  (he 
JBneia ;  though  the  aoddenia  are  not  the  aame,  which 
would  have  argued  him  of  a  total  harromMU  of  invention. 

Drydem. 

Tdemachua  ia  far  from  exalting  the  nature  of  hia 
country ;  he  confeaaea  it  to  be  harrmu  Pope, 

Some  achemea  will  appear  6arren  of  hints  and  mat> 
ter,  but  prove  to  be  fruitful.  Sirift. 

Without  the  evening  dew  and  ahow'rs. 
The  earth  would  be  a  harreik  place. 

Of  treea,  and  plants,  of  herbs  and  flow'rs. 
To  crown  her  now.enamell'd  foce. 

CWJea  C!»Mon. 

Thia  heart,  by  age  and  grief  congealM, 
la  no  more  aendble  to  love'a  endearmenta. 
Than  are  our  i^rreii  rocka  to  mom'a  aweet  dew. 
That  calmly  tricklea  down  their  rugged  cheeka. 

.  JftVar^a  MiAomat. 

There  ia  a  power  upon  me  which  withholda 
And  makea  it  my  fotality  to  live : 
If  it  be  lifo  to  wear'  within  mysdf, 
lliia  haertimiw  of  apirit,  and  to  be 
My  own  aoul'a  aepulchre,  for  I  have  ceaa'd 
To  juatify  my  deeda  unto  myaelf^ 
The  laat  infirmity  of  evil.  Byron. 

Bakben  Islahd,  an  island  in  the  bay  of 
Bengal,  about  eighteen  miles  in  circumfor- 
ence;  the  vegetation  consists'  principally  of 
withered  shrabs  and  trees. ,  It  contains  a  vol- 
cano 1800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Im- 
mense columns  of  smoke  and  showers  of  red-hot 
stones,  some  of  tliem  three  or  four  tons  weight, 
are  discharged  from  it.  Distant  (brty-five  miles 
east  of  the  Lower  Andaman  Island.  Lat.  12^ 
15'  N.  Also  a  small  island  in  Chesapeake  bay, 
north-east  from  the  mouth  of  Patuzent  river. 
Long.  76°  22*  W^  lat.  38''  34'  N. 

Barren  Island,  Cape,  an  island  of  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  in  Bass  Straits,  between  Great 
Island  on  the  north,  and  Clarke's  Island  on  the 
south.  It  is  about  twenty  miles  in  length,  and 
ten  in  breadth,  chiefly  covered  with  low  veceta- 
•  tion.  Here  are  found  the  peculiar  quadrupeds  of 
the  Australasian  regions,  tne  kangaroo^  wombat, 
and  duck-billed  ant  eater. 
Barrenness.    See  Sterility. 

Barren-wort.  See  EpiXEDiifM. 
BARRERIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
class  pentandria,  order  monogynia.  Its  generic 
character  is  cal.  quinauedentate ;  cor.  rotate, 
divisions  scrobiculate ;  nlaments  dilated ;  anth. 
tetragonal,  marginate,  margins  cohering.  The 
duly  species  of  this  genus  is  the  B.  theobrome- 
folia,  a  tree  of  about  fifty  feet  in  height,  a  native 
of  Cayenne. 
BARRETRY.  See  Barratry. 
BARRETT  (Geoige),  an  eminent  landscape 
painter,  was  bom  in  Dublin  abdut  1732.  By 
natural  genius  and  application,  he  acquired,  with- 
out a  teacher,  such  skill  in  the  art  of  painting, 
as  to  obtain  the  premium  of  £50  offered  by 
the  Dublin  society  for  the  best  landscape  in  oil. 
He  afterwards  went  to  London,  and  there,  in 
1763,  the  premium  of  £50  for  the  best  land- 
scape, was  adjudged  to*  him  by  the  society  for 
the  encouragement  of  arts,  &c.  He  was  one 
of  the  original  planners  of  the  Royal  Academy,  of 
which  he  became  a  member.  He  died  in  1784. 
Barrett  (William,)  an  eminent  surgeon,  born 
in  Somersetshire.  He  settled  at  Bristol,  and 
gained  great  reputation  in  bis  business.  In  1788 


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he  published  a  history  of  the  city  of  Bristol,  in 
one  vol.  4to.  tiie  materials  of  which  he  had  em- 
ployed upwards  of  twenty  years  in  collecting. 
He  died  in  1789.  Mr.  Barrett  was  the  early 
patron  of  the  celebrated  Chatterton. 

BARRiCA'DB,t>.&n.^  From  barr^  to  stop, 
Barr ic a'do,  v.  &  n.  f  bar,  or*  obstruct.  A 
Ba'rrico,  1  fortification ;  any  thing 

Barrier.  3  fixed  to  hinder  entrance ; 

barrier  likewise  signifies  boundary  or  limit;  a 
bar  to  mark  the  limits  of  any  place. 

Why  it  hftth  bay  windows,  transparent  as  Amtmo* 
doet ;  and  the  clear  stones  to  the  north  are  as  lustrous 
as  ebony ;  and  yet  complainest  thou  of  obstructions. 

Shak$peare. 
The  access  was  by  a  neck  of  land,  between  the  sea 
on  one  part,  and  the  harbour  water,  or  inner  sea  on 
the  other ;  fortified  dean  over  with  a  strong  rampier 
and  hanicado.  Bacon, 

For  jnsts^  and  tourneys,  and  barrien,  the  glories  of 
them  are  chiefly  in  the  chariou,  wherein  th^  chal- 
lengers make  their  entries.  Id. 

Fast  we  found,  fast  shut 
The  dismal  gates,  and  barricado^d  strong !         Milton. 
He  had  not  time  to  barricadu  the  doors ;  so  that  the 
enemy  entered.  Clarendon. 

The  truth  of  causes  wo  find  so  obliterated,  that  it 
seems  almost  barrieadoed  from  any  intellectual   ap- 
proach. Harvey, 
This  he  courageously  invaded. 
And  having  enter'd,  barricaded, 
Insoonc'd  himself  as  formidable 
As  could  be  underneath  a  table.        HtuUbrat. 
Pris'ners  to  the  pillar  bound. 
At  either  barrier  plac'd ;  nor,  captives  made. 
Be  freed,  or  ann'd  anew..  Drydem. 
The  queen  is  guarantee  of  the  Dutch,  having  pos- 
session of  the  barrier,  and  the  revenues'  thereof,  be- 
fore a  peace.  Swift, 
But  wave  what'er  to  Cadmus  may  belong. 
And  fix,  0  muse,  the  barrier  of  thy  song 
At  Oedipus.                                         Pope's  StaHut. 

How  instinct  varies  in  the  grovelling  swine. 
Compared  half  reas'ning  elephant!  with  thine : 
Twixt  that  and  reason  what  a  nice  barrier ! 
For  ever  separate,  yet  for  ever  near.  Pope. 

Safe  in  the  love  of  Heav'n,  an  ocean  flows 
Around  our  realm,  a  Aorrter  from  the  foes.         Id. 
Now  an  the  pavement  sounds  with  trampling  feet. 
And  the  mix'd  hurry  barrieada  the  street ; 
Entangled  here,  the  waggon's  lengthened  team.    Ot^, 
If  you  value  yourself  as  a  man  of  learning,  you  are 
building  a  most  impassable  ftarrter  against  improve- 
ment. Wattt. 
The  barrier  wall,  the  river  deep  and  wide. 
The  horrid  crags,  the  mountains  dark  and  tall. 
Rise  like  the  rocks  that  part  Hispania's  land  from 
Gaul.                                                       Byron. 

Barricade,  in  military  afiairs,  is  usually 
formed  when  time  permits,  of  pales  or  stakes 
crossed  with  batoons,  and  shod  with  iron  at  the 
feet,  and  set  up  in  passages  or  breaches. 

Barricade,  in  naval  architecture,  a  strong 
wooden  rail,  supported  by  stanchions,  extending 
across  the  foremost  part  of  the  quarter  deck.  In 
a  vessel  of  war,  the  vacant  spaces  between  the 
stanchions  are  commonly  filled  with  rope-mats, 
cork,  or  pieces  of  old  cable ;  and  the  upper 
part,  which  contains  a  double  rope-netting  above 
the  rail,  is  stuffed  with  full  hammocks  to  inter- 
cept the  motion,  and  prevent  the  execution  of 
imall  shot  in  time  of  battle. 


BARRIER,  in  fortification,  a  kind  of  fence 
made  at  a  passage,  retrenchment,  &c.  to  stop  up 
the  entry.  It  is  composed  of  great  stakes, 
about  four  or  five  feet  nigh,  placed  at  the  dis- 
tance of  eight  or  ten  feet  from  one  another,  with 
transums,  or  ovcrtliwart  rafters,  to  stop  either 
horse  or  foot,  that  would  enter  or  rush  in  with 
violence:  in  the  middle  is  a  moveable  bar  of 
wood,  that  opens  or  shuts  at  pleasure.  A  bar- 
rier is  commouly  set  up  in  a  void  space,  between 
the  citadel  and  the  town,  in  half-moons,  &c. 

Barrier  Islamdh,  a  range  of  islands  near  the 
east  coast  of  New  Zealand,  thirty  miles  in  length, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Thames.  Long.  184** 
2rW.,lat.  SfiOll'S. 

BARRIERS,  styled  the  jeu  de  barres,  French, 
was  a  martial  exercise  of  men  armed  and  fightinv 
together  with  swords,  within  certain  bars  or  rails 
which  separated  them  from  the  spectator.  It  is 
now  disused. 

BARRIGA  Negra,  a  river  in*the  vice-royalty 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  South  America,  which  has  its 
rise  about  160  miles  north-west  of  Monte  Video, 
and  after  being  augmented  by  the  accession  of 
several  streams,  &lls  into  lake  Meri.  The  coun- 
try around  is  well  watered,  mountainous,  and 
woody.  Here  are  numbers  of  great  breeding 
estates  for  cattle. 

BARRING  A  Vein.    See  To  Bar. 

BARRINGTON  (John  Shute,  Viscount),  a 
distinguished  theologian,  was  the  youngest  son 
of  Benjamin  Shute,  Esq.  a  merchant  and  a  pro- 
testant  dissenter.  lie  was  bom  in  167B,  and  re- 
ceived part  of  his  education  abroad.  On  his  re^ 
turn  to  London,  he  studied  in  the  Inner  Temple, 
and  in  1701  distinguished  himself  as  a  writer  in 
favor  of  the  civil  rights  of  the  dissenters.  Being 
employed  by  Lord  Somers  to  engage  the  Presty- 
tenans  of  Scotland  to  favor  the  union  between 
the  two  kingdoms,  he  was  in  1708  rewarded  by 
the  place  of  commissioner  of  the  customs,  from 
which  the  tory  ministiy  of  Anne  removed  him. 
About  this  time  an  ample  fortune  was  left  him 
by  Francis  Barrington  of  Tofts,  Esq.  whose  name 
he  assumed.  On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he 
was  chosen  member  of  parliament  for  BowidL- 
upon-Tweed,  and  in  1720  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  by  the  title  of  viscount  Barrington  of 
Ardglass.  Unfortunately  he  became  connected 
with  one  of  the  bubbles  of  that  time,  called  the 
Harburgh  Lottery ;  and  was  in  consequence  ex- 
pelldl  the  House  of  Commons ;  a  censure  which 
he  scarcely  merited,  as  the  misconduct  seems  to 
have  rested  principally  with  the  ministzy  of  Ha- 
nover. But  his  strong  opposition  to  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  is  thought  to  have  produced  this  seve- 
rity. In  1725  Lord  Barrington  published  bis 
*  Miscellanea  Sacra,'  2  vols.  8vo.,  since  reprinted 
by  his  son,  thp  late  Bishop  of  Durham,  3  vols. 
8vo.  1770.  In  the  same  year  he  puUtdied  '  An 
Essay  on  the  several  Dispensations  of  God  to 
Mankind,'  8vo.  and  was  also  the  author  of  va- 
rious other  tracts  relative  to  toleration  in  matters 
of  religion.  He  died  in  1734,  leaving  several 
children,  of  whom  live  sons  rose  to  high  stations 
respectively  in  the  state,  the  diurdi,  the  law,  the 
army,  and  the  navy ;  the  youngest  of  them  was 
the  late  venerable  Bishop  of  Duiham.  Lord 
Barrington  was  the  friend  and  disciple  of  Ix)cke ; 


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xaad  although  bred  a  Dissenter,  and  a  leader  of 
that  body,  was  aLto  a  frequenter  and  communi- 
cant of  the  Church  of  England. 

Basrihoton  (Daines),  fourth  son  of  viscount 
Harrington,  was  distinguished  as  a  lawyer,  anti- 
quary, and  naturalist  He  was  bom  in  1727, 
and,  after  preparatory  studies  at  Oxford  and  the 
Inner  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar.  He  held 
several  offices  previous  to  his  being  appointed  a 
Welch  judge  in  1757,  and  was  subsequently  se- 
cond justice  of  Chester  till  1785,  when  he  re- 
signed that  post,  and  thenceforward  lived  in 
retirement,  in  the  Temple,  where  he  died,  March 
1800.    His  works,  which  are  numerous,  consist 

Srincipallv  of  papers  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Loyal  and  Antiquarian. Societies,  of  both  which 
learned  bodies  he  was  a  fellow;  Observations 
on  the  Statutes,  chiefly  on  the  more  Ancient,  &c. 
1766,  4to.;  an  edition  of  Orosius,  with  the 
Anglo-Saxon  version  of  king  Alfred,  and  an 
English  translation  and  notes,  1773;  Tracts  on 
the  Probability  of  reaching  the  North  Pole,  1775, 
4to.  occasioned  bv  the  arctic  expedition  of  Capt. 
Phipps,  afterwards  Lord  Mulgiave. 

mRRiMGTON,  a  township  of  Nova  Scotia,  in 
Queen's  county,  on  the  east  side  of  the  bay  of 
Fundy.  2.  A  township  of  New  Hampshire,  in 
Stafford  county,  about  thirty  miles  north-west  of 
Portsmouth.  Alum  is  found  here.  3.  A  town- 
ship of 'Rhode  Island,  in  Bristol  county,  on  the 
north-west  branch  of  the  Warren,  seven  miles 
south-east  of  Fox-Point,  in  Providence. 

Barrington,  Grsat,  a  township  in  Berkshire, 
county  of  Massachusetts.  It  lies  140  miles  west 
of  Boston. 

BARRINGTONIA,  in  botanv,  a  genus  of  the 
polyandria  order,  belonging  to  the  monadelphia 
class  of  plants,  the  characters  of  which  are :  one 
female,  the  calyx  dephillous  above ;  with  a  druoa, 
which  it  crowns ;  and  the  seed  is  a  quadrilocular 
nut.  There  is  but  one  species  known,  viz.  B. 
speciosa,  a  native  d  China  and  Otaheite. 

BA'RRISTER;  from  harr,  and  esters  to  re- 
main or  continue :  thus  the  combination  of  the 
two  forms,  barrester,  one  who  takes  his  sta- 
tion at  a  bar ;  who  continues  there— that  is  who 
carries  on  his  profession  at  the  bar;  a  pleader  of 
causes. 

Jollier  of  this  state. 

Than  are  new-benefic'd  minittert;  he  throws, 
'   Like  nets  or  lime-twigs,  wheresoe'er  he  goes. 

His  title  of  barruter  on  every  wench. 

And  wooes  in  language  of  the  Pleas  and  Bench. 

Dotme, 
This  being  reveal'd,  they  now  begxm 
With  law  and  oonsdenoe  to  fsll  on. 
And  laid  abont  as  hot  and  brainsick. 
As  th'  ntter  horritter  of  Swanswick. 

Barristers  are  sometimes  termed  juriscon- 
sulti ;  and  in  other  countries  called  licentiati 
in  jure.  Anciently  barristers  at  law  were  called 
apprentices  of  the  law,  in  Latin,  apprenticii  juris 
noDiliores.  The  time  before  they  ought  to  be 
called  to  the  bar,  by  the  ancient  oitlers,  was  eight 
years,  now  reduced  to  five;  and  the  exercises 
done  by  them,  (if  they  were  not  called  ex  (gratia) 
were  twelve  grand  moots  performed  in  the  mns  of 
(chancery  in  the  time  of  the  grand  readings,  and 
twenty-four  petty  moots  in  the  term  times^  before 


the  readers  of  the  respective  inns :  and  a  barris- 
ter newly  called  is  to  attend  the  six  (or  four) 
next  long  vacations  the  exercises  of  the  house, 
viz.  Lent  and  Summer,  and  is  thereupon  for 
those  three  (or  two)  years  styled  a  vacation  bar- 
rister. The  duties  of  a  barrister  are  to  be  consi- 
dered honorary,  and  he  can  maintain  no  action 
for  his  fees,  which  are  reckoned  a  gratuitv,  not  a 
hire ;  and  which  cannot  be  even  demanaed  by  a 
barrister  without  doing  wrong  to  his  reputation. 

BARRITUS  is  a  word  of  German  original, 
adopted  by  the  Romans  to  signify  the  general 
shout  usually  given  by  the  soldiers  of  their  armies 
on  their  first  encounter  after  the  classicum  or 
alarm.  This  custom,  however,  of  setting  up  a 
general  shout  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Romans, 
but  prevailed  amongst  tne  Trojans  according  to 
Homer,  amongst  the  Germans,  the  Gauls,  Mace- 
donians, and  Persians.    See  Classicvm. 

BARROS  (John  de),  a  celebrated  Portuguese 
historian,  bom  at  Visere,  in  1 496.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  die  court  of  king  Emanuel,  among  the 
princes  of  the  blood,  and  made  a  great  progress 
m  Greek  and  Latin.  The  iofont  John,  to  whom 
he  attached  himself,  and  became  preceptor, 
having  succeeded  the  king  his  &ther,  in  1521, 
Barros  obtained  a  place  in  this  prince's  house- 
hold ;  and  in  1522  was  made  governor  of  St. 
George  del  Mina,  on  the  coast  of  Guinea.  The 
king,  having  recalled  him  to  court  three  yeais 
after,  made  him  treasurer  of  the  Indies,  and  this 
post  inspired  him  with  the  thought  of  writing 
this  history;  for  which  purpose  he  retired  to 
Pombal,  where  he  died  in  1570.  His  history  of 
Asia  and  the  Indies  is  divided  into  decades ;  the 
first  of  which  he  published  in  1552,  the  second 
in  1553,  and  the  third  in  1563;  but  the  fourth 
decade  was  not  published  till  1615,  when  it  ap- 
peared by  order  of  Philip  III.  who  purchased 
the  MS.  Several  authors  have  continued  it,  so 
that  we  have  at  present  twelve  decades.  He 
left  many  other  worics. 

BARROW,  n.  i.  hepe\>e,  Sax.  supposed  by 
Skinner  to  come  ftombear;  any  kind  of  carriage 
moved  by  the  hand ;  as  a  hand-barrow,  a  ftame 
of  boards,  with  handles  at  each  end,  carried  be- 
tween two  men;  a  wheeL-barroWf  that  which  one 
man  poshes  forward  by  raising  on  one  wheel. 

Have  I  lived  to  he  carried  in  ahasket,  like  a  barrow 
of  batcher's  oSal,  and  thrown  into  the  Thames. 


No  banou^i  wheel 
Shall  mark  thy  stocking  with  a  miry  trace.       (Tay 

Ba'rrow,  n.  t.  bepx-  Sax.  a  hog;  whence 
barrow  grease,  or  hog's  lard. 

'  His  life  was  like  a  barrow  hogge. 
That  liveth  many  a  day. 
Yet  never  once  doUi  any  good. 
Until  men  will  him  slay. 

.  TheJowof  KeiMM,  m  Pergr. 

And  therefore  take  my  words  thos,  that  1  mean  no 
other  swine  but  soch  as  tfkA  and  root  in  the  field : 
among  which  the  female,  especially  a  gnelt  that  never 
Arrowed,  is  more  effectoal  than  a  (tame)  bore,  barrow 
hog,  or  a  breeding  sow.  HoUand't  P/tme. 

Barrow,  whether  in  the  beginning  or  end  of 
names  of  places,  signifies  a  grove ;  from  bea|i|»e, 
which  the  Saxons  used  in  the  same  sense.  Gib$on, 

Barrow  is  likewise  used  in  Cornwall  for  a 


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hilkiolc,  under  ivhicb,  in  old  times,  bodies  hare 
been  buried.    See  Barrows. 

Barrow,  a  river  of  Ireland,  wbicb  rises  in 
Queen's  county,  and  passing  by  Port-Arlington, 
Monastereven,  Atby,  Carlow,  &c.  is  joined  by 
the  Nore  before  it  arrives  at  Ross,  after  which, 
continuing  south,  it  joins  the  Suir  in  Waterford 
Haven.  ^ 

Babrow,  a  river  of  Westmoreland,  which 
runs  into  the  Burbeck,  near  Howse-house. 

Barrow  Tlsaac),  an  eminent  mathematician 
and  divine,  oi  the  last  centuiy,  was  the  son  of  Mr. 
Thomas  Barrow,  a  linen^raper  in  London,  where 
he  was  bom  in  1630.  He  was  at  first  placed  at 
the  charter-house  school  for  two  or  three  years; 
where  his  behaviour  aflforded  but  little  hopes 
of  success  in  the  profession  of  a  scholar,  out 
being  removed  thence  his  disposition  took  a 
happier  turn ;  and  having  soon  n^e  a  suffi- 
cient progress  in  learning,  he  was  admitted  a 
pensioner  of  Peter  House,  Cambridge.  He  now 
applied  himself  with  great  diligence  to  the  study 
of  ail  brandies  of  literature,  especially  that  of 
natural  philosophy.^  He  afterwards  turned  his 
attention  to  physic,  and  made  a  considerable 
progress  in  anatomy,  botany,  and  chemistry; 
after  which  he  studied  chronology,  astronomy, 
and  geometry.  He  then  travelled  mto  France 
and  Italy,  ind  in  a  voyage,  from  Leghorn  to 
Smyrna,  the  ship  being  atta^ed  by  an  Algerine 
pirate,  he  staid  upon  deck,  and  with  the  greatest 
intrepidity,  worktd  the  guns,  till  the  pirate,  per- 
ceiving the  stout  resistance  the  snip  made, 
sheer^  ofi*  and  left  her.  At  Smyrna  he  met 
with  a  most  kind  reception  from  Mr.  Bretton, 
the  English  consul,  upon  whose  death  he  after- 
wards wrote  a  laitm  elegy.  From  thence  he 
proceeded  to  Constantinople,  wiieie  he  received 
similar  civilities  from  Sir  Thomas  Bendish  the 
English  ambassador,  and  Sir  Jonathan  Dawes, 
with  whom  he  afterwards  preserved  an  intimate 
friendship.  At  Constantinople  he  read  the  works 
of  St.  Chrysostom,  once  bishop  of  that  see,  whom 
he  preferred  to  all  the  other  fathers,  and  about 
a  year  after  he  returned  to  Venice.  From  thence 
he  came  home  in  1659,  through  Germany  and 
Holland ;  and  was  ordained  by  bishop  Brovmrig. 
In  1660  he  was  chosen  to  the  Greek  professorship 
at  Cambridge,  and  gave  lectures  upon  Aristotle's 
rhetoric.  In  1662  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
geometry  in  Gresham  cofiege,  and  in  1603 
elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  in  the  first 
choice  made  by  the  council  after  their  charter. 
The  same  year  he  vras  chosen  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Cambridge,  and  resigned  his  professor- 
ship  of  Gresham  college.  In  1669  he  resigned 
his  mathematical  chair  to  his  learned  Mend 
Isaac  Newton,  being  determined  to  give  up  the 
study  of  mathematics  for  that  of  divinity..  Upon 
quitting  his  profenorship,  he  was  only  a  fellow 
of  Trinity  college,  till  his  uncle  gave  him  a  small 
sinecure  in  Wales,  and  Dr.  Seth  Ward,  bishop 
of  Salisbury  conferred  upon  him  a  prebend  in 
his  church.  In  1670  he  was  created  D.  D.  by 
mandate;  and,  upon  the  promotion  of  Dr.  Pear- 
son, master  of  Trinity  college,  to  Ae  see  of 
Chester,  he  vras  appointed  to  succeed  him  l>y  the 
king's  patent,  dated  the  13th  of  February,  1672. 
When  the  king  adyanoed  him  to  this  dignity,  he 


said,  *  he  had  given  it  to  the  best  scholar  in  Eng- 
land.' In  1675  he  was  raised  to  be  vice-chancd- 
lor  of  the  university.  He  died  on  the  4th  of  May, 
1677,  in  the  forty-seventh  year  of  his  age,  and 
was  interred  in  Westminster  abbey,  where  a 
monument  adorned  with  his  bust  was  soon  after 
erected.  Among  other  instances  of  his  wit  and 
vivacity,  is  related  the  following  rencontre  be- 
tween him  and  the  Celebrated  I^rd  Rochester. 
These  two  meeting  one  day  at  the  court,  while  the 
doctor  vnis  king*s  chaplain  in  ordinary,  Rodies- 
ter,  thinking  to  banter  him,  vridi  a  ^ppant  air, 
and  a  low  formal  bow,  accosted  him  witn, '  Doc- 
tor, I  am  yours  to  my  shoe-tie  f  Barrow,  per- 
ceiving his  drift,  and  determined  upon  defenain| 
himself,  returned  the  salute,  with,  *  My  lord,  I 
am  yours  to  the  ground.'  Rochester,  on  this, 
improving  his  blow,  returned  it  with,  <  Doctor,  I 
am  yours  to  the  centre  ;*  which  was  as  smartly 
followed  up  by  Barrow,  with,  '  My  lord,  I  am 
yours  to  the  antipodes.*  Upon  whidi,  Roches- 
ter, disdaining  to  be  foiled  by  a  musty  old  piece 
of  divinity,  as  he  used  to  call  him,  exclaimed, 
*  Doctor,  I  am  yours  to  the  lowest  pit  of  hell  ;* 
upon  which,  Barrow  turning  upon  his  heel,  with 
a  sarcastic  smile,  archly  replied,  *  Itiere,  my  lord, 
I  leave  you.' 

Of  Dr.  Barrow's  numerous  works,  the  princi- 
pal are,  1.  Euclidis  Elementa,  8yo.  Cantab. 
1655.    2.   Euclidis  Data,  8vo.  Cantab.  1657. 

3.  Lectiones  Optics  XVIII.  4to.  Lond.  1669. 

4.  Lectiones  Geometries  XIII.  4to.  Lond.  1670. 

5.  Archimedis  Opera,  Apollonii  Conicorum, 
libri  IV;  Theodosii  Sphencorum,  lib.  III.  &c. 
4to.  Lond.  1675.  6.  Lectio,  in  ^uaTheoremata 
Archimedis  de  Sphsra  et  Cylmdro  eihibeo- 
tur,  12mo.  Lond.  1678.  7.  Mathematics 
Lectiones,  &c.  Lond.  1683.  8.  Theological 
Works  in  3  vols.  fol.  Lond.  1683,  published  by 
Tillotson.  9.  Isaaci  Barrow  Opuscula,  &c.  fol. 
Lond.  1687. 

Barrows,  in  ancitot  topography,  axtificiai 
hillocks  or  mounts,  met  witn  in  many  parts  of 
the  world,  intended  as  repositories  for  me  dead, 
and  formed  either  of  stones  heaped  up,  or  of 
earth.  For  the  former,  more  generally  known 
by  the  name  of  cairns,  see  Cairks.  Of  the  lat- 
ter Dr.  Plott  takes  notice  of  two  kinds  in  Oxford- 
shire :  one  placed  on  the  mHitary  ways ;  the  other 
in  the  fielos,  meadows,  or  woods ;  the  first  sort 
doubtless  of  Roman  ere^ion,  the  other  more 
probably  erected  by  the  Britons  or  Danes.  We 
nave  an  examination  of  the  barrows  in  Cornwall 
by  Dr.  Williams,  in  the  Phil.  Trana.  No.  458, 
from  which  we  find  that  they  are  generally  com- 
posed of  foreign  or  adventitious  earth ;  that  is, 
such  as  does  not  rise  on  ^  place,  bot  is  fetched 
from  some  distance.  Monuments  of  this  kind 
are  also  Tery  frequent  in  Scotland.  On  digging 
into  the  barrows,  nms  have  been  found  in  some 
of  them,  made  of  calcined  earth,  and  containiDg 
burnt  bones  and  ashes ;  in  others,  stosie  cheets 
containing  bones  entire ;  in  others,  bones  ncitbcr 
lodged  in  chests  nor  deposited  in  urns.*  Thtat 
tttmuU  are  round,  not  greatly  elevated,  and  ge- 
nerally at  their  basis  surrounded  with  a  Cms. 
They  areof  different  sires ;  in  proportion,  it  is  tup- 
posed,  to  the  greaitness,  rank,  and  power,  of  the 
deceased  pezson.    The  links  of  t^ail,  ia  Sand- 


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wick,  one  of  the  Orkneys,  abound  in  round 
barrows.    Some  are  fonned  of  earth  alone,  others 
of  stone  covered  with  earth.    In  the  former  was 
found  a  coffin,  made  of  six  flat  stones.    They 
are  too  short  to  receive  a  body  at  full  length : 
the  skeletons  found  in  them  lie  with  the  knees 
pressed  to  the  breast,  and  the  legs  doubled  along 
the  thighs.    A  bag,  made  of  rushes,  has  been 
found  at  the  feet  of  some  of  these  skeletons, 
containing  the  bones,  most  probably,  of  another 
of  the  family.    In  one  were  to  be  seen  mul- 
titudes of  small  beetles ;  and  as  similar  insects 
have  been  discovered  in  the  bag  which  enclosed 
the  sacred  ibis,  we  may  suppose  that  the  Egyp* 
tians,  and  the  nation  to  whom  these  tumuli  be- 
longed, might  have  had  the  same  superstition 
respecting  them.    On  some  of  the  corpses  in- 
terred in  this  island  marks  of  burning  were  ob- 
served.   The  ashes  deposited  in  an  urn,  which 
was  covered  on  the  top  with  a  flat  stone,  have 
been  found  in  the  cell  of  ooe  of  the  barrows. 
This  coffin  or  cell  was  placed  on  the  ground, 
then  covered  with  a  heap  of  stones,  and  that 
again  cased  with  earth  and  sods.    Both  barrow 
and  contents  evince  them  to  be  of  a  different  age 
from  the  former.    Thtise  tumuli  were  in  the 
nature  of  family  vaults:  in  them  have  been 
found  two  tiers  of  coffins.    It  is  probable,  that 
on  the  death  of  any  one  of  the  ramily,  the  tu- 
mulus was  opened,  and  the  body  interred  near  its 
kindred  bones.     Ancient  Greece  and  Latium 
!     concurred  in  the  same  practice  with  the  natives 
!     of  this  island.    Patroclus  among  the  Greeks, 
[     and  Hector  among  the  Trojans,  received  but  the 
same  funeral  honors  with  our  Caledonian  heroes; 
and  the  ashes  of  Dercennus  the    I^urentine 
monarch  had  the  same  simple  protection.    The 
urn  and  pall  of  the  Trojan  warrior  might  per- 
haps be  more  superb  than  tliose  of  a  Bntisk 
;     leader :  the  rising  monument  of  each  had  the 
common  materials  from  our  mother  earth.    See 
Homer's  Iliad,  xxiv.  1003.    The  Grecian  bar- 
,     rows,  however,  do  not  seem  to  have  been  all 
:     equally  sim|)le.    '^e  barrow  of  Alyattes,  &ther 
of  Croesus  king  of  Lydia,  is  descrifcled  by  Hero- 
dotus as  a  most  superb  monument,  inferior  only 
to  the  works  of  the  Egyptians  and  Babylonians. 
It  was  a  vast  mound  of  earth  heaped  on  a  base- 
ment of  large  stones  by  three  classes  of  the 
people :  one  of  which  was  composed  of  girls, 
who  were  prostitutes.    Alyattes  died,  after  a  long 
leign,  A.A.C.  563.    Above  a  century  inter- 
vened, but  the  historian  relates,  that  to  his  time 
five  stones  (spoc  termini  or  stelae)  on  which  let- 
ters were  engraved,  had  remained  on  the  top, 
recording  what  each  dafis  had  performed ;  and 
from  the  measurement  it  appeared,  that  the 
greater  portion  was  done  by  the  girls.    Strabo 
likewise  has  mentioned  it  as  a  huge  mound, 
raised  on  a  lofty  basement  by  the  multitude  of 
the  city.    The.  circumference  was  six  stadia  or 
three  quarters  of  a  mile ;  the  height  two  ple- 
thra  or  200  feet ;  and  the  width  thirteen  pletnra. 
It  was  customary  among  the  Greeks  to  place  on 
barrows,  either  the  image  of  some  animal  or 
stelae,  jommonly  round  pillars  with  inscriptions. 
The  &mous  barrow  of  the  Athenians  in  the  plain 
of  Marathon,  described  by  Pausanias,  is  an  in- 
stance of  the  latter  usage.    An  ancient  monu- 


ment in  Italy,  by  the  Appian  way,  called  the 
sepulchre  of  the  Curiatii,  has  the  same  number 
of  termini  as  remained  on  the  barrow  of  Alyattes, 
the  basement  which  is  square,  supporting  five 
round  pyramids.  Of  the  barrow  of  Alyattes, 
the  apparent  magnitude  is  described  by  travellers 
as  now  much  diminished,  and  the  bottom  ren- 
dered wider  and  less  distinct  than  before,  by  the 
gradual  increase  of  the  soil  below.  It  stands  in 
the  midst  jof  others  by  the  lake  Gygaeus ;  where 
the  burying  place  of  the  Lydian  princes  was 
situated.  The  barrows  are  of  various  sizes, 
the  smaller  made  perhaps  for  children  of  the 
younger  branches  ot  the  royal  &mily.  Four  or 
five  are  distinguished  by  their  superior  magni- 
tude, and  are  visible  as  kills  at  a  great  distance. 
That  of  Alyattes  is  greatly  supererainent  All 
of  them  are  covered  with  green  turf,  and  retain 
their  conical  form  without  any  sinking  in  ctf  the 
top. 

3aekows,  American.  Barrows  are  also 
found  in  great  numbers  in  America.  These  are  of 
different  sizes,  according  to  Mr.  Jefferson ;  some 
of  them  constructed  of  earth,  and  some  of  loose 
stones.  That  they  were  repositories  of  the  dead 
is  obvious ;  but  on  what  particular  occasion  con- 
structed, b  matter  of  douM.  Some  have  thought 
they  covered  the  bones  of  those  who  have  fallen 
in  battles,  fought  on  the  spot  of  interment 
Some  ascribed  them  to  the  custom  said  to  pre- 
vail among  the  Indians,  of  collecting,  at  certain 
periods,  the  bones  of  all  their  dead,  wheresoever 
deposited  at  the  time  of  death.  Others  again 
supposed  them  the  general  sepulchres  for  towns, 
conjectured  to  have  been  on  or  near  these 
grounds;  and  this  opinion  was  supported  by 
Sie  quality  of  the  lanos  in  which  they  are  found 
(those  constructed  of  earth  being  generally  in  the 
softest  and  most  fertile  meadow  grounds  on  river 
sides\  and  by  a  tradition  said  to  be  handed 
down  from  the  aboriginal  Indians,  that  when 
they  settled  in  a  town,  the  first  person  who  died 
was  placed  erect,  and  earth  put  about  him,  so  as 
to  cover  and  support  him;  that  when  another 
died,  a  narrow  passage  was  dug  to  the  first,  the 
second  reclined  against  him,  and  the  cover  of 
earth  repkiced,  and  so  on.  '  There  being  one  of 
these  barrows  in  my  neighbourfaood  (says  Mr. 
Jefferson),  I  vrished  to  satisfy  myself  whether 
any,  ana  which,  of  these  opmions  were  iust. 
For  this  purpose  I  determined  to  open  and  ex- 
amine it  thoroughly.  It  was  situated  on  the  low 
grounds  of  the  Rivanna,  about  two  miles  above  its 
principal  fbric,  and  opposite  to  some  hills,  on 
which  bad  been  an  Inaian  town.  It  was  of  a 
spheroidical  form,  of  about  forty  f^et  diameter 
at  the  base,  and  had.  been  of  about  twelve  feet 
altitude,  though  now  reduced  by  the  plough  to 
7|,  having  been  under  cultivation  about  a  dozen 
years,  l&ore  this  it  was  covered  with  trees  of 
twelve  inches  diameter,  and  round  the  base  was 
an  excavation  of  five  feet  depth  and  width, 
whence  the  earth  had  been  taken  of  which  the 
hillock  was  formed.  I  first  dug  superficially  in 
several  parts  of  it,  and  came  to  collections  oi 
human  bones,  at  different  depths,  from  six  inches 
to  three  feet  below  the  surface.  These  were  lying 
in  the  utmost  confusion,  some  vertical,  some  ob- 
lique, some  horiiontal,  and  directed  to  eveiry 


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point  of  the  compass,  entangled,  and  beld  to- 
gether in  clusters,  by  the  earth.  Bones  of  the 
most  distant  parts  were  found  together ;  as,  for 
instance,  the  small  bones  of  the  foot  in  the  hol- 
low of  a  skull,  many  skulls  would  sometimes  be 
in  contact,  lying  on  the  face,  on  the  side,  on  the 
back,  top  or  bottom,  so  as  on  the  whole  to  give 
the  idea  of  bones  emptied  promiscuously  from  a 
bag  or  basket,  and  covered  over  with  earth, 
wiUiout  any  attention  to  their  order.  The  bones 
of  which  &e  greatest  numbers  remained,  were 
skulls,  jaw-bones,  teeth,  the  bones  of  the  arms, 
thighs,  legs,  fee^  and  hands.  A  few  ribs  re- 
mained, some  vertebrffi  of  the  neck  and  spine, 
without  their  processes,  and  one  Instance  only  of 
the  bone  which  serves  as  a  base  to  the  vertebral 
column.  The  skulls  were  so  tender,  that  they 
generally  fell  to  pieces  on  being  touched.  The 
other  bones  were  stronger.  There  were  some 
teeth  which  were  judged  to  be  smaller  than  those 
of  an  adult ;  a  skull  which,  on  a  slight  view,  ap- 
peared to  be  that  of  an  infant,  but  it  fell  to 
pieces  on  being  taken  out,  so  as  to  prevent  satis- 
factory examination ;  a  rib,  and  a  fragment  of 
the  under  jaw  of  a  person  about  half  grown ; 
another  rib  of  an  infant ;  and  part  of  the  jaw  of 
a  child,  which  had  not  yet  cut  its  teeth.  This 
last  furnishing  the  most  decisive  proof  of  the 
burial  of  children  here,  I  was  particular  in  my 
attention  to  it.  It  was  part  of  the  right  half  of 
the  under  jaw.  The  processes  by  which  it  was 
articulated  to  the  temporal  bones  were  entire ; 
and  the  bone  itself  firm  to  where  it  had  been 
broken  off,  which,  as  nearly  as  I  could  judge, 
was  about  the  place  of  the  eye-tooth,  its  upper 
edge,  wherein  would  have  been  the  sockets  of 
the  teeth,  was  perfectly  smooth.  Measuring  it 
with  that  of  an  adult,  by  placing  their  hinder 
processes  together,  its  broken  end  extended  to  the 
penultimate  grinder  of  the  adult.  This  bone 
was  white,  all  the  others  of  a  sand  color.  The 
bones  of  in&nts  being  soft,  they  probably  decay 
sooner,  which  might  be  the  cause  so  few  were 
found  here,  I  proceeded  then  to  make  d  perpen- 
dicular cut  through  the  body  of  the  barrow,  that 
I  might  examine  its  external  structure.  This 
passed  about  three  feet  from  its  centre,  was 
opened  to  the  former  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
was  wide  enough  for  a  man  to  walk  through  and 
examine  its  sides.  At  the  bottom,  that  is,  on-  the 
level  of  the  circumjacent  plain,  I  found  bones ; 
above  these  a  few  stones,  brought  from  a  cHff  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  off,  and  from  the  river  one 
eighth  of  a  mile  off;  then  a  large  interval  of 
earth,  then  a  stratum  of  bones,  and  so  on.  At 
one  end  of  the  section  were  four  strata  of  bones 
plainly  distinguishable  :  at  the  other,  three;  the 
strata  in  one  part  not  ranging  witli  those  in 
another.  The  bones  nearest  Sie  surface  were 
least  decayed.  No  holes  were  discovered  in  any 
of  them,  as  if  made  with  bullets,  arrows,  or  other 
weapons.  I  conjectured  that  in  this  barrow  might 
have  been  1000 skeletons.  Everyone  will  readily 
seize  the  circumstances  above  related,  which 
militate  against  the  opinion  that  it  covered  the 
bones  only  of  persons  fallen  in  battle;  and 
against  the  tradition  also  which  would  make  it 
the  common  sepulchre  of  a  town,  in  which  the 
bodies  were  placed  upright,  and  touching  each 


other.  Appearances  certainly  indicate  that  it 
derived  both  origin  and  growth  from  the  ac- 
custoirary  collection  of  bones,  and  deposition 
of  them  together ;  that  die  first  collection  had 
been  deposited  on  the  common  surface  of  the 
earth,  a  few  stones  put  over  it,  and  then  a  co- 
vering of  earth ;  that  the  second  had  been  laid 
on  this,  had  covered  more  or  less  of  it  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  bones,  and  was  then 
also  covered  with  earth,  and  so  on.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  particular  circumstances  which 
give  it  this  aspect.  1.  The  number  of  bones. 
2.  Their  confused  position.  3.  Their  being  in 
different  strata.  4.  The  strata  in  one  part  baring 
no  correspondence  with  those  in  another.  5.  The 
different  states  of  decay  in  these  strata,  whid 
seem  to  indicate  a  difference  in  the  time  of  in- 
humation. 6.  The  existence  of  infant  bones 
among  them.  But  on  whatever  occasion  tbey 
may  have  been  made,  they  are  of  considerable 
notoriety  among  the  Indians:  for  a  party  passing, 
about  thirty  years  ago,  through  the  part  of  the 
country  where  this  barrow  is,  went  torongfa  the 
woods  directly  to  it,  without  any  instructions  or 
enquiry ;  and  having  staid  about  it  some  time, 
vnth  expressions  which  were  construed  to  be 
those  of  sorrow,  they  returned  to  the  high  road, 
which  they  had  left  about  half  a  dozra  miles  to 
pay  this  visit,  and  pursued  their  journey.  There  is 
another  barrow,  much  resembling  this  io  the  low 
grounds  of  the  south  branch  of  the  Shenandoah, 
where  it  is  crossed  by  the  road  leading  from  the 
Rockfish  gap  to  Staunton.  Both  of  mese  hare, 
within  these  dozen  years,  been  cleared  of  their 
trees  and  put  under  cultivation,  are  much  re- 
duced in  their  height,  and  spread  in  width,  bj 
the  plough,  and  will  probably  disappear  in  time. 
There  is  another  on  a  hill  in  the  Blue  ridge  d 
mountains,  a  few  miles  north  of  Wood's  gap, 
which  is  made  up  of  small  stones  thrown  to- 
gether; This  has  been  opened  and  found  to 
contain  human  bones  as  the  others  do.  There 
are  also  many  others  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.'  In  South  Africa,  to  the  north  of  the 
Hottentots,  innumerable  barrows  are  described 
to  have  been  seen  by  Dr.  Sparrow,  (Travels  ii. 
264.)  In  New  Caledonia,  also,  Mr.  Foster  met  with 
a  barrow  four  feet  high,  surrounded  by  an  en- 
closure of  stakes.  But  the  most  recent  disco- 
veries of  the  kind,  in  countries  removed  fro's 
all  intercourse  with  Europe,  have  been  made 
by  Mr.  Oxley  during  his  expedition  into  the  in- 
terior of  New  South  Wales,  in  1817-18.  On 
his  return,  he  passed  two  native  burial  places. 
The  first  presented  a  raised  mound  of  earth, 
under  whicn  were  some  ashes ;  but  there  was  no 
decisive  proof  whether  they  were  from  wood  or 
bones.  A  semicircular  trench  was  dog  round 
one  side  of  the  barrow,  as  if  designed  to  afford 
seats  for  persons  in  attendance.  l%e  secood 
appeared  not  to  have  been  constructed  more  than 
a  year  or  two ;  and,  from  the  care  displaced  in 
it,  evidently  belonged  to  some  personage  of  dis- 
tinction. The  form  of  the  whole  was  semicir- 
cular. Three  rows  of  seats  occupied  one  half; 
the  grave  and  an  outer  row  of  seats  the  od^. 
Tlie  seats  formed  segments  of  circles  of  fifom 
forty  to  fifty  feet,  and  were  raised  b|f  the  soil 
being  trendied  up  between  them.    The  grare 


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was  shaped  into  an  oblong  cone,  five  feet 
high  and  nine  long.  On  opening  this  barrow,  a 
.ayer  of  wood  presented  itself,  about  two  feet 
aeneath  the  surace,  forming  a  sort  of  arch,  which 
supported  the  upper  cone.  Beneath  this  were 
placed  several  sheets  of  dry  bark ;  then  dry  grass 
and  leaves,  to  which  no  damp  had  ever  pene- 
trated. The  body,  which  was  fresh  enough  to 
be  extremely  offensive,  was  deposited,  at  the 
depth  of  four  feet,  in  an  oval  grave,  as  many 
feet  long,  and  about  two  feet  broad.  The  legs 
were  bent  quite  up  to  the  head,  and  the  arms 
were  placed  between  the  thighs.  The  fiice  was 
downwards.  The  direction  of  the  corpse  was 
east  and  west,  the  head  being  to  the  east.  The 
body  was  carefully  wrapped  in  a  great  number 
of  opossum  skins.  The  head  was  bound  round 
by  the  common  -net  and  girdle  of  the  natives. 
Over  the  whole  was  si  larger  net.  Two  cypress 
trees  were  to  the  west  and  north  of  this  barrow, 
distant  about  fifty  feet.  The  sides  of  them  to- 
wards the  sepulchre  were  barked,  and  curious 
characters  were  deeply  engraven  in  them. 

Barrow,  Little,  a  river  of  Ireland,  which 
&IIs  into  the  Barrow,  about  four  miles  east  of 
Portarlington. 

Barrow,  Poutt,  a  cape  on  the  south  coast 
of  Ireland,  in  the  coun^  of  Cork,  five  miles 
east  of  Kinsale.  Long.  8°  21'  W.,  lat.  51* 
43'  N. 

Barrow's  Strait,  a  considerable  strait  of  the 
Northern  Ocean*  so  named  by  Captain  Parry,  in 
one  of  his  voyages,  in  honor  of  Mr.  Barrow  of 
the  admiralty. 

Barrow  upon  Soar,  a  village  in  Leicester- 
shire ;  the  birth  place  of  bishop  Beveridge.  It 
is  celebrated  for  producing  a  hard  blue  stone, 
which,  when  calcined,  makes  a  lime  fit  for  a 
strong  cement,  and  adapted  to  all  works  under 
water.  The  Barrow  blue  stone  was  conveyed  to 
Kamsgate  for  the  building  of  the  piei  and  was 
found  to  succeed,  after  the  Dutch  tarras  mortar 
had  fiiUed. 

Barrows,  in  the  salt  works,  are  wicker  cases, 
almost  in  the  shape  of  a  sugar  loaf,  wherein  the 
salt  is  put  to  drain. 

BARRSTOBRICK,  a  rocky  moorish  hill,  in 
the  county  of  Kirkcudbright  and  parish  of  Tong- 
land,  where  the  unfortunate  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  rested  and  refreshed  herself  with  a  few 
feithful  friends,  in  1568,  after  the  fatal  battle  of 
Langfide;  on  her  way  to  the  Abbey  of  Dun- 
di«nnan.  From  this  circumstance  tiie  farm  on 
that  part  of  Barrstobrick  has  ever  since  been 
called  Queen's  Hill. 

BARRU£L(Augustin),  a  French  ecclesiastic, 
and  a  literary  man  of  some  eminence  during  the 
French  revolution,  commenced  his  career  in  1774, 
with  an  ode  on  the  accession  of  Louis  XVI. 
Soon  after  he  united  with  Freron  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  Aun^e  Litteraire.  In  1788  he 
became  editor  of  Le  Journal  Ecclesiastique, 
which  he  carried  on  till  July  1792.  In  1794  he 
had  escaped,  from  the  opposition  his  sentiments 
encountered  in  Paris,  to  England,  and  published 
his  History  of  the  French  Clergy  during  the  Re- 
volution. In  1796  appeared  the  first  two  volumes 
of  the  work  by  whicn  he  is  best  known,  Memoirs 
for  a  History  of  Jacobinism,  Impiety,  and  Anar- 
chy, the  remaining  part  of  which  followed  some 


years  after.  Thou^  an  exaggerated  production, 
it  supplies  many  facts  not  otherwise  to  be  found 
recorded.  He  returned  to  France  in  1802,  and 
did  Oct  5, 1820,  at  the  age  of  seventy-nine. 

'BARRULET,  in  heraldry,  the  fourth  part  of 
the  bar,  or  the  one  half  of  the  closset,  an  usual 
bearing  in  coat-armour. 

BARRULY,  in  heraldry,  b  When  the  field  is 
divided  bar-ways,  that  is,  across  from  side  to 
side,  into  several  parts. 

BARRY  (James),  a  celebrated  painter,  was 
bom  at  Cork  on  the  1 1th  of  October,  1741  /  His 
father's  occupation  was  that  of  a  coasting-trader, 
and,  anxious  to  engage  his  son  in  the  same  busi- 
ness, he  carried  him  along  with  him  in  several 
voyages.  The  mind  of  Barry^  however,  averse  to 
such  an  employment  of  his  t^ents,  was  engaged 
at  all  leisure  moments  in  sketching  and  drawing ; 
and  his  fiither,  perceiving  the  impossibility  of  fix- 
ing his  choice  in  a  seafaring  profession,  allowed 
him  at  last  to  pursue  the  natural  bias  of  his  dis- 
position. His  eager  thirst  of  knowledge,  and 
his  persevering  industry  in  acquiring  it,  now 
excited  the  admiration  of  all  his  acquaintance, 
and  carried  him  forward  to  improvement  and 
information  far  beyond  his  years.  He  read  all 
the  books  that  his  slender  finances  could  com- 
mand, or  the  kindness  of  his  friends  su(>plied; 
and  his  unwearied  diligence  allowed  him  no 
time  for  frivolous  amusement,  and  little  for  re- 
pose. But  he  devoted  a  part  of  every  day  to  the 
exercise  of  his  pencil,  and  at  a  very  earl^  age 
furnished  designs  for  a  volume  of  fables,  prmtd 
by  an  Irish  bookseller.  He  was  seventeen  years  old 
when  he  attempted  oil  painting;  but  his  progress 
in  this  first  art  must  have  been  extremely  rapid, 
and  his  execution  of  individual  pieces  uncom- 
monly quick,  since  we  find  him  in  less  than  five 
years  not  only  finishing  several  large  paintings, 
but  producing  that  work  which  drew  nim  from 
theobscurity  of  a  provincial  town,  and  gave  him  a 
high  place  among  the  artists  of  his  country.  The 
subiect  that  he  chose  for  Htns  picture  was  an  old 
thiditionary  story  concerning  tne  arrival  of  Saint 
Patrick  in  Ireland;  and  as  soon  as  he  had 
finished  it  he  set  out  with  it  for  Dublin.  With- 
out acquaintance  or  recommendation  of  any 
kind,  he  obtained  leave  to  expose  his  piece  in  an 
exhibition  of  paintings,  whicn  was  just  opening 
upon  his  arrival,  and  had  the  happiness  to  see 
it  marked  out  by  public  approbation  and  ap- 
plause. He  shortly  after  was  introduced  to  the 
acquaintance,  and  soon  obtained  the  friendship, 
of  Burke.  With  that  great  man  he  repaired 
to  London,  as  p  better  field  for  the  display  of  his 
talents,  and,  under  his  patronage,  was  introduced 
to  several  artists  of  eminence.  The  talents  of  Mr. 
Barry  were  here  universally  acknowledged  to  be 
great ;  but  in  proportion  as  nature  had  been  libe- 
ral, his  friends  and  himself  felt  the  importance 
of  seconding  her  views,  by  embracing  every  at- 
tainable opportunity  of  improving  her  gifts.  The 
most  important  part  of  a  painter's  education 
having  for  a  long  time  been  considered  to  be  a 
short  residence  in  Rome,  Bany,  was  enabled 
to  visit,  by  the  assistance  of  the  Burkes,  that  seat 
of  the  arts.  There  he  remained  neariy  five  years, 
engaged  in  the  deepest  researches  on  the  princi- 
ples of  his  art,  and  in  the  most  laborious  exami- 
nation of  its  noblest  specimens.   For  three  years. 


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he  mentions  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,' 
he  was  so  completely  occupied  in  studying^  the 
inimitable  mooels  of  perfection  bestowed  upon 
the  world  by  the  genius  of  Michael  Angelo,  Ka- 
phael,  Titian,  Guido,  and  other  celebrated  masters, 
that  he  could  not  spare  two  hours  for  any  other 
employment.  Nor  was  any  of  this  portion  of 
his  time  spent  in  copying  them, — ^it  was  entirely 
devoted  to  a  minute  and  critical  examination  of 
their  pecul^  manner  and  characteristic  excel- 
lencies. In  1771  he  returned  to  his  native 
country,  and  soon  displayed  the  extent  of  his 
powers,  and  the  improvement  of  his  taste,  in  se- 
veral masterly  app^s  to  public  admiration.  His 
first  was  aVentis,  in  wtuch  he  embodied  an 
amazing  assemblage  of  beauty  and  grace.  The 
subject  he  chose  for  the  following  year  was  like- 
wise mythological,  being  a  representation  of  Ju- 
piter and  Juno  on  Mount  Ida.  But  Mr.  Barry's 
chief  object  of  ambition  was  to  be  employed  in 
some  national  work,  which  should  raise  the  cha- 
racter of  his  country,  while  it  should  confer  per- 
manent reputation  on  his  own  name.  He  nad 
beheld  at  Rome  the  works  of  Raphael  and 
Midiael  Angelo  on  the  walls  of  the  Vatican,  and 
he  saw  what  splendor  magnificent  edifices,  and 
noble  designs  m  painting,  mutually  diffused  over 
each  other.  He  therefore  concurred  with  ala- 
crity in  a  proposal  made  to  decorate  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Paurs  with  paintings,  and  offered  his 
services  as  one  of  the  artists.  But  this  design  was 
reliquished,  owiugto  the  opposition  of  the  primate 
and  the  bishop  of  London.  A  proposal  that  was 
made  soon  anerwards  to  Barry  and  his  brother 
artists,  to  decorate  the  great  hall  of  the  Society 
of  Arts  with  historical  and  allegorical  paintings, 
failed,  to  his  great  mortification,  like  the  former. 
Bent  on  his  great  object,  he  offered  to  execute 
this  work  by  hinuelf,  and  the  only  condition  that 
he  stipulated  for  was,  that  he  nught  be  allowed 
to  proceed  to  the  end  of  his  designs  without  in- 
terference or  control.  The  condition  was  agreed 
to,  and  the  work  will  remain  a  lasting  monumen( 
of  his  fame.  We  have  not  space  in  this  short 
sketch  to  describe  his  beautiful  and  ingenious 
designs ;  we  must  therefore  refer  our  readers  to 
his  own  writings  for  their  details,  and  to  the  pic- 
tures themselves,  for  a  knowledge  of  the  feeling 
of  that  excellence;  to  which  his  own  description 
can  do  justice  no  more  than  that  of  others  can 
convey.  Dr.  Johnson  observed,  upon  seeing  them, 
that  they  displayed  a  grasp  of  mind  which  was 
nowhere  else  to  be  found.  This  great  work  was 
unproductive  of  emolument  to  the  author.  But 
the  society  voted  him  their  gora  medal,  250 
guineas  at  different  periods,  and  allowed  him 
Uie  profits  of  exhibitions,  which  amounted  to 
£500.  It  is  not  very  pleasing  to  follow  the 
artist  through  the  remaining  part  of  his  life. 
In  1777  he  was  made  a  Royal  Academician,  and 
in  1780  profiBSSor  of  painting  in  the  academy, 
which  situation  he  lost  in  1799,  in  consequence 
of  his  extreme  anxiety  to  induce  the  academy  to 
appropriate  the  receipts  of  the  eidiibitions  to  the 
formation  of  a  gallery  of  old  masters  for  the  xise 
of  the  pupils.  Soon  after,  the  earl  of  Buchan  set 
on  foot  a  subscription-  for  him,  which  amounted 
to  about  £1000.  Witfi  this  it  was  intended  to 
purchase  an  annuity  for  him,  when  he  was  seizol 
with  a  pleuritic  fever,  which  carried  him  off  on 


the  22d  of  February ,  1806,  aged  sizbr-five.  '  Mr. 
Bany,  as  an  artist,'  Mr.  Hazlett  has  well  said, 
'  as  a  writer,  and  a  man,  was  distinguished  by 

n  inequality  of  powers  and  extreme  contn- 
>ns  in  character.  He  was  gross  and  refined 
at  the  same  time;  violent  and  urbane;  sociable 
and  sullen ;  inflammable  and  inert ;  a^ent  and 
phlegmatic ;  relapsing  from  enthusiasm  into  in- 
dolence ;  irritable,  h^strong,  impatient  of  re- 
straint; captious  in  his  intercourse  with  his 
friends,  wavering  and  desultory  in  his  profession. 
In  his  personal  habits  he  was  careless  of  ap- 
pearances or  decency,  penurious,  slovenly, 
and  squalid.  He  regarded  nothing  but  his  im- 
pulses, confirmed  into  incorrigible  habits.  His 
pencil  was  under  no  control.  His  eye  and  his 
nand  seemed  to  receive  a  first  rude  impulse,  to 
which  he  gave  himself  up,  and  paid  no  regard 
to  any  thing  else.  The  strength  of  the  original 
impetus  only  drove  him  fiirther  from  his  object. 
His  genius  constandy  flew  off  in  tangents,  and 
came  in  contact  with  nature  only  at  salient  points. 
His  enthusiasm  and  vigor  were  exhausted  in 
the  conception;  the  execution  was  crude  and 
abortive.  His  writings  are  a  greater  acquisi- 
tion to  the  art  than  his  paintings.  The  powers 
of  conversation  were  what  he  most  excelled  in ; 
and  the  influence  which  he  exercised  in  this  way 
over  all  companies  where  he  came,  in  spite  of  die 
coarseness  ot  his  dress,  and  the  frequent  rude- 
ness of  his  manner,  was  great.  Tauke  him  for 
all  in  all,  he  was  a  man  of  whose  memory  it  is 
impossible  to  think  without  admiration  as  well 
as  regret.*  Towards  the  close  of  life  he  was 
doubttess  occasionally  deranged.  His  works 
are  collected  in  two  quaitq  volumes,  1809, 
of  which  his  Lectures  are  deemed  the  best 
part. 

Barrt  (Girald),  commonly  called  Giialdos 
Cambrensis,  Girald  of  Wales,  an  historian  and 
ecclesiastic  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  II.  and 
Richard  I.,  was  bom  at  the  casde  of  Manoibier, 
near  Pembroke,  A.  D.  1146.  By  his  mother  be 
was  decended  from  the  princes  of  South  Wales, 
and  his  fiither,  William  Barry,  was  one  of  the 
chief  men  of  that  principality.  Being  a  yoanger 
brother,  and  intended  for  the  church,  he  was  sent 
to  St.  David's,  and  educated  in  the  femilyof  bis 
uncle,  who  was  bishop  of  that  see.  He  admow- 
ledges,  in  his  history  of  his  own  life  and  acdons, 
that  in  his  youth  he  was  too  playful ;  but  being 
reproached  for  it  by  his  preceptors,  he  becanae  a 
very  hard  student,  and  excelled  all  his  scboo.* 
fellows.  When  he  was  about  twenty  years  of 
age  he  was  sent,  A.  D.  1166,  for  improvanent, 
to  the  university  of  Paris ;  where  he  continued 
five  years.  On  his  return  to  Britain  he  entered 
into  holy  orders,  and  obtained  several  benefices 
in  England  and  Wales.  Observing  that  his 
oountiymen  were  backward  in  paying  the  tithes 
of  wool  and  cheese,  which  he'was  afraid  would  in- 
volve them  in  eternal  ruin,  he  applied  to  Rkbard, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  was  appointed 
his  legate  in  Wales  for  rectifying  that  disorder. 
He  executed  his  commission  with  great  spirit ; 
excommunicating  aU  who  refused  to  save  their 
souls  by  surrendering  the  tithes  of  cheeie  and 
wool.  Not  satisfied  with  enricbing,  he  also  at^ 
tempted  to  reform,  the  clergy ;  and  i^rted  the 
archdeacon  of  Brecon,  for  the  nnpaidonable 


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crime  of  matrimony.  The  Door  old  man  refusing 
to  put  away  his  wife,  was  deprived  of  his  arcb^ 
deaconry ;  which  was  bestowed  upon  our  zealous 
legate.     Ilts  great  vigor  involved  kirn  in  many 

auarrels.  His  uncle,  the  Sishop  of  St.  David's, 
ying  A.D.  1176,  he  was  elected  his  successor 
by  the  chapter :  but  this  election  having  been 
made  contrary  to  the  inclination  of  Henry  II. 
he  did  not  insist  upon  it,  but  went  again  to 
Paris  to  prosecute  has  studies,  in  the  civil  and 
canon  law,  and  theology.  Having  spent  about 
four  years  at  Paris,  he  returned  to  St  David's, 
where  he  found  every  thing  in  confusion ;  and  the 
bishop  being  expelled  by  the  people,  Ke  was  ap- 
pointed adxninistrator  by  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  governed  the  diocese  in  that  capacity 
till  A.D.  1184,  when  he  was  restored.  About 
the  same  time  he  was  called  to  court  b^r  Henry 
the  Second,  appointed  one  of  his  chaplains,  and 
sent  into  Ireland  A.  D.  1185,  with  prince  John. 
By  this  prince  he  was  offered  the  united  bishop- 
rics of  Femes  and  Leighlin,  but  declined  them, 
and  employed  his  time  in  collecting  materials  for 
bis  Topography  of  Ireland,  and  his  hLstoiy  of  the 
conquest  of  that  island.  Having  finished  the 
former  work,  which  consisted  of  three  books,  he 
published  it  at  Oxford,  A.D.  1287,  in  the  follow- 
mg  curious  manner,  in  three  days.  On  the  first 
day  he  read  the  first  book  to  a  great  concourse  of 
people,  and  afterwards  entertained  all  the  poor 
of  tne  town;  on  the  second  day  he  read  the  se- 
cond, and  entertained  the  doctors  and  chief 
scholan ;  and  on  the  third  day  he  read  the  thiid 
book,  and  entertained  the  young  scholars,  sol- 
diers, and  burgesses.  'A  most  glorious  specta- 
cle 1'  says  he,  ^  which  revived  the  ancient  times 
cf  the  poets,  and  of  which  no  example  had  been 
seen  in  England.*  He  attended  Baldwin,  aroh- 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  in  his  progress  through 
Wales,  A.D.  1186,  m  preaching  a  croisade  for 
the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land;  in  which  he  teUs 
OS  he  was  tar  more  successful  than  the  primate ; 
and  that  the  people  were  prodigiously  affected 
with  his  Latin  sermons,  which  they  did  not  un- 
derstand, melting  even  to  tears,  and  coming  in 
crowds  to  take  the  cross.  Although  Henry  II. 
entertained  the  highest  opinion  of  his  abilities, 
he  never  advanced  him  to  any  higher  dignity  in 
the  church  on  account  of  his  relation  to  the 
roinces  of  Wales.  But  on  the  accession  of 
Richard  I.  A.  D.  1189,  his  prospects  of  prefisr- 
ment  became  better,  for  he  was  sent  for  by  that 
prince  into  Wales  to  preserve  the  peace  of  that 
countrv,  and  joined  in  commission  with  William 
Longchamp,  bishop  of  Ely,  as  one  of  the  regents 
of  the  kingdom.  He  did  not  however,  improve 
this  favorable  opportunity,  refusing  the  bishopric 
of  Bangor  in  A.  D.  1190,  and  that  of  Landaff  the 
year  after,  having  fixed  his  heart  on  the  see  of 
St  David's,  the  bishop  of  which  was  very  old  and 
infirm.  In  A.  D.  1192  the  sUte  of  public  affiurs 
and  the  course  of  interest  at  court  became  so  un- 
&Torable  to  our  author's  views,  that  he  deter- 
mined to  retire.  At  first  he  resolved  to  return 
to  Paris  to  prosecute  his  studies;  but  meeting 
with  difficulties  in  this,  he  went  to  Lincoln, 
wbere  William  de  Monte  read  lectures  in  theo- 
1^  with  great  applause.  Here  he  spent  about 
six  years  studying  divinity,  and  composing  vari- 


ous works.  The  see  of  St  David's,  wnich  had 
long  been  the  obiect  of  his  ambition,  now  be- 
came vacant,  (A.  D.  1 198)  and  brought  him  again 
upon  the  stage.  He  was  unanimously  elected  by 
the  chapter;  but  met  with  so  powerfiil  an  adver- 
sary in  Hubert,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  that  it 
involved  him  in  a  litigation  which  lasted  three 
years,  cost  him  three  journeys  to  Rome,  at  a 
great  expense,  and  in  which  he  was  at  last  de- 
feated, A.  D.  1203.  Soon  after,  be  retired  from 
the  world,  and  spent  the  last  seventeen  years  of 
his  life  in  a  studious  privacy,  composing  many 
books,  of  which  we  have  a  catalogue  in  the  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica.  ThatGirald  of  Wales  was  a 
man  of  uncommon  activity,  genius  ^d  learning, 
is  undeniable;  but  these  and  his  other  good 
qualities  were  much  tarnished  by  his  insuffera- 
ble vanity,  which  must  have  been  as  offensive  to 
his  contemporaries,  as  it  is  dbgusting  to  his 
readers. 

Barry  (James,  baron.  Santry),  was  also  a 
descendant  of  the  ancient  princes  of  Wales.  Be- 
iiig  bred  to  the  law,  he  was  appointed  king  s  ser*' 
jeant  for  Ireland  in  1629.  In  this  station  he 
was  noticed  by  Lord  Wentworth^  afterwards  earl 
of  Strafford,  who  promoted  him  to  be  second 
baron  of  Exchequer  in  1634.  Barry  was  not  un- 
grateful. In  1640,  when  the  Irish  parliament  pro* 
posed  sending  over  a  committee  to  impeadi  Lord 
Strafford,  he  did  his  utmost  to  oppose  the  mea- 
sure, though  his  efforts  proved  fruitless.  'During 
the  commotion  and  revolution  that  followed,  we 
hear  nothing  of  Mr.  Barry;  but  in  1660  he  was 
appointed  chairman  of  the  Convention,  which 
voted  for  the  restoration  of  monarchy ;  and  in  the 
end  of  that  year,  king  Charles  IL  showed  his 

3 union  of  bis  services,  by  appointittg  him  Lord 
hief  Justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  and  a  privv 
counsellor,  and  creating  him  a  peer  of  Ireland. 
He  did  not  live  to  see  a  third  revolution,  for  he 
died  in  1672. 

Barry,  a  hill  of  Scotland,  .in  Angusshire, 
three  miles  north  of  Belmont,  and  688  feet  in 
height.  Tradition  says,  that  queen  Guinever  or 
Vanora,  the  wife  of  Arthur  king  of  the  Britons, 
was  confined  upon  it,  after  having  been  taken 
prisoner  in  a  battle  between  that  prince  and  the 
Scots  and  Picts.  Dr.  Playiair  has  given  the  fol- 
lowing particular  account  of  this  hill.  'Barry-hill, 
the  supposed  place  of  Vanora's  confmement,  merits 
some  descriptiozu  It  is  one  of  the  Grampians, 
one  mile  and  a  half  north-east  of  Alyth.  It 
commands  an  extensive  view  of  Strathmore,  and 
of  several  remarkable  hills  in  the  Sidlaw  range> 
viz.  Dunsinnan,  Kinpumie,  Sidlaw,  Finhaven,  &c. 
all  of  which  might  have  been  anciently  used  as 
watch  towers,  or  places  of  defence.  History  in- 
forms us  that  the  Picts  kept  possession  of  Dun- 
barry,  and  the  adjacent  country,  from  a  remor^ 
period  to  the  ninth  century,  or  later ;  but  the 
precise  dates  of  their  settlement  in  these  parts, 
and  of  their  expulsion,  cannot  be  ascertained. 
The  hill  itself  is  of  an  oval  form.  lu  summit 
was  levelled  into  an  area  180  feet  long,  and  se- 
venty-two or  seventy-four  broad.  Around  the 
area  a  mound  of  earth  was  raised,  from  six 
to  eight  feet  high,  and  ten  to  twelve  broad 
at  top.  On  this  mound  a  wall  of  free  stone 
was  built  without  any  cement  whatever.    The 


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BARRY. 


foundatioii  of  the  wall  was  composed  of  rough 
granite,  and  still  remains.  It  is  of  the  same 
breadth  with  the  summit  of  the  mound ;  but 
the  height  of  the  wall  cannot  be  known ;  Gor- 
donis  estimate  of  it  is  extremely  erroneous. 
Among  the  ruins  there  are  several  pieces  of  vitri- 
fied stone;  but  these  yitriiications  must  have 
been  accidental,  as  they  are  few  and  inconsider- 
able. Along  the  west  and  north  borders  of  the 
area,  barracks,  or  huts,  were  built  of  dry  stone, 
and  sufficiently  sheltered  by  the  mound  and 
wall';  but  no  structures  of  this  sort  can  be  traced 
in  the  south  part  of  the  area.  As  the  north  and 
west  sides  of  the  hill  are  steep,  and  of  difficult 
access,  there  was  no  need  of  an  outer  ditch  in 
those  quarters :  but,  towards  the  south  and  east, 
where  the  hill  gently  slopes^  there  is  a  ditch  ten 
feet  broad,  and  from  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  below 
the  foundation  of  the  wall.  At  the  south-east 
extremity  of  the  fort,  a  narrow  bridge  was  raised 
over  the  ditch,  eighteen  feet  long,  and  two  broad, 
except  towards  each  end,  where  the  breadth  was 
increased.  It  was  composed  of  stones  laid  to- 
gether with  much  art  and  vitrified  above,  below, 
and  on  both  sides ;  so  that  the  whole  mass  was 
firmly  cemented.  That  an  opening  was  left 
below  after  the  process  was  finished  is  doubtful. 
On  the  upper  part  of  the  bridge  a  stratum  of  gra- 
vel was  laid,  to  render  the  passage  smooth  and  easy. 
This  is  the  sole  part  of  the  fort  intentionally  vitri- 
fied. A  few  yards  distant  from  the  ditch  there 
is  an  outer  wall,  the  foundation  of  which  is  about 
three  feet  lower  than  the  summit  of  the  mound. 
The  approach  to  the  fort  is  fit>m  the  north-east, 
along  the  verge  of  a  precipice;  and  the  entrance 
was  secured  by  a  bulwark  of  stone,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  extant  There  is  no  vestige  of  a  well 
within  the  fort;  but  westward,  between  the  basis 
of  the  mound  and  the  precipice,  there  was  a  deep 
pond  or  lake,  recently  fillea  up  by  the  tenants  in 
that  neighbourhood.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
eastward,  on  the  declivity  of  the  hill,  there  are 
some  remains  of  another  oval  fort,  of  less  extent 
than  the  preceding,  consisting  of  a  strong  wall 
and  ditch.  Tradition  says,  that  there  was  a  sub- 
terranean communication  between  these  forts, 
which  b  not  improbable.  From  the  account 
now  given,  it  would  appear,  1.  That  both  were 
constructed  before  the  Romans  introduced  the 
art  of  building  vrith  lime  and  other  cement,  2. 
That  the  Picts  and  ancient  Scots  had  stone  edifi- 
ces, which  M^Pherson  is  not  inclined  to  admit. 
3.  That  they  sometimes  vitrified  particular  parts 
of  their  forts,  to  render  them  the  more  durable. 

BARRY,  Barra,  or  Bara,  one  of  the  wes- 
tern isles  of  Scotland,  lying  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean ;  eight  miles  south  from  that  of  South  Uist. 
Ita  extent  has  been  strangely  misrepresented, 
some  stating  it  at  five  miles  long  and  three  broad, 
and  others  reducing  it  to  a  mere  rock,  half  a 
mile  in  circumference,  and  inhabited  only  by 
solan  geese  and  wild  fowls !  ft  is  at  least  twelve 
English  miles  long,  and  from  three  to  six  broad ; 
being  intersected  in  difierent  places  by  arms  of 
the  sea;  separated  from  the  island  of  Watersay, 
by  a  channel  of  one  mile.  It  has  a  barren  ap- 
pearance,* from  the  great  quantity  of  rocks  to  be 
seen  every  where ;  but  on  the  north  end,  in  good 
seasons,  it  may  vie  in  fertility  with  any  ground 


of  equal  extent  in  Scotland.  In  the  middle  ani 
south  end  there  are  very  high  hills,  whidi  are  a 
mixture  of  green,  rock  and  heath,  and  seem  fitted 
for  sheep-walks,  if  the  island  were  near  a  good 
market  The  west  coast  is  low  and  flat;  the 
soil,  fine  shell  sand,  m  many  parts  verv  feitilt ; 
but  the  ground  rises  to  the  east  coast,  where  it  is 
barren,  and  breaks  ofi*  abrupt,  irrei^lar,  and 
steep.  In  some  parts,  where  the  soil  is  rock^ 
and  uneven,  it  admits  not  of  being  plowed ;  h 
is  cultivated,  therefore,  by  a  kind  of  crooked 

rde,  called'  cashroom.     The  inhabitants  are 
ut  1500.    Long.  7°  2(f  W.,  lat  56**  55'  N. 

Barry,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Longford,  fifty-four  miles  from  Dublin. 

Barry,  a  small  island  in  the  Bristol  cbanneK 
near  the  south  coast  of  Wales ;  distant  three 
miles  west  of  Fiat  Holm.  Its  name  is  said  to  be 
derived  firom  a  hermit,  St  Banich,  who  died 
there  in  700.  Giraldus  Cambrensis  states,  that 
in  a  rock  near  the  entrance  of  the  island  there  is 
a  small  cavity,  to  which,  if  the  ear  be  applied, 
a  noise  is  heard  like  that  of  smiths  at  work,  the 
blowing  of  bellows,  strokes  of  hammers,  grind- 
ing of  tools,  and '  roaring  of  furnaces,'  and  Sir 
Richard  Hoare  adds,  that  towards  the  southern 
part  of  the  island,  on  a  spot,  called  Ndl's  point, 
IS  a  fine  well,  to  which  great  numbers  of  women 
resort  on  Holy  Thursday :  having  washed  their 
eyes  at  the  spring,  each  drops  a  pin  into  it  Tht 
landlord  of  tne  l§>arding-hoUse  (for  the  island  is 
frequented  by  bathers)  informed  Sir  Ridiard 
Hoare,  that  in  the  last  cleaning  of  the  well  be 
took  out  a  pint  of  these  votive  offerings. 

Barry,  in  heraldry,  is  when  an  escutcheon  is 
divided  bar-ways,  that  is,  across  from  side  to 
side,  into  an  even  number  of 
partitions,  consisting  of  two  or 
more  tinctures,  interchangeably 
disposed.  It  is  to  be  expressed 
in  the  blazon  by  the  word  barry, 
and  the  number  of  pieces  must 
be  specified ;  but  if  tne  divisions 
be  odd,  the  field  must  be  first  named,  and  the 
number  of  bars  expressed. 


Barry-bbvdy  is  when  an 
escutcheon  is  divided  evenly ,  bar 
and  bendways,  by  lines  drawn 
transverse  and  diagonal,  inter- 
changeably varying  the  tinctures 
-of  which  it  consists,  thus: 


Barry-pily,  is  when  a  coat 
is  divided  by  several  lines  drawn 
obliquely  from  side  to  side, 
where  they  form  acute  angles, 
thus: 


BARSA,  in  ancient  geography,  an  island  on 
the  coast  of  France,  in  the  English  channel ;  now 
called  Basepool,  according  to  some ;  according 
to  others,  Bardsey. 

BARSABAS;  from  n3,  a  son,  and  HOt,  rest; 
a  name  of  Joseph,  sumamed  Justus,  who  was 
competitor  with  Matthias  for  the  apostleship,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  seventy  disciples. 

Bars  ABAS  (Judas),  a  member  of  the  synoJ  at 


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BAR 


BAR 


Jerusalem,  who  was  sent  with  Paul,  Barnabas,       BAKSE,  id  ichthyology,  an  English  name  for 

and  Silas,  to  publish  their  decree  against  the  the  pearch,  still  used  for  the  same  fish  in  the 

Judaising  teachers  among  the  Gentile  churches  Saxon  language,  and  one  of  the  many  Saxon 

at'Antioch.    He  is  also  styled  a  prophet:  Acts  words  we  have  retained. 
XV.  32.  BARSICK,  a  head  land  on  the  coast  of  the 

BARSAC,  a  town  of  France,  in  Guienne,  in  island  of  South  Ronaldshay,  one  of  the  Orkneyi, 

the  Bourdelois,  on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  Garonne ;  V^hich  is  250  feet  perpendicular  above  the  level 

contains  480  houses,  and  belongs  to  the  depart-  of  the  sea. 


ment  of  the  Gironde,  arrondissemeot  of  Bour- 
deaux,  eighteen  miles  south-east  of  Bourdeaux. 
It  is  not^  for  its  excellent  wine. 

BARSALLACH,  Point,  a  cape  of  Scotland, 
on  the  coast' of  the  county  of  Wigton,  in  the  bay 


BAK-SUR-AUBE.    See  Bar. 
Bap-9ub-s£1ne.    See  Bab. 
BA'RT£tt,  v.  &  n.  ^     Fr.  barater;  Ital.  bar- 
Bab'ter£Rj  >rtUare;  Span,  barrator, 

Bar'tbry  .  )  from  barat,  craft,  fraud.  It 


of  Luce,  eight  miles  north-west  of  Burtowhead.    is  now,  however,  no  longer  used  in  this  ill  sense 


Long.  4^  35'  17"  W.,  lat.  54°  48'  N. 

BAEISALLI,  or  Barsallo,  a  kingdom  of 
Africa,  bordering  on  the  Gambia,  inhabited  by  a 
trioe  of  negroes  called  Jalofis.  Their  govern- 
ment is  a -despotic  monarchy;  all  people  being 
obliged  to  prostrate  themselves  on  the  earth  when 
any  of  the  royal  family  makes  his  appearance. 
It  is  divided  in  to  a  number  of  .provmces,  over 
which  governors  are  appointed,  called  bumeys. 


It  signifies  a  particular  mode  of  exchange.  Ex- 
change is  the  general  term  signifying  to  take  one 
for  another.  To  barter  is  to  exchange  one  ar- 
ticle, of  trade  for  another.  The  words  tliat  bear 
a  near  affinity  to  this  are  truck  and  commute ; 
but  their  precise  .difference  is  this :  truck  is  a 
familiar  term  to  express  a  fiaimiliar  action  for 
exchanging  one  article  of  private  property  for 
another;    and  commute  is  applied  to  the  ex- 


The  Mahommedan  U  the  professed  religion,  but    changing  one  mode  of  punishment  for  another. 


little  regard  is  paid  to  that  part  of  the  impostor's 
laws  which  forbids  the  use  of  wine ;  for  tne  king 
cannot  live  without  brandy ;  nor  is  he  ever  more 
devout  than  when  he  is  intoxicated. .  When  he 
wants  a  fresh  supply  of  this  liquor,  or  of  any 
other  commodity,  he  seizes  a  certain  number  of 
his  subjects,  and  sells  them  as  slaves. 

BARSANIANI,  in  church  history,  a  sect  who 
held  the  errors  of  the  Severians  and  Theodosians. 
BARSANTI  (Francisco),  an  eminent  musi- 
cal performer  and  composer,  was  bom  at  Lucca 
about  1690.    He  studied  the  civil  law  in  the 
university  of  Padua ;  but  af^er  a  short  stay  there 
preferred  music,  and  put  himself  under  the  tui- 
tion of  some  of  the  ablest  masters  in  Italy. 
Having  attained  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
proficiency  in  practical  composition,  he  resolved 
to  settle  in  England,  and  came  hither  with  Ge- 
miniani,  in  1714.    He  was  a  good  performer  on 
the  hautboy  and  flute.    He  was  many  years  a 
performer  at  the  opera-house ;  and  at  last  went 
to  Scotland,  where  he  improved  the  music  of    J^^^^^^^ 
that  country,  by  making  basses  to  a  great  num- 
ber of  the  most  popular  Scots  tunes.    About 
1750  he  returned  to  England;  but,  being  ad- 
vanced in  years,  he  went  into  the  opera  band 
as  a  performer  on  the  tenor  violin ;  and  in  the 
summer  season  into  that  of  VauxhalL    At  this 
time  he  published  twelve  concertos  for  violins ; 
and  shortlv  after,  Sei  Antifone,  in  which  he  en- 
deavourecf  to  imitate  the  style  of  Palestrina,  and 
the  old  composers  of  motets ;  but  so  little  profit 
resulted,  that,  towards  the  end  of  his  life,  the 
industry  and  economy  of  an  excellent  wife,  whom 
he  had  married  in  Scotland,  and  the  labors  of  a 
daughter  whom  he  had  quaUfied  for  a  singer,  but 
ivho  afterwards  became  an  actress  at  Coveut 
Garden,  were  his  chief  supports.    Miss  Barsanti 
went  on  tlie  stage  in  consequence  of  her  entirely 
losing  her  singing  voice  by  catching  cold.    Col- 
man  engaged  her  as  a  comic  actress  for  the 
Hay  market  theatre,  and  she  gained  mat  ap- 
plause.   She  afterwards  went  to  Ireland,  became 
a  favorite  there,  and  married  Mr.  Daly,  the 
manager  of  the  Dublin  theatre. 
Vol.  Ill    • 


We  may  exchange  one  book  for  another ;  traders 
barter  trinkets  for  gold-dust ;  coachmen  truck  a 
whip  for  a  handkerchief;  government  commutes 
the  punishment  of  death  for  that  of  banishment. 

For  him  wm^T  exchan^d  and  r&nsom'd ; 
Bat  with  a  baser  man  of  armt  by  far 
Once^  in  contempt,  they  would  have  barter'A  me. 

Shakkpean. 

From  England  they  may  be  furnished  with  luch 
things  at  they  may  want,  and  in  exchange  or  harttr 
■end  other  things  with  which  they  may  abound. 


As  if  they  scom'd  to  trade  and  barter. 
By  giving  or  by  taking  quarter.  Hudibrat. 

A  man  has  not  every  tiling  growing  upon  his  suil, 
and  therefore  is  willing  to  barter  with  his  neighbour. 

CoUier. 

1  see  nothing  left  us,  but  to  truck  and  barter  our 
goods,  like  the  wild  Indians,  with  each  other.    Swifi. 

He  who  compteth  English  with  foreign  words,  is 
as  wise  as  ladies  that  exchange  plate  for  china  ;  for 
which  the  laudable  traffick  of  old  clothes  is  much  the 

It  is  a  received  opinion,  that,  in  most  ancient  ages, 
there  was  only  hartery  or  exchange  of  commodities 
amongst  most  nations.  Camdm*»  Bmm, 

Then  as  thou  wilt  dispose  the  rest. 
To  those  who,  at  the  market  rate. 
Can  bairter  honour  for  estate.  Prior% 

If  they  will  barter  away  their  time,  methinks  they 
should  Kt  least  have  some  ease  in  exchange. 

Deoay  of  Piety. 
He  also   bartered  away  plums,  that  would  have 
rotted  in  a  week,  for  nuts  that  would  last  good  for  his 
eating  a  whole  year.  Locke, 

At  the  same  time  those  very  men  tear  their  lungs 
in  vending  a  drug,  and  show  no  act  of  bounty,  except 
it  be  that  they  lower  a  demand  of  a  crown  to  six,  nay 
to  one  penny.  We  have  a  contempt  for  such  paltry 
barterert.  Tatler.  No.  4. 

The  tnoft  ancient  and  most  obvioos  sort  of  pommei^ 
cial  contract  is  barter,  or  the  exchange  of  goods  for 
goods.  But,  where  there  is  no  other  sort  of  com- 
merce, contracts  of  barter  must  be  liable  to  great  is« 
equalities.  Beattie.     Morai  Science. 

Some  men  are  willing  to  barter  their  blood  fee 
lucre.  Burke, 

2Q 


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BAR 

:    Barter.    See  Arithmetic,  Index. 

Bakth,  or  Bart  (John),  a  French  admiral ,  bom 
at  Dunkirk  in  1651 .  He  left  his  father,  who  was 
a  poor  fisherman,  and  entered  into  the  navy, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  valor. 
Having,  in  1692,  obtained  the  command  of  a 
squadron  of  frigates  and  a  fire  ship,  he  destroyed 
eighty-six  English  merchant  ships,  made  a  de- 
scent on  the  English  coast,  near  Newcastle,  where 
he  set  fire  to  several  houses,  and  returned  to  Dun- 
kirk with  prizes  valued  at  500,000  crowns.  In 
1696  he  was  appointed  with  a  squadron  of  six 
ships,  to  convoy  a  fleet  laden  with  com,  and  be- 
fore he  fell  in  with  it,  it  had  been  captured  by  a 
Dutch  squadron  of  eight  men  of  war.  Though 
his  numbers  and  strength  were  so  much  less,  he 
not  only  retook  the  prizes,  but  the  y^r  ships. 
For  this  action  a  patent  of  nobility  was  granted 
him.    He  died  at  Dunkirk  in  1702. 

BARTHELEMY  (John  James),  a  celebmted 
French  writer,  borh  at  Cassis,  in  Provence,  in 
1716.  He  was  sent  to  school  at  Marseilles,  and 
admitted  into  the  college  of  the  Oratory,  where 
his  promising  genius  was  discovered,  and  encou- 
raged, so  that  he  made  a  rapid  progress  in  learn- 
ing. But  his  design  bemg  for  the  church, 
it  was  necessary  for  him  to  leave  the  Oratory, 
and  go  for  philosophy  and  theology  to  the  Jesuits. 
Here  he  acquired,  more  by  his  own  labor  and 
perseverance  than  by  the  instructions  of  the  pro- 
fessors, a  knowledge  of  the  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Chaldean,  Syriac,  and  Arabic  languages.  Before 
Barthelcmy  left  Marseilles,  and  when  about 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  the  merchants  of  that 
city  having  met  with  a  Jew  boasting  of  his  learn- 
ing, and  wishing  trial  to  be  made,  by  introducing 
him  to  some  learned  man,  with  some  difficulty 
got  him  to  engage  with  the  Jew ;  and  Barthe- 
leroy  came  off  with  the  character  of  a  prodigy  of 
oriental  learning.  After  finishing  his  education 
at  the  seminary,  he  retired  to  Aubagne,  and 
spent  some  time  with  his  family,  by  whom  he 
was  highly  esteemed.  But  he  often  visited  Mar- 
seilles, for  the  company  of  learned  men ;  and  he 
was  particularly  taken  up  with  one  M.  Cary, 
who  had  a  fine  cabinet  of  medals  and  an  exten- 
sive library.  He  also  associated  himself  with 
Father  Sigaloux,  in  making  astronomical  obser- 
vations. At  last,  however,  he  resolved  to  devote 
himself  to  literature,  and  accordingly  went  to 
Paris  ii  1744.  He  was  recommended  to  M.  de 
Boze,  keeper  of  the  medals,  and  secretary  of  in- 
scriptions and  belles  lettres,  who  received  him 
kindly,  and  paid  him  every  possible  attention ; 
and,  m  a  sliort  time,  on  account  of  the  age  and 
infinnity  of  M.  de  Boze,  Barthelemy  was  chosen 
his  assistant  in  the  care  of  the  cabinet  of  m«>dals; 
in  arranging  which  he  labored  incessantly.  Some- 
time after  he  was  nominated  secretary  to  the 
academy  of  inscriptions ;  and  on  the  death  of  his 
colleague  M.  de  Boze,  in  1753,  he  succeeded 
him  as  keeper  of  the  cabinet.  In  1755  he  visited 
Rome  and  Naples;  the  latter  being  then  pecu- 
liarly interesting  to  an  antiquarian  by  the  recent 
discoveries  in  its  neighbourhood.  Here,  among 
the  numberless  curiosities  that  drew  his  attention, 
the  manuscripts  saved  from  the  ruins  of  Hercu- 
laneum  were  particularly  noticed;  and  he  was 
aniious  to  have  a  specimen  of  the  ancient  writing 
in  the  Greek  MSS.  but  those  who  had  the  care 


BAR 

of  them,  from  their  injunctions,  coiold  not  gratify 
him.  On  this  be  begged  a  sight  of  a  page  for  a 
iew  minutes.  It  contained. twenty-eight  lines, 
which  he  read  over  attentively,  and,  retiring  to  a 
comer,  transcribed  the  whole,  and  sent  the  fee 
simile  to  the  academy  of  belles  lettres.  About 
the  end  of  1758,  the  duke  de  Choiseul,  having 
been  appointed  minister  fbr  foreign  afiairs,  gave 
him  a  pension  of  £250,  and  in  17G5  conferred 
on  him  the  treasurership  of  St.  Martin  de  Toun ; 
to  which  in  1758,  he  added  the  place  of  secretary- 
general  to  the  Swiss  guards  in  1768  appeared 
his  great  work,  the  fruit  of  thirty  years  labor, 
entitled.  The  Voyage  of  the  younger  Anadiarsis 
in  Greece ;  in  which  the  traveller  gives  an  account 
of  the  customs,  government,  and  antiquities  of 
the  country  he  visited ;  remarks  on  tfte  music  of 
the  Greeks,  on  the  library  of  the  Athenians,  and 
on  the  customs  of  all  the  surrounding  states.  In 
1789  Barthelemy  became  a  candidate  fbr  a  chair 
in  the  French  academy ;  and  so  great  was  the 
reputation  he  had  gaihed  by  his  writings,  that 
this  learned  body  elected  him  by  acclamation. 
The  speedi  he  delivered  on  the  occasion,  fer 
modesty  and  simplicity,  is  deservedly  celebrated. 
In  consequence  of  the  revolution,  be  was  re- 
duced to  a  pittance  merely  sufficient  to  furnish 
the  necessaries  of  life ;  yet,  in  1790,  when  M.  de 
St.  Priest  ofiered  him  tlie  place  of  librarian  to  the 
king,  he  expressed  his  gratitude,  but  declined 
accepting,  lest  it  should  interfere  with  his'ooca- 
pations  in  the  cabinet,  which  he  still  continued 
to  enrich.  In  1792  his  strength  began  to  feil, 
and,  in  1793,  now  a  feeble  old  man,  he  was 
arrested  as  an  aristocrat,  and  hurried  to  prison ; 
but  was  liberated  the  same  night,  by  order  of  the 
committee.  He  died  in  1795,  regretted  by  all 
his  relations  as  their  common  father.  Besides 
his  Anacharsis,  he  was  author  of  many  papers, 
principally  on  medals,  in  the  collection  ot  the 
academy  of  inscriptions,  &c. 

Barthelemy  (St.),  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Lot  and  Garonne,  arrondisse- 
ment  of  Marmande,  with  2300  inhabitants.  Nine 
miles  east  of  Marmande,  dnd  twenty-four  north- 
west of  A  gen. 

BARTHIUS  (Gaspar),  a  learned  and  copious 
writer,  bom  at  Custrin,  in  Brandenburg,  in  1576. 
Mr.  Baillet,  in  his  En&ns  Celebres,  tells  ns,  that 
at  twelve  years  of  age  he  translated  David's 
Psalms  into  Latin  verse  of  eveiy  measure,  and 
published  several  Latin  poems.  Upon  the  death 
of  his  father  (who  was  professor  of  civil  law  at 
Frankfort,  counsellor  to  the  elector  of  Branden> 
burg,  and  his  chancellor  at  Custrin),  he  was  sent 
to'  Gotha,  tlien  to  Eisenach,  and  afterwards,  ac- 
cording to  custom,  went  through  all  the  difi^nt 
universities  in  Germany.  He  afterwards  ?irited 
Italy,  France,  Spain,  England,  and  Holland, 
improving  himself  by  the  conversation  and  worits 
of  the  leamed  in  every  country.  He  studied  also 
the  modern  languages,  and  his  translations  from 
the  Spanish  and  French  show  that  he  was  not 
content  with  a  superficial  knowledge.  Upon 
his  return  to  Germany  he  led  a  letind  life  at 
Leipsic,  his  passion  for  study  having  made  him 
renounce  all  sort  of  employment  He  wrote  a 
vast  number  of  books;  the  principal  of  which 
are,  1.  Adversaria^  a  large  volume  jn  folio;  the 
second  and  third  volumes  of  which  he  left  in 


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lis.  2.  A  TranaJatloD  of  Mjoiua  Goesbus.  3. 
A  la!ge  yolume  of  Notes  upon  Claud  ian,  in  4to. 
4.  Three  large  volumes  upon  Statins,  kc.  He 
died  at  Leipsic,  in  1658,  aged  seventy-one. 

BARTHOLINA,  in  botony,  a  genus  of  plants, 
named  after  the  naturalist  Bartholinus.  Class 
and  order,  gynandria  monogynia.  Natural 
order,  orcbidea;.  Essential  character :  cal.  tu- 
bular at  the  base :  pet.  united  to  the  base  of  the 
lip,  whose  spur  is  shorter  than  thegern^en*  Stalks 
of  the  pollen  elongated ;  their  cells  laterally 
fixed;  glands  distinct,  half  covered  by  the  ex- 
terior lobe.  The  principal  species  is,  B.  pecti- 
nata.  Fringed  barthoUna. 

BARTHOLINUS  (Ga-spar),  a  learned  phy^ 
sician  and  anatomist  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, bom  at  Malmoe,  in  Schonen,  which  then 
belonged  to  Denmark.  At  three  years  of  age 
he  had  such  a  quick  capacity,  that  in  four- 
teen days  he  learned  to  read ;  and,  in  his  13th 
year,  he  composed  Greek  and  Latin  orations, 
and  pronounced  them  in  public.  When  he  was 
about  eighteen  he  went  to  the  university  of 
Copenhagen,  and  afterwards  studied  at  Kostook 
and  Wittembei^g.    He  afterwards  travelled,  and 


096  BAR 

mia  Caspari  Bartholini  Parenfll  novis  Obsem^ 
tionibus  primum  locupletata.  8vo.  2.DeMonstris 
in  Natura  et  Medicine,  4to.  3.  De  Aimillis  Vete- 
rum,  8vo;  and  several  other  works.  This  great 
man  died  in  1680. 

BARTHOLOMEW  (St.);  from  n3,  a  son, 
nSn,  elevating,  and  O'D,  waters ;  one  of  the 
twelve  Apostles,  and  generally  believed  to  be  the 
same  witn  Nathanael,  for  the  following  reasons ; 
1.  John  never  mentions  Bartholomew  but  Na- 
thanael ;  2.  the  other  Evangelists  never  mention 
Nathanael  but  Bartholomew:  3.  John  classes 
Philip  and  Nathanael,  as  the  others  do  Philip 
and  Bartholomew:  4.  Nathanael  is  mentioned 
with  the  other  apostles  that  met  our  Lord,  after 
his  resurrection,  at  the  sea  of  Tiberias :  and  5. 
Bartholomew  is  not  a  proper  name,  but  a  patro- 
nymic signifying  the  son  of  Tolmai  or  Thilomcos ; 
a  mode  of  denomination  common  among  the  He- 
brews, and  other  ancient  nations  (seeBARJONAs), 
and  which  still  prevails  in  some  modern  nations; 
for  instance  in  Russia,  where  Petrowitz,  Alexio- 
witz,  Alexandrowitz,  &c.  signify,  the  son  of  Peter, 
Alexis,  Alexander,  &c.  It  is  said  that  this 
apostle  travelled  as  fer  as  India,  to  propagate  the 


neglected  no  opportunity  of  improving  himself    gospel :  and  Eusebins  relates,  that  a  famous  phi- 
at  the  different  universities  which   he   visited*    losopher  and  Christian, named  Pantsenus,  desiring 


He  vras,  in  1613,  chosen  professor  of  physic  in 
that  university,  which  he  enjoyed  eleven  yeiurs ; 
when,  falling  into  a  dangerous  illness,  he.  made 
a  vow,  that  if  it  should  please  God  to  restore 
htm,  he  would  solely  apply  himself  to  the  sludy 
of  divinity.  He  recovered  and  kept  hisi  word ; 
and  soon  after  obtained  the  professorship .  of 
divinity^  and  the  canonry  of  Roschild.  He  died 
in  1629,  having  written  several  small  worics, 
chiefly  on  metaphysics,  logic,  and  rhetoric. 

Bartholinus  (Thomas),  a  celebrated  physi- 
cian, son  of  the  former,  bom  at  Copenhagen,  in 
1616.     After  studying  some  years  in  lus  own 


to  imitate  the  apostolical  •  zeal  in  propagating 
the  fiuth,  and  travelling  for  that  purpoK  as  far 
as  India,  found  there,  among  those  who  yet  re- 
tained the  knowledge  of  Christ,  the  gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  written  by  St.  Bartholomew.  From 
thence  he  returned  to  the  more  northern  and 
western  parts  of  Asia,  and  preached  to  the  people 
of  liierapolis ;  then  in  Lycaonia ;  and  lastly,  at 
Albania,  a  city  upon  the  Caspian  Sea, ;  where 
his  endeavours  to  reclaim  the  people  from  idolatry 
were  crowned  with  martyrdom,  he  being  flcad 
alive,  and  crucified  with  his  head  downwards. 
Bartholomew,  Cape,  the  southernmost  point 


country,  he,  in  1637,  went^to  Leyden,  where  be  of  Staten-Land,  in  Le  Maire  straits,  at  the  south 
studied  physic  three  vears  *  He  then  travelled  extremity  of  South  America, 
into  France;  and  resided  two  years  at  Paris  and  Bartholomew,  St.,  one  of  the  Caribbee 
Montpelier,  for  improvement.  Afterwards  going  islands^  to  which,  in  1748,  a  colony  was  sent  by 
to  Italy,  he  continued  three  years  at  Padua ;  and  '  the  French,  by  whom  it  was  ceded  to  Sweden  in 
at  leng^  went  to  Basil,  where  he  obtained  the    1785.    It  is  reckoned  about  fifteen  miles  in  cir- 


degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.  Soon  after,  .he 
returned  to  Copenhagen ;  where,  in  1647,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics;  and, 
in  1648,  of  anatomy,  a  branch  better  suited  to 
his  genius  and  inclination ;  which  he  discharged 
with  great  assiduity  for  thirteen  years,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  making  several  discoveries 
with  respect  to  the  lacteal  veins  and  lymphatic 
vessels.  Hia  close  application,  however,  having 
rendered  his  constitution  very  infirm,  he,  in 
1661,  resigned  his  chair;  but  the  king  of  Den- 
mark allowed  him  the  title  of  honorary  professor. 
He  now  retired  to  a  little  estate  he  had  purchased 
at  Uagested,  near  Copenhagen,  where* he  hoped 
to  have  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  peace 
and  tranquillity ;  but  his  house  being  burnt  in 
1670,  his  library,  with  all  his  books  and  MSS. 
was  destroyed.  In  consideration  of  this  lou  the 
king  appointed  him  his  physician,  with  a  hand- 
tome  salary,  and  exempted  his  land  from  all 
taxes ;  the  university  of  Copenhagen  also  ap- 
pointed him  their  librarian;  and,  in  1675,  the 
King  did  him  the  honor  to  give  him  a  seat  in  the 
grand  council  of  Denmark.    He  wrote,  1.  Anato- 


cumference,  and  is  now  the  only  island  which 
Sweden  possesses  in  the  Columbian  Archipelago. 
It  is  very  fertile,  producing  sugar,  tobacco,  cot- 
ion,  indigo,  and  cassava,  but  having  no  water, 
except  what  is  supplied  by  the  rains,  is  not  much 
resorted  to.  •  Many  of  the  trees  are  valuable ; 
the  aloe  is  held  in  high  estimation,  and  there  are 
others  from  which  a  gum  of  excellent  cathartic 
qualities  is  extracted.  The  branches  oi"  the  pa- 
rotane  growing  downwards,  take  root  and  rise  in 
fresh  stems;  forming  an  almost  impenetrable 
barrier.  The  species  called  sea  trees,  line  many 
parts  of  the  shore.  The  island  also  produces 
lignum  vits  and  iron-wood ;  and  a  great  variety 
of  birds.  The  inhabitants  also  export  a  peculiar 
kind  of  lime-stone.  The  coast  is  surrounded 
with  rocks,  and  cannot  be  safely  approached 
without  a  pilot ;  but  it  has  a  very  capacious  and 
well-sheltered  harbour,  capable  of  receiving  and 
sheltering  the  largest  fdiips.  About  half  the  in- 
habitants are  Irish  Iloman  Catholics,  whose  an- 
cestors settled  here  in  1666. 
Bartholomew,  St.  a  river  of  South  America, 

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in  the  province  of  Autioquia,  which  falls  into  the 
tfftdalena. 

Bartholomew  (St.),  one  of  the  islands  of  the 
New  Hebrides,  in  the  South  Pacific,  three  leagues 
from  the  norUi-west  point  of  Mallicolo,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  channel,  called  Bou- 
gainville's pAssage.  It  is  from  six  to  seven 
leagues  in  circumference.  Long.  169°  23'  E., 
iat.  15*'41'S. 

Bartholomew's  Day  (St.),  a  festival  of  the 
Church,  celebrated  on  the  24th  of  August.  This 
day  has  been  rendered  infamous  in  the  annals  of 
France,  for  the  massacre  of  the  protestants  in 
1572,  by  the  order  of  the  bloody  Catharine  de 
Medicis,  and  her  tjrraimical  son,  Charles  IX. 

On  Bartholomew's  day  also,  jn  the  year  1662, 
the  act  (^  nniforroitv,  which  obtained  the  royal 
assent  on  the  19th  of  May,  took  place,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  about  2000  ministers  relin- 
quished their  preferments  in  the  church  of  Eng- 
land. The  liturgy/ with  its  alterations,  caire  out 
of  the  press  on  ^utholomew  eve,  and  the  follow- 
ing day  was  the  ultimate  time  fixed  by  the  act  for 
the  subscription ;  so  that  all  those  throughout  the 
kingdom  who  conformed,  except  a  few  in  Lon- 
don, subscribed  in  ignorance  of  its  contents. 

'  Bartholomew's  day,'  says  Mr.  Locke,  *  was 
fittal  to  our  church  and  religion,  by  throwing  out 
a  very  great  number  (about  two  thousand)  of 
worthy,  learned,  pious,  orthodox  divines,  who 
could  not  come  up  to  this  oath,  and  other  things 
in  that  act  And  so  great  was  the  zeal  in  carry- 
ing on  this  church  affair,  and  so  blind  the  obe- 
dience required,  that  if  you  compute  the  time 
of  passing  this  act  with  that  allowed  for  the  clergy 
to  subscribe  the  book  of  common  prayer  thereby 
established,  you  will  find  it  could  not  be  printed 
and  distributed  so  as  that  one  man  in  forty  could 
have  seen  and  read  the  book  they  did  so  perfectly 
assent  and  consent  to.' — '  The  matter  was  driven 
on,'  says  bishop  Burnet  (Hist,  of  his  Times,  volt 
i.  p.  212,  8vo.)  *  with  so  much  precipitation,  that 
it  seemed  expected  the  clergy  should  subscribe 
implicitly  to  a  book  they  had  never  seen.  This 
was  done  by  too  many,  as  the  bishops  themselves 
informed  me.*  Among  these  were  several,  who, 
according  to  Mr.  Locke's  description  of  them, 
were  '  taught  rathef  to  obey  than  to  understand.' 

Bartholomew's  Gospel  (St.),  is  mentioned  in 
the  preface  to  Origen's  Homilies  on  St.  Luke, 
and  in  the  pre&oe  to  St.  Jerome's  commentary 
OB  St.  Matthew ;  but  generally  regarded  as  spu- 
rious ;  and  placed  by  pope  Gelasius  among  the 
apocryphal  books. 

Bartholomew's  Hospital  (St.), an  institution 
for  the  reception  of  sick  and  wounded  poor  per- 
sons, situated  on  the  south-east  side  of  Smithfield, 
and  incorporated  by  the  name  of  the  hospital  of 
*he  mayor,  commonalty,  and  citizens,  of  London, 
governors  for  the  poor,  called  Little  St.  Bartho- 
lomew's, near  West  Smithfield.  The  building 
formerly  belonged  to  the  prioiy  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, in  Smithfield,  founded  by  one  Rahere, 
aboiit  1102.  At  the  dissolution  of  the  monaste- 
ries, Henry  VIII.  left  500  marks  a  year  to  it,  on 
condition  that  the  city  should  add  500  marks 
per  annum  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  poor 
people ;  but  it  was  more  largely  endowed  for  the 
benefit  of  sick  and  lame  persons  only,  by  Edward 


VI.  and  the  munificence  of  the  city  and  private 
benefactors.  This  hospital  having  escap»ed  the 
dreadful  fire  in  1666,  was  repaired  and  beautified 
by  the  governors  in  1691.  But  the  buildings  be- 
came at  length  so  ruinous,  that  a  subscription  was 
entered  into  in  1729,  for  defraying  the  expense 
of  rebuilding  it,  on  a  plan  comprehending  four 
detached  piles  of  building,  to  be  joined  by  stone 
gate-ways,  about  a  court  or  area.  The  four 
piles  w^re  erected  and  finished ;  one  of  these 
piles  contains  a  large  hall  for  the  governors  at 
general  courts,  a  counting-house  for  the  coo>- 
mittees,  and  other  necessary  offices ;  the  other 
three  piles  contain  wards  for  tlie  reception  of  the 
patients,  &c.  It  is  governed  by  a  president, 
treasurer,  &c.  It  is  attended  by  three  physicians, 
and  three  surgeons,  besides  as  many  assistant 
surgeons.  It  has  an  apothecary,  a  chaplain,  cook, 
steward,  renter,  matron,  and  porter.  Since  its 
enlargement,  it  is  capable  of  accommodating  820 
patients ;  it  extends  relief  also  to  a  great  number 
of  out-patients. 

BAKTHOLOMITES,  a  religious  order,  found- 
ed at  Genoa  in  1307;  the  monks  leading  ^-eiy 
irregular  lives,  the  order  was  suppressed  by  pope . 
Innocent  X.  in  1650,  and  their  effects  confiscated. 
In  the  church  of  the  monastery  of  this  order  at 
Genoa,  is  preserved  the  image  which  it  is  pre- 
tended Christ  sent  to  king  Abgarus. 

BARTLEMAN  (J.),  a  very  celebrated  bass- 
singer,  was  educated  under  Dr.  Cooke,  and 
brought  up  in  the  choirs  of  the  Chapel  Royal  and 
Westminster  abbey.  His  first  appearance  as  a 
professional  singer  was  at  the  concerts  at  Free- 
masons' Hall,  where  the  compass  and  sweetness 
of  his  fine  baritone  voice  raised  him  at  once  to  the 
top  of  his  profession.  He  was  immediately  en- 
gaged in  the  ancient  concerts,  and  became  even- 
tually one  of  the  proprietors  and  conductors  at 
the  Hanover-square  rooms.  He  died  in  1820, 
and  was  buried  in  ^e  cloisters  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  most  of  his  professional  associates  of  emi- 
nence attending  the  funeral.  -  There  is  a  hand- 
some tablet  erected  there  to  his  memory. 

B ARTOLOCCI  (Julius),  a  learned  monk,  and 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Rome,  was  born  at  Cela- 
no,  in  1613 ;  and  distinguished  himself  by  writ- 
ing an  excellent  Latin  catalogue  of  the  Hebrew 
writers,  in  4  vols,  folio ;  a  continuation  of  which 
was  drawn  up  by  Imbonati  his  disciple.  He  died 
in  1687. 

BARTOLOM£0(Francisco),  whose  realaame 
was  Baccio,  a  celebrated  painter,  bom  at  Savig- 
nano,  near  Florence,  in  1469.  He  was  the  dis- 
ciple of  Cosimo  Rosselli,  but  owed  to  the  woiks 
of^Leonardo  da  Vinci  his  extraordinary  skill  in 
painting.  Raphael,  after  quitting  the  school  of 
rerugino,  studied  perspective  under  him, 
with  the  art  of  managing  and  uniting  colors. 
In  1500  he  turned  Dominican  friar ;  and  some 
time  after  was  sent  by  his  superiors  to  the 
convent  of  St.  Martin,  in  Florence.  He  painted 
both  portraits  and  histories ;  but  his  scrupuIoiB 
conscience  would  hardly  ever  suffer  him  to  draw 
naked  figures,  though  nobody  undentood  thera 
better.    He  died  in  1517,  aged  48. 

BARTOLOZZI  f(Francis),  an  emment  en- 
graver, was  bom  at  Florence  in  1728.  His  &thcr 
was  a  silversmith,  and  he  was  intended  for  th< 


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same  basineiSy  but  displayed  so  much  taste  and 
execation  at  the  fint  handling  of  the  graver,  that 
he  was  placed  at  the  Florentian  academy,  under 
Gaetano  Biagio  and  Ignazio  Ilugfotd.  Here 
Giovanni  Cipriani  was  his  feUow-pupil.  He  was 
subsequently  articled  to  Joseph  Wagner,  of  Ve- 
nice, who  employed  him  too  much  in  copying 
from  inferior  masters.  When  this  engagement 
was  expired,  he  married  a  respectable  Venetian 
lady,  and  accepted  the  invitation  of  cardinal 
Bottari  to  repair  to  Rome.  Here  he  engraved  his 
fine  plates  from  the  life  of  St.  Nilus,  and  the 
heads  of  painters  for  a  new  edition  of  Vasari. 
He  returned  to  Venice,  where  Mr  Dalton,  libra- 
rian to  George  IH.  employed  him  to  engrave 
some  of  the  drawings  of  Guercino,  and,  pleased 
with  the  execution  of  them,  offered  him  £300  per 
annum  to  accompany  him  to  England,  and  work 
on  his  account,  under  this  engagement  he  com- 
pleted his  beautiful  collection  of  Guercinos.  Af- 
terwards he  worked  on  his  own  account,  and  for 
Mr.  Alderman  Boydell.  He  was  highly  distin- 
guished for  the  elegance  of  his  designs  for  the 
benefit  tickets  of  the  higher  performers  of  the 
Opera-house;  and  hearing  that  the  celebrated 
Strange  said  he  could  execute  nothing  else,  in  a 
fit  of  emulation  he  produced  his  Clytie,  and  Vir- 
gin and  Child,  from  Carracci  and  Carlo  Dolci. 
About  this  time  the  red  dotted  or  chalk  manner 
became  prevalent ;  and  Bartolozzi  contrived  to 
execute  it  so  beautifully  as  to  assist  in  seducing 
the  public  taste  from  the  superior  ^d  legitimate 
style  of  the  line.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy,  on  its  institution.  In  1802 
he  accepted  an  invitation  trom  the  Prince  R^^t 
of  Portugal,  to  superintend  a  school  of  engravers 
at  Lisbon,  with  a  pension  of  £100  per  annum,  a 
handsome  house,  and  the  produce  of  the  engrav- 
ings. It  is  said  a  pension  of  £400  was  offered  to 
him  to  remain  in  England;  but  that  he  would 
accept  it  only  on  condition  that  government 
would  explain  the  matter  to  the  prince  Regent  of 
Portugal.  It  is  quite  clear  that  all  his  {>ast  labors 
had  left  him  in  real  need  of  one  appointment  or 
other.  This  interference  being  deemed  improper, 
he  bade  England  farewell,  in  his  seventy-nfth 
year,  and  was  received  at  Lisbon  with  great  dis- 
tinction. He  died  in  that  capital  in  his  eighty- 
eighth  year.  Few  artists  have  readied  so  dis- 
tin^ished  a  rank  in  every  species  of  engraving, 
as  Bartolozzi.  His  etchings  in  imitation  of  the 
drawings  of  the  great  masters,  admirably  repre- 
sent the  character  and  spirit  of  the  originals ;  and 
his  Marlborough  gems,  musical  tidkets,  and 
prints  for  Boydell's  Shakspeare,  exhibit  exquisite 
proo&  of  taste-  Hewas  so  generous  as  to  finish 
a  plate  left  incomplete  by  Ryland,  at  the  request 
of  that  unhappy  man,  while  under  seutence  of 
death  for  forgery,  and  exhibited  many  other 
traits  of  a  humane  and  benevolent  unitea  with  a 
thoughtless  character.  Among  the  pupils  of 
Bartolozzi  were  Sherwin,  Tomkins,  Cheeseman, 
and  the  two  Vandramini. 

BARTON-ON-HUMBER,  a  market-town 
and  parish  in  the  hundred  of  Yarborough,  and 
county  of  Lincoln,  167  miles  north  from  London; 
containing  2500  iuhabitanU*.  It  is  seated  on  the 
south  side  of  the  U  umber,  over  which  there  is  a 
ferry  into  Yorkshire,  neariy  six  miles  and  a  half 


across.  There  is  a  great  trade  in  com  and  flour, 
as  well  as  bricks  and  tiles,  carried  on,  and  a  ma- 
nufactory of  Paris  whiting.  The  town  consists  of 
several  streets  irregularly  built,  and  has  two  parish 
churches,  the  livings  of  the  two  parishes  being 
united.    Market  on  Monday. 

Barton  (Eliz.),  commonly  called  The  Maid 
of  Kent,  was  a  religious  impostor  in  the  reign  o\ 
Henry  VIH.  She  was  originally  a  servant  at 
Aldington,  in  Kent,  who  had  long  been  troubled 
with  convulsions,  which  distorted  her  limbs  and 
countenance,  and  threw  Her  body  into  the  most 
violent  agitations.  After  she  recovered,  she  is 
said  to  have  counterfeited  the  same  appearances. 
Masters,  the  minister  of  Aldington,  with  other 
ecclesiastics,  thinking  her  a  proper  instrument 
for  their  purpose,  persuaded  ner  to  pretend  that 
what  she  said  and  did  was  by  a  supernatural  im- 
pulse, and  taught  her  to  act  her  part  in  the  most 
perfect  manner.  Thus  she  would  lie  as  it  were 
m  a  trance,  Uien,  coming  to  herself,  would  break 
out  into  pious  ejaculations,  hymns,  and  prayer ; 
sometimes  delivering  set  speeches^  sometimes 
uncouth  monkish  rhymes.  She  pretended  to  be 
honored  with  visions  and  revelations,  to  hear 
heavenly  voices,  and  the  most  ravishing  melody. 
Amongst  other  wickedness  of  the  times,  she  de- 
claimed against  heresy  and  innovations ;  exhort- 
ing the  people  to  frequent  the  church,  to  hear 
masses,  to  use  frequent  confession,  and  to  pray 
to  our  lady,  and  the  saints.  This  artful  manage- 
ment, together  with  her  great  exterior  piety,  and 
austerity  of  life,  not  only  deceived  the  vulgar,  but 
the  celebrated  Sir  Thomas  More,  bishop  Fisher, 
archbishop  Warkam,  &c. :  the  last  of  whom 
appointed  commissioners  to  examine  her.  She 
now  declared,  that  the  blessed  Virgin  had  ap- 
peared to  her,  and  assured  her  that  she  should 
never  recover,  till  she  went  to  visit  her  image,  in 
a  chapel  of  the  parish  of  Aldington.  Thither  she 
accordingly  repaired,  processionally,  and  in  pil- 
grimage, attended  by  above  3000  people,  and 
many  persons  of  quality  of  both  sexes.  She  fell 
into  one  of  her  trances,  and  uttered  many  things 
in  honor  of  the  saints,  and  the  popish  religion.: 
for  herself,  she  said  that  by  the  inspiration  of 
God,  she  was  called  to  be  a  nun,  and  that  Dr. 
Booking  was  her  ghostly  father.  Booking  was  a 
canon  of  Christ's  church,  Canterbury,  and  most 
probably  associate  in  carrying  on  the  imposture. 
Meanwhile,  the  archbishop  ordered  her  to  be 
admitted  into  the  nunnery  of  St/Sepulchre,  Can- 
terbury ;  where  she  had  frequent  inspirations  and 
visions,  and  pretended  to  work  miracles  for  all 
such  as  would  make  a  profitable  vow  to  our  lady. 
The  priests,  her  managers,  having  so  finr  suc- 
ceeded, now  announced  the  great  object  of  her 
mission,  i.  e.  to  proclaim,  that  '  in  case  the  king 
should  divorce  queen  Catherine  of  Arragon,  and 
take  another  wife  during  her  life,  his  royalty 
would  not  be  of  a  month's  duration,  but  he  should 
die  the  death  of  a  villain.'  Bishop  Fisher,  and 
others  in  the  interest  of  the  queen,  and  of  the 
Romish  religion,  hearing  of  this,  held  frequent 
meetings  wi&  the  nun,  the  fathers  and  nuns  of 
Sion,  the  Charter-house,  Sheen,  &c.  Encouraged 
by  the  lenity  of  the  government,  the  ecclesiastics 
in  this  conspiracy  resolved  to  publish  the  reve- 
lations of  the  nun,  in  their  sermons,  throughout 


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the  lingdoin :  they  had  communicated  them  to 
the  pope'8  ambassadors,  to  whom  also  tfiey  iiK 
trodueed  the  maid  of  Kent ;  and  they  exhorted 
qaeen  Cayenne  to  persist  in  her  resolutions. 
At  length  this  confederacy  began  to  be  a  very 
serious  affair,  and  lierry  ordered  the  maid  and 
her  accomplices  to  be  examined  in  the  star-cham- 
ber. Here  they  confessed  all  the  particulars  of 
the  jmposture,  and  afterwards  appeared  upon  a 


scaffold  erected  at  St.  Paul's 


where  the 


articles  of  their  confession  were  publicly  read  in 
their  hearing.  Thence  they  were  conveyed  to  the 
Tower,  until  the  meeting  of  parliament;  who, 
having  considered  the  affair,  pronounced  it  a 
conspiracy  against  the  king's  life  and  crown.  Tlie 
nun,  with  her  confederates.  Masters,  Bocking, 
Deering,  Able,  &c.  were  attainted  of  high  treason, 
and  executed  at  Tyburn,  April  20,  1534 ;  where 
she  confessed  the  imposture,  laying  the  blame  on 
her  accomnlices  the  priests,  and  craving  pardon 
of  God  ana  the  king. 

BARTRAMIA,  in  botany,  pellitoty:  a  genus 
of  the  deeandria  monogynia  class  of  plants ;  the 
calyx  of  which  is  a  perianthium,  cut  into  five 
parts ;  the  corolla  consists  of  five  wedge-shaped 
petals ;  the  fruit  is  globular,  and  the  seeds  are 
four  in  number,  convex  on  one  side,  and  angular 
on  the  other.  It  was  so  named  in  honor  of  a 
friend  of  Linnsus,  J.  Bartram.  Eight  species 
are  described  in  English  Botany. 

BARTSIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
named  after  Linnstis'  unfortunate  friend,  John 
Bartsch,  MD.  Class  didynamia ;  order angiosper- 
roia.  Its  l^enerie  oharactersiure,  cal.  perianth oae^ 
leav^:  cob.  monopetalous :  stam.  filaments 
four:  ANTE,  oblong:  pist.  germ  ovate;  style 
filiform ;  stigma  obtuse :  per.  capsule  ovate : 
SEEDS  numerous.  The  species  are  mostlyperen- 
nials,  a»— B.  coccinea,  pedicularis,  sen  crista 
galli,  &c.  seu  horminum,  kt.  Red  bartsia,  nar 
tive  of  Virginia.  B.  pallida  foliis  ahemis,  £cc. 
seu  foliis  lanceolatis,  etc.  Pale-flowered  bartsia^ 
native  of  Siberia.  B.  alpina  foliis  oppositis,  See. 
Staehelinia  foliis,  &c.  Staehelinia  alpina,  eu- 
phiasia  caule,  &c.  Euphrasia  rubra,  &c.  Cha- 
medry  vulgare,  &c.  Clinopodium  alpinum,  &c. 
Teucrium  alpinum,  cratseogonon,  seu  pedicularis. 
Alpine  bartsia,  native  of  Britain ;  but  the  B.  vis- 
cosa,  'euphrasia  latifolia,  seu  alecterophos,  &c. 
Viscid  bartsia,  or  yellow  marsh  eye-bright,  native 
of  Britain,  is  an  annual.  B.  viscosa,  marshy,  or 
yellow  marsh  eye-bright,  was  found  by  Mr. 
Lightfoot  in  bogs  and  marshy  places  about  Loch- 
Goyl,  near  Loch-Lcng,  in  die  district  of  Cowal 
in  Argyllshire.  The  plant  is  about  teft  or  twelve 
inches  high,  with  an  erect  stalk,  downy  and  un- 
briuiched :  the  leaves  are  sessile,  spear-shaped, 
and  a  litde  viscous;  the  flowers  are  yellow,  and 
the  phmt  dyes  black.  It  is  likewise  feund  in 
manny  places  in  Cornwall  in  England. 

BARuCH,  the  son  of  Neriah,  the  disciple  and 
amanuensis  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  Josephus 
tdls  us  he  was  descended  of-a  noble  family :  it  is 
said  in  his  prophecy  -that  he  wrote  it  at  Babylon, 
but  at  what  time  is  uncertain. 

Barucb*s  Prophecy,  one  of  the  apocryphal 
books  subioined  to  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment It  has  been  reckoned  nart  of  Jeremiah*s 
prophecy,  and  is  often  citea  by  the  ancient 


BAR 

fethers  as  such.  It  is  difficult  to  detennine  in 
what  language  it  was  originally  written.  Hieie 
are  thiee  copies  of  it  extant;  one  in  Greek,  the 
other  two  in  Syriac. 

BARULES,  in  church  histOTT,  heretics  who 
held  that  the  Son  of  God  had  only  a  phantom  of 
a  body,  that  souls  were  created  before  the  worid, 
and  that  they  lived  all  at  one  time. 

BARUTH,  an  ancient  town  of  Turkey,  in 
Syria,  with  a  Christian  church  of  the  Nestonan 
persuasion.  It  is  situated  in  a  fine  fertile  soil, 
but  is  inconsiderable  now  to  what  it  was  for- 
merly. 

B  a  RUTH,  an  Indian  measure,  containing  seven- 
teen gantatis:  it  ought  to  weigh  about  three 
pounds  and  a  half  English  avoi^upois. 

BARWICK(John),an  English  divine  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  bora  at  Wetherslack  m 
Westmoreland,  ii\  1612.  He  studied  at  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  took  his  degrees  of  B.  A.  and 
M.^  in  1635  and  1638.  When  the  dvn  war 
brok^  out  he  conveyed  the  university's  plate,  hj 
their  order,  through  bye  roads  to  supply  the  Ung, 
who  was  then  in  great  necessity.  Torough  this, 
and  other  acts  of  loyalty,  having  rendered  himself 
obnoxious  to  the  parliament,  particularly  by  keep- 
ing up  a  secret  correspondence  with  the  royal 
party,  both  before  and  after  the  king's  deatii,  he 
was  at  last  committed  to  the  tower,  where  he 
suffered  great  hardships  for  fifteen  months,  bat 
was  at  last  discharged,  1652,  and,  to  the  surprise 
of  many,  in  better  health  thauwhen  he  was  in- 
carcerated. Upon  the' restoration  he  was  made 
dean  of  St.  Puul's  in  1661 ;  in  which  sUtion  he 
repeatedly  h\irt  hto  health, '  by  his  exertion  in 
patting  in  order  the  archives  of  that  diurch. 
He  died  of  a  pleurisy  in  1664.  His  diief  woik 
was  a  Treatise  Against  the  Covefumt,  wfaidi  he 
published  before  the  king's  death. 

BARWidK  (Peter),  physician  to  kingCharies 
II.  brother  of  die  dean,  was  bom  in  1619,  and 
studied  edso  at  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  M.  D.  in  1655.  Having  settled  in 
London,  he  soon  rose  to  fame  In  his  profiessioii, 
by  writing  a  defence  of  Dr.  Har\»ey*s  discovery 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  He  was  eqoally 
active  and  useful  during  the  plague,  and  was  no 
less  successful  in  curing  the  small  pox.  He  not 
only  gave  advice  and  medicines  gratis  to  the 

e»or,  but  also  supplied  their  other  necessities, 
e  was.  particularly  kind  to  the  sufierers  for  roy- 
alty. *  He  wrote  the  Ufie  of  hu  brother  in  Latin, 
in  1671,  which  he  deposited  in  the  college  library 
at  Cambridge,  and  in  1693,  when  in  his  seventy- 
fourth  year,  added  an  appendix  in  defence  of  the 
Bcc«v  BaaCiuai  of  king  Charles  I.  He  died  in 
1705,  aged  e^hty-six. 

BARYPYCNi;  Pofwwnw;  in  the  ancient 
music,  such  chords  as  rormed  the  gravest  notes  of 
the  several  spissa.  There  were  fiwbarypycni  in 
the  scale.    Seb  PtcVi. 

BARYTES,  m  chemistry,  a  genus  of  eardis, 
which  by  Bergman,  Lavoisier,  and  odier  eminent 
chemists,  has  been  considered  as  a  refractory 
metallic  oxvd.  This  supposition  has  been  coo- 
firmed  by  the  experiments  of  Benelius  and  Poo- 
tin,  who,  led  by  Sir  H.  Davy's  decomposition  of 
potash  and  soda  by  galvanism,  subjected  this 
earth  to  the  same  agent  Their  experiments  were 


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BAR 


attended  witli  complete  success,  and  have  been 
since  Terified  by  Sir  H.  Davy  himself.  To  this 
metallic  basis  Davy  gave  the  name  of  Barium, 
which  see. 

'  Pure  barytes, '  says  Dr.Ure, '  is  best  obtained 
by  igniting,  in  a  covered*crucible,  the  pure  crys- 
tallised nitrate  of  barytes.  It  is  procured  in- the 
state  of  hydrate  by  adding  caustic  potash  or  soda 
to  a  solution  of  the  muriate  or  nitrale.  And  ba- 
rytes, slightly  colored  v?ith  charcoal,  may  be 
obtained  by  strongly  igniting  the  carbonate  and 
charcoal  mixed  together  in  fine  powder.  Barytes 
obtained  from  the  ignited  nitrate  is  of  a  whitish- 
gray  color ;  more  caustic  than  strontites,  or  per- 
haps even  lime.  It  renders  the  syrup  of  violets 
green,  and  the  infusion  of  turmeric  red.  Its 
specific  gravity  by  Fourcroy  is  4.  When  water 
in  small  quantity  is  pourea  on  the  dry  earth  it 
slakes  like  quicklime,  but  perhaps  with  evolution 
of  more  heat.  When  swallowed  it  acts  as  a  vio- 
lent poison.  It  is  destitute  of  smell.  When  pure 
barytes  is  exposed  in  a  porcelain  tube,  at  a  neat 
verging  on  ignition,  to  a  stream  of  dry  oxygen 
gas,  it  absorb  the  gas  rapidly,  and  passes  to  the 
state  of  deutoxide  of  barium.  But  when  it  is 
calcined,  in  contact  with  atmospheric  air,  we  ob- 
tain at  first  this 'deutoxide  and  carbonate  of  ba- 
rytes ;  the  former  of  which  passes  very  slowly 
into  the  latter,  by  absorption  of  carbonic  acid  from 
the  atmosphere.' 

Again — 'water  at  50°,  Fahrenheit,  dissolves 
one-twentieth  of  its  weight  of  barytes,  and  at 
212°  about  one-half  of  its  weight;  though  M. 
Thenaid,  in  a  table,  has  stated  it  at  only  one- 
tenth.  As  the  solution  cools,  hexagonal  prisma, 
terminated  at  each  extremity  with  a  four-sided 
pyramid,  form.  These  crystals  are  often  attached 
to  one  another,  so  as  to  imitate  the  leaves  of  fern. 
Sometimes  they  are  deposited  in  cubes.  They 
contain  about  53  per  cent,  of  water,  or  20  prime 
proportions.  The  supernatant  liquid  is  barytes 
water.  It  is  colorless,  acrid,  and  caustic.  It 
acts  powerfully  on  the  vegetable  purples  and 
yellows.  Exposed  to  the  air  it  attracts  caibonic 
acid,  and  the  dissolved  barytes  is  converted  into 
carbonate,  which  fidls  down  in  insoluble  crusts. 
It  appears  from  the  experiments  of  M.  BerthoUet 
that  heat  alone  cannot  deprive  the  crystallised 
hydrate  of  its  water:  After  exposure  to  a  red 
heat,  when  it  fuses  like  potash,  a  proportion  .of 
water  remains  in  combination.  This  quantity  is 
a  prime  equivalent  =  1-125,  to  9*75  of  barytes. 
The  ignited  hydrate  is  a  solid  of  a  whitish-gray 
color,  caustic,  and  very  dense.  It  fuses  at 
a  heat  a  little  under  a  cherry  red ;  is  fixed  in 
the  fire;  attracts,  but  slowl;^,  carbonic  acid 
from  the  atmosphere.  It  yields  carburetted 
hydrogen,  and  carbonate  .of  baiytes  when 
heated  along,  with  charcoal,  provided  this  be 
xiot  in  excess.' 

'Sulf^ur  combines  with  barytes,  when  tliey 
are  mixed  together,  and  heated  in  a  crucible. 
The  same  compound  is  more  economically  ob- 
tained by  igniting  a  mixture  of  sulphate  of 
barytes  and  charcc^  in  fine  powder.  This  sul- 
phuret  is  of  a  reddish-vellow  color,  and  when 
dry  without  smell.  When  this  substance  is  put 
into  hot  water  a  powerful  action  is  manifested. 


The  water  is  decomposed,  and  two  new  products 
are  formed ;  namely,  hydrosulphuret,  and  hydix>- 
guretted  sulphuret  of  barytes.  The  first  crystal- 
lises as  the  liquid  cools;  the  second  remains 
dissolved.  The  hydrosulphuret  is  a  compound 
of  9*75  of  barytes  with  2*125  sulphjaretted  hy- 
drogen. Its  crystals  should  be  quickly  separated 
by  filtration,  and  dried  bypressure  between  the 
folds  of  porous  paper.  They  are  white  scales, 
have  a  silky  lustre,  are  soluble  in  water,  and  yield 
a  solution  having  a  greenish  tinge.  Its  taste  is 
acrid,  sulphurous,  and,  when  mixed  with  the  hy- 
droguretted  s^lphu^et,  eminently  corro^ve.  It 
rapidly  attracts  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
is  converted  into  the  sulphate  of  barytes.  The 
hydroguretted  sulphuret  is  a  compound  of  9*75 
barytes  wtth  4-125  bisulphuretted  hydrogen;  but 
contaminated  with  sulphite  and  hyposulphite  in 
unknown  proportions.  The  dry  sulphuret  con- 
sists probably  of  2  sulphur-f  9-75  barytes.  The 
readiest  way  of  obtaining  bai7tes  water  is  to  boil 
the  solution  of  the  sulphuret  with  deutoxide  of 
copper,  which  seizes  the  sulphur  while  the  hydro- 
gen flies  off,  and  the  barytes  remains  dissolved. 
Fhosphuret  of  barytes  may  be  easily  formed  by 
exposing  the  constituents  together  to  heat  in  a 
glass  tube.  Their  reciprocal  action  is  so  intense 
as  to  cause  ignition.  Like  phosphuret  of  lime, 
it  decomposes  water,  and  causes  the  disengage- 
ment of  phosphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  which  spon- 
taneously inflames  with  contact  of  air.  When 
sulphur  is  made  to  act  on  the  deutoxide  of  ba- 
rytes, sulphuric  acid  is  formed,  which  unites  to  a 
portion  of  the  earth  into  a  sulphate. '  Its  salts 
are  all,  more  or  less,  white  and  transparent :  the 
soluble  sulphates  make,  with  the  soluble  salts  of 
banrtes,  a  precipitate  insoluble  in  nitric  acid ; 
and  they  are  all  poisonous  except  the  sulphate. 
See  Uie  respective  Acids,  for  the  most  usdul. 

BARYTONO,  in  the  Italian  music,  answers  to 
our  common  pitdi  of  bass. 

BARYTONUM;  from  fiapvc,  grave,  and 
rovoc,  accent;  in  the  Greek  grammar,  denotes  a 
verb,  which  having  no  accent  marked  on  the  last 
syllable,  a  grave  accent  is  to  be  understood. 

BARZILLAI;  from  Sn3,  iron,  Heb.:  l.A 
Gileadite  of  Rogelim,  who  supplied  David  and 
his  few  faithful  friends  with  provisions,  while 
they  lay  at  Mahanaim,  during  the  usurpation  of 
Absalom  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27 — ^29);  2.  A  Simeonite 
of  Meholah,  the  father  of  Adriel,  one  of  Saul's 
8ons-ii>-law  (1  Sam.  xviii.  19);  3.  A  priest  who 
married  a  daughter  of  the  hospitable  Barzillai, 
and  whose  descendants  returned  from  Babylon. 
Neh.  vii.  63. 

BAS,  an  island  of  France,  on  the  coast  of 
the  department  of  Finisterre,  to  which  department 
it  belongs ;  it  is  about  a  league  in  length,  and  is 
situated  two  leagues  north  of  St.  Pal  de  Leon. 

Bas  (James  Philip  Le),  a  n^odem  French  en- 
graver, by  whom  we  have  some  excellent  prints. 
His  great  force  seems  to  lie  in  landscapes  and 
small  figures,  which  he  executed  in  a  superior 
manner.  His  style  of  ennaving  is  extremely  neat; 
he  proves  the  freedom  of  the  etching,  and  Harmo- 
nizes the  whole  with  the  graver  and  dry  point. 
We  have  also  a  varie^  of  petty  vignettes  by  this 
artist.     He  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 


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present  century;  but  we  have  no  account  of  the 
time  of  his  birth  or  death. 

BASAAL,  in  botany,  an  Indian  tree  which 
grows  about  Cochin. 

BASALI'^ES,  a  word  used  by  Salmasius  for 
Basaltes. 

BASALT,  Artipicial,  or  black  porcelain,  a 
composition,  having  nearly  the  same  properties 
with  the  natural  basaltes,  invented  by  Messrs. 
Wedgwood  and  Bentley,  and  applied  to  various 
purposes  in  their  manufalure. 

Basalt,  or  Basaltes;  from  basal,  iron,  or 
pavamZtt,  diligenter  examino;  in  natural  history, 
a  heavy,  hard  stone,  chiefly  black  or  green,  con- 
sisting of  prismatic  crystals,  the  number  of  whose 
sides  is  uncertain.  The  English  miners  call  it 
cockle;  the  German  schoerl.  It  abounds  in  gi- 
gantic masses  in  every  part  of  Europe,  and  is  now 
regarded  by  mineralogists  as  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  species  of  trap  rocks.  Basaltes  vras 
originally  found  in  columns  in  Ethiopia,  and 
fragments  of  it  in  the  river  Tmolus,  and  some 
pther  places.  We  now  have  it  frequently  both  in 
columns  and  small  pieces,  in  Spain,  Russia,  Po- 
land, near  Dresden,  and  in  Silesia ;  but  the  most 
magnificent  ranges  of  basaltic  columns  in  the 
world  are  those  called  the  Giant's  Causeway,  in 
Ireland:  and  next  to  them,  perhaps,  those  of 
Staffa,  one  of  the  western  isles  of  Scotland.  Great 
quantities  of  basalt  are  likewise  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mount  iEtna  in  Sicily,  of 
Hecla  in  Iceland,- of  the  volcano  in  the  island  of 
Bourbon,  and  in  the  ci-devant  province  of  Viva- 
lais  in  the  south  of  France.  It  is  found  there- 
fore in  the  neighbourhood  of  active  volcanoes, 
and  one  of  the  great  questions  that  geologists 
have  agitated  is,  whether  it  does  not  always  de- 
monstrate the  existence  of  some  extinguished 
volcano  in  its  vicinity. 

The  rocks  of  the  Cyclops,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  £tna,  exhibit  very  magnificent  basaltic 
C"  IS,  One  is  an  island  composed  of  lava,  on  a 
of  basalt,  of  no  uncommon  nature ;  above 
which  there  is  a  crust  of  pozzolana,  combined 
with  a  certain  white  calcareous  matter,  hard  and 
compact ;  and  which,  as  h  is  composed  by  the 
action  of  the  air,  appears  like  a  piece  of  knot^ 
porous  wood.  That  rock,  at  some  former  period, 
became  so  hard  as  to  split ;  and  the  clefts  were 
then  filled  up  with  a  very  hard  and  porous  mat- 
ter like  scoriae.  This  matter  afterwards  acquiring 
new  hardness,  also  splits,  leaving  large  interstices, 
which  in  their  turn  have  been  filled  up  with  a 
species  of  compound  yellow  matter.  The  island 
was  formerly  inhabited;  and  there  remains  a 
flight  of  steps  leading  from  the  shore  to  the  ruins 
of  some  houses,  which  appear  to  have  been  hewn 
in  the  rock.  These  basaltic  columns,  at  first 
view,  seem  to  resemble  those  of  the  Giant's 
Causeway,  and  others  commonly  met  with :  But 
on  a  nearer  inspection,  we  find  this  difference, 
that  the  former  are  assembled  in  groups  of  five  or 
six  about  one,  which  serves  as  their  common  cen- 
tre, and  are  of  various  sizes  and  forms ;  some , 
square,  others  hexagonal,  heptagonal,  or  octago- 
nal. It  seems  also  peculiar  to  that  neighbour- 
hood, that  some  portions  of  the  basaltic  formation 
piesent  the  likeness  of  cannon  or  hollow  cylinders, 
varying  in  their  diameters  from  six«  inches  to 


twenty'  feet ;  but  these  descriptions  not  being  so 
well  authenticated  as  some  whieh  we  possess  q( 
basaltes  nearer  home,  we  mav  proceed  to  remark, 
that  in  Ireland  the  basalt  forming  the  -Gianfs 
Causeway  rises  far  up  the  counUy,  runs  into  the 
sea,  crosses  at  die  bottom,  and  rises  again  on  the 
opposite  land.  The  immense  pilhirs  of  it  have 
been  very  particularly  described  and  examined 
in  a  work  entitled  Letters  concerning  the  north- 
em  coast  of  the  county  of  Antrim ;  fromr  which 
the  following  brief  particulars  are  extracted  :— 
'  1.  The  pillars  of  the  Causeway  are  small,  not 
^very  mucn  exceeding  one  foot  in  breadth,  and 
thirty  in  length;  sharply  defined,  neat  in  their 
articulation,  with  concave  or  convex  terminations 
to  each  point.  (Basaltes,  fig.  5.)  In  many  of 
the  capes  and  hills  they  are  of  a  laiger  size, 
more  imperfect  and  irregular  in  their  figure  and 
articulation,  having  often  flat  termiiiationtt  to  6>eir 
points.  At  Fairh^  they  are  of  a  gigantic  ma^ 
nitude,  sometimes  exceeding  five  feet  in  bread£, 
and  100  in  length ;  often  apparently  destitute  of 
joints  altogether.  Through  many  parts  of  the 
country  this  species  of  stone  is  entirely  rude  and 
unfbrmed,  separating  ^n  loose  blocks;  in  which 
state  it  resembles  the  stone  known  in  Sweden  by 
the  name  of  trappe.  2.  The.  pillais  of  the 
Giant's  Causeway  stood  on  the  level  of  the  beach, 
whence  they  may  be  traced  through  all  de- 
grees of  elevation  to  the  suhimit  of  the  highest 
grounds  in  the  neighbourhood.  3.  At  the  Cause- 
way, and  in  most  other  places,  they  stand  per- 
pendicular to  the  horizon.  In  some  of  the  capes, 
and  particularly  near  Ushet  harbour,  m  the  isle  of 
Baghery,  they  lie  in  an  oblique  position.  At 
Doon  Foint,  in  the  same  island,  and  along  the 
Balintoy  shore,  they  form  a  variety  of  ngahr 
curves.  4.  The  stone  is  black,  dose,  and  uni- 
form ;  the  varieties  of  color  are  blue,  reddish, 
and  gray ;  and  of  all  kindji*  of  grain,  from  extreme 
fineness  to  the  coarse  granulated  appearance  of  a 
stone  which  resembles  imperfect  granite,  abound- 
ing in  crystals  of  schorl,  chiefly  black,  though 
sometimes  of  various  colors.  5.  Though  the  stone 
of  the  Giant's  Causeway  be  in  general  compact 
and  homogeneous,  yet  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
upper  joint  of  each  pillar,  where  it  can  be  ascer- 
tained vrith  any  certaipty,  is  always  rudely 
formed  and  cellular.  Tile  gross  pillais  also, 
in  the  capes  and  mountains,  frequently  abound 
in  these  air-holes  through  all  their  parts,  which 
sometimes  contain  fine  clay,'  and  other  am- 
Tently  foreign  bodies :  and  the  irregular  oas- 
altes  beginning  where  the  pillars  cease,  or  lying 
over  them,  is  in  general  extremely  hoeey- 
•ombed;  contaitiing  in  its  cells  ciyftals  trf* 
zeolite,  little  morsels  of  fine  brown  clay,  SDme- 
times  very  pure  steatite,  and  in  a  few  insttmces, 
bits  of  agate.' 

In  St^  one  of  the  western  isles  of  Scodaad, 
the  whole  end  of  the  island  is  supported  by 
ranges  of  pillars,  mostly  about  fifty  feet  high» 
standing  in  natural  colonnades,  according  as  Uic 
bays  and  points  of  land  have  formed  themselves, 
upon  a  firm  basis  of  solid  unformed  rock.  Above 
these,  the  stratum,  which  reaches  to  the  soil  or 
surface  of  the  island,  varies  in  thidcness,  as  the 
island  itself  is  formed  into  hills  or  valleys,  each 
hill,  which  hangs  over  the  valleys  below,  ibrow 


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601 


m^  an  ample  pediment.  Some  of  these,  above 
sixty  feet  in  thickness  (torn  the  base  to  the  point, 
are  farmed  by  the  sloping  of  the  hill  ou  each  side, 
almost  into  tne  shape  of  those  used  in  architec- 
ture. Sir  Joseph  Banks  observed  that  the  bend- 
ing pillars  of  Stafi^  differ  considerably  from  those 
of  the  Giant's  Causeway.  In  Staffii  they  lie 
down  on  their  sides,  each  forming  the  segment 
of  a  circle ;  and  in  one  place  a  small  mass  of 
them  ?ery  much  resembles  the  ribs  of  a  ship. 
Those  of  the  Giant's  Causeway,  which  he  saw, 
ran  along  tlie  hce  of  a  high  cliff,  bent  strangely 
in  the  middle,  as  if  unable  at  their  first  form- 
ation, while  in  a  soft  state,  to  support  the  mass 
of  incumbent  earth. 

Sir  William  Hamilton  informs  us,  that  in  1779 
he  picked  up  some  fragments  of  laige  and  regu- 
lar crystals  of  close-grained  lava  or  basalt,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Vesuvius,  the  diameter  of 
which,  when  the  prisms  were  complete,  might  have 
been  eight  or  nine  inches.  He  observes,  that 
Vesuvius  does  not  exhibit  any  lavas  regularly 
crystallised,  and  forming  what  are  ealled  Giants' 
Causeways,  except  a  lava  that  ran  into  the  sea, 
near  Torre  del  Greco,  in  1631,  which  has  a  small 
degree  of  such  an  appearance.  As  the  fragments 
of  basaltes  which  be  found  on  this  mountain, 
however,  had  been  evidently  thrown  out  of  the 
crater  in  their  proper  form,  he  puts  the  question, 
'May  not  lavas  be  more  ready  to  crystallise 
vfithm  the  bowels  of  a  volcano  than  after  their 
emission?  And  may  not  many  of  the  Giants' 
Causeways  already  discovered  be  the  nuclei  of 
volcanie  mountains,  whose  lighter  and  less  solid 
IKurts  may  have  been  worn  away  by  the  hand  of 
time  ?  Mr.  Faujas  de  St.  Fond  gives  an  exam- 
ple of  basalt  columns  placed  deep  witliin  the 
crater  of  an  unextinguished  volcano.' 

We  suppose  this  writer  to  allude  to  the  moun- 
tain of  Aisa,  called  La  Coupe,  or  the  Col  d'Aisa, 
situated  near  the  village  Entrague,  in  the  Viva- 
rais.  This  village,  according  ^o  St.  Fond,  is 
placed  on  a  kind  of  platform  of  volcanic  matter 
above  the  torrent  of  the  Volant,  which  has  here 
excavated  a  bed  of  great  depth  and  width,  boi^ 
dered  on  the  right  and  left  by  grand  ranges  of 
basaltic  columns.  In  the  midst  of  a  prodigious 
rampart  of  these  columns,  at  different  levels,  may 
be  seen  a  current  of  lava  descending  from  a 
neighbouring  mountain,  and  joining  the  columns 
that  bolder  the  river.  Here  we  see,  in  the  most 
unequivocal  and  convincing  manner,  that  the 
lava,  under  the  form  of  hard  and  compact  basalt, 
has  flowed  at  several  times  from  the  mountain, 
and  has  formed  the  great  causeways  at  different 
heights,  to  which  the  lava  is  still  united  and  ad- 
hering. We  may  follow  the  current  of  basalt  up 
the  declivity  of  the  mountain,  which  has  a  conical 
form  and  a  great  elevation,  and  is  entirely  vol- 
canic from  the  base  to  the  summit.  According 
to  St.  Fond,  it  is  the  most  remarkable  and  best 
characterised  crater  in  all  the  Vivarais. 

All  the  base  of  the  conical  mountain  I^  Coupe 
is  covered  by  porous  and  cellular  lava  in  detached 
irregular  masses,  heaped  on  each  other,  so  as  to 
leave  no  doubt  that  tney  have',  been  ejected  in  a 
liquid  state  by  one  or  more  formidable  eruptions, 
and  have  taken  their  forms  as  they  fell  at  the  foot 
of  the  cone.  On  reaching  the  summit  or  edge  of 


the  crater,  we  may  see  the  whole  mountain,  which 
forms  a  regular  cone  resembling  that  of  Vesuvius. 
The  edges  of  the  crater  are  steep,  and  formed  in 
the  shape  of  a  tunnel ;  the  greatest  diameter  be- 
ing from  140  to  150  toises,  and  the  depth  about 
60k)  feet.  The  lavas  are  colored,  and  converted 
into  a  kind  of  puzzolani,  and  mixed  with  great 
masses  of  black  and  sharp  scoris,'  which  makes 
the  descent  difficult.  At  the  bottom  of  this  in- 
verted cone  is  a  magnificent  plantation  of  chest- 
nut-trees, which  have  flourished  astonishingly  in 
this  ancient  mouth  of  a  volcano,  having  no  other 
soil  than  the  dry  and  friable  puzzolani.  It  may 
be  noticed,  that  the  crater  of  Vesuvius  was  lined 
with  lofty  trees  at  the  period  of  its  eruption  in 
1631.  At  the  bottom  of  the  crater,  in  La  Coupe, 
we  may  observe  a  breach  or  opening  on  the  side 
facing  the  houses  of  the  Col  a'Aisa;  there  is  a 
general  inclination  to  this  opening,  which  has 
served  to  give  a  passage  to  the  lava.  When  we 
are  arrived  at  the  opening  we  may  observe  » 
stream  of  lava  coming  from  the  interior,  and 
taking  its  cpurse  down  the  mountain,  it  descends 
in  a  waving  direction  amidst  the  porous  lavas. 
This  current  is  a  true  black  basalt,  compact  and 
similar  to  that  of  the  columns ;  in  certain  parts 
its  surface  appears  blistered,  and  in  other  places 
it  becomes  porous.  Following  the  current  of  lava, 
after  it  has  crossed  the  path,  which  is  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain,  we  may  trace  its  course  to  the 
bed  of  a  torrent  not  far  from  the  high  road.  There 
may  be  seen,  says  St.  Fond,  a  spectacle  most 
gratifying  to  the  geologist ;  for  the  lava  whilst 
still  on  the  descent,  and  before  it  had  reached  the 
level  ground,  has  effected  a  prismatic  form ;  and 
the  lava  at  the  bottom  has  formed  a  beautiful 
colonnade. 

There  is  a  similar  conical  mountain  in  the  Viva- 
rais, with  a  distinct  and  much  larger  crater, 
called  La  Coupe  de  Jaujeac.  The  river  Vignon 
flows  at  the  foot  of  it.  On  its  banks  are  immense 
ranges  of  basaltic  columns,  the  most  elevated  of 
any  in  the  Vivarais.  They  enclose  the  borders  of 
the  river  on  each  side  for  more  than  a  league. 
Some  of  the  prisms  rise  in  one  shaft  to  the  height 
of  fifty  feet ;  m  other  parts,  the  articulated  columns 
form  a  kind  of  regular  causeway.  In  some  places 
the  columns  are  bent,  and  abovewe  see  immense 
ramparts  of  basalt,  of  more  than  140  feet  in 
height,  in  several  range^,  spreading  out  like  a 
fan,  and  diverging  in  eveiy  direction.  On  the 
left,  the  current  of  basalt  covers  several  little  hills 
of  granite,  and  is  moulded  upon  them.  In  some 
parts  the  compact  lava  forms  one  solid  mass ;  in 
other  places  it  is  arranged  in  great  beds.  Nothing 
can  be  more  grand  and  varied,  says  St.  Fond, 
than  the  courseof  the  river  Vignon  to  the  Ardeche, 
where  the  great  current' of  lava  joins  the  streams 
that  have  flowed  from  the  volcanoes  of  Thueyts 
and  Neyrac. — Faujas  St,  Fond  sur  ki  VoUans 
eteint%  du  Vivarait  et  du  Velay, 

Having  noticed  the  principal  localities  ot 
basalt,  we  may  now  observe  that  the  structure  or 
form  in  which  it  appears,  presents  one  of  its  most 
striking  peculiarities.  This  would  .seem  to  be 
essentially  the  same  in  the  various  and  immense 
stores  of* it  yet  discovered;  so  that  the  accurate 
description  of  one  basaltic  deposit  might  serve, 
as  far  as  any  purposes  of  science  are  concerned, 


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602 


B    A 


for  that  of  any  other.  Mr.  Hamilton,  for  instance, 
the  author  of  the  Letters  on  Antrim,  describes 
the  Giant's  Causeway  in  language  which  might 
at  once  be  applied  to  the  picturesque  pillars  of 
Statfa;  telling  us  that  the  pillars  of  the  former, 
varying  in  their  length  and  thickness  from  30 
feet  to  100,  and  from  one  foot  to  five  respectively, 
rise  fVom  the  level  of  the  beach,  and  ascend 
^^daatly  into  the  greatest  elevations  of  the 
neighbouring  hills.  These  colonnades,  we  are 
also  informed,  are  generally  perpendicular  to  the 
horizon,  and  particularly  at  ike  causeway  itself; 
but  it  is  added  that,  in  the  vicinity,  they  are  not 
unfrequently  observed  lying  in  an  oblique  posi- 
tion, and  assuming  a  great  variety  of  regular 
curves.  The  same  fiicts  are  recorded  in  reference 
to  the  famed  rocks  of  the  Cyclops.  The  columns 
there,  as  at  Staffa  and  Antrim,  are  of  various 
sizes  and  forms,  as  we  have  indeed  already 
noticed ;  some  being  four-sided,  others  hexagonal, 
heptagonal,  octagonal,  and  even  nine-sided; 
which  last  is  the  rarest  form  which  basalt  ever 
assumes.  Tlie  position,  too,  is  equally  various ; 
some  standing  erect,  whilst  others  are  laid  on 
their  sides,  piled  above  one  another  like  sacks  of 
com  in  a  granary.  The  jointed  columns  too  are 
of  ever-varying  lengths  and  joints ;  some  a  few 
inches,  others  many  feet  long,  found  occasionally 
bent,  but  generally  nicely  fitted  up,  as  by  the 
bands  of  a  most  skilful  mechanic. 

Kirwan  is  also  of  opinion,  that  the  basaltes 
owe  their  origin  both  to  fire  and  water;  they 
seem  to  have  been  at  first  a  lava,  he  observes  ; 
but  this,  while  immersed  in  it  water,  was  so  dif- 
fused or  dissolved  in  it  with  the  assistance  of  heat, 
as  to  crystallise  when  cold,  or  coalesce  into  regu- 
lar forms.  That  basaltes  is  not  the  effect  of  mere 
fusion,  he  concludes  from  comparing  its  form 
with  its  texture.  Its  form,  if  produced  by  fusion, 
ought  to  be  the  effect  of  having  flowed  very  thin ; 
but  in  that  case  its  texture  should  be  glassy: 
whereas  it  is  merely  earthy,  and  devoid  of  cavities. 
Hence,  we  may  understand  how  it  comes  to  pass 
that  lava  perfectly  vitrified,  and  even  water,  have 
been  found  enclosed  in  masses  of  basaltes. 

It  is  known,  in  confirmation  of  this  reasoning, 
that  when  lava  runs  into  the  sea,  it  does  in  most 
cases  actually  assume  •the  basaltic  structure 
more  or  less  perfectly :  and,  it  is  worthy  of  par- 
ticular observation,  that  all  the  columnar  trap 
which  has  attracted  any  attention  on  account  of 
its  regularity  or  beauty,  is  cither  altogether  insu- 
lar or  situated  near  the  ocean. 

As  to  its  formation  and  analysis :— 'Ten  years 
ago,'  says  Mr.  Bergman,*  it  was  a  general  opi- 
nion, that  the  surface  of  the  earth,  together  with 
the  mountains,  had  been  produced  by  moisture. 
ft  is  true  that  some  declared  fire  to  be  the  original 
cause,  but  the  greater  number  paid  little  atten- 
tion to  this  opinion.  Now,  on  the  contrary,  the 
opinion  that  subterraneous  fire  had  been  the 
principal  agent  gains  ground  daily ;  and  every 
thing  IS  supposed  to  have  been  melted,  even  to 
the  granite.  My  own  opinion  is,  that  both  the 
fire  and  water  nave  contributed  their  share  in 
this  operation ;  though  in  such  proportion  that 
the  force  of  the  former  extends  much  farther  than 
the  latter ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  fire  has 
only  worked  in  some  parts  of  the  surface  of  tfie 


ALT. 

earth.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  there  has  been 
some  connexion  betwixt  the  liasaltic  pillars  and 
subterraneous  fire ;  as  they  are  found  in  places 
where  the  marks  of  fire  are  yet  visible ;  and  as  they 
are  even  found  mixed  with  lava,  tophus,  and  other 
substances  produced  by  fire.  As  hi  as  we  know, 
nature  makes  use  of  three  methods  to  produce 
regular  forms  in  the  mineral  kingdom.  1.  That 
of  crystallisation  or  precipitation.  2.  The  cftist- 
ing  or  settling  of  the  external  sur6ce  of  a  liquid 
mass  while  it  is  cooling :  and  3.  The  bursting  of 
a  moist  substance  while  it  is  drying.  1 .  The  Itft 
method  is  the  most  common ;  but  to  all  appear- 
ance, nature  has  not  made  use.of  it  in  the  present 
case.  Crystals  are  seldom  or  never  found  in  any 
quantity  running  in  the  same  direction ;  but  either 
inclining  from  one  another,  or,  what  is  still  mortr 
common,  placed  towards  dne  another  in  sloping 
directions.  They  arc  also  generally  separated  a 
little  firom  one  another  when  they  are  regular. 
The  nature  of  the  thing  Teqtiires  this,  because  the 
several  particles  of  which  the  crystals  are  com- 
posed must  have  the  liberty  of  obeying  chat 
Cer  which  afibcts  their  donstitution.  The 
Itic  columns  on  the  contralry,  whose  height 
infrequently  from  tliirtyto  forty  feet,  are  placed 
parallel  to  one  another  in  considerable  numbers, 
and  so  close'Vogether  that' the  point  of  a  knife 
can  hardly  be  introduced  between  them.  Be- 
sides, in  most  places,  each  pillar  Is  divided  into 
several  parts  or  joints,  which  Seem  to  be  placed 
on  one  another.  And  indeed  it  is  not  vncom- 
mon  for  crystals  to  be  formed  one'above  another 
in  different  layers,  while  the  s6lvetit  has  been 
visibly  diminished  at  different  times :  but  then  the 
upper  crystals  never  sit  so  '  exactly  upon  one 
another  as  to  prodnce  connected  {irisms  of  the 
same  length  or  depth  in  all  the  strata  taken  t> 
gether;  but  each  stratum,  separately  taken,  pro- 
duces its  own  crystals.  Precipitation,  botn  in 
tlie  wet  and  dry  way,  requires  that  the  particles 
should  be  free' enough  to  arrange  themselves  in  a 
certain  order ;  and  as  this  is  not  practicable  in  a 
large  melted  ma^,  no  crystallisations  appear,  ex- 
cepting on  its  surface  or  in  its  cavities. 

Bergman  found  that  the  component  parts  of 
various  specimens  of  Basaltes  were,  at  a  medium 
52  parts  silex,  15  alumina,  8  cartxmate  of  lime, 
and  25  iron. 

Several  modem  mineralogiste  have  analysed 
basalt,  and  other  trap  rocks,  to  discover  their 
affinity  with  one  another,  and  to  the  lava  of  rfA 
canos,  of  whiththey  ai*  all  conceived  to  be 
only  varieties.  Indeed  the  fiicts  we  have  already 
given  of  the  basaltic  formations  in  France,  «em 
to  put  the  question  at  rest  The  following  results 
obtained  by  Dr.  Kennedy,  are  extracted  from 
the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Transactions. 

The  basalt  firom  Staffa  contains  in  100  parts 

Silex 48 

Argil 16 

Oxide  of  iron  ....  16 

Lime 9 

Soda     ......  4 

Muriatic  acid      ...  1 

Lews 6 

100 


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The  la?a  of  Cataaea,  Mount  iEtua,  contains 
in  100  parts, 

Silex 51 

Argil 19 

Oxide  of  iron  ....  14*5 

Lime 9*5 

Soda 4 

Muriatic  acid  .    .    .  •  .      1 
Loss 1 

100 
The  greenstone  of  Salisbury  craig,  contains  in 
100  parts, 

Silex 46 

Argil 19 

Oxide  of  iron  ....    17 

Dme 8 

Soda 3-5 

Muriatic  acid  ....      1 
Loss 5*5 

100 
The  lava  of  Santa  Venese,  Mount  iEtna,  con- 
tains in  100  parts, 

Silex 50-75 


Argil  .  .  . 
Oxide  of  iron  . 
Lime  .  .  . 
Soda  .  .  . 
Muriatic  acid  . 
Loss      .    .    . 


17-5 

14-25 

10 

4 

1 

2-95 


100 
The  greenstone  of  Calton  hill,  at  Edinburgh, 
contains  in  100  parts, 

Silex      ......    50 

Argil 18-50 

Oxide  of  iron  ....    16-75 
Lime     ......      3 

Soda 4 

Muriatic  acid  ....      1 
Loss 6-75 


in  basalt  or  wacke.  Color  Telvet-black.  Lustre 
vitreous.  Scratches  glass.  Sp.  gr.  3*25.  Fuses 
with  difficulty  into  a  black  glass.  It  consists  of  47 
silica,  26  alumina,  8  lime,  2  ms^nesia,  15  iron, 
and  0-5  water.  It  is  found  in  the  basalt  of 
Arthur's  Seat,  in  that  of  Fifeshire,  and  in  the 
isles  of  Mull,  Canna,  Eigg,  and  Sky.  It  is  found 
also  in  the  basaltic  and  floetz  trap  rocks  of  Eng- 
land, Irebmd,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Hungary,  France, 
and  Spain. 

BASAN.    See  Bashait. 

BASANITE,  in  mineralogy,  is  a  variety  of 
silicious  slate,  commonly  known  under  the  name 
of  touchstone,  and  has  been  used  both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times,  to  determine  the  purity  of 
|[old  and  silver  by  Uie  color  of  the  streak  which 
those  metals  leave  when  rubbed  on  it.  The  per- 
manency or  otherwise  of  the  streak,  under  the 
application  of  nitric  acid,  is  a  further  test  of  the 
purity  of  gold.  Other  stones  have  been  occasion- 
ally applied  to  this  purpose.    See  Assay. 

BASANWOW,  in  the  Celtic  mythology,  was 
the  son  of  Diodes,  the  king  of  the  Sicambrians. 
He  disappeared  suddenly,  after  having  reigned 
thirty-six  years,  was  supposed  to  have  ascended 
to  heaven,  and  was  honored  by  the  Germans  as 
the  god  of  armies. 

BASARTSCHIK,  a  considerable  town  of 
European  Turkey,  in  Romania.  It  is  well  built, 
and  has  clean  and  broad  streets.  It  b  situated 
on  the  river  Maritz. 

BASARUCO,  in  commerce,  a  small  base  coin 
in  the  East  Indies,  made  of  very  bad  tin.  Of  this 
coin  there  arc  two  sorts ;  the  base  sort  is  one- 
sixth  lower  in  value  than  the  good.  Three 
basarucos  are  equal  to  two  reee  of  Portugal. 

BAS-BRETON,  the  language  of  the  natives 
of  Bretagne,  or  Brittany. 

BASCANIA,  in  antiquity,  ridiculous  or  gro- 
tesque figures,  hungup  by  the  ancient  smiths  be- 
fore their  furnaces,  as  charms  against  envy. 

BAS-CHEVALIER.    See  Bachelor. 


100 
The  amorphous  basaltes,  known  by  (he  name  of 
Rowley  Rag,  the  ferrilite  of  Kirwan,  of  the  speci- 
fic gravity  of  2*748,  afforded  Dr.  Withering  47-5 
of  silex,  32*5  of  alumina,  aiid  20  of  iron,  at  a 
very  low  degree  of  oxidation.  Klaproth  gives, 
for  the  analysis  of  the  prismatic  basaltes  of  Ha- 
senberg,  silex  44-5,  alumina  16-75,  oxide  of  iron 
20,  lime  9*5,  magnesia  2-25,  oxide  of  manganese 
0-12,  soda  2-60,  v^ter  2.  On  a  subsequent 
analysis,  with  a  view  to  detect  the  existence  qf 
muriatic  acid,  he  found  slight  indications  .of 
it,  but  it  was  in  an  extremely  minute  piopor- 
tion. 

On  the  whole,  the  affinity  between  lava  and 
trap  rock  formations  seems  established,  but  for 
further  information  we  would  refer  the  reader  to 
the  interesting  work  of  Dr.  M'CuUoch,  on  the 
western  isles;  Dr.  Bout's  Essai  Geologique  sur 
r  Ecosse,  Necker  de  Saussure ;  and  the  Geologi- 
cal Essays  of  Messrs.  Buckland,  Conybeare,  and 
Daoting.  ■ 

BASALTIC  HoRNEBLENDB,  ocGurs  usually 
in  opaque  six-eided  single  crystals,  which  some- 
times act  on  the  magnetic  needle.  It  is  imbedd^ 


BASE,  V.  It.  &  aegr 

Baseless, 

Ba'sely, 

Ba'seness, 

Bassborn, 

Bas£>String 


Derived  from  Baoic, 
that  upon  which  we  tread, 
stand,  or  go,  from  Bacvw, 
^Boivctv,  to  go.  Thus  it 
meaas  with  regard  to 
locality,  any  thing  low ; 


the  lower  part  of  a  pedestal,  and  the  foundation 
on  which  it  rests ;  any  thing  spurious  or  mixed. 
It  is  metaphorically  applied  to  sounds ;  to  dis- 
positions of  the  mind;  to  actions;  to  general 
character.  Thus  it  signifies  whatever  is  lowered, 
degraded,  disgraced,  shameful,  vile,  mean,  and 
worthless.  It  is,  however,  a  stronger  term  of 
reproach  than  those  employed  to  express  its 
meaning :  mean  and  vile,  especially,  convey  a 
very  inadequate  sense  of  it.  Bate  mariis  a  nigh 
degree  of  moral  turpitude;  vile  and  mean  de- 
note, in  different  degrees,  the  want  of  all  value 
or  esteem ;  what  is  base  excites  our  abhorrence ; 
what  is  vile  provokes  disgust;  what  is  mean 
awakens  contempt.  A  base  voice  or  sound,,  is  a 
low  deep  voice  or  sound. 

Mete  the  space  from  thy  foot*  to  the  horn  of  the  toore. 

(^meer,    Attroiabie. 

And  I  will  yet  be  nunc  vile  tbiiii  thii,  and  will  be 

h^t^  in  nine  own  stghL  2  Sam, 


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BASE. 


.    Upon  this  hoMt  a  c^iriout  work  is  raU'd, 
Like  undivided  brick,  entire  and  one ; 

Though  soft,  yet  lasting,  with  just  balance  pois*d ; 
Distributed  with  due  proportion. 

P.  Fktcher.     Purple  Island. 
Instead  of  music,  and  ba$c  flattering  tongues. 

Which  wait  to  first  salute  my  lord's  uprise  ', 
The  cheerful  lark  wakes  him  with  early  song. 

And  birds'  sweet  whistlii^  notes  unlock  his  eyes.  Id, 
By  him  Andicou  pac'd  of  middle  age. 

His  mind  as  far  from  rashness,  as  from  fears ; 
Hating  bate  thoughts,  as  mnch  as  despesate  rage* 
'    The  world's  loud  thunderiags  he  unshaken  hears, 
VtT  will  he  death  or  life,  or  seek  or  fly ; 

Ready  for  both — He  is  as  cowardly 
Who  longer  fears  to  live,  as  he  who  fears  to  die.    Id. 

What  if  it  tempt  thee  tow'rd  the  flood,  my  lord  ? 
Or  to  the  dreadfiil  summit  of  the  cli£f. 
That  beetles  o'er  his  &Me  into  the  sea?      Shakgpean, 
If  that  rebellion 

Came,  like  itself,  in  baee  and  abject  routs. 

You,  reverend  &ther,  and  these  noble  lords. 

Had  not  been  here.  Id. 

It  could  not  else  be,  I  should  prove  so  ha$e 

To  sue  and  be  denied  such  common  grace.  Id, 

Why,  butardt  wherefore  baeef 

When  my  dimensions  an  as  well  compact 

As  honest  madam's  issue.  Id, 

The  king  is  not  himself,  but  6aMfy  led 

By  flatterers.  Id, 

Why  brand  they  us 

With  bate?  with  batenem?  bastardy?  Id. 

I  have  sounded  the  very  boss-string  of  mortality. 

Id,     Henry  IVth. 

Men  of  weak  abilities  in  great  place,'  arc  like  little 
statues  set  on  great  baeef,  made  the  less  by  their  ad- 
vancement. Bacon. 

Insurrections  of  base  people  are  commonly  more  fu- 
rious in  their  beginnings.  Id, 

In  pipes,  the  lower  the  note  holes  be,  and  the  fur- 
ther from  the  month  of  the  pipe,  the  more  boat  sound 
they  yield.  Id, 

The  just  and  measured  proportion  of  the  air  per- 
cussed towards  the  baseneu  or  trebleneas  of  tones,  is 
one  of  the  greatest  secrets  in  tho  contemplation  of 
sounds.  Id, 

This  young  lord  lost  his  life  with  his  father  in  the 
field,  and  with  them  a  baee  son.  Camdm'e  Rem, 

A  lieutenant  baadjf  gave  it  up,  as  soon  as  Essex  in 
his  passage  demanded  it.  Clarendon, 

If  fortune  hath  envyed  me  wealth,  thieves  have 
robbed  me,  my  father  have  not  left  mc  such  revenues 
as  others  have,  that  I  am  a  younger  brother  baadjf 
bom,  of  mean  parentage,  a  dirt-dauber's  son,  am  I 
therefore  to  be  blamed  ?  an  eagle,  a  bull,  a  lion,  is 
not  rejected  for  his  poverty,  and  why  should  a  man  ? 
'Tis  fortune's  fault ;  not  mine.  Anai,  Mekmcholy, 
Swinish  gluttony 

Ne'er  looks  to  heaven  amidst  his  gorgeous  feast. 

But  with  besotted  bate  ingratitude 

Crams  and  blasphemes  his  feeder.   MUton*t  Coimu, 

Phalasttts  was  all  in  white,  having  his  ftosef  and 
caparison  embroided.     Sidn^. 

Since  the  perfections  are  such  in  the  party  I  love, 
as  the  feeling  of  them  cannot  come  onto  any  onnoble 
heart ;  shall  that  heart,  lifted  np  to  such  a  height,  be 
counted  base.  Id, 

We  hold,  that  seeing  there  is  not  any  man  of  the 
Church  of  Bngland  but  the  same  man  is  also  a  mem- 
bet  of  the  commonwealth,  nor  any  member  of  the 
commonwealth  which  is  not  also  of  the  Church  cf 
England ;  therefore,  as  in  a  figure  triangle,  the  bate 
doth  differ  from  the  sides  thereof,  and  yet  one  and 
tiic  self  •same  line  is  both  a  bate  and  also  a  side ;  a 


Id, 


tide  simply ;  a  bate  if  it  chance  to  be  tho  bottom  aad 
underlie  the  rest :  so,  albeit,  properties  and  adioos  of 
one  do  cause  the  name  of  a  commonwealth,  qoaUdes 
and  functions  of  another  sort,  the  name  ol  the  church 
to  be  given  to  a  multitude,  yet  one  and  the  lelf-ssme 
multitude  may  in  such  sort  be  both. 

Hooker.     Bedet.  PeL 
Which  when  the  cruel  Amaoon  peroeiv'd 

She  'gan  to  storme,  and  rage,  and  rend  her  gall 
For  very  fell  despight,  which  she  conceiv'd 

To  be  so  sconied  of  a  bace-b<Mrn  thrall. 
Whose  life  did  lie  in  her  least  eye-lids'  fall. 
Such  is  the  power  of  that  sweet  paasion. 
That  it  all  sordid  batenett  doth  expel. 
The  silver-sounding  instruments  did  meet 

With  the  bate  murmur  of  the  water's  hil ; 
The  water's  fall,  with  difference  discieet. 

Now  soft,  now  loud,  unto  the  wind  did  call ; 
The  gentlo  warbling  wind  low  answered  to  all. 

If  the  lords  and  chief  men  degenerate,  what  shall 
be  hoped  of  the  peasants  and  bater  people. 

Id.     On  IreUed, 
Oh !  she  is  the  pride  and  glory  of  the  world ; 
Without  her  all  the  rest  is  worthless  drossy 
Life  a  &o«8  slavery  ;  empire  but  a  mock  y. 
And  love,  the  soul  of  all,  a  bitter  curse. 

Roehetter't  Valetdimmn. 
Nor  shall  it  e'er  be  said  that  wight. 
With  gauntlet  blue  and  batet  white. 
And  round  blunt  truncheon  by  his  side. 
So  great  a  man  at  arms  defy'd.  HwdibroB. 

He,  whose  mind 
Is  virtuous,  »  alone  of  noble  kind  ^ 
Though  poor  in  fortune,  of  celestial  race ; 
And  he  commits  the  crime  who  calls  him  hate. 

Dryden. 

At  thy  well-sharpen'd  thumb,  from  shore  to  Khorp, 

The  trebles  squeak  for  fear,  the  batet  roar.  Id. 

Your  soul's  above  the  batenett  of  distrost. 

Nothing  but  love  could  make  you  so  oj^tist.        Id, 

We  alleged  the  fraudulent  obtaining  his  rateas, 

the  batenett  of  his  metal,  and  the  prodigioos  som  t» 

hf  coined.  &pi/>. 

When  a  man's  folly  must  be  spread  open  before  the 

angels,  and  all  his  batenett  ript  up  before  those  pare 

spirits,  this  will  be  a  doable  hell.  SoiOk 

It  is  bate  in  his  adversaries  thus  to  dwell  upon  th  ^ 

excesses  of  a  passion.  A  tterhurit . 

At  the  first  grin  he  cast  every  human  featurf>  out 

of  his  countenance  ^  at  the  second  he  became  the  head 

of  a  6as8-viol.  AdditM. 

A  guinea  is  pure  gold,  if  it  has  nothing  but  gold  la 

it,  without  any  alloy  or  bater  metal.  Wattt, 

But  see  thy  &a«e«bom  chUd,  thy  babe  of  shame. 
Who,  left  by  thee,  upon  our  parish  came.  Gog. 

Those  wise  old  men,  those  plodding  grave  ataxe 
pedants. 
Forget  the  course  of  youth ;  their  crooked  Prudence, 
To  batenett  verging  still,  forgets  to  take 
Into  their  finespun  schemes  the  generwis  heart. 
That  through  the  cobweb  system  bursting  lays 
Their  labours  waste. 

rAomsoa's  Tattondamd  %faiiirfrr 

When  men  of  rank  sacrifice  all  ideas  of  dignity  to 

ambition  without  a  distinct  otgect,  aad  woik  wiih 

low  instruments  for  low  ends,  the  whole  cumpnettiap 

becomes  low  and  bate,  Bm^ 

Oh,  ye  seven  hills !  awaken, 

Ero  your  very  bate  be  shaken.  Bj/roL. 

Base.  A  game  or  play;  to  keep  nonr^ 
about  one  spot  of  ground. 

The  first  day  of  the  challenge  at  baee,  or  rsansng, 
the  king  won.  Bmmei*t  Mitt.  e/Bef^^^ 


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605 


Base,  in  arcliitectxiie,  is  used  for  any  body 
which  bean  another,  but  particularly  for  the 
lower  part  of  a  column  and  pedestal.  The 
ancients,  in  the  early  times  of  arcnitecture,  used 
no  bases.  The  doric  columns  in  the  temple  of 
Minerva  at  Athens  have  none,  biit  stand  immedi- 
ately upon  the  floor  of  the  porch.  Columns 
afterwanis  came  to  be  supported  on  square  pieces 
called  plinths,  and  after  that  on  pedestals.  The 
base  of  a  column,  of  whatsoever  order,  on  a  pe- 
destal, is  that  part  which  coraes  between  the  top 
of  the  pedestal  and  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  of  the 
column ;  when  there  is  no  pedestal,  it  is  the  pant 
between  the  bottom  of  the  column  and  the  plinth : 
some  have  included  the  plinth  as  a  part  of  the 
base,  but  it  is  properly  the  piece  on  which  the 
base  stands,  as  toe  column  stands  upon  that. 
The  pedestal  also  has  its  base  as  well  as  the  co- 
lumn, and  the  pilaster.  The  base  of  columns  is 
differently  formed  in  the  different  orders ;  but  in 
general  it  is  composed  of  certain  spires  or  circles, 
and  was  thence  in  early  times  called  the  spire  of 
a  column.  These  circles  were  in  this  case  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  folds  of  a  snake  as  it  lies 
rolled  up ;  but  they  are  properly  the  represen- 
tations of  several  larger  and  smaller  rings  or  circles 
of  iron,  with  which  the  trunks  of  trees,  which 
were  the  ancient  columns,  were  surrounded  to 
prevent  their  bursting;  these  were  rude  and  irre- 
gular, but  the  sculptor  who  imitated  them  in  stone 
found  the  way  to  make  them  elegant.  The  base 
is  different  in  the  different  orders :  thus, 

Base,  Composite,  has  an  astragal  less  than 
the  Corinthian. 

Base»  Corinth  I  AKy  has- two  toru8es,two  sco- 
tias  and  a  fillet. 

Base,  Doric,  has  an  astragal  more  than  the 
Tuscan,  though  that  was  introduced  by  the  mo- 
dems. 

Base,  Ionic,  has  a  lage  torus  over  two  slender 
scotias,  separated  by  two  astragals:  though  in 
iI>o  most  ancient  monuments  of  this  order  there 
are  no  bases  at  all;  which  the  architects  are  at  a 
loss  to  account  for. 

Base,  Tuscan,  is  the  most  simple  of  all  others ; 
coiisisting  of  a  single  torus  besides  the  plinth. 

Base,  in  chemistry.    See  Basis. 

Base,  in  fortification,  the  exterior  side  of  the 
polygon,  or  that  imaginary  line  which  is  drawn 
trom  the  flanked  angle  of  a  bastion  to  the  angle 
opposite  to  it. 

Base,  in  geometry,  the  lowest  side  of  tlie 
perimeter  of  a  figure. 

Base  op  a  Conic  Section,  a  right  line  in  the 
hyperbola  and  parabola,  arising  from  the  com- 
mon intersection  of  the  secant  plane  and  the  base 
of  the  cone. 

Base  op  a  Rectangled  Triangle,  the  side 
opposite  the  right  angle,  i.  e.  the  hypothenuse. 

i)ASE  OF  A  Solid  Figure,  the  lowest  side,  or 
tliat  on  which  it  stands. 

Base  of  a  Triangle,  any  side  thereof  is  occa- 
sionally so  called;  though  properly  it  is  the 
lowest  side,  or  that  -which  lies  parallel  to  the 
horizon. 

Base,  in  gunnery,  the  least  sort  of  ordnance,' 
the  diameter  of  whose  bore  is  1}  inch,  weight 
200  pounds,  length  4  feet,  load  5  pounds,  shot 
1^  pound  weight,  and  diameter  |  inch. 


Base  Court,  in  law,  sometimes  signifies  any 
court  not  of  record. — Such,  is  the  Court-baron. 

Base  Estates  are  such  as  base  tenants  have 
in  their  lands. 

Base  Fee,  a  tenure  in  fee  at  the'  will  of  the 
lord,  as  distinguished  from  soccage,  or  free 
tenure;  but,  according  to  Lord  Coke,  a  base 
fee  is  what  may  be  defeated  by  limitation,  or  on 
entry,  &c. 

Base  Tenure  (bassa  tenura),  holding  by  viU 
lenage,  or  other,  customary  service;  as  distin- 
guished from  the  higher  tenures  in  capite,  or  by 
military  service. 

Base,  in  music,  see  Bass. 

Base,  in  trigonometry.    See  Altern  Base. 

Base  Knights,  the  inferior  order  of  knights, 
as  distinguished  from  barons  and  bannerets,  who 
were  the  chief  or  superior  knights. 
BASELLA,  climbing  nightshade,  from  Malabar. 
A  genius  of  the  trigynia  order,  belonging  to  the 
pentandria  class  of  plants ;  and  in  the  natural 
method  ranking  under  the  twelfth  order, 
holoracesp.  The  calyx  is  wanting;  the  corolla 
is  seven-cleft,  with  the  two  opposite  divisions 
broader  and  at  last  berried,  there  is  one  seed. 
1.  B.  alb»,  with  oval,  waved,  flaccid  leaves,  and 
small  flowers  and  fruit.  These  plants  will  climb 
to  a  considerable  height,  and  send  forth  a  great 
number  of  branches ;  so  they  should  be  trained  up  to 
a  tiellis;  or  fastened  to  the  back  of  the  stove ; 
otherwise  they  will  twist  themselves  about  what- 
ever plants  stand  near  diem,  which  will  make  a 
very  disagreeable  appearance.  2.  B.  rubra, 
with  red  leaves  and  simple  footstalks,  has  thick, 
strong,  succulent  stalks,  and  leaves  which  are  of 
a  deep  purple  color. — ^This  plant  will  climb  to 
the  heignt  of  ten  or  twelve  teet,  provided  it  is 
kept  in  a  stove ;  but  in  the  open  air  it  will  not 
grow  so  large  in  this  country ;  nor  will  the  seed 
come  to  perfection  unless  in  very  warm  seasons. 
The  flowers  of  this  plant  have  no  great  beauty, 
but  it  is  cultivated  on  account  of  the  odd  appear- 
ance of  its  stalks  and  leaves,  and  the  flowers  of 
a  whitish  green  color  tipped  with  purple. 

BASELLI  or  Basels,  in  our  old  historians, 
a  species  of  coin  abolished  by  King  Henry  II. 
A.  D.  1158. 

BASEMENTS,  in  architecture.  See  Archi- 
tecture, Index. 

BASE  Ring  of  a  cannon,  is  the  great  ring  next 
behind  the  touch-hole. 
Base  Rocket,  in  botany.  See  Reseda. 
BAS-EN-BASSET,  or  Basset,  a  market  town 
in  the  department  of  tiie  Upper  Loire,  France, 
arrondissement  of  Issengeaux.  It  is  the  head  of 
a  canton  and  has  5000  inhabitants.  Here  are 
manufectures  of  blond  lace,  tobacco-pipes,  and 
earthenware.  It  is  three  miles  north-west  of 
Monbtrol,  and  twenty  north-east  of  Le  Puy. 

BA'SENET,  Fr.  bastinet ;  Old  Eng.  bamyt ; 
a  little  bowl,  a  small  basin;  a  part  of  military 
equipage,  a  kind  of  helmet  or  head-piece,  worn 
originally  by  the  French  men  at  arms. 

Notwithstanding  at  the  last  the  king  made  him  put 
on  hit  ba$met,  and  then  took  a  sard  with  both  hi« 
haada,  and  atrangly  with  a  good  will  ttrake  him  on 
the  necke)  and  the  same  day  hoe  made  three  other 
dtiaens  knights  for  his  sake  in  the  tame  place. 

Stow,  Ann.  1381.  R.  3 


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' .  '    Therefon  he  would  her  do«  away  all  dz«a<l ; 

And  that  of  him  shee  mota  aaaur'd  atand. 

He  tent  to  her  his  ba$engt,  as  a  laithful  band. 

Spemer,  Faerie  Queene. 

BASH,  «.  n.  ^     See  To  Abash.   This 

Bash'j 

Bash' 

Bash'] 

Bash'fulness, 
imafl^nes  them  derived  from  base  or  mean ;  Min- 
sheu  from  verbaeten,  Dut.,  to  strike  with  asto- 
nishment ;  Junius  from  ^9ic,  which  he  finds  in 
liesychius  to  signify  shame.  The  conjecture  of 
Minsheu  seems  most  probable.  It  is  sometimes 
used  as  synonymous  with  modest  and  modesty ; 
but  not  with  a  nice  regard  to  accuracy.  Modest 
signifies  setting  measure  to  ones  estimate  of  one- 
self; but  hashjul,^  lady  to  be  abashed.  Modesty 
is  a  habit  or  principle  of  the  mind ;  bashftdneu 
is  a  state  of  feeling.  Modesty  is  at  all  times  be- 
coming ;  hashfulnets  is  only  becoming  in  females, 
or  very  youns  persons,  in  the  presence  of  their 
superiors.  Modesty  discoTers  itself  in  the  ab- 
sence of  every  thing  assuming,  whether  in  look, 
word,  or  action ;  bathfidness  betrays  itself  by  a 
downcast  look,  and  a  timid  air.  A  modest  de- 
portment is  always  commendable;  a  bashful 
temper  is  not  desirable.^- Cra&6. 

Are  you  not  ashamed,  htuh  you  not  to  broach  and 
set  abroad,  in  the  view  and  face  of  the  world,  such 
mockeries  of  religion  ?  HoUtmd*M  LMm,  fol.  320. 

It  might  be  either  for  the  lacke  of  leamyng  and 
good  bryngyng  up  ^(a  great  and  common  fault  in 
great  princes  of  Germany),  or  els  for  his  bashful  na- 
ture in  youth,  which  propertie  Xenophon  wittely 
faynged  to  be  in  Cyrus  at  lyke  yeares,  judging  baMh- 
jQneu  in  youth,  to  be  a  great  token  of  virtue  in  age. 
Aicham.  Report  and  Di$coune, 

He  looked  with  an  almost  bathful  kind  of  modesty; 
aa  if  he  feared  the  eyes  of  man.  Sidney, 

They  baJu  not  to  deftie  tiie  wivBs  of  other  men. 

Bale  OH  the  ReaelaiumM, 

Ah !  tee  the  virgin  rose,  how  sweetly  shee 
Both  first  peep  forth  with  ba$hfid  modestee. 
That  fairer  seemes  the  lesse  ye  see  her  may ! 
Lo !  see  soone  after,  how  more  bold  and  free. 
Her  bared  bosom  she  doth  broad  display ! 
Lo !  see  soone  after,  how  she  fades  and  falls  away. 

Spefuer. 

His  countenance  was  bold,  ahd  hashed  not 
For  Ouyon's  looks,  but  scornful  eye  glance  at  him 
shot.  Id, 

I  never  tempted  her  with  word  too  large  ; 

But,  as  a  brother  to  a  sister,  show'd 

Bash/yl  sincerity  with  comely  love.        Shakapeofe. 
Hence  bashjwd  cunning  ? 
And  prompt  me  plain  and  holy  innocence.     Id, 

Another,  through  hashJvJness,  suspicion,  and  timo- 
rousness,  will  not  be  seen  abroad,  loves  darkness  as 
life,  and  cannot  endure  the  light,  or  to  sit  in  light- 
some placeti ;  his  hat  still  in  his  eyes,  he  will  neiiher 
see,  nor  he  seen  by  his  good  will.  Anat,  MeL 

Her  golden  hair,  her  silver  forehead  high. 

Her  teeth  of  solid;  eyes  of  liquid  pearl ; 

But  neck  and  breast  no  man  might  bare  descry. 

So  sweetly  modest  was  this  bashful  girl. 

Fiete/ier's  PurpU  Island, 

There  are  others,  who  have  not  altogether  so  much 
of  this  foolish  bashfuUiess,  and  who  Mk  every  one's 
opinion.  J}fyda$. 

Our  author  anxious  for  his  hone  to-night. 

And  hash/id  in  his  first  attempt  to  write. 

Lies  eautioosly  obscure.  Addison, 


Mere  bashfidnem  without  merit  is  awkwardness.  U. 

Boubtleas  there  are  men  of  great  parts  thtt  »n 
guilty  of  downright  bashfulness,  that  by  a  stiange  he- 
sitation and  reluctance  to  speak,  murder  the  finest 
and  most  elegant  thoughts,  and  render  the  most  lively 
conceptions  flat  and  heavy.  Toiler,  No.  252. 

Our  orators,  with  the  most  fanlty  beskftdnm,  sem 
impressed  rather  with  an  awe  of  ^eir  aodieoee  tkaa 
with  a  just  respect  for  the  truths  they  are  about  to 
deliver ;  they,  of  all  professions,  seem  the  most  hadh 
ftd  who  have  the  greatest  right  to  glory  in  their  com- 
mission. Goldsmith,  BsseglU. 

So  bright  the  tear  in  Beauty's  eye, 
liove  half  regrets  to  kiss  it  dry. 
So  sweet  the  blush  of  bashfulness^ 
Even  pity  scarce  can  wish  it  less.  Bfroo. 

BASHAN,  or  Basan,  a  kingdom  beyond  Jor- 
dan, mentioned  in  Scripture.  By  Josephus, 
Eusebius,  tod  Jerome,  it  is  called  Batanc.  \VheD 
the  Israelites  entered  the  land  of  Canaan,  the 
whole  country  beyond  Jordan,  from  that  of  the 
Moabites  or  Arabia,  as  far  as  mount  Uermoo 
and  Lebanon,  was  divided  into  two  kingdoms, 
viz.  those  of  the  Amorites,  and  the  Bashaaites : 
the  former  to  the  south,  and  the  latter  to  the  north. 
Tlie  kingdom  of  the  Amorites  extended  fiom  the 
river  Amon  and  the  country  of  Moab,  to  tlie 
river  Jabbok ;  which,  running  obliquely  from  the 
east,  was  at  the  same  time  the  boundaiy  of  the 
Ammonites,  as  appears  from  Numb.  xxi.  24.  and 
Deut.  ii.  37.  and  lii.  16.  It  fell  to  the  lot  of  the 
Reubenites  and  Gadites,  and  Bashan,  to  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh.  To  this  was  annexed  a  part 
of  the  hilly  country  of  Gilead,  and  the  district 
of  Argob ;  yet  so  that  Bashan  oontinued  to  be 
the  principal  and  greatest  part :  but  af^r  the 
Babylonish  captivity  Bashan  was  subdivided,  so 
that  only  a  part  was  .called  Batanea  or  Basan, 
another  Trachonitis,  a  third  Aurunitis  or  Ituna, 
and  some  part  Gaulonitis ;  but  to  settle  the  limits 
of  each  of  these  parts  is  now  impossible.  Bashan 
was  a  country  ^Eimous  for  its  pastures,  and  bneJ 
of  large  cattle. 

Bashan,  a  mountain  in  the  above  kingdom, 
which  seems  to  have  retained  its  original  oame 
long  after  the  Israelites  were  in  possesion  of 
that  country ;  at  least  is  often  mentioned  with  a 
reference  to  its  original  inhabitants,  who  were 
idolaters  and  enemies  to  Israel.  In  this  respect 
bringing  back  from  Bashan,  signifies  the  deliTe^ 
ance  from  bondage,  even  death.  Bashan  is  re£e^ 
red  to  in  another  view :  the  country  is  exceedingly 
fruitful,  and  is  therefore  used  to  represent  a 
flourishing  state. 

BASIIANITES,  the  people  of  Bashan. 

BASHAR  £bn  Motamer,  a  principal  man 
among  the  Motazalites,  who  varied  in  some  points 
from  the  general  tenets  of  the  sect,  extending 
man's  free  agency  to  a  great  length,  even  to  the 
mak  ing  him  independent  He  asserted,  that  Cod 
is  not  always  obliged  to  'do  that  which  is  best, 
for  that,  if  he  pleased,  be  could  make  all  men 
true  believers.  Accordingly  he  taught  that  God 
might  doom  an  in&ntto  eternal  punishment;  bat 
taught  at  the  same  time,  that  he  would  be  oniusi 
in  so  doing  I 

BASIIARIANS,  a  sect  of  Mahommedans,  a 
subdivision  of  the  Motazalites,  who  maintain  the 
tenets  of  Bashar  £bn  Motamer.    See  last  artide. 

Bashaw,  Pascua,  or  Pacha,  a  Turkish  ro- 


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vernor  of  a  province,  city,  or  other  district.  All 
Kcypt  is,  on  the  part  of  the  grand  seignior,  go- 
verned by  a  bashaw,  who  has  in  reality  but  little 
power;  but  seems  principally  to  be  meant  for 
communicating  to  his  diiran  of  beys,  and  to  the 
divans  of  the  several  military  ogiacs,  the  orders 
of  the  grand  seignior^  and  to  see  that  they  be 
4)xecuted  by  the  proper  officers.  When  a  bashaw 
farms  a  country  of  the  grand  seignior,  the  fines 
that  are  paid,  when  any  life  drops  upon  the 
lands,  belong  to  him.  Originally  all  the  lands  of 
Egypt  belonged  to  the  grand  seignior;  and  he 
still  looks  on  them  as  his  own :  but  his  power 
being  now  lost,  they  all  go  to  the  next  heir ;  who 
must,  however,  be  invested  by  the  bashaw,  and 
ne  is  therefore  glad  to  compound  for  a  small  sum^ 
The  nature  of  the  bashaw  s  office  requirns  him 
to  be  ever  attempting  means  to  cut  off  such  as 
are  too  aspiring,  or  engaged  in  designs  that  may 
be  any  way  prejudicial  to  the  Porte.  This  often 
occasions  his  own  deposition ;  but  he  is  uncon- 
cerned about  that,  as  his  person  is  always  sacred ; 
and  his  losing  his  post  is  only  a  step  to  higher 
preferment  Bashaws  include  beglerbegs,  and 
Honietimes  sangiachegs;  though  a  distinction  is 
sometimes  made,  and  the  name  bashaw  is  appro- 
priated to  the  middle  sort  or  such  as  have  two 

I  ensigns  or  horse>tails  carried  before  them.  Those 
who  have  the  honor  of  three  tails,  are  called 

^  beglerbegs ;  and  those  who  have  only  one,  san- 
giachegs.    The  appellation  of  bashaw   is  also 

I  given  by  way  of  courtesy,  at  Constantinople,  to 
3ie  lords  about  the  grand  seignior's  court,  the 
oflScers  in  the  army,  and  almost  every  person  of 
any  figure.    A  bashaw  is  made  with  the  solem- 

,  nity  of  carrying  a  flag  or  banner  before  him, 
accompanied  with  music  and  songs  by  the  Miria- 

^  lem,  an  officer  whose  business  it  is  to  invest  the 
bashaws.    Bashaw,  used  absolutely,  denotes  the 

Eriroe  vizier;  the  others  of  that  denomination 
eing  distinguished  by  the  addition  of  the  pro- 
vince, city,  or  the  like,  which  they  have  the 
command  of;  as  the  bashaw  of  Egypt,  of  Pales- 
tine, .&c.  The  bashaws  are  the  emperor's 
sponges.  We  find  loud  complaints  among  the 
Christians  who  reside  in  Turkey,  of  their  avarice 
and  extortions.  As  they  buy  their  eovernmenU, 
every  tiling  is  venal  with  them.  When  glutted 
with  wealth,  the  emperor  frequently  makes  them 
a  present  of  a  bow-string,  and  becomes  heir  to 
all  their  spoil.  There  are  also  sub-bashaws,  or 
<leputy-govemoni  under  the  bashaws. 

Bashaw,  Captain,  is  the  title  of  the  Turkish 
high  admiral. 

BASHEE  Islands,  five  islands  in  the  Chinese 
sea,  and  two  islets,  almost  wholly  rock,  visited 
by  Daropier  in  1687,  and  so  named  from  an 
agreeable  intoxicating  liquor  found  here,  made 
from  the  sugar-cane.  The  principal  one  is 
Orange  Island,  being  about  twenty-two  miles 
long,  and  six  broad.  The  other  are  Monmouth, 
Grafton,  Goats,  and  Bashee  Proper.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile  in  the  productions  of  these  seas :  in 
1783  the  Spaniards  formed  a  settlement  on  the 
Bashee  islands,  in  order  to  procure  the  gold 
which  is  said  to  be  washed  down  by  the  torrents. 
The  natives  iabricate  it  into  wire  for  ornaments. 

BASHEMATH,  the  daughter  of  Ishmael,  one 
of  Esau's  wives .    It  appears  to  have  been  also  a 


name  of  Adah,  his  first  wife.    See  Gen.  xxvi.  84. 
And  XXX vi.  2. 

BASEDOW  (John  Beraaid),  a  celebrated 
writer,  bom  at  Hamburgh,  in  1 723.  After  study- 
ing under  Reimarus,  he  went  to  Leipsic ;  and  in 
1753  was  chosen  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
and  the  belles  lettres  at  Soroe,  in  Denmark. 
But  having  divulged  some  opinions  in  religion 
difiering  widely  from  Lutheranisro,  he  was  re- 
moved from  this  situation;  upon  which  he 
formed  a  plan  of  reformed  education,  and  raised 
considerable  sftras  of  money  for  perfecting  it 
His  plan,  however,  after  a  partial  trial,  proved 
unsuccessfiil ;  and  he  died  through  intemperance 
and  dissipation  in  1700.  His  writings,  though 
fiiil  of  dogmatical  assertions  and  fanciftil  opinions, 
show  him  to  have  been  an  ingenious  man. 

BASHILO,  a  river  of  Abyssinia,  which  sepa- 
rates Begamder  firom  Amham,  and  falls  into  tlie 
Bahr-^-Azergue,  thirty  miles  south-east  of  Alata. 

BASHKIRS,  or  Baschkirs,  a  people  of  the 
Russian  empire.  They  call  themselves  Bash- 
kourt;  and  derive  their  origin  partly  from  the 
Nogay-Tartars,  and  partly  horn  the  Bolgarians. 
Probably  they  are  Nogays,  whom  the  Bolgares 
adopted  among  them :  their  country  at  least  is  a 
part  of  the  ancient  Bolgaria.  They  formerly 
roamed  about  the  southern  Siberia  under  the 
conduct  of  their  own  princes :  but  to  avoid  the 
molestations  of  the  Siberian  khans,  settled  in 
their  present  possessions,  about  the  rivers  Volga 
and  Ural,  and  were  subject  to  the  Kazanian 
khanate.  On  the  overthrow  of  that  state  by  czar 
Ivan  II.  they  voluntarily  took  refuge  under  the 
Russian  sceptre :  they  afterwards,  however,  fre- 
ouently  revolted  against  the  government,  whereby 
their  prosperity  as  well  as  Sieir  population  has 
been  considerably  diminished.  In  the  year  1770 
they  consisted  of  27,000  ^onilies,  having  their 
homes  in  the  governments  of  Usa  and  Perme. 
The  Bashkiis  have  been  long  without  khans ; 
and  all  their  nobility  have  been  gradually  de- 
stroyed in  the  civil  wars.  At  present  every  tribe 
or  wolost  chooses  for  itself  one  or  more  ancients, 
or  starschinis;  and  the  whole  nation  composes 
thiity-four  wolosts.  The  huts  or  houses,  which 
they  inhabit  during  winter,  are  built  after  the 
Russian  fashion ;  &e  principal  part,  which  the 
family  commonly  possesses,  is  furnished  with 
large  benches,  which  serve  for  beds ;  the  chim- 
ney, of  a  conical  form,  and  of  the  height  of  an 
ordinary  man,  is  in  the  middle  of  this  division, 
and  so  ill  constructed,  that  they  are  very  liable 
to  smoke :  on  this  account  the  Bashkirs  are  very 
subject  to  various  complaints  of  the  eyes.  In 
summer  this  people  inhabit  what  the  Russians 
call  jurtes ;  they  are  tents  or  covers  of  felt,  which, 
like  the  huts,  have  several  divisions  and  a  chim- 
ney in  the  centre.  A  winter  village  contains 
from  ten  to  fifty  huts ;  but  the  summer  encamp- 
ment never  exceeds  twenty  jurtes.  These,  jurtes 
are  a  kind  of  barracks. 

The  bashkirs  have  some  knowledge  of  the  art 
of  writing,  and  have  schools ;  but  as  it  is  from 
their  own  nation  that  they  elect  their  priests  and 
the  instructon  of  youth,  they  remain  m  the  pro- 
foundest  ignorance.  With  some  knowledge  of 
tillage,  they  retain  a  liking  to  the  pastoral  life ; 
which  spoils  them  for  agriculture.    They  sow 


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r>ut  tittle  grain ;  consequently  their  hanrests  af- 
ford them^  only  few  resources  for  the  winter, 
being  far  from  sufficient  for  their  whole  con- 
sumption. They  apply  with  greater  success  to 
the  cultivation  of  bees ;  making  hollows  in  the 
trees  to  serre  the  purposes  of  hives :  which,  to 
secure  from  the  attacks  of  the  bears,  they  have 
invented  a  variety  of  ingenious  contrivances,  both 
as  weapons  and  traps.  One  man,  in  frequent 
instances,  is  known  to  possess  at  least  500  hives. 
They  have  the  art  of  nnding  out  the  mountains 
that  contain  mines ;  but,  like  the  Tartars,  they 
would  thiok  themselves  disgraced  by  working 
them  themselves.  It  must  be  owned,  however, 
that  they  have  not  the  strength  of  body  which 
that  labor  requires.  Their  practice  is  to  Let  them 
out  for  a  term  of  sixty  years  to  Russian  con- 
tractors ;  assigning  to  mem  at  the  same  time  a 
tract  of  forest  necessary  for  the  forges.  The 
poorest  of  them  serve  for  wages  in  transporting 
the  ore. 

The  women  understand  the  art  of  weaving, 
fulling,  and  dyeing  narrow  coarse  cloths ;  they 
likewise  make  the  clothes  for  the  whole  fomily. 
They  make  ,a  small  quantity  of  linen  of  hemp ; 
tmt  they  prefer  weaving  the  filaments  of  tue 
common  nettle,  as  that  plant  requires  no  'culture, 
and  the  linen  they  make  of  it  is  extremely  coarse. 
They  have  not  the  unwholesome  practice  of 
steeping  their  hemp  or  their  nettles  in  water,  but 
leave  them  to  dry  in  the  air  on  the  top  of  their 
huts  during  the  autumn  and  winter;  tnen  strip- 
ping off  the  bark,  they  poimd  them  in  wooden 
mortars.  The  men  follow  the  more  difficult 
business  of  making  felt,  and  of  tanning  leather. 
Both  sexes  wear  shirts  of  tlie  cloth  made  of  net- 
tles; they  also  wear  wide  drawers,  which  de- 
scend to  the  ankle-bone,  and  a  sort  of  slippers, 
like  people  in  the  East.  Both  men  and  women 
wear  a  lonz  gown,  that  of  the  men  being  gene- 
rally of  red  cloth  bordered  with  iiir ;  this  thev 
bind  round  their  middle  with  a  girdle,  or  with 
the  belt  to  which  thejr  fix  their  scimitar.  The 
]>oor  have  a  winter  pelisse  of  sheep-skin,  and  the 
rich  wear  a  horse-skin  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
mane  covers  their  back  and  waves  in  the  wind. 
•  The  cap  is  of  cloth  like  the  frustum  of  a  cone, 
and  ten  inches  high;  and  that  of  the  rich  is 
usually  ornamented  with  valuable  fiirs.  The 
gown  of  the  wives  is  made  of  fine  cloth  or  silk, 
buttoned  before  as  high  as  the  neck,  and  fastened 
by  a  broad  girdle,  which  the  richer  classes  have 
made  of  steel.  Their  necks  and  throats  are 
covered  with  a  sort  of  shawl,  on  which  are  s(»veral 
rows  of  coins,  or  a  string  of  shells. 

The  principal  wealth  of  this  people  consists  in 
their  flocks ;  it  is  especially  from  their  horses  that 
they  derive  the  necessaries  of  life ;  meat,  milk, 
vessels,  garments.  They  have  nearly  as  many 
and  even  rather  more  sheep  than  horses;  and 
their  homed  cattle  are  about  half  as  numerous ; 
they  likewise  bring  up  some  goats,  and  only  the 
rich  have  camels.  A  man  of  the  ordinary  class 
has  seldom  fewer  than  between  thirty  and  fifty 
horses,  manypossess  500,  and  some  1000,  2000, 
and  more.  Their  sheep  are  of*  the  broad-tailed 
species ;  they  esteem  tne  others  for  the  fineness 
of  their  wool. 

The  most  opulent  of  the  Bashkirs  are  those 


who  dwell  to  the  east  of  the  Ural,  and  in  the 
province  of  Isset.  Some  of  them  are  owners  of 
not  less  than .  4000  horses,  who  fatten  in  the 
richest  pastures:  the  wasps  and  gnats  oblige 
them  in  the  month  of  June  to  quit  these  fine 
meadows,  and  retreat  to  the  mountains;  the 
horses  then  lose  their  flesh  and  pine  away,  bat 
regain  their  pristine  vigor  on  coming  down 
again  to  the  plains  in  the  month  of  July. 

Though  the  Bashkirs  experience  a  long  and 
very  severe  winter,  yet  they  abandon  their  flocks 
and  droves  to  the  inclemencies  of  the  season. 
They,  have  neither  granaries  nor  bams ;  they  only 
lay  up  a  little  hay,  which  they  range  in  cocb 
round  the  trees,  reserving  it  for  the  distempered 
cattle.  Those  that  are  healthy  pick  up  a  little 
grass  or  moss  from  beneath  the  snow,  and  are 
often  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  feeding  on  die 
bark  of  the  young  elms.  No  fiuther  attention  is 
paid  to  the  camels  than  to  wrep  them  in  some 
wretched  coverings  of  felt,  which  they  sew  about 
their  body.  The  cattle  towards  the  end  of  the 
winter  are  become  lean,  weak,  and  emaciated. 
Though  the  females  are  never  kept  apart  from 
the  males,  they  rarely  bring  forth  out  of  season ; 
because  the  exhausted  state  of  the  flocks  and 
herds,  during  the  winter,  is  un&vonible  to  genera- 
tion. Neither  the  Bashkirs  nor  the  Ralmucs 
suffer  the  colts  and  the  calves  to  suck  their  dams 
except  during  the  night,  their  practice  being  to 
milk  them  in  the  day-time  for  their  own  adnn- 
tage ;  kumiss,  prepared  from  mare*s  milk,  being 
their  favorite  liquor.  (See  Kumiss.)  They  are 
also  fond  of  a  mixture  of  sour  milk  and  mead. 
called  arjan.  In  the  spring  they  drink  the  sap  of 
the  birch,  which  they  collect  by  means  of  deep 
incisions  in  the  trees. 

Their  arms  are  the  bow,  the  lance,  the  hehnet, 
and  coat  of  mail ;  from  the  Russians  they  obtain 
sabres,  mosquets,  and  pistols.  A  Ba^ddiian 
army  presents  a  truly  curious  spectacle;  ob- 
serving no  order  in  mairching,  they  only  form  into 
ranks  when  they  halt.  Every  one  leads  a  hone 
in  his  hand,  which  carries  all  his  provisions .  the 
load,  however,  is  not  heavy ;  consisting  only  of 
cheese,  some  com  dried  in  the  kiln,  and  a  hand- 
mill  to  grind  it  to  meal.  With  the  meal  they 
form  a  ball  which  they  swallow,  and  which  serro 
them  for  bread.  Each  warrior,  dressed  in  his 
long  gown,  equips  himself  as  he  dnxnes  or  as  he 
can.  One  has  procured  for  himsdf  the  vaiioca 
kinds  of  i^rms,  and  carries  a  whole  arsenal  with 
him ;  the  other  scarcely  possesses  more  than  one 
ill-conditioned  weapon.  Such  troo«  as  these 
rendered  the  armies  of  the  ancient  Persians  at 
once  so  numerous  and  so  little  formidable. 

They  are  all  well  mounted,  are  skilfol  in  draw- 
ing the  bow,  and  dexterously  manage  their  horses. 
A  small  number  of  Bashkirs  are  easily  victorioos 
over  a  numerous  squadron  of  JLirgfanes;  some- 
times one  of  their  regiments  will  traverse  a  whole 
horde  of  Kirghises,  put  to  flight  by  their  veiy 
looks  all  the  enemies  they  meet,  and  retoro  tri* 
umphant  without  having  sustained  the  slightest 
loss.  The  military  service  which  they  are  boond 
to  perform,  and  the  only  point  in  wkidi  fliey  are 
galled  by  the  Russian  yoke,  consists  in  famish- 
ing, in  time  of  war,  3000  cavalry,  which  form 
thirty  troops  of  100  men  each.   The  Basiikinans 


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are  the  mott  negligent  and  slorenly  of  the  Tar- 
tan. In  commerce  they  are  the  least  intelligent; 
but,  at  the  same  time,  they  are  th^  most  hospi- 
table, the  most  lively,  and  the  most  brave. 
Their  diversions  at  any  religious  festival,  or  at  a 
marriage,  consist  in  numerous  libations  of  sour 
milk,  singing,  dancing,  wiestling,  and  horse- 
racing,  in  which  they  excel.  In  their  songs  they 
enumerate  the  achievements  of  their  ancestors,  or 
their  own,  and  sometimes  their  amorous  adven- 
tures. Their  songs  are  always  accompanied  with 
gestures,  which  render  them  very  theatrical. 
Among  them  old  age  meets  with  the  greatest  re- 


several  of  them  in  a  vnlgar  Greek  translation  of 
our  Church  Catechism.  The  effect  of  it  was  so 
remarkable,  that  it  drew  envy,  and  consequently 
persecution,  upon  him  from  the  Latins.  This 
occ^oned  his  voluntary  recess  into  the  Morea, 
where  the  metropolitan  of  Achaia  prevailed  upon 
him  to  preach  twice  in  Greek,  at  a  meeting  of 
some  of  his  bishops  and  clergy,  which  was  well 
taken.  At  his  departure  he  left  him  a  copy  of  the 
catechism  above-mentioned.  From  thence,  after 
he  had  passed  through  Apulia,  Naples,  and  Si- 
cily again  (in  which  last,  at  Messina,  he  officiated 
ibr  some  weeks  aboard  a  ship),  he  embarked  for 


spect.  In  their  entertainments,  it  occupies  the  Syria;  and  after  some^month;  stay  at  Aleppo, 
place  of  honor ;  and  the  stranger,  to  whom  where  he  had  frequent  conversation  with  the  pa- 
compliments  are  paid,  is  always  set  among  the  triarch  of  Antioch,  then  resident  there,  he  lett  a 
old  men.  The  language  of  these  people  is  a  copy  of  the  Church  Catechism,  translated  into 
Tartar  dialect,  very  different  from  that  spoken  at  Arabic,  the  native  language  of  that  place.  From 
Kasan.    The  Bashkirians  are,  like  most  of  the  Aleppo  he  went  in  1652  to  Jerusalem,  and  so 


Tartars,  Mahommedans ;  but  though  they  have 
their  mosques,  their  molaks,  and  their  schools, 
they  are  much  addicted  to  superstition  and  sor- 
cery. Their  sorcerers  challenge  even  the  devil, 
and  pretend  to  engage  with  him  in  combat ;  and 
thus  they  delude  the  credulous  vulgar,  who  con- 
sult them  in  their  distress,  and  particularly  when 


travelled  over  all  Palestine.  At  Jerusalem  he 
received  much  honor,  both  from  the  Greeks  and 
Latins.  Returning  to  Aleppo,  he  passed  over 
the  Euphrates,  into  Mesopotamia,  where  he  in- 
tended to  send  the  Church  Catechism  in  Turk- 
ish, to  some  of  their  bishops,  who  were  mostly 
Armenians.    This  Turkish  translation  was  pro- 


they  lose  any  of  their  mares.  '  Tooke's  View  of  cured  at  Constantinople.    After  his  return  from 

Russia,  vol.  i.  p.  473.    Chantreau's  Traveb,  vol.  Mesopotamia,  he  wintered  at  Aleppo,  where  he 

i.  p.  281.  received  several  courtesies  from  the  consul,  Mr. 

jBASHUYSEN  (Heniy  James  Van),  a  learned  Henry  Riley.    In  the  beginning  of  1653  he  de- 

and  ingenious  divine,  bom  at  Hanau,  in  1679,  parted  from  Aleppo,  and  came  to  Constantinople 

where  he  became  professor  of  the  Oriental  Ian-  oy  land,  being  600  miles,  without  either  servant,- 

guages,  and  ecclesiastical  history.    He  was  after-  or  Christian,  or  any  man  with  him,  that  could  so 

wards  professor  of  divinity,  and  member  of  the  much  as  speak  the  Frank  language :  yet,  by  the 

royal  society  at  Berlin ;  and  had  a  printing  press  help  of  some  Arabic  he  had  picked  up  at  Aleppo, 

in  his  bouse,  from  which  be  sent  abroad  some  he  performed  that  journey  in  the  company  of 

curious  tracts,  principally  on  rabbinical  learning,  twenty  Turks,  who  used  him  courteously  be- 


He  died  in  1758, 

BASIA  Ultima.    See  Ultima. 

BASIATRAHAGI,  in  boUny,  a  name  used 
by  some  for  the  common  polygonum,  or  knot- 
grass. 

EASIER,  or  Basire  (Isaac),  a  learned  and 
active  divine  in  the  seventeenth  century,  was  bom 
in  the  isle  of  Jersey,  in  1607.  For  some  time 
he  was  master  of  the  college  or  free-school  at 
Guernsey:  but,  at  length,  became  chaplain  to 
Thomas  Morton,  bishop  of  Durham,  vno  gave 


cause  he  was  physician  to  them  and  their  friends. 
Afier  his  arrival  at  Constantinople,  the  French 
Protestants  there  desired  him  to  be  their  minister, 
though  he  declared  to  them  his  resolution  to 
officiate  according  to  the  English  liturgy,  and 
promised  to  settle  on  him,  in  three  responsible 
mens'  hands,  a  competent  stipend.  Upon  the 
Restoration,  Dr.  Basier  was  recalled  by  king 
Charles  II.  to  England,  in  a  letter  written  to 
Prince  Ragotzi.  But  this  unfortunate  prince 
dying  soon  after,  of  the  wounds  he  received  in  a 


him  the  rectory  of  Stannope,  and  the  vicarage  of   battle  with  the  Turks  at  Gyala,  the  care  of  his 


Egglesdiff,  in' Durham.  In  July,  1640,  he  had 
the  degree  of  D.  D.  conferred  upon  him  at  Cam- 
bridge, by  mandate ;  and  at  Oxford  the  Novem- 
ber following.  About  that  time  he  was  made 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  king  Charles  I.  and  got 
several  other  preferments,  but  did  not  long  enjoy 
them;  for,  in  the  beginning  of  the  civil  wars, 
being  sequestered,  plundered,  and  forced  to  fly, 
be  repaired  to  king  Charles  at  Oxford,  before 
whom,  and  his  parliament,  he  frequently  preached. 
Upon  the  surrender  of  the  Onord  garrison  to 
TOiiiament,  unwilling  to  stay  any  longer  in  the 
British  dominions,  he  resolved  to  go  and  propa- 
gate the  doctrine  of  the  English  church  m  the 
East,  amon^  the  Greeks,  Arabians,  &c.  Leaving, 
therefore,  his  family  in  England,  he  went  first  to 
Zante,  an  island  near  tlie  Morea,  where  he  made 
lome  stay ;  and  had  good  success  in  spreading 
among  the  Greek  inhabitants  the  doctrines  of  the 
Kiislish  church,  the  sum  whereof  he  imparted  to 
•Voulll. 


solemn  obsequies  was  committed  to  the  doctor 
by  his  relict.  Princess  Sophia,  whereby  he  was 
kept  a  year  longer  out  of  England. '  At  length, 
returning  in  1661,  he  was  restored  to  his  prefer- 
ments and  dignities;  and  made  chaplain  in  ordi- 
nary to  king  Charles  II.  He  wrote  several 
books  on  divinity.  Having  for  many  years  after 
the  Restoration,  quietly  enjoyed  his  large  re- 
venues, be  died  in  1676,  aged  sixty-nine.  He 
wrote,  1.  Deo  et  Ecclesis  Sacrum,  &c.  4to. 
Oxon.  1646;  and  8vo.  London,  1668.  2.  Dia- 
triba  de  Antiqull  Ecdesie  Britannic«  Libertate, 
Svo.  Brug«  1656,  which  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish under  the  title  of  The  Ancient  Liber^  of  the 
Britannic  Church,  &c.  Svo.  1661.  3.  The  His- 
tory of  the  English  and  Scotch  Presbytery,  Svo. 
London,  1659,  1660.  4.  Oratio  Privata,  boni 
Theologi.  (speciatim  Concinnatoris  Practici) 
Partes  Pnecipuas  coniplectens,  8vo.  London, 
1670.    5.  The  Dead  Man's  Real  Speech,  &c.; 

2R 


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610 


BAS 


a  funeral  Sermon  on  the  Death  of  Dr.  John 
Cosin,  Bishop  of  Durham,  8vo.  London,  1673. 

BASIL,  in  botany.    See  Octmum. 

Basil,  or  Basle,  a  canton  of  Switzerland, 
gee  Basle. 

Basil,  in  mechanics,  the  name,  among  joiners, 
for  the  sloping  edge  of  a  chisel,  or  of  the  iron  of 
a  plane.  To  work  on  soft  wood,  they  usually 
make  the  basil  twelve  degrees,  and  for  hard  wood 
eighteen ;  it  being  remarked  that  the  nh>re  acute 
the  basil  is,  the  letter  the  instrument  cuts ;  and 
the  more  obtuse,  the  stronger,  and  fitter  it  *s  for 
service. 

Basil,  American  Fij;ld.    See  Monarda 

Basil  (St.),  the  Great,  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  eloquent  doctors  of  the  church,  was 
bom  at  Casarea  in  Cappadocia,  about  A.D:  328  ; 
and  went  to  finish  his  studies  at  Athens,  where 
he  contracted  a  strict  friendship  with  St.  Gregory 
Nazianzen.  He  returned  to  his  native  country 
in  355,  where  he  taught  rhetoric.  Some  time 
after,  he  travelled  into  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Lybia, 
to  visit  the  monasteries  of  these  countries ;  and 
the  monastic  life  so  much  suited  His  disposition, 
that  upon  his  return  home  he  resolved  to  follow 
it,  and  he  was  the  first  institutor  thereof  in.Pon- 
tus  and  Cappadocia.  His  reputation  became  so 
great,  that,  upon  the  death  of  Eusebius,  bishop 
of  Cffisarea,  in  370,  he  was  chosen  his  successor. 
It  was  with  some  difficulty  that  he  accepted  of 
■  this  dignity ;  and  no  sooner  was  he  raised  to  it 
than  the  emperor  Valens  began  to  persecute  him, 
because  he  refused  to  embrace  the  Arian  doc- 
trine. He  uSed  his  utmost  endeavours  to  bring 
about  a  re-union  between  the  eastern  and  western 
diurches,  who  were  then  much  divided,  not  only 
aoout  points  of  faith,  but  with  regard  to  Meletius 
and  Paulinus,  two  bishops  of  Antioch ;  a  dispute 
wnich  was  not  terminated  till  nine  months  after 
bis  death.  Basil  had  a  share  in  all  the  disputes 
which  happened  in  his  time  in  the  east,  in  regard 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  church;  and  died  January 
1,  379. — ^There  have  been  severjal  editions  of  his 
works  in  Greek  and  Latin.  Tlie  best  is  that  of 
Father  Gamier,  printed  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in 
three  volumes  folio.  St.  Basil's  style  is  pure 
and  elegant,  his  expressions  are  grand  and  sub- 
lime, and  his  thoughts  noble  and  majestic. 
Erasmus  places  him  among  the  greatest  orators 
of  antiquity. 

Basil  (St.),  order  of.  The  most  ancient  of 
all  the  religious  orders.    See  Basilian. 

Basil  Stone.    See  Thymus. 

Basil,  Syrian  Field.    See  Zjziphora. 

Basil,  Wild.    See  Thymus. 

Basil,  a  physician  and  heretic,  whom  Alexius 
Comnenus  caused  to  be  burnt  alive  in  1118. 
He  held  that  God  had  anotlier  son  besides  Jesus 
Christ,  called  Sathanael,  who,  having  revolted 
ftom  his  duty  to  his  father,  was  expelled  heaven, 
and  cast  to  the  earth,  with  the  angels  whom  he 
had  influenced  to  take  part  with  him*  and  that 
Jesus  Christ  was  afterwards  sent  to  destroy  his 
power,  who.shut  him  up  in  hell,  and  altered  his 
name  by  cutting  of  the  last  syllable.  He  allowed 
his  followers  every  thing  in  common,  not  ex- 
cepting their  wives. 

BASILAN,  one  of  die  Philippine  islatads,  in 
the  midst  of  a  cluster  of  smaller  ones,  off  the 


south-west  extremity  of  Magindanoa.  It  ii 
mountainous,  and  about  sixty  miles  m  circom- 
fersnce,  abounding  in  rice,  sugar-cane,  and 
bananas.  Wild  hogs  and  deer  are  die  principal 
animals  of  Jhe  interior,  which  is  waterea  by  con- 
siderable streams,  but  thinly  peopled.  DistaDt 
eighteen  miles  from  Magindanao.  Long.  1*21^ 
E.,  lat.  5°  5(f  N. 

BASILARE  Os,  in  anatomy,  a  barbarous  de- 
nomination given  to  the  OS  sphenoides,  on  acconnt  - 
of  its  being  situated  at  the  bottom  or  basis  of  the 
skull ;  or  because  a  great  part  of  the  brain  rests 
hereon,  as  on  its  basis. 

BAS  ILEUS,  pamytvc,  a  title  assumed  by  the 
emperors  of  Constantinople,  exclusive  of  all  otbe 
princes,  to  whom  they  give  the  title  rex,  king. 
The  same  quality  was  afterwards  given  by  them 
to  the  kings  of  Bulgaria,  and  to  Charlemagne, 
frotn  the  successors  of  which  last  they  en 
deavoured  to  wrest  it  back  again.  The  title  bi- 
sileus  has  been  since  assumed  by  other  kings, 
particularly  the  kings  of  England,  Ego  Edgar 
totius  Anglis  basileus  confirmavi. '  Hence  also 
the  queen  of  England  was  intitled  basUea  and 
basilissa. 

Basileus,  in  ornithology,  a  name  by  which 
several  of  the  old  authors  called  the  regulus  cris- 
tatus,  or  golden-crowned  wren. 

BASILIAN  Monks,  the  religious  of  the  order 
of  St.  Basil.  That  saint  having  retired  into  a 
desert  in  the  province  of  Pontus,  founded  a  mo- 
nastery for  the  convenience  of  himself  and  his 
numerous  followers ;  and  for  the  better  regulation 
of  the  new  society,  drew  up  in  writing  the  orders 
and  rules  he  would  have  them  follow.  This 
order  soon  spread  all  over  the  east ;  nor  was  it 
long  before  it  passed  into  tlie  west.  The  mle  of 
St.  Basil  was  approved  by  Pope  libcrius,  the 
same  year  in  which  it  was  written  and  published ; 
and  afterwards  by  several  other  popes;  and,  in 
these  last  ages,  by  Pope  Gregory  III.  who  ap> 
proved  the  abridgment  made  of  it  by  cardiiol 
Bessarion,  in  the  pontificate  of  Eugenius  IV. 
Some  authors  pretend,  that  St.  Basil,  before  he 
died,  saw  himself  the  spiritual  lather  of  more 
than  90,000  monks,  in  the  east  only.  Hot  this 
order,  which  flourished  so  greatly  for  more  than 
three  centuries,  was  afterwarcTs  considerably  di- 
minished by  heresy,  schism,  and  a  change  of 
empire.  The  greatest  storm  it  felt  was  in  the 
reign  of  Constantine  Copronymus ;  who  per- 
secuted the  monks  of  St.  Basil,  imprisoning  some, 
and  banishing  others;  insomuch  that  the  mo- 
nasteries were  abandoned  and  spoiled  of  all  their 
goods.  The  historians  of  this  order  tell  us,  that 
it  has  produced  1805  bishops ;  and  beatifi^,  or 
acknowledged  as  saints,  3010  abbots,  11,805 
martyrs,  and  an  infinite  number  of  confeswis 
and  virgins.  They  likewise  place  among  the  re- 
ligious of  the  order  of  St.  Basil,  fourteen  popes, 
some  cardinals,  and  a  very  great  number  of  pa- 
triarchs, archbishops,  and  bishops;  and  they 
boast  of  several  emperors  and  empresses,  kings 
and  queens,  princes  and  princesses,  who  have 
embraced  its  rules.  This  order  was  introdaced 
in  the  west  in  1057 ;  and  was  reformed  in  1569 
by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  who  united  the  religioas 
of  this  order  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Sicily  into  one 
congregation;  of  which  the  monastoy  of  St 


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Saviour  at  Mcasma  is  the  chief,  and  enjoys 
pre-eminence  ov«r  the  reat.  Eadi  community 
has  its  particular  rule,  besida  the  rule  of  St. 
Basil,  w.hich  is  very  general,  and  prescribes 
little  more  than  the  common  duties  of  a  Christian 
life. 
Basiltans.  See  Bogomtlt. 
BASILIC,  or  BAfiiucr,  /SamXicif,  a  royal 
house,  in  the  ancient  architecture,  denotes  a  kind 
of  public  ball  or  court  of  judicature,  where  the 
princes  or  magistrates  sat  to  administer  justice. 
jThe  basilicB  consisted  of  a  great  hall,  with  aisles, 
porticoes,  tribunes,  and  tribunals.  The  form  was 
generally  that  of  a  paralltdogram.  The  bankers 
had  one  part  of  the  basilica  allotted  for  their  re- 
sidence. The  scholaxs  also  went  thither  to  make 
their  declamations,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Quintilian.  In  atfter  times  the  denomination 
basilica  was  also  given  to  other  bnildingst  of 
public  use,  as  town-houses,  exchanges,  burset, 
and  the  like.  The  Roman  basilica  were  covered, 
by  which  they  were  distinguished  from  the  fora, 
which  were  public  places  open  to  the  air.  The 
first  basilica  was  built  at  Rome  by  Cato  the 
elder,  whence  it  was  called  Portia;  the  second 
was  called  opimia ;  &e  third  was  that  of  Paulus, 
built  with  a  great  expense,  and  with  much  mag- 
nificence, whence  it  was  called  by  some  regia 
Pauli ;  another  was  built  by  Julius  Csser,  called 
basilica  julia ;  of  which  Vitruvius  tells  us  he  bad 
the  direction.  There  are  eighteen  or  twenty 
others. 

Basilic  is  also  used  in  ecclesiastical  writers, 
for  a  church.  In  this  setu£,  the  wovd  ^qnently 
occurs  in  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Austin,  St.  Jerome, 
Sidonitts  Appollinaris,  and  other  writers  of  die 
fourtib  and  fifth  centuries.  I|  ia  thought  thM  the 
name  was  thus  applied,  from  many  of  the  an- 
cient churclies  having  been  formed  (k  the  Roman 
halls.  In  reality,  on  the  conversion  of  Coti- 
stantine,  many  otf  the  ancient  basilica  were  given 
to  the  chufch,  and  turned  to  another  use,  vis. 
for  Christian  assemblies  to  meet  in ;  as  may  he 
collected  from  the  passage  in  Ausonius,  where 
speaking  to  the  emperor  Gratian,  he  tells  him, 
the  basilice,  which  heretofore  were  wont  to  be 
filled  with  men  of  buaioeas,  were  now  thronged 
with  votaries  praying  for  his  safety  :  by  which  he 
roust  needs  mean,  tkktthe  Roman  halls  or  courts 
were  turned  into  Christian  churches :  and  hence 
the  name  came  tQ  be  a  general  name  for  churches 
in  after  ages. 

Basilic,  is  diiefiy  applied,  in  modern  times, 
to  churches  of  royal  foundation;  as  those  of 
St.  John  de  Lateran,  aad  St.  Peter  of  the  Va- 
tican, at  Rome,  founded  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine. 

Basilics,  among  the  ancient  Franks,  were 
little  chapels  buih  over  the  tombs  of  their  great 
men,  so  called,  as  resembling  the  figure  of  the 
sacred  basilicte,  or  churches.  Persons  of  inferior 
condition  had  only  tumbc  or  porticuli  erected 
over  the^  By  an  article  in  theSalique  law,  he 
that  robbed  a  tumba  or  porticulus,  was  to  be 
fined  fifteen  soUdi ;  but  he  that  robbed  a  basilica, 
thirty  eelidi. 

Basilios,  in  literary  history,  a  name  supposed 
to  hare  baen  given  by  tiie  emperor  Leo  to  a  col- 
lection of  laws  in  honor  cpf  his  father  BasUius  I. 


who  began  it  A.  D.  B67,  and  in  the  exeeutton 
chiefly  made  use  of  Sabbathius  Protospatharius, 
who  carried  the  work  as  far  as  forty  books,  Leo 
added  twenty  books  more,  and  published  the 
work  in  880.  The  whole,  thirty  years  after,  was 
corrected  and  improved  by  Constantine  Por- 
phyros:enitus,  son  rrf  Leo :  whence  many  have 
held  him  the  author  of  the  basilica.  Six*  books 
of  the  basilica  were  translated  into  Latin  in  1557, 
by  Gentian  Hervetus.  An  edition  of  the  Greek 
bosilics,  with  a  Latin  version,  has  been  since 
published  at  Paris,  in  1647,  by  Ahnibal  Fabrot- 
tus,  in  seven  volumes.  There  are  still  wanting 
nineteen  books,  which  are  supposed  to  be  lost. 
Fabrottus  has  endeavoured  to  supply  in  some 
measure  the  defect,  from  the  synopsis  of  the  basi- 
lica and  the  glosses,  of  which  several  had  been 
made  under  the  succeeding  emperors,  and  con- 
tained the  whole  Justinian  law,  excepting  the 
superfluities,  in  a  new  and  more  consistent  order, 
together  witn  the  later  constitutions  of  the  em- 
perors posterior  to  Justinian. 

BASILICA,  in  anatomy,  the  interior  branch 
of  the  axillary  vein,  running  the  whole  length 
of  the  arm.  It  is  one  of  the  veins  opened  in 
bleeding. 

Basilica,  or  Basilicus,  in  astronomy,  a 
fixed  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  in  the  constel- 
lation Leo;  called  also  Regulus  and  Cor  Leonis. 
Basilica  Julia  not  only  served  for  the  hear- 
ing of  causes,  but  for  the  reception  and  audience 
of  foreign  ambassadors.  It  was  supported  by 
100  marble  pillars  in  four  rows,  and  enriched 
with  decorations  of  gold  and  precious  stones. 
In  it  wero  thirteen  tribunals  or  judgment  seats, 
where  the  pretors  sat  to  despatch  causes.  See 
Basilic 

Basilica,  Moderk.  Palladio  gives  thU name 
to  the  civil  edifices  which  are  found  in  many 
Italian  cities,  and  the  destination  of  which  is  en- 
tirely similar  to  the  antique  basilica.  *  In  imi- 
tation of  the  ancients,*  says  this  celebrated  ar- 
chitect, 'the  cities  of  Italy  construct  public  halls 
which  may  rightly  be  called  basilics,  as  they 
form  part  of  the  habitation  of  the  supreme  ma^ 
gtstrate^  and  in  them  the  judges  administer  jus- 
tice.' *  The  basilice  of  our  time,'  he  continues, 
*  differ  in  this  from  the  ancient ;  that  those  were 
level  with  the  ground,  while  ours  ace  raised  upon 
arches,  in  which  are  shops  for  various  arts  and 
merchandise  of  the  city.  There  the  prisons  are 
also  placed,  and  other  buildings  belonging  to  the 
public  business.  Another  difference  is,  that  the 
modern  basilice  have  the  porticoes  on  the  out- 
side, ^v!lile  in  the  ancient  they  were  only  in  the 
interior.  Of  these  halls  there  is  a  very  noble 
one  at  Padua;  and  another  at  Brescia,  remark- 
able for  its  size  and  ornaments.'  The  most  ce- 
lebrated of  this  kind  is  tha#of  Vicenza;  the 
exterior  part  of  which  was  built  by  Palladio,  and 
the  whole  so  much  altered  that  it  may  pass  for 
his  work.  The  body  of  the  building  is  of  muc!i 
greater  anti<}uity,  though  the  date  of  it  is  un- 
knovm.  Time,  and  various  accidents  had  re- 
duced this  edifice  to  such  a  state  of  decav,  thai 
it  was  necessary  to  think  seriously  or  pre- 
venting its  total  ruin :  for  this  purpose  the  moat 
eminent  arehitects  were  consulted^  and  the  de- 
sign of  Palladio  was  approved.    He  removed 

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the  ancient  loggias,  and  substituted  new  porticoes 
of  a  very  beautiful  invention.  These  form  two 
galleries  in  height,  the  lower  order  of  which  is 
ornamented  wi£h  Doric  engaged  columns,  at 
very  wide  intervals,  to  answer  to  the  internal 
pillars  of  the  old  buildings ;  the  space  between 
each  column  is  occupied  by  •an  arch  resting  on 
two  small  columns  of  the  same  order,  and  a  pi- 
laster at  each  side  against  tlie  large  columns, 
which  leaves  a  space  between  it  and  the  small 
columns  of  two  diameters  The  upper  portico 
of  Ionic  columns  is  disposed  in  the  same  manner, 
and  a  balustrade  is  placed  in  the  archway.  The 
entablature  of  the  large  orders  is  profiled  ove^ 
each  column. 

This  edifice  is  about  150  feet  long  and  sixty 
feet  broad ;  the  hall  is  raised  above  the  ground 
twenty-six  feet;  it  is  formed  by  vaults  supported 
on  pillars,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  a 
wooden  dome, 

BASILIC  ATA,  a  territory  of  Italy,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  provinces  of  Otranto,  Bari,  and 
Capitanata,  on  the  west  by  the  Principato,  and  a 
small  part  of  the  Tuscan  Sea,  on  the  south  by  Ca- 
labria, and  on  the  east  by  the  Gulf  of  Taranto. 
It  is  watered  by  several  rivers;  but  as  it  is  almost 
all  occupied  by  the  Appennine  mountains,  it  is 
neither  very  populous  nor  fertile;  however,  it 
produces  enough  to  maintain  its  inhabitants,  and 
has  a  small  quantity  of  cotton.  The  principal 
towns  are  Acerenza  the  capital,  Melfi,  Tursi,  R&- 
poUa,  Muro,  Lavello,  Tncarico,  Monte  Peloso, 
and  Venesa,  which  are  all  episcopal  sees.  Its 
extent  is  about  1,605,047  moggie;  five  moggie 
being  equivalent  to  four  £nglish  acres ;  and  it  has 
a  populatign  of  nearly  330,000  souls.'  It  is 
watered  by  the  Basiento,  and  several  other 
streams.  In  this  province  are  the  ancient  ruined 
cities  of  Heraclea  and  Metapontum. 

BASILIC!,  ^ACFiXucei,  in  the  Greek  empire, 
was  a  denomination  given  to  the  prince's  man- 
datories, or  those  who  carried  his  orders. 

Basilicon,  in  pharmacy,  a  name  given  to 
several  compositions  to  be  found  in  ancient  me- 
dicinal writers.  At  present  it  is  confined  to 
three  officinal  ointments,  distinguished  by  the 
epithets  black,  yellow,  and  green.  See  Phar- 
macy, &c. 

Basilicon,  or  Basilzcum,  in  phaimacy,  is 
callee  tetrapharmacum,  as  being  composed  of 
four  simples,  viz.  resin,  wax,  pitdi,  and  oil  of  olive. 

BASlLICUS  Sinus,  in  ancient  geography, 
the  gulf  of  Mellasso,  in  Asia  Minor,  which  sepa- 
rates Lycia  and  Caria. 

BASILIDES,  an  Egyptian,  who  lived  near 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century.  He  was 
educated  in  the  Gnostic  school,  bver  which 
Simon  Magus  is  once  said  to  have  presided ; 
and  with  whom  h^pgieed  that  Cluist  was  a  man 
in  appearance,  that  his  body  was  a  phantom,  and 
.hat  he  gave  his  form  to  Simon  tne  Cyrenian, 
who  was  crucified  in  his  stwui.  We  learn  from 
Eusebius,  that  this  heresiaich  wrote  twenty- 
four  books  upon  the  gospel,  and  that' he  forged 
aeveral  prophets;  to  two  of  which  he  gave  the 
names  barcaba  and  barcoph.  We  have  still  the 
firagnent  of  a  Basilidian  gospel. 

BASIUDIANS,  a  denomination,  in  the  sfr- 
oond  centuiy,  ftom  Basilides,  chief  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Gnostics.    They  acknowledged,  accordmg  to 


ancient  writers,  the  existence  of  one  supreme 
God,  perfect  in  goodness  and  wisdom,  who  pro- 
duced from  bis  own  substance  seven  beings,  or 
aions,  of  a  most  excellent  nature.  Two  of  these 
aions,  called  dynamis  and  sophia,  i.e.  power 
and  wisdom,  engendered  the  angels  of  Ae  highest 
order.  Th^  angels  formed  a  heaven  for  their 
habitation,  and  brought  forth  other  angelic  beings 
of  a  nature  somewhat  inferior  to  their  own. 
Many  other  generations  of  angels  followed.  New 
heavens  were  also  pieated,  until  the  number  of 
angelic  orders,  and  of  their  respective  heavens, 
amounted  to  365,  and  thus  eoualled  the  days  of 
the  year.  All  these  are  under  the  empire  of 
an  omnipotent  Lord,  whom  Basilides  called 
Abnoas.  The  inhabitants  of  the  lowest  heavens, 
which  touched  upon  the  borders  of  the  eternal, 
malignant,  and  self-animated  matter,  coDceired 
the  design  of  forming  a  world  from  that  con- 
fused mass,  and  of  creating  an  order  of  beings 
to  people  it.  This  design  was  carried  into  exe- 
cution, and  was  approved  by  the  supreme  God, 
who  to  the  animal  life,  with  which  only  the  in- 
habitants of  this  new  world  were  at  first  en- 
dowed, added  a  reasonable  soul,  giring  at  the 
same  time  to  the  angels  the  empire  over  tbem. 

These  angelic  beings,  advanced  to  the  gorero- 
ment  of  the  world  which  they  haul  created,  fell 
by  degrees  from  their  original  purity,  and  soon 
manifested  the  fatal  marks  of  their  depiavity 
and  corruption.  They  not  only  endearoured  to 
effiu»  in  the  minds  of  men  their  knowledge  of 
the  supreme  Being,  that  they  might  be  wor- 
shippea  in  his  8teul|  but  also  began  to  war 
against  each  other,  with  an  ambitious  view  to 
enlarge  eveiyone  the  bounds  of  his  respectrre 
dominion.  The  most  arrogant  and  turbulent  of 
all  tliese  angelic  spirits,  was  that  whidi  piesided 
over  the  Jewish  nation.  Hence,  the  mpieme 
God,  beheading  with  compassion  the  miseiable 
state  of  rational  beings,  who  groaned  under  the 
contest  of  these  jarring  powers,  sent  ham  heaven 
his  son  Nus,  or  Christ,  the  diief  of  the  aions, 
that,  joined  in  a  substantial  union  with  the  man 
Jesus,  he  might  restore  the  knowledge  of  the  su- 
preme God,  destroy  the  empire  of  those  angelic 
natures  which  presided  over  the  world,  and  per* 
ticularly  that  or  the  arrogant  leader  of  die  Jewish 
people.  The  god  of  the  Jews,  alarmed  at  this^ 
sent  forth  his  ministers  to  seize  the  man  Jesos 
and  put  him  to  death.  They  executed  his  oom- 
mands;  but  their  cruelty  could  not  extend  to 
Christ,  against  whom  tiieir  efforts  were  viin. 
Those  souls  who  ob^  the  precepts  of  the  Son  of 
God,  shall,  after  the  dissolutiou  of  their  mortal 
firame,  ascend  to  the  Father,  while  their  bodies 
return  to  the  corrupt  mass  of  matter  whence  they 
were  formed.  Disobedient  spirits,  on  the  con- 
trary, shall  pass  successively  into  other  bodies. 
There  are  several  gems  still  subsisting,  inscribed 
with  the  name  Abraxas,  which  were  used  by  the 
Basilidians  as  amulets  against  diseases  and  evil 
spirits.    See  Abraxas.  ^ 

BASILIGOROD,  or  Vasiligorod,  a  town  of 
Russia,  seated  on  the  Volga,  where  the  Saia  &Us 
into  it.  The  inhabitants  are  employed  in  agri- 
culture and  fishing.  It  is  1 12  leaguesfromMoaoow. 

BASILINEA,  in  entomology,  a  species  of 
phalcna,  a  native  of  Austiia. 

BASILIPOTAMO,  the  ancient  Eofolas,  a 


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mer  of  European  Turkey^  in  the  south  of  the 
Morea,  which  fidls  into  me  Gulf  of  Kolokythia, 
about  four  miles  to  the  N.  N.  £.  of  the  town  of 
that  name. 
BASILIPPUM,  in  ancient  geognphy,  a  town 

(      of  Bstica,  in  Spain ;  now  called  Cantillana,  a 

citadel  of  Andalusia,  above  Seville,  on  the  Gua- 

daiquiver.  , 

BASILISCUS,    in   alchemy,  the  sublimate 

mercury  of  the  philosophers. 

Basiliscus,  m  omitnology,  a  name  given  by 
some  of  the  old  authors  to  the  regulus  cristatus, 

^     or  golden-crowned  wren.    It  is  a  diminutive  of 

I  basileuS|  king,  another  of  its  names,  because  of 
its  golden  crown. 

Bksi liscits/Basilicus,  in  zoology,  a  species  of 

\  lacerta,  which,  according  to  linnteus,  has  the  tail 
long  and  round,  dorsal  fin  radiated,  and  back  of 
the  head  crested.  This  is  the  basilisk  of  modem 
naturaUsts,  and  seems  to  unite  the  two  genera  of 
lacerta  and  draco.  The  remarks  of  Dr.  Shaw, 
in  the  Gen.  Zool.  on  this  extraordinary  creature, 
are  highly  interesting,  and  ought  not  to  escape 
attention.  It  is,  accordiny  to  this  writer,  parti- 
cularly distinguished  by  a  long  and  broad  wing- 
like process  or  expansion,  continued  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  back,  and  to  a  very  consider- 
able distance  on  the  upper  part  of  the  tail,  and 
furnished  at  certain  distances  with  internal  radii, 
anatagous  to  those  in  the  fins  of  fishes,  and  still 
more  so  to  those  in  the  wings  of  the  draco  volans, 
or  flying  lizard.  This  process  is  of  different  ele- 
▼ations  in  different  parts,  so  as  to  appear  strongly 
sinuated  and  indented,  and  is  capable  of  being 
either  dilated  or  contracted  at  the  pleasure  of  Uie 
animal.  The  occiput,  or  hind  part  of  the  head, 
is  elevated  into  a  very  conspicuous  pointed  hood, 
or  hollow  crest. 

'  Notwithstanding  its  formidable  appearance,' 
adds  this  author,  'the  basilisk  is  a  perfectly 
harmless  animal ;  and  like  many  others  of  the 
lizard  tribe,  resides  principally  among  trees, 
where  it  feeds  on  insects,  &c.  It  has  long  ago 
been  admirably  figured  in  the  work  of  Seba;  and 
as  it  is  an  extremely  rare  species,  ftzs  sometimes 
been  considered,  from  the  strangeness  of  its  form, 
as  a  fictitious  representation.  There  is,  how- 
eirer,  in  the  Britisn  Museum,  a  very  fine  speci- 
men, well  preserved  in  spirits,  and  which  fiilly 
confirms  the  excellency  of  Seba^s  Bgure ;  fiom 
which,  in  all  probability ,  Linnxus  himself,  who 
never  saw  the  animal,  took  his  specific  description. 
The  color  of  the  basilisk  is  a  pale  cinereous  brown, 
with  some  darker  variegations  towards  the  upper 
part  of  the  body.  Its  length  is  about  a  foot  and 
a  half.  The  young  or  small  specimens  liave  but 
a  slight  appearance  either  of  the  dorsal  or  caudal 
process,  or  of  the  pointed  occipital  crest.  The 
basilisk  is  principally  found  in  South  America, 
and  sometimes  considerably  exceeds  the  length 
before  mentioned,  measuring  three  feet,  or  even 
more,  from  the  nose  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail. 
It  is  said  to  be  an  animal  of  great  agility,  and  is 
capable  of  swimming  occasionally  with  perfect 
ease,  as  well  as  of  springing  from  tree  to  tree  by 
the  help  of  its  dorsal  crest,  which  it  expands  in 
order  to  support  iU  flight' 

Among  tne  French  naturalists,  the  iguane  is  a 
distinct  genus  of  the  oviparous  quadrupeds,  in 


which  the  Linnean  lacerta  basiliscus  is  included 
under  the  name  of  basilisk. 

The  basilisk  of  the  ancients  existed  only  in 
the  glowing  fancy  of  their  poets :  they  feigned  it 
to  l^  the  most  malignant  of  all  poisonous  ser- 
pents; as  a  creature  whose  breatn  empoisoned 
the  very  air,  and  whose  baneful  glance  would 
alone  prove  &tal  to  all  other  animals.  A  crea- 
ture gifted  with  such  extraordinary  powers  could 
have  no  common  origin,  and  therefore  it  was  as- 
serted to  be  the  produce  of  the  egg  of  a  cock 
brooded  upon  by  a  serpent.  Galen  says  its 
color  is  yellowisn,  and  that  it  has  three  little 
elevations  on  its  head,  speckled  with* whitish 
spots,  that  have  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
crown,  ^ian,  Matthiblus,  Pliny,  Lucan,  and 
others  of  the  most  distinguished  ancients,  relate 
many  marvellous  properties  of  this  creature;  but, 
notwithstanding  tneir  authority,  the  basilisk,  at 
they  represent  it,  is  most  unquestionably  fabulous. 
It  u  needless  to  add  to  this  article  any  of  the 
fid>les  of  Jerome  Lobo,  although  Dr.  Johnson 
has  received  some  of  them  with  an  unwarrantable 
degree  of  credulity.    The  learned  Prosper  Al- 

Einus  informs  us,  on  the  authority  of  some  re- 
itions,  which  he  seems  to  have  credited,  that 
near  the  lakes  contiguous  to  the  sources  of  the 
Nile,  there  is  a  number  of  basilisks,  about  a 
palm  in  length,  and  the  thickness  of  a  middle 
finger;  that  they  have  two  large  scales  which 
they  use  as  wings,  and  crests  and  combs  upon 
their  heads,  from  which  they  are  called  basilisci 
or  reguli ;  that  is,  crowned,  crested,  or  kingly 
serpents.  And  he  says,  that  no  person  can  ai>* 
proach  these  lakes,  without  being  destroyed  by 
these  crested  snakes.  Our  traveller,  Mr.  Bruce, 
observes,  that  having  examined  the  lake  Goode- 
roo,  those  of  Court  Ohha  and  Tzana,  the  only 
lakes  near  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  he  never  saw 
one  serpent  there,  crowned  or  uncrowned  ;  and 
that  he  never  heard  of  any :  and,  therefore,  he 
believes  this  account  as  fabulous  as  that  of  the 
acontia,  and  other  animals,  mentioned  by  Prosper 
Alpinus,  lib.  iv.  cap.  4.  .  The  basilisk  is  a  species 
of  serpent  frequently  mentioned  in  scripture, 
though  never  described  farther  than  that  it  cannot 
be  chanued  so  as  to  do  no  hurt,  nor  trained  so 
as  to  delight  in  music  i  which  all  travellers  who 
have  been  in  Egypt  allow  is  very  possible,  and 
frequently  seea,  Jerem.  viii.  17.:  rsalm  ix.  13. 
However,  it  is  tlie  Greek  text  that  calb  this  ser- 
pent basilisk;  the  Hebrew  generally  calls  it 
tsepha,  which  is  a  species  of  serpent  real  and 
known.  Our  Englisn  translation  very  impro- 
perly renders  it  cockatrice,  a  fabulous  animal 
that  never  did  exist.  The  basilisk  of  scripture 
seems  to  have  been  a  snake,  not  a  viper;  as  its 
eggs  are  mentioned,,  Isaiah  ix.  5 :  whereas  it  is 
known  to  be  the  characteristic  of  the  viper  to 
bring  forth  living  young.  Bruce" t  Travels  in 
Abyuiniaf  vol.  v.  p.  201 . 

BA'SILISK,  n.  s,  Lat.  hoiUitcut,  firom  Gr. 
^iXMrcoc,  of  jSatnXfvc,  a  king.  A  serpent,  thus 
denominated  either  because  its  head  is  adorned 
with  a  tuft  like  a  diadem,  or  because  of  its  supe^ 
nor  strength  it  is  the  monaroh  of  the  reptile 
tribes.  To  this  creature  is  ascribed  the  power 
of  fascinating  its  victims  with  its  eyes.  See  the 
article  Basiliicus. 


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That  tletli  riiht  m  tU  hmUctk  iledi  folk  by  »  t«. 
nime  of  his  sight.  Chauotr.  Th§  Pgnme*  TtU, 

BariiiskM!  whose  breath 
Is  lining  poison*  and  whose  looks  are  death. 
Make  me  not  sighted  like  the  batilitk; 
Vrt  look'd  on  thousands  who  have  sped  the  better 
fiy  tty  regard,  but  kill'd  none  so.  SAdbpeorf. 

Thine  eyes,  kweet  lady,  hare  infected  mine. 
Ladt  An  MB.  Would  they  were  hatUiikt  to  strike  thee  < 
dead,  Jd. 

The  batUiMk  was  a  serpent  net  abor*  three  palms 
long,  and  differenced  from  other  serpents  by  advaae> 
ing  his  head,  and  some  white  marks  or  coronary  spots 
vpon  the  crown.       '  BrowmU  Vulgmr  Erroun, 

Ba'silisk.    a  species  of  cannon  or  ordnance. 
We  practise  to  make  swifter  motions  than  any  yon 
have ',  and  to  make  them  stronger  and  more  violent 
than  your's  are ;  exceeding  your  greatest  cannons  and 
kuiliski.  Bacon, 

Ybnr  eyes,  which  hitherto  hava  borne  in  them 
jigaintt  the  French,  that  met  them  in  their  bent. 
The  Iteal  balU  of  mardering  hamHtk»,        Shak^mn. 
And  thou  haat  talkM 
,0f  salUes,  and  retires }  of  trenohti,  tentt. 
Of  palisadoes,  fitontien*  pampcia  ; 
Of  kuiimktf  of  cannon,  cnlwiinf 
Of  prisoner's  ransom,  and  of  soldiers  slain.     M. 
Basilisk,  in  military  affairs,  a  piece  of  oid* 
nance ;  thus  denominated  from  its  i^semblance 
to  the  supposed  serpent  of  that  name.    The 
basilisk  has  thrown  an  iron  ball  of  200  pound 
weight.    It  was  much  talked  of  in  Uie  Uroe  of 
Soljrman,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  in  the  wars  of 
Hungary,  but  seems  now  out  of  use.    Pauluft 
Jovius  relates  the  terrible  slaughter  made  by  « 
shigle  ball  from  one  of  these  basilisks  in  a  Spanish 
ship;  after  penetrating  the  boards  and  planks  i& 
the  ship's  head,  it  killed  above  thirty  men.  Mas- 
seus  speaks  of  basilisks  made  of  biass,  which 
were  drawn  each  by  100  yoke  of  oxea.    Modem 
writers  also  give  the  name  basilisk  to  a  much 
nnaller  and  more  sizeable  piece  of  ordnance^ 
which  the  Dutch  make  fifteen  feet  long>  and  the 
French  only  ten.    Tt  carries  forty-eight  poimdB. 
BASILISSA.    See  Basileus. 
BASILIUS   I.  sumamed  the  Macedonian, 
emperor  of  the  Greeks.     He  was  a  common 
soldier,  and  of  an  obscure  family  in  Macedonia, 
and  yet  raised  himself  to  the  throne :  for,  having 
pleased  the  emperor  Michael  by  his  address  in 
the  management  of  his  horses,  he  became  his 
first  equerry,  and  then  his  great  chamberlain. 
He  at  length  assassinated  the  famous  Bardas,* 
and  was  associated  to  the  empire  in  849.    He 
held  the  eighth  seneral  council  at  Constanti- 
nople; deposed  the  patriarch  Photius,  but  in 
658  restored  him  to  the  patriarchate ;  and  de- 
clared against  the  popes,  who.  refused  to  admit 
him  into  their  communion.    He  was  dreaded  by 
the  Saracens,  whom  he  frequently  vanquished ;  and 
loved  by  his  subjects  for  his  justice  and  cle- 
mency.   He  died  in  886.    Under  his  reign  the 
«    Russians  embraced  Christianity,  and  the  doctrine 
of  the  Greek  church. 

Basilxus  II.  succeeded  Romanus  II.  as  em- 
peror of  Constantiiwple,  A.  D.  903,  and  reigned 
along  with  his  brother,  Constantine  IX.,  six 
years.  Tliis  monarch  is  by  some  historians  and 
chronologists  confounded  with  Basilius  IIL  who 
had  also  a  brother  colleague,  called  Constantine. 
See  the  next  article. 


Ba8ili0s  III.  sQcceeded  John  Sbhko,  « 
peror  of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  975,  and  itigGd, 
aWng  with  his  brotner  Coostentine  X^  far  x 
less  a  period  than  fifty  years.  Ho  bra^ic- 
vived  nim  Aiee  yean,  die  one  dying  m  10^ 
and  the  other  in  1098.    See  CoKSTAsnsoru. 

BASILUZZO,  one  of  dM  lipaii  vkak 
,    BA'SIN,  n.  >      Fr .  ba$m  ;  Ital.  hadk,  hta^i 

Ba'sineo.  I  U  is  often  written  boson,  br.  u 
according  to  etymology.  It  is  a  term  wUeb  ^ 
agnates  a  ressel  in  common  nse.  It  is  afaoip- 
plied  to  any  hollow  place  capadons  of  hqadi 
and  is  technically  employed  oy  anatwni^h  laj 
artizans,  to  express  any  sabstsnoe  boUowcd  out,  i 
round  cavity,  or  a  concave. 

Bat  let  «  go  now  t»  that  iMitfibU  ft«cria(«f  in> 
lation  sod  ou^jiiistion^  at  don  tfaew  hkt  catka- 
toort  and  nigrouaBcen  in  bmnm  full  of  vatcr^srai 
bright  sword  in  a  chrda  or  in  a  fire,  or  ia  tAdae 
hone  of  a  thepe :  I  cannot  «ayn  but  that  ikv  b 
cnisedly  and  damnably  ayenst  Cxist»  and  aiii  si 
fbith  of  holy  chirche.       Chamoer,  The  Penmt  7*. 

After  that  he  ponred  water  into  a  lam,  od  li- 
gaane  to  wash  his  disdples  feet.  BitSt,  \lal 

Let  one  attend  lum  with  a  iflver  ham, 
rvli  OX  lotO'watev^  and  bentarewM  viu  ioiniL 


Wo  have  Hole  well*  iat  iafoauMa,  wkm  tk  «i» 
take  the  viitaat  quicker  and  better  than  iaveMbad 


And  aend  bar  hflne 
Divested  to  her  flannoU  in  a  cast* 
And  let  her  footman  beat  the  bawm  aim  W. 

With  scornful  sound  of  ham»,  pot  and  pao, 
Tbey   thought  to   drire   him    thence,  like  lea  c 
swarms.  Hot.  And, 

The  jttting  land  two  ailipl«  bays  drrido ; 
The  spadous  km$im  aiehlng  rocks  indoK, 
A  sure  defence  from  every  atoim  thtt  blow  f^- 
On  oee  side  of  the  walk  ycm  tea  the  hettw  iffv 
wilh  iU  several  little  ptantataons  lying  coanfcjS'? 
under  the  eye  of  the  beholder.  %«*• 

If  this  rotation  does  the  oeas  afEKt, 
The  rapid  motion  rather  would  ^jeet 
The  stores  the  low  capecioos  caves  cueac, 
And  fromnts  ample  ftoaus  cast  the  aaia* 

From  step  to  step,  with  anilen  aomid, 
The  fbrc*d  caai»des  indignant  leap; 

Kow  sinking  fill  Uie  htuem't  tteasvr'd  raai; 
There  in  a  dull  stagnntion  deoa'd  to^ 
Mamm.   OisfBawi^-^ 

Thy  kQtm*d  riven  and  UBfniaen'd  Mat. 

BASING,  a  vUlage  of  Hampditie,  foc^  - 
Basingstoke,  near  which,  in  871,  AM  ^ 
defeated  by  the  Danes.  It  is  eqpnlly  meMn- 
ble  for  tne  protracted  siega  sn^uoed  hat  ^ 
John,  the  fifth  maiquts  of  WdtiUfi,  inbsas: 
of  Basing-hous^,  against  the  forces  of  te  P^^^ 
ment.  The  investment  ccMnnenced  Aku^ 
1643,  and  the  answer  made  by  theBSi?!^- 
the  first  summons  was,  that  *  if  the  fciaf  1»^* 
more  ground  in  England  than  Basing4i«^  ^ 
would  maintain  it  to  tlve  uttermost'  It  stood  (^ 
till  October,  1645,  when  CiooiweU  took  it  -1 
storm,  and  burnt  it  to  the  groaad.  A  skix 
still  exists  in  the  neighbourhood,  'dabtnispfc 
as  when  Basing-house  was  taken  ;*  aad  taHi^ 
refers  this  to  the  suipfMe  of  the  anisoa,  ^'■ 
were  at  cards  when  &kally  assaulted.  Be  ^' 


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[Ois had  written  with  adiamond  on  ererr  pane  of 
;la9s,  Aymez  Loyault^,  which  is  atiU  the  family 
aotto.  The  plunder  obtained  by  the  parliament 
anr  forces  amounted  to  £200,000,  but  their  loss 
>efore  the  walls  exceeded  2000  men.  See  Journal 
»f  the  siefi^e  of  fiasing-houte,  Oxford,  1645. 

BiVSINGE  (John),  more  commonly  known 
>y  the  name  of  Basingstochius,  or  de  Basing- 
toke,  was  bom  at  Basingstoke,  a  town  of 
iampshire,  and  from  thence  took  his  surname, 
ie  was  a  person  highly  eminent  for  ▼irtue  and 
earning.    For  baring  very  good  natural  parts,  he 

0  improved  them  by  study,  that  he  became  a 
>Mect  master  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages, 
m  eminent  orator,  a  complete  mathematician,  a 
ubtle  philosopher,  and  a  sound  divine.  The 
bundation  of  his  great  learning  he  laid  in  the 
inivenity  of  Oxfordj  and,  for  his  further  im- 
>rovement,  went  to  Paris,  where  he  resided  some 
^ears.  He  then  travelled  to  Athens,  where  he 
nade  many  curious  observations,  and  perfected 
limself  in  his  studies,  particularly  in  the  k cow- 
ed ge  of  the  Greek  tongue.  At  his  return  to 
England,  he  brought  over  with  him  several  curi- 
)us  Greek  manuscripts,  and  introduced  the  use 
»f  the  Greek  numeral  figures  into  this  kingdom, 
ie  became  also  a  very  great  promoter  and 
mcourager  of  that  language,  which  was  much 
leglected  in  these  western  parts  of  the  world; 
ind  to  fticilitate  it,  he  translated  from  the  Greek 
nto  Latin  a  grammar,  which  he  entitled  The 
^onatus  of  the  Greeks.  He  was  archdeacon  of 
London,  and  afterwards,  of  Leicester.  ,  He  died 
n  1262. 

BASINGSTOKE,  a  market  town  in  Hamp- 
ihire,  which  by  means  of  a  canal,  begun  in  1778, 
carries  on  an  extensive  trade.  Population  in 
1821,  3165.  The  church  is  a  vicarage^  in  the 
patronage  of  Magdalen  college,  Oxford.  One  of 
ts  vicars.  Sir  George  Wheeler,  the  celebrated 
sastem  traveller,  annexed  a  library  to  the  church. 
This  town  was  the  birth  place  of  Joseph  and 
rhomas  Warton,  whose  father  was  vicar.  It  lies 
lixteen  miles  north-east  of  Winchester,  and  forty- 
nx  from  London. 

BASIOGLOSSUS,  a  muscle  arising  from  the 
3ase  of  the  os  hyoides.  See  Anatomy. 
^  BASIS.  Lat.  6aftt  ;  fiamcy  from  /Soibw,  I  go. 
^  Base.  The  foundation  or  the  first  principle 
>f  any  thing ;  the  lowest  of  the  three  principal 
parts  of  a  column,  which  are  the  basis,  shaft  and 
»pital. 

It  miut  follow,  that  Pandite,  being  nitod  to  tlus 
leight,  mutt  have  the  compass  of  the  whole  earth  for 

1  batit  and  foundation.  Raleigh, 

How  many  times  shall  Caesar  bleed  in  sport. 
That  now  on  Pompey's  baaU  lies  along 
Ko  worthier  than  the  dust!  Skakspeare* 

Ascend  my  chariot,  guide  the  rapid  wheels 
That  shake  heaven's  ham,  Nikon, 

In  altarwise  a  stately  pile  they  rear ;     « 
The  hadi  broad  helow  and  top  •dvane'd  ia  air. 

Drjfdm. 
»— The  frikndabipa  of  the  world  are  oft 
Confederacies  in  vice,  or  loagnes  of  pleasure  ; 
Ours  has  severest  virtue  for  its  ham,      Additon, 
Or  if  DO  bam  bear  my  rising  name, 
3ut  the  fairn  ruins  of  another's  fame, 
rhen  teach  me,  heaven !  to  scorn  the  guilty  bays. 
Drive  from  my  breast  that  wretched  lust  of  praise. 

Pops.  Temple  of  Pome, 


Basis,  in  ancient  music  and  poetry,  denotes 
the  equability  of  sounds  proceeding  in  the  same 
tenor,  and  stands,  contradistinguished  from  arsis, 
or  elevation,  as  well  as  from  thesis  or  depression. 

Basis,  or  Base,  in  chemistry,  any  boay  which 
is  dissolved  by  another  body,  which  it  receives 
and  fixes,  and  with  which  it  forms  a  compound, 
may  be  called  the  basis  of  that  compound. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  bases  of  neutral  salts  are 
the  alkaline,  earthy,  and  metallic  matters  which 
are  saturated  by  tlie  several  acids,  and  form  with 
them  these  neutral  salts.  In  this  sense  it  is  that 
these  neutral  salts  are  caUed  salts  with  earthy 
bases,  salts  with  alkaline  bases,  salts  with  metal- 
lic bases;  also  the  appellations  basis  of  alum, 
basis  of  nitre,  basis  of  Glauber  salt,  basis  of 
vitriol,  &c.  signifying  the  arrillaceous  earth, 
which,  with  the  vitriolic  acid,  forms  alum ;  the 
vegetable  alkali,  which,  with  the  nitrous  acid, 
forms  nitre;  the  mineral  alkali,  which,  with  the 
vitriolic  acid,  forms  Glauber's  salt;  and  the  metal 
which,  with  the  vitriolic  acid,  forms  a  vitriol ; 
because  the  substances  are  supposed  to  be  fixed, 
nnactive,  and  only  yielding  to  the  action  of  the 
acids,  which  they  fix,  and  to  which  they  give  a 
body  and  consistence. 

Basis  or  Bask,  in  geometry.    See  Base. 

Basis,  in  oratory,  denotes  the  fourth  member 
of  a  complete  exordium,  being  that  which  sne- 
ceeds  the  apodosis,  and  prepares  the  vray  for  the 
proposition. 

Basis,  in  pharmacy,  the  principal  ingredient 
in  compound  medicines. 

BASIUM,  Lat.  a  kiss,  a  word  used  by  che- 
mists, for  an  extemporaneous  tincture  of  iron  and 
copper,  invented  by  Closseus. 

BASK,  v.  a,  iLn,'i      Backeren,  Dutch,  pro- 

Basking.  { bably  from   the  verb   to 

bake ;  to  vrarm  by  exposure  to  heat,  whether  of 
the  sun  or  fire ;  to  Ke  in  the  warmth,  used,  says 
Johnson,  almost  always  of  animals ;  and,  if  in 
the  term  animals  he  includes  man,  he  is  not  far 
from  the  truUi ;  though  it  i6  sometimes  applied 
to  reptilee. 

As  I  live  by  food,  I  met  a  fool. 

Who  laid  him  down,  and  hask'd  him  in  the  sun. 

And  rail'd  on  lady  fortune  in  good  terms. 

In  good  sat  terms,  and  yet  a  motley  fool. 

Loue  in  her  sunny  eyes  does  hoiking  play, 
Loue  walks  the  pleasant  maoes  of  her  hair; 
Ijoue  does  em,  both  her  lips  for  ever  stray. 
And  sows  and  reaps  a  thousand  kiasea  there. 

Ceud^,     The  Cketige, 
Then  lies  him  down  the  lubber  fiend. 
And  stretch'd  out  all  the  chimney's  length 
BaJa  at  the  fire  his  hairy  strong^ 
'TIS  all  thy  business,  business  how  to  iban. 
To  haek  thy  naked  body  in  the  son.  Dryden, 

About  him,  and  above,  and  round  the  wood. 
The  birds  that  haunt  the  bovdess  of  his  flood , 
That  bath'd  within,  or  baik*d  upon  his  side, 
To  tuneful  songs  their  narrow  throats  applied.     Xtf. 
Some  in  the  fields  of  purest  ather  play. 
And  bath  and  whiten  in  the  blaze  of  day.        Pope, 
Unlock'd  in  covers  let  her  freely  run 
To  range  thy  courts,  and  hash  l3«ibre  the  sun. 

TiekeU, 

O  life  1  thou  universal  wish  ;  what  art  thou  ? 

Thon'rt  but  a  day — a  few  uneasy  hours  : 


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Thy  mom  is  greeted  hj  tbe  flooks  and  heidi. 
And  every  bird  that  flatten  with  ite  note, 
Salntee  thy  riaiag  fun :  thy  noon  approaching. 
Then  haate  the  flies,  and  every  creeping  insect. 
To  hath  in  thy  meridisn ;  that  declining. 
As  quickly  they  depart,  and  leave  thy  evening 
To  moam  the  absent  ray :  the  night  at  hand. 
Then  croaks  the  raven  conscience  of  time  migpent. 
The  owl  despair  screama  hideous,  and  the  bat 
Confusion,  flatten  up  and  down : 
Life's  but  a  lengthen'd  day,  not  worth  the  waking  for. 
Howard**  Charlet  L 
The  naked  negro,  panting  at  the  Line, 
Boasts  of  his  golden  sands  and  palmy  wine  ; 
Baaki  in  the  glare,  or  stems  the  tepid  wave. 
And  thanks  the  gods  for  all  the  good  they  gave. 

CMdmuthU  TranOUr. 
Too  late,  all  lost,  for  ever  lost,  he  sees 
The  envy'd  saints  triumphing  from  afar, 
And  angels  ba$bing  in  the  smiles  of  God.       Rowe, 
Childe  Harolde  btuk*d  him  in  the  noontide  sun 
Disporting  there  like  any  other  fly. 

Byron.  Childe  BarM, 
BASKERVILLE  (John),  an  eminent  artist, 
especially  in  letter-founding  and  printing,  was 
bom  in  1706,  at  Woverley  in  Worcestershire, 
and  was  heir  to  an  estate  of  about  £60  a  year; 
the  whole  income  of  which  he  allowed  to  his 
parents  till  their  deaths.  In  fais  early  years  he 
conceived  a  love  for  fine  writing,  and  cutting  in 
stone;  and,  being  brought  up  to  no  particular 
profession,  he  commenced  writing-master  in  Bir- 
mingham when  about  twenty  years  of  age.  The 
improvements  in  different  manufactures  there 
^  soon  drew  his  attention,  and  he  applied  to  the 
japan  business,  which  he  carried  on  for  a  long 
time  with  distinguished  excellence  and  success. 
In  1750  he  applied  himself  to  letter-founding, 
the  bringing  of  which  to  perfection  cost  him 
much  labor  and  expense.  In  a  few  years  he 
proceeded  to  printing;  and  his  first  work  wa^s  an 
edition  of  Virgil,  in  royal  4to.  which  now  sells 
for  three  guineas.  He  obtained  leave  from  the 
university  of  Cambridge  to  print  a  bible  in  royal 
folio,  and  editions  of  the  common  prayer-book, 
in  three  sizes;  for  which  he  paid  a  large  sum! 
He  afterwards  printed  Horace,  Terence,  Catullus, 
Lucretius,  Juvenal,  Sallust,  and  Florus,  in 
royal  4to;  Virgil  in  8vo.;  and  several  books  in 
12mo.  He  published,  likewise^  some  of  the 
English  classics.  These  performances  are  the 
best  testimonies  of  Mr.  Baskerville's  merit;  and 
his  name  i&  deservedly  ranked  among  those  who, 
m  modem  times,  have  brought  the  art  of  print- 
ing to  its  greatest  perfection.  Not  meeting,  how- 
ever, with  that  encouragement  from  the  book- 
sellers, which  he  expected,  he  set  up  a  letter- 
foundiy  for  sale,  a  little  before  his  death.  He 
died  without  issue  in  1 775. 

Baske&ville  (Sir  Simon),  an  eminent  anato- 
mist, and  physician  to  king  James  I.  and  Charies 
I.  was  the  son  of  Thomas  BaskervUle,  apothecary, 
tod  bom  at  Exeter  in  1573.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  where  he  early  displayed  his  abilities, 
and  at  last  took  his  degrees  of  B.  D.  and  M.  D. 
m  1611.  He  afterwards  settled  at  London, 
where  he  became  a  member,  and  was  for  some 
Ume  president  of  the  college  of  physicians.  His 
reputation  for  learning  and  medicine,  attracted 
the  attention  and  esteem  of  the  two  sovereigns 


above-mentioned,  the  latter  of  whom  kmghled 
him.  He  wrote  some  memoirs  of  his  own  life 
and  times,  and  died  in  1641,  aged  sixty-eight. 

BA'SKET,  n.  s.  basged,  welch;  ftorotsfa, 
Latin ;  perhaps,  from  the  French  ftoste,  or  firom 
some  British  word  signifying  rush ;  basket  is  a 
vessel  or  utensil  formed  of  osiers,  rashes,  of 
twigs,  splinters,  or  other  slender  bodies  inter- 
woven. 

For  I  wol  proche  and  beg  in  sondzy  londes^ 
I  wol  not  do  no  labour  with  min  hondes, 
Ne  make  hatketie9  for  to  live  there  by. 
Because  I  wol  not  beggen  idelly. 

GftoMosr.    The  Pardonent  Tie, 

Here  is  a  htukei:  he  may  creep  in,  and  thnnr  <oal 

linen  npon  him,  as  if  going  to  backing.      Fhahtpttrrc. 

Set  down  the  baakei,  villain: — Somebody  call  mj 

wife : — Yon  youth  in  a  btuhet  oome  out  here.         IL 

He  threw  out,  to  save  life. 
Your  British  htuhetf,  with  a  thousand  dishM. 

Hofydttg'iJmmal, 

Poor  Peg  was  forced  to  go  hawking  and  puddling; 

now  and  then  canying  a  hadlet  of  fish  to  the  market 

Arhdhmt. 
His  puissant  sword  unto  his  side. 
Near  his  undaunted  heart,  was  ty'd. 
With  AosM-hUt  that  would  hold  broth. 
And  serve  for  fight  and  dinner  both.    Ha£5rai. 
There  was  a  time. 
When  other  regions  were  the  swain's  delight ; 
And  shephcrdless  Britannia's  rushy  vales. 
Inglorious,  neither  trade  nor  labour  knew. 
But  of  rude  hatkeU,  homely  rustic  geer. 
Woven  of  the  flexile  willow.      Dyer.     The  Fkeoe. 
Basket,  as  a  measure,  denotes  an  unceitain 
quantity;  as,  a  basket  of  medlers  is  two  bu^ls, 
of  assafcetida  from  twenty  to  thirty  pound  weight. 
The  ancient  Britons  were  noted  n>r  their  inge- 
nuity in  making  baskets,  which  Ihey  exported  in 
large  quantities.     They  were  of  very  elegant 
workmanship^  and  bore  a  high  price.    Martial 
takes  notice  of  them: — 

Barban  de  pictis  veni  bascauda  Britannis, 
Sed  me  jam  mavult  dicere  Roma  suam. 
'  A  basket  I,  by  painted  Britons  wrought. 
And  now  to  Rome's  imperial  city  brought' 
Baskets  are  generally  made  of  osiers,  stripped 
of  their  t>ark,  and  dressed  according  to  the  design 
of  the  basket.     Large  baskets  or  hampen  are 
made  without  any  preparation  but  soakmg  the 
wood,  which  is  necessary  for  every  size  of  bas- 
ket.   No  great  capital  of  money  or  ingenuity  is 
requisite  to  follow  the  business  of  a  basket- 
maker;  yet  some  practice  as  well  as  dexterity 
would  seem  necessary  in  forming  fruit  baskets 
used  on  tables,  work  baskets,  table  mats,  &c. 

Basket,  Corbeille,  in  architecture,  a  kind 

of  vase,  or  figure  piece  of  sculpture,  in  form  of 

a  basket,  filled  with  flowers  or  fruits,  serving  to 

terminate  some  decoration. 

Basket  Fish  a  species  of  sea-star.    See  As- 

TERI^S. 

Baskct-kakiko,  the  weaving  of  leeds,  twigs, 
or  leaves  together,  for  baskeu,  is  an  art  in  use 
among  the  rudest  nations  of  the  world ;  even  as 
inferior  specimen  is  seen  among  tfie  natives  of 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  consisting  of  a  bunch  of 
rushes  tied  together  at  each  end,  and  spread  oot 
in  the  middle.  Otlier  tribes  of  this  neigbbour- 
hood  make  a  basket  of  leaves  interwoven,  lo  skil- 
fully executed,  that  it  retains  either  milk  or  water 


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V^  eaily  in  our  history  it  is  recorded  that  oiir 
ancestors  made  baskets,  which  were  celebrated 
at  Rome.  At  the  same  period,  shiel4s  of  wicker- 
work,  plain  or  covered  with  hides,  were  common 
ih  Britain ;  wicker  boats,  &c.  Herodotus  speaks 
of  boats  of  this  kind,  covered  with  bitumen,  on 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Such  boats,  about 
seven  feet  in  diameter,  are  said  to  be  used  at  the 
present  day  on  these  rivers ;  and  similar  ones,  we 
know,  are  employed  in  crossing  the  most  rapid 
streams  of  Inoia.  They  are  generally  of  a  shal- 
low construction,  from  three  to  fifteen  feet  in  dia- 
meter ;  some  will  carry  thir^  men.  They  are 
made  thus : — A  number  of  pieces  of  split  oam- 
boo,  twenty  for  example,  are  laid  on  the  ground, 
crossing  each  other  near  the  centre,  and  there 
fastened  with  thongs ;  the  ends  of  the  bamboos 
are  then  elevated  by  several  persons,  and  fixed 
asunder  at  due  distance  by  means  of  stakes,  in 
which  position  they  are  bound  by  other  long  slips 
of  bamooo.  The  latter  are  introduced  alternately 
over  and  under  the  pieces  first  crosied,  and  tied 
at  the  intersections  to  preserve  the  shape.  This 
being  completed,  beginning  from  the  oottom  to 
the  centre,  the  parts  above  the  intended  height  or 
depth  of  the  basket-boat  are  cut  off,  and  it  is 
liberated  from  the  stakes  reversed,  and  covered 
with  half-dressed  hides  sewed  together  with 
thongs.  Six  men  will  make  one  of  these  boats 
in  as  many  hours.  They  are  navigated  by  pad- 
dles where  the  water  is  aeep,  or  are  pushed  over 
a  shallow  bottom  with  long  poles;  and  the  pas- 
sengers are  kept  dry  by  planks  at  the  bottom. 
The  basket-boats  on  the  river  Kristna,  in  Uindos- 
tan,'  are  about  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  and  four 
feet  deep.  Armies  have  been  enabled  by  these 
conveyances  to  continue  their  march,  and  even 
lieavy  artillery  has  been  transported  by  them. 
Sometimes  they  are  toweJ  by  bullocks.  In  other 
parts  of  the  world,  houses,  cottages,  fences,  and 
•  gates,  are  formed  of  basket  or  wicker-work.  On 
the  continent,  a  two-horse  carriage,  called  a  Hol- 
stein  waggon,  of  very  considerable  size,  and  fit  to 
carry  several  persons,  is  composed  of  basket- 
work  ;  the  same  is  done  in  Great  Britain  with 
regard  to  the  bodies  of  gigs ;  and  an  appendage 
of  the  stage-coaches,  we  know,  is  literally  de- 
nominated the  basket. 

This  is  an  art  therefore,  however  numble  in 
some  of  its  branches,  too  extensively  and  too  ser- 
viceably  in  exercise  not  to  merit  more  att^tion 
than  books  of  science  have  usually  bestowed  upon 
it.  The  materiab  employed  have  been  very  vari- 
ous. Twigs,  branches,  straw,  and  whalebone, 
rushes,  roots  of  plants,  the  bowing  bamboo,  and 
the  supple  osier.  The  natives  of  some  parts  of 
South  America  make  baskets  of  rushes,  so  closely 
interwoven  as  to  hold  water,  and  thousands  of 
them  are  annually  sold  throughout  the  new  re- 
publics. The  Caffres  and  Hottentots  are  alike 
skilful  with  roots.  Osiers  or  willows,  however, 
are  most  adapted  for  this  use.  These  are  either 
taken  entire,  cut  from  the  root,  split  asunder,  or 
stripped  of  their  bark,  according  to  the  work  to 
be  produced ;  in  the  latter  case,  they  are  previ- 
ously well  soaked.  The  stripping  is  performed 
by  arawing  the  willows  through  an  iron-edged 
instrument  called  brakes,  which  removes  the  bark, 
and  the  willows  are  then  cleaned,  so  &r  as  neces- 


sary, by  the  manual  operation  of  a  sharp  knife.  * 
Next  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  and 
afterwards  placed  in  a  dry  situation.     But  it  is 
not  less  necessary  to  preserve  willows  with  their 
bark  in  the  same  manner,  for  nothing  can  be 
more  injurious  than  the  humidity  inherent  in  the 
plant ;  and  previous  to  use,  they  must  be  soaked 
m  water  some  days.    The  barked  or  white  osier 
is  then  divided  into  bundles  or  feggots  according 
to  size ;  the  larger  being  reserved  to  form  the 
strong  work  in  the  skeleton  of  the  basket,  and 
the  smaller  forveeaving  the  bottom  and  sides. 
Should  the  latter  be  applied  to  ordinary  work, 
they  are  taken  whole,  but  for  implements  of 
slight  and  finer  texture,  each  osier  is  divided  into 
splits  and  skeins ;  which  names  denote  the  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  size  to  which  they  are  reduced. 
Splits  are  osiers  cleft  into  four  parts,  by  means 
ot  a  particular  implement  employed  for  that  pur- 
pose, consisting  of  two  edge  tools  placed  at  right 
angles,  whereby  the  rod  is  longitudinally  divided 
down  the  pith.    These  are  next  drawn  through 
an  implement  resembling  the  common  spoke- 
shave,  keeping  the^grain  of  the  split  next  the 
wood  or  stock  of  the  shave,  while  the  pith  is  pre- 
sented to  the  edge  of  the  iron,  which  is  set  in  an 
oblique  direction  to  the  wood :  And,  in  order  to 
bring  the  split  into  a  shape  still  more  regular,  it  is 
passed  through  another  unplement  called  an  up- 
right, consisting  of  a  flat  piece  of  steel,  eaich  end 
of  which  is  fashioned  into  a  cutting  edge,  like 
that  of  an  ordinary  chisel.  The  flat  is  bent  round, 
so  that  the  two  edges  approach  each  other  at  a 
greater  or  less  interval  by  means  of  regulating 
screws,  and  the  .whole  is  fixed  in  a  handle.    By 
passing  the  splits  between  l^e  two  edges,  they 
are  reduced  to  skeins,  the  thickness  of  which  is 
determined  by  the  interval  between  the  edges  of 
the  tool.    All  the  implements  required  by  a  bas- 
ket-maker are  few  and  simple :   they  consist, 
besides  the  preceding,  of  knives,  bodkins,  and 
drills  for  boring,  leads  for  keeping  the  work 
steady  while  in  process,  and  where  it  is  of  small 
dimensions,  a  heavy  piece  of  iron,  called  a  beat- 
er, which  is  employed  to  beat  the  basket  close  as  . 
it  is  augmented. 

In  making  an  ordinary  basket,  the  osiers  are  laid 
out  in  a  length  considerably  greater  than  that  of 
the  finished  work.  They  are  ranged  in  pairs  on 
the  floor  parallel  to  each  otlier,  at  small  intervals, 
in  the  direction  of  the  longer  diameter ;  and  this 
may  be  called  the  woof,  for  basket  work  is  in 
fact  a  web.  These  parallel  rods  are  then  crossed 
at  right  angles  by  two  of  the  largest  osiers,  vrith 
the  Uiick  ends  towards  the  workman,  who  places 
his  foot  upon  them;  and  weaving  each  alter- 
nately over  and  under  the  parallel  pieces  first 
laid  down,  they  are  by  that  means  confined  in 
their  places.  The  whole  now  forms  what  is 
technically  called  the  slat  or  slate,  which  is  the 
foundation  of  the  basket.  Next,  die  long  end  of 
one  of  the  two  rods  is  taken,  and  woven  under  and 
over  the  pairs  of  short  ends  all  round  the  bottom, 
until  the  whole  be  woven  in.  The  same  is  done 
with  the  other  rod;  and  then  additional  long 
osiers  are  also  woven  in,  until  the  bottom  be  of 
sufficient  size,  and  the  woof  be  occupied  by  them. 
Thus  the  bottom,  or  foundation  on  which  the 
superstructure  is  to  be  raised,  is  finished ;  and 


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this  latter  part  is  acoomplisfaed  by  riiarpening  tiie 
Uige  ends  of  as  many  Wg  and  stout  osiers  as 
may  be  necessary  to  form  the  ribs  or  skeleton. 
These  are  forced  or  plaited  between  the  rods  of 
the  bottom,  from  the  edge  towaids  the  centre, 
and  are  turned  up  in  the  direction  of  the  sides ; 
then  other  rods  are  woven  in  and  out  between 
each  of  them,  until  the  basket  is  raised  to  the  in- 
tended height,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  the 
depth  it  is  to  receive.  The  edge  or  brim  is 
finished  by  turning  down  the  perpendicular  ends 
of  the  ribs,  now  protruding  and  standing  up  over 
each  odier,  whereby  the  whol«  are  firmly  and 
compactly  united.  A  handle  is  adapted  to  the 
work,  by  forcing  two  or  three  osiers  sharpened 
at  the  end,  and  cut  to  the  requisite  length,  down 
the  weaving  of  the  sides,  close  together;  and 
they  are  pinned  fast,  about  two  incl^s  from  the 
brim,  in  order  that  the  handle,  when  completed, 
may  be  retained  in  its  proper  position.  The 
osiers  are  then  either  bound  or  plaited,  in  such 
fashion  as  pleases  the  taste  of  the  artist  This  is 
the  most  simple  kind  of  basket;  some  are  of 
finer  materials,  and  nicer  <i«ecution.  The  skeins 
are  frequently  smoked  and  dyed,  of  different 
colors,  by  intermixing  which,  a  good  effect  is 
produced. 

At  Liverpool,  where  there  is  an  asylum  for  the 
blind,  this  art  has,  from  its  happy  simplicity, 
been  extensively  taught,  and  is  practised  with 
success.  In  the  city  of  Edinburgh,  a  number  of  the 
blind  find  similar  employment  in  a  blind  asylum. 

Some  of  the  best  materials  for  basket-making 
have  been  imported  into  Great  Britain  from 
France  and  Holland ;  but  the  duration  of  the  war 
induced  the  inhabitants  of  this  country  to  endea- 
vour to  obtain  a  home  supply ;  and  Mr.  Philips, 
of  Ely,  has  received  a  premium  from  the  Society 
of  Arts,  on  account  of  his  excellent  observations 
on  this  subject.  He  also  has  been  very  success- 
ful in  his  cultivation  of  the  osier.  Of  nine  or 
ten  species  of  osier,  be  remarks  that  only  one,  the 
grey  or  bhnkled  osier  is  of  any  use.  See  Trans- 
actions of  the  Society,  and  our  article  Osier. 

Basking  Shark,  in  idithyology,  a  species  of 
!>hark,  the  squalus  maximns  of  Linnsus,  so 
called  from  its  lying  in  the  sun  on  the  surfece  of 
the  water.  This  fish  inhabits  the  Arctic  and 
European  seas,  feeds  on  the  smaller  cetaceous 
animals,  and  grows  to  a  prodigious  size,  but  is 
not  very  fierce.  The  liver  is  very  large,  and 
produces  mudi  oil.    See  Squalus. 

BASLE,  Bale,  or  Basil.  One  of  the  nine- 
teen cantons  of  Switzerland,  which  joined 
the  confederacy  in  the  year  1501.  It  is  bound- 
ed on  the  south  by  the  canton  of  Solothum ; 
on  the  north  by  the  Brisgau;  on  the  east  by 
Frickthal ;  and  on  the  west  by  part  of  Solothum, 
the  former  diocese  of  Basle,  and  the  Sundgau ; 
being  upwards  of  twenty  miles  in  length,  and 
about  eighteen  in  breadth.  It  contains  three 
towns,  twentynieven  parishes,  seven  bailiwics, 
and  38,000  inhabitants ;  the  supposed  area  being 
about  181  square  miles.  Altbougn  the  mountains 
are  barren,  the  lower  parts  are  fruitful  in  com 
and  wine,  and  fit  for  pasture;  hemp  also  abounds 
here.  It  has  many  medicinal  springs  and  baths, 
and  the  air  is  whoLesorae  and  temperate.  The 
people  are  proteatants :  both  men  and  women  for 


the  moft  part  wear  the  French  dress ;  but  Ae  lan- 
guage commonly  spoken  is  German,  though  the 
French  aho  is  mucn  used.  By  the  constitution  of 
1803,  the  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  lan;e 
council  of  135,  elected  from  among  the  citizens 
at  large ;  it  assembles  every  half  year  in  the  town 
of  Basle,  and  sits  for  a  fortnight  at  a  time.  The 
executive  power  is  intrusted  to  the  small  council 
of  twenty-five,  chosen  from  among  tlie  members 
of  the  large  council,  and  having  at  its  head  two 
burgomasters,  who  preside  alternately.  The 
whole  canton  is  divided  into  the  three  districts  of 
Basle  (the  town),  Wallenburg,  and  Liestal,  each 
of  which  is  subdivided  into  fifteen  corporations. 
Every  inhabitant  who  rents  land  or  houses  to  the 
value  of  500  Swiss  francs,  has  a  seat  in  one  of 
these  corporations,  and  is  by  virtue  of  it  entitled 
to  vote  at  the  election  of  members  for  the  large 
council.  This  canton  sends  three  representatives 
to  the  diet.  Before  the  revolution  its  government 
was  aristocratical ;  and  its  revenues  arise  chiefly 
from  secularised  abbeys,  and  imposts  on  goods 
carried  through  the  country,  to  and  from  France, 
Italy,  and  Germany.  Besides  the  military  esta- 
blishment of  the  city  of  Basle,  there  were  two 
provincial  regiments,  consisting  each  of  ten  com- 
panies, and  a  troop  of  dragons.  At  present  the 
country  furnishes  two  regiments  of  militia,  each 
consisting  of  nine  companies  of  fusileers,  a  com- 
pany of  grenadiers,  and  one  of  dragoons.  Ma- 
nufacturing establishments  are  found  in  every 
comer,  particularly  for  those  of  silk,  cotton, 
ribbons  and  paper.  The  clergy  forn*  ^^  the  capital 
a  convention,  and  in  the  country  three  chapters ; 
over  all  these  the  first  pastor  of  the  cathedral  pre- 
sides. Basle  was  the  nrst  canton  which  separated 
from  the  Helvetic  confederacy,  and  adopted  the 
new  constitution ;  an(^  here,  it  is  said,  the  first 
paper  of  modem  times  was  manufactured. 

Basle,  or  Bale,  the  capital  of  tliis  canton,  is 
the  largest  city  in  Switzertand,  having  upwards ' 
of  200  streets,  and  six  market-places  or  squares. 
Its  environs  are  exceedingly  beautiful,  consisting 
of  a  fine  level  tract  of  fields  and  meadows.  The 
city  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Rhine,  over 
which  there  is  a  handsome  bridge ;  the  larger 
on  the  side  of  Switzerland,  the  lesser  on  thai  of 
Germany.  It  is  thought  by  some  to  have  risen 
on  tlie  rains  of  the  old  Augusta  Rauraconim. 
For  its  name  it  is  indebted  to  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate, iwho  named  it  in  honor  of  his  mother 
Basilina.  The  houses  are  well  built,  but  thinly 
popled,  Basle  containing  at  present  only  15,000 
inhabitants,  whereas  in  former  times  the  town 
was  crowded  to  excess.  A  hereditary  enmity 
subsists  between  the  inhabitants  of  the  two  divi- 
sions. The  minster,  or  cathedral  church,  tb^ 
town-house,  and  the  arsenal,  are  objects  worthy 
of  attention.  The  university,  founded  here  in 
1459,  has  an  excellent  library,  a  cabinet  of  me- 
dals, and  botanic  garden  ;  the  town  has  given 
birth  to  a  number  of  eminent  characters,  particu- 
larly CEcolampadius,  Gryncus,  Buxton,  Wet- 
stein,  Hermann,  the  BemouiUis,  and  Euler; 
Erasmus  too  resided  here  for  many  years,  and 
lies  interred  in  the  cathedral.  The  commerce  is 
extensive  and  flourishing,  and  is  maintained 
chiefly  by  the  manufecture  of  silk  ribbons.  The 
other  manufJBictures  of  consequence  are,  silk  stuff% 


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oottoii,  paper,  linen,  and  glores ;  there  are  also 
considerable  bleachfields  and  dye-hou8e«|.  The 
highest  administrative  power  belongs  to  the  large 
council  of  360,  out  of  which  are  chosen  the  mem- 
bers of  the  smaller  council  of  60.  The  Teutonic 
and  Maltese  orders  have  each  a  commander  at 
Basle.  It  was  remarked  as  a  singularity  in  the 
clocks  of  this  town,  that  they  always  struck  an 
hour  sooner  than  elsewhere ;  but  this  peculiarity 
no  longer  exists.  Basle  was  formerly  a  city  of 
the  empire,  and  only  ceased  to  be  so  on  its  join- 
ing the  Swiss  confederacy  in  1501.  Here  was 
held  a  &mous  ecclesiastical  council,  between  the 
years  1431  and  1444. 

Basle  was  once  the  name  of  an  independent 
bishopric,  which  had  the  Sundgau  toJhe  north, 
the  canton  of  Basle  to  the  east,  mat  ofoolothum 
to  the  south,  and  Tranche  Comt^  to  the  west. 
The  bishop  was  a  prince  of  the  empire,  and  had 
a  seat  and  vote  at  the  diet  of  the  Upper  Rhine. 
lie  was  at  the  sanie  time  in  alliance  with  the  se- 
ven catholic  cantons,  but  was  never  called  to  the 
meetings  of  the  Swiss  diet.  His  ordinary  resi- 
dence was  at  Porentrui.  The  whole  bishopric 
contained,  on  420  square  miles,  between  39,000 
and  40,000  inhabitants.  The  nett  revenue  was 
valued  at  £20,000  sterling,  to  which  the  mines 
contributed  between  £3000  and  £4000.  In  1792 
the  French  took  possession  of  that  part  of  the 
bishopric  which  belonged  to  the  German  empire, 
and  formed  it  into  a  department  of  their  republic, 
under  the  name  of  Mont  Terrible,  with  which 
they  soon  after  incorporated  seversd  of  the  other 
districts  that  were  previously  connected  with 
Swiuerland.  After  this  it  was  included  in  the 
department  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  In  1815  the 
bishopric  of  Basle,  with  the  town  and  territory  of 
•Bienne,  was  united  to  the  Swiss  republic,  by  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  and  now  fonns  part  of  the 
canton  of  Berne. 

BASMAN,  an  island  in  the  Persian  golf,  five 
miles  long,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  high  hill. 
Lat.  25°  24'  N. 

BASNAGE  (Henry),  Sieur  de  Beauval, 
second  son  to  Henry  Ekksnage,  and  brother  to 
James.  He  was  admitted  adyocate  in  the  par- 
liament of  Rouen,  in  1679.  He  did  not  follow 
the  bar  immediately  upon  his  admission ;  but  went 
to  Valencia,  where  he  studied  under  M.  de  Mar- 
ville.    Upon  his  return,  he  practised  with  great 

Sratation  till  1687,  when  the  revocation  of  the 
ict  of  Nantz  obliged  him  to  fly  to  Holland, 
where  he  composed  the  greatest  part  of  his  works, 
uid  died  in  1710.  His  chief  work  is  Histoire 
aes  Ouvrages  des  S9avans.  Rotterd.  24  vols. 
in  12mo.  l^is  work  was  begun  in  September 
#687,  and  continued  till  June  1709.  When  he 
arrived  in  Holland,  Mr.  Bayle,  through  indis- 
position, had  been  obliged  to  drop  his  Nouvelles 
de  la  Republiqne  des  Lettres,  which  induced 
Mr.  fiasnage  to  undertake  a  work  of  the  same 
kind,  under  a  different  title. 

Bas2Vage  (James),  a  learned  author,  and  pas- 
tor of  the  Walloon  church  at  the  Hague,  was 
bom  at  Rouen  in  Normandy,  in  1653.  He  was 
the  son  of  Henry  Basnage,  one  of  tiie  ablest 
advocates  in  the  parliament  of  Normandy.  At 
aeventeen  years  of  age,  after  he  had  made  him- 
self master  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  as 


well  as  the  English,  Spanish,  and  Italian  lan- 
guages, he  went  to  Geneva,  where  he  began  his 
divinity  studies  under  Meslrezat,  Turretin,  and 
Tronchin;  and  finished  them  at  Sedan,  under 
die  professors  Jurieu  and  Le  Blanc  de  Beaulieu. 
He  then  returned  to  Rouen,  where  he  was  received 
as  minster,  September  1676;  in  which  capacity 
he  remained  till  1685,  when,  the  exercise  of  the 
Protestant  religion  being  suppressed  at  Rouen,  he 
retired  to  Rotterdam,  and  was  a  minister  pen- 
sionary there  till  1691,  when  he  was  chosen  pas- 
tor of  the  Walloon  church  of  that  city.  In  the 
year  1709  Pensionary  Heinsius  got  him  chosen 
one  of  the  pastors  of  the  Walloon  church  at  the 
Hague,  Intending  not  only  to  employ  him  in 
religious  but  in  state  afiairs.  He  was  employed 
in  a  secret  negociation  with  Marshal  d'Uxefles, 
plenipotentiary  of  France  at  the  congress  of 
Utrecht;  and  he  executed  it  with  so  much  suc- 
cess, that  he  was  afterwards  entrusted  with  seve- 
ral important  commissions,  all  which  he  dis- 
chargea  in  such  a  manner  as  to  gain  a  great  cha- 
racter for  his  abilities  and  address;  a  celebrated 
modem  writer  has  therefore  said  of  him,  that  he 
was  fitter  to  be  a  minister  of  state  than  of  a 

C'  h.  '  The  abbe  du  Bois,  who  was  at  the 
^le'in  1716,  as  ambassador  plenipotentiary 
from  France,  to  negociate  a  defensive  alliance 
between  France,  England,  and  the  States  Gene- 
ral, was  ordered  by  the  duke  of  Orleans,  regent 
of  France,  to  apply  himself  to  M.  Basnage,  and 
to  ft)llow  his  advice ;  they  accordingly  acted  in  < 
concert,  and  the  alliance  was  conchided  in 
January  1717;  and  in  return  for  his  services  he 
obtained  the  restoration  of  aU  his  property  in 
France.  The  catholics  esteemed  him  no  less 
than  the  protestants;  and  the  works  he  wrote, 
which  are  mostly  in  French,  spread  his  reputa- 
tion almost  all  over  Europe;  among  these  are,  1. 
The  history  of  the  Religion  of  the  Reformed 
Churches.  2.  Jewish  Antiquities.  3.  The  His- 
tory of  the  Old  and  New" Testament;  and  many 
others.    He  died  Sept.  12;  1723. 

BASNET  (Edward),  dean  of  St.  Patrick's, 
Dublin.  He  was  bom  in  Denbighshire,  in 
Wales,  and  was  preferred  to  the  dean  of  St.  Pa- 
trick's about  1537.  He  was  a  zealous  promoter 
of  the  Reformation,  and  in  1539,  when  the  re- 
bellion of  O'Neal  broke  out,  he  laid  aside  the 
dress  of  the  dean  for  that  of  the  soldier,  and 
joined  the  army  under  the  lord  deputy.  For  his 
good  services  ne  was  made  a  privy  counsellor, 
and  besides  other  marks  of  royal  favor,  had  the 
lands  of  Kiltearn^  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dub- 
lin, assigned  to  him  by  the  crown.  He  died  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  Vl.        » 

BASNETUM,  low  Lat.  a  helmet.     Bailey, 

Bason,  bassin,  Fr.    See  Basin. 

Bason,  in  anatomy,  pelvis.  1.  Around  ca- 
vity in  form  of  a  tunnel,  situate  between  the  an- 
terior ventricles  of  the  brain,  descending  from  its 
base,  and  ending  in  the  point  at  the  ghmdula 
pituitaria.  It  is  formed  of  the  pia  mater,  and 
receives  the  pituita,  which  comes  from  the  brain, 
and  passes  throu^  the  pituitary  gland,  and 
thence  into  the  veins.  2.  That  capacity  is  also 
called  pelvis,  or  bason,  which  is  foriuea  by  the 
ossa  ilia  and  os  sacrum,  and  contains  the  blaudder 
of  urine,  the  matrix,  and  the  intestines. 


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BasoNi  in  glass-grinding,  or  dish.  Glass- 
grinders  use  various  kinds  of  basons,  of  copper^ 
iron,  &c.  and  of  various  forms,  some  deeper, 
others  shallower,  according  to  the  focus  of  the 
glasses  that  are  to  be  ground.  In  these  basons, 
convex  glasses  are  formed,  as  concave  ones  are 
on  spheres  or  bowls.  Glasses  are  worked  in 
basons  two  ways.  In  the  first,  the  bason  is  fitted 
to  the  arbor,  or  tree  of  a  lath,  and  the  glass,  fixed 
with  cement  to  a  handle  of  wood,  is  presented 
and  held  fest  in  the  right  hand  within  tne  bason, 
while  the  proper  motion  is  given  by  the  foot  of 
the  bason.  In  the  other,  the  bason  is  fixed  to  a 
stand  or  block,  and  the  glass  with  its  wooden 
handle  moved.  The  movable  basons  are  very 
small,  seldom  exceeding  five  or  six  inches  in 
diameter ;  the  others  -are  larger,  sometimes  above 
ten  feet  diameter.  After  the  glass  has  been 
ground  in  the  bason,  it  is  brought  smoother 
with  grease  and  emery,  polished  with  tripoli,  and 
finished  with  paper  cemented  to  the  bottom  of 
the  bason. 

Bason,  in  hat-making,  a  large  round  shell  or 
case,  ordinarily  of  iron,  placed  over  a  furnace ; 
wherein  the  matter  of  the  hat  is  moulded  into 
form.  The  hatters  have  also  basons  for  the  brims 
of  hats,,  usually  of  lead,  having  an  aperture  in  the 
middle,  of  a  diameter  sufficient  for  the  largest 
block  to  go  through. 

Bason,  in  hydraulics,  a  reservoir  of  water,  as 
the  bason  of  a  jet  d*eau,  or  fountain ;  the  bason 
of  a  port  or  harbour,  of  a  bath,  &c.  Basons 
are  made  with  clay,  cement,  or  lead ;  but  the 
diameter  must  be  made  four  feet  longer  on  each 
side  than  the  bason  is  to  be.  This  will  be  taken 
up  by  the  walls  of  clay.  For  the  same  reason, 
it  must  be  dug  two  feet  deeper  than  the  intended 
depth  of  the  water ;  because  it  is  to  be  laid  over 
eighteen  inches  thick  with  clay,  and  six  inches 
with  gravel  and  paving.  The  wall  is  to  be  made 
with  shards,  ruboish,  or  flints,  with  the  natural 
earth  for  mortar ;  and  the  day  must  be  well 
worked,  and  trod  firnily  down  with  the  naked 
feet  The  way  of  making  them  with  cement  is, 
to  allow  one  foot  nine  inches  every  way  for  the 
work ;  then  cut  the  banks  perpendicularly,  and 
raise  a  wall  of  masonry  a  foot  thick,  made  of 
pebble  stones,  or  the  like,  laid  in  a  mortar  of 
time  and  sand ;  the  bottom  is  then  to  be  covered 
.  to  the  same  thickness ;  and  then  the  solid  lining 
of  the  cement  is  to  be  backed  up  i^nst  the 
walls,  and  over  the  bottom.  This  is  to  be  made 
of  small  flints  in  beds  of  mortar,  made  of  lime 
and  cement.  When  this  solid  is  eight  inches 
thick,  it  must  be  plastered  over  the  whole  surface 
with  cement,  welt  sifted,  before  it  be  mixed  with 
the  lime ;  and  with  this  it  is  to  be  wrought  over 
smooth .  with  a  trowel.  The  proportion  of  this 
cement  should  be  two-thirds  of  tne  cement,  or 
powdered  tile,  to  one-third  of  lime ;  and  this 
cement  has  the  property  of  hardening  so  under 
water,  that  it  will  become  like  stone  or  marble, 
and  it  will  not  be  subject  to  decay  for  a  long 
time.  After  the  finishing,  the  bason  should,  for 
four  or  five  days,  be  anointed  over  very  often 
with  oil,  or  bullock's  bloody  to  keep  it  from 
flawing  or  cracking  in  the  drying ;  and  after  this, 
the  water  should  be  let  in  as  soon  as  may  be. 
The  leaded  basons  are  made  with  walk  a  foot 


thick,  and  a  bottom  of  half  a  foot  These  most 
be  of  rabble  stones  cemented  with  plaster;  for 
the  lime  will  injure  and  eat  the  lead.  Tlie  sheets 
of  lead  are  to  be  spread  over  these  walls  and 
bottom,  and  seamed  with  solder.  These  basons, 
however,  are  but  little  in  use  now,  (torn  the  ex- 
pense of  making  them,  and  the  danj^r  of  the 
lead  being  stolen.  The  waste  pipes  of  foantains 
ought  always  to  be  made  large  enough  for  fea: 
of  choking.  When  the  waste  water  is  to  be 
carried  off  in  common  sewers,  it  may  be  earned 
away  in  drains,  or  earthen  pipes ;  but  when  it  is 
to  serve  for  basons  that  lie  below  it,  it  is  to  be 
conveyed  in  leaden  ones. — There  are  divers  torts 
of  basons ;  as 

1.  Bason  en  CoQt7iLLE,  that  shaped  like  a 
shell.       • 

2.  Bason,  Figubed,  that  whose  plane  or  cir- 
cumference makes  several  turns  and  returns, 
either  straight,  circular,  or  the  like.  Such  are 
most  of  the  basons  of  fountains  at  Rome. 

3.  Bason  with  a  Balustrade,  that  whose 
cavity  is  surrounded  with  a  balustrade  of  stooe, 
marble,  brass,  or  the  like. 

4.  Bason  with  a  Trencb,  bassin  a  rigde, 
that  whose  border  being  of  marble,  or  other 
stone,  has  a  trench  cut  in  it,  wheoce,  at 
oe^n  distances,  springs  out  a  thread  of  water, 
which  lines  the  trench,  and  forms  a  kind  of  nape 
or  gargle  around  the  balustrade.  Such  is  that 
of  the  fountain  of  the  rock  of  the  Belvidere  at 
Rome. 

Basok,  in  ship-building,  a  circular  dock  for 
the  reception  of  ships. 

Bason,  Sale  by  the,  at  Amsterdam,  is  ased 
for  the  public  sales  made  under  thedirectioD 
of  the  vendu  meester ;  so  called,  by  reason  that, 
before  adjudging  the  lot  or  commodity  to  the  last 
bidder,  they  strUie  a  brass  bason,  to  give  notice 
of  it 

Basons  of  a  Balance,  two  pieces  of  brass, 
or  other  matter,  fastened  to  the  extremities  of  the 
strings ;  the  one  to  hold  the  weight,  the  other 
the  thing  to  be  weighed. 

BASOUDHA,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  m  the 
district  of  Bilsah..  Long.  78*»  13'  E.,  lat  23" 
54'  N. 

BASQUE  Island,  an  island  in  the  rirer  St 
Lawrence,  near  the  coast  of  Lower  Canada. 
Long.  68®  52'  W.,  lat.  48*  15'  N. 

BASQUES  Les,  or  Fremco  Biscay,  a  district 
of  Gascony,  France,  which  has  the  Bay  of 
Biscay  on  the  west,  the  river  Adour  and  the 
Landes  on  the  north.  Beam  on  the  east,  and  the 
Pyrenees  on  the  south.  It  was  formerly  subdi- 
vided into  the  three  territories  of  Labour,  Lower 
Navarre,  and  Soule,  and  is  now  included  in  lfa# 
department  of  the  Lower  Pyrenees.  It  is  reiy 
mountainous,  and  rather  bajren ;  it  rears,  how- 
ever, a  number  of  cattle.  The  inhabitants  ase 
a  dialect  which  resembles  that  of  the  Spanish 
Biscayans,  and  is  supposed  to  be  a  variety  of  the 
Celtic.  The  agility  of  the  inhabitants  is  pro- 
verbial. It  is  not  easy  to  imagine  moie  ^ac^ 
and  expression  than  they  display  in  their  mo- 
tions, or  the  spirit  and  activity  of  their  dances. 

Basques,  Rio  de,  a  river  in  Uie  province  and 
government  of  Costa  Rica,  kingdom  of  Guat^ 
mala,  which  &Us  into  the  Atlaofk. 


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BASQUEVILLE,  or  Baqueville,  a  town  of 
TraDce,  in  Lower  Normandy,  with  2190  inhar 
bitants.  Here  are  manufactores  of  serge,  matrasses, 
and  woollen  stufis.  It  had  the  tide  of  county 
before  the  revolution,  and  is  now  the  head  of  a 
canton,  in  the  department  of  the  Lower  Seine, 
arrondissement  of  Dieppe.  It  is  ten  miles  S.  W. 
of  Dieppe,  and  twenty-eight  N.  of  Kouen. 

BASHAH.    SeeBASsoRA. 
^     BASRODE,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
Flanders,  on  the  Scheldt,  near  Dendermonde. 
It  contains  2150  inhabitants. 

BASS,      )     This  is  the  word  from  which 

Ba'ssock.  y  basket  is  supposed  to  be  derived ; 
our  gardeners  even  now  call  the  soft  sedge  or 
rush  with  which  they  bind  plants  batty  which  is 
the  meaning  of  the  word  m.  the  following  cita- 
tion from  Mortimer. 

Having  voollen  yam,  baa$  mat,  or  sock  like,  to 
bind  them  withal.  Martmer'a  Htubandry, 

BASS,  n. «.,  in  Cumberland,  a  river-fish,  of 
the  perch  kind ;  in  Hampshire,  a  sea  perch. 

Bass,  in  gardening,  a  soft  kind  of  sedge  or 
rush,  used  in  binding  plants,  &c. 

Bass,  in  geography,  an  insulated  rock,  about 
a  mile  in  circumference,  in  the  mouth  of  the 
Frith  of  Forth,  at  a  small  distance  from  the  town 
of  North  Berwick,  in  East  Lothian.  It  is  steep 
and  inaccessible  on  all  sides,  except  on  the 
S.  W.  and  even  there  it  is  with  great  difficulty 
that  a  single  man  can  climb  up  with  the  help  of 
a  rope  or  ladder.  It  was  formerly  kept  as  a 
garrison.  A  party  of  the  adherents  of  James 
VII.  surprised  it  at  the  revolution,  and  it  was 
the  last  place  in  the  three  kingdoms  that  sub- 
mitted to  the  new  government ;  upon  which  its 
fortifications  were  ordered  to  be  neglected.  In 
summer  this  remarkable  rock,  which  rises  to  a 
great  height  above  the  water,  in  form  of  a  cone, 
is  quite  covered  with  sea-fowl,  which  come  hither 
to  breed.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  solan  geese, 
(See  Bassamus),  which  arrive  in  June,  and  retire 
in  September.  At  that  period  these  birds  are  so 
numerous  that  thev  almost  darken  the  air ;  and 
the  surface  of  the  Bass  is  so  covered  with  nests, 
eggs,  and  young,  that  it  is  difficult  to  walk 
without  treading  on  them.  The  ruins  of  the  old 
castle,  which  was  once  the  state  prison  for  Scot* 
land,  are  situated  at  the  north  end  of  the  pre- 
cipice, which  overhangs  the  sea  in  a  tremenaous 
manner.  The  Bass  also  contains  a  small  warren 
for  rabbits,  and  pasture  for  a  few  sheep.  There 
is  a  beautiful  spring  of  water  in  the  centre,  high 
on  the  rock.  The  force  of  the  tides  has  now 
almost  worn  a  hole  through  this  rock.  Long. 
2^*  15'  W.,  lat.  56^  3*  N. 

Bass,  in  music,  of  uncertain  etymology; 
whether  from  the  Greek  word  fiavtc,  a  founda^ 
lion;  or  from  the  Italian  adjective  basso,  low; 
the  lowest  of  the  four  parts  of  music,  but  the 
most  important,  as  it  is  upon  that  the  chords 
proper  to  constitute  a  particular  harmony  are 
determined .  Hence  the  maxim  among  musicians, 
that  when  the  bass  is  properly  formed,  the  har- 
mony can  scarcely  be  bad.  It  is  the  part  of  the 
concert  which  is  the  most  heard,  which  consists 
of  the  gravest  and  longest  sounds ;  or  which  is 
played  on  the  largest  pipes  or  strings  of  a  common 


instrument,  or  an  mstrument  larger  than  ordi- 
nary, for  the  purpose.  Musicians  generally  bold 
the  bass  the  principal  part  of  a  concert,  and  the 
foundation  or  the  composition;  though  others 
will  have  the  treble  the  chief  part.  Tl^  late  in- 
genious Dr.  Franklin,  in  his  very  curious  letter 
to  Lord  Kaimes  on  this  subject,  declares  it  to  be 
his  opinion  that  the  bass  is  unaecessary  to  some 
tunes,  and  gives  some  reasons  in  support  of  it, 
which  the  curious  may  see  there.  Lxper.  Ob- 
serv.  &c.  4to.  fifth  edit  p.  489.  Rousseau  ap- 
pears to  have  been  of  the  same  opinion.  See 
Diet,  de  Musique,  an.  1768.— Bass  clitT,  or  F 


cliff,  the  character  is  marked  thus- 

Bass,  Counter,  is  a  second  or  double  bass, 
where  there  are  several  in  the  same  concert. 

Bass  Harbour,  a  harbour  in  the  Eastern  seas, 
formed  by  several  small  islands,  off  the  coast  of 
Malacca,  fdrty-five  miles  W.  of  Qiieda. 

Bass  Island,  an  island  in  Lake  Erie,  four 
miles  N.  of  Sundusky. 

Bass  River,  a  river  of  East  Greenland,  which 
runs  into  the  sea.  Long.  ^O""  10'  W.,  lat.  64^ 
30' N. 

B ass-Relief.  Whatever  figures  or  repre- 
sentations are  cut,  stamped,  or  otherwise  wrought, 
so  that  not  the  entire  body,  but  only  part  of  it, 
is  raised  above  the  plane,  are  said  to  be  done  in 
relief,  or  relievo ;  and  when  that  work  is  low, 
flat,  and  but  little  raised,  it  is  called  bass  or  low 
relief.  When  a  piece  of  sculpture,  a  coin,  or  a 
medal,  has  its  figure  raised  so  as  to  be  well  dis- 
tinguished, it  is  called  bold,  and  we  say  its  relief 
is  strong.  Bass-reliefs  of  the  Trajan  and  Anto- 
nine  columns  have  been  copied  by  Bartoli,  and 
explained  by  Bdlori,  &c.  Those  of  the  arch  of 
Severus  by  Suaresius.  Some  have  also  made 
maps  of  prospects  of  countries  in  basso-relievo. 
Phil.  Trans.  No.  6,  p.  99.    See  Basso  Rilievo. 

Bass,  Thorough,  is  the  harmony  made  by 
the  bass-viols,  or  theorbos,  continuing  to  play 
both  while  the  voices  sing  and  the  other  instru- 
ments perform  their  parts,  and  also  filling  up  the 
intervals  when  any  of  the  other  parts  stop.  It  is 
played  by  figures  marked  over  tne  notes,  oa  the 
organ,  ^inet,  harpsichord,  &c.  and  frequently 
simply  and  without  figures  on  the  bass-viol  and 
bassoon. 

Bass-viol,  a  musical  instrument  of  the  same 
form  with  that  of  a  violin,  but  much  larger.  It 
is  struck  with  a  bow,  as  that  is ;  has  the  same 
number  of  strings ;  and  has  tight  stops,  which 
are  subdivided  into  semi-stops:  its  sound  is 
grave,  and  has  a  much  nobler  effect  in  a  concert 
than  Uiat  of  the  violin. 

Bass  Strait,  so  called  from  the  name  of  its  dis- 
coverer, separates  Van  Diemen*s  Land  from  New 
Holland,  and  is  not  more  than  fifty  leagues  wide. 
It  contains  a  chain  of  small  islands,  which  run 
north  and  south.  Van  Diemen's  land,  which 
was  hitherto  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  New  Hol- 
land, is  thus  ascertained  to  be  a  detached  island  ; 
as,  proceeding  through  this  strait,  Mr.  Bass  ac- 
tually circumnavigated  it.  This  discovery  is  not 
only  interesting,  as  it  establishes  this  geographi- 
cal fact,  but  may  be  useful^  aa  it  expedites  the 


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passage  firom  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  our 
settlemeDt  of  Port  JacJuon. 

BASSA.    See  Bashaw. 

Bassa,  or  Grand  Bassa,  a  country  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  about  400  miles  south 
of  Sierra  Leone,  where  the  American  coloniza- 
tion Society  has  obtained  a  grant  of  land  from 
the  king  for  a  settlement.  One  of  their  agents 
describes  the  Bassas  as  living  in  small  Tillages, 
or  clusters  of  cottages,  in  each  of  which  there  is 
a  head-man,  who  has  a  plurality  of  wives,  and  is 
the  owner  of  all  the  people  in  his  town.  The 
inhabitants  of  each  village  cultivate  the  ground 
in  common,  which  is  chiefly  done  by  the  women 
and  boys;  the  men  employ  themselves  in  fishing, 
hunting  and  trade,  and  in  directing  those  under 
them.  The  adults  wear  a  piece  of  narrow  clodi 
about  their  loins ;  but  the  children  are  not  bur- 
dened with  any  kind  of  clothing.  They  are  very 
fond  of  beads,  and  various  other  ornaments;  and 
are  represented  as  good-natured  peo^Ae,  but  ex- 
tremely ignorant  and  superstitious,  depending 
solely  upon  their  gree-grees  and  devil  worship, 
to  whom  they  make  daily  sacrifices,  and  even 
dedicate  a  part  of  their  regular  food. 

Bassac,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  Angoumois, 
department  of  the  Charente,  arrondissement  of 
Cognac,  where  vras  formerly  an  abbey.  The 
number  of  inhabitants  is  about  1000.  On  the 
13th  of  March,  1569,  a  battle  was  fought  near 
this  place  between  Ae  Catholics  and  Protestants, 
in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  and  a  prince 
of  Cond^  was  killed.  It  is  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Charente,  not  far  irom  Jamac,  aad  fifteen 
miles  £.  S.  £.  of  Saintes. 

BASSAD,  or  Bbid,  au  Arabian  name  for  the 
purple  fttctts  of  the  Greeks,  used  by  the  women 
to  paint  their  cheeks,  and  t  y  the  dyers  of  cloths. 
It  nas  been  misunderstood  oy  late  authors,  and 
interpreted  coral;  but  the  eiror  of  this  is  evident, 
since  oond  has  none  of  these  properties.  See 
Makgiak. 

BASSAN  (Giaoomo  de  Pont),  or  ls  Bassav, 
a  celebrated  Venetian  paanter,  bom  in  1510. 
His  subjects  generally  were  peasants  and  vil- 
lagers, cautle,  Undscapes,  and  historical  designs; 
the  figures  were  well  designed,  and  the  animals 
and  landscapes  have  an  agreeable  resemblance 
of  simple  nature.  His  compositions  cannot  boast 
of  much  elegance ;  but  they  have  abundance  of 
force  and  tmth.  His  local  colors  are  well  ob- 
served, his  carnations  brilliant,  and  the  chiaro- 
scuro and  perspective  well  understood.  His 
touch  is  free  and^pirited,  and  the  distances  in 
his  landscapes  are  always  true,  but  sometimes  too 
dark  in  the  nearer  parts.  His  works  are  spread 
all  over  Europe  :  many  of  them  were  purchased 
by  Titian;  and  there  were  several  in  the  late 
French  king's  cabinet,  the  royal  palace,  and  the 
Hotel  de  Toulouse.  They  are  readily  known 
from  the  similitude  of  characters  and  counte- 
nance in  the  figures  and  animals.  Ice.,  and  par- 
ticularly from  a  violet  or  purple  tint  that  pre- 
dominates in  them  all.  But  the  genuine  pictures 
of  his  own  hand  are  not  so  easily  ascertained ; 
because  his  sons  were  mostly  employed  in  copy^ 
ing  the  works  of  their  fiither,  which  he  sometimes 
retouched.  As  he  lived  to  be  very  old,  he 
finished  a  great  number  of  pictures;  yet  from 
this  circumstance  his  genuine  pictures  are  not 


commonly  met  with.  But  the  true  pictares  o. 
Giaoomo  always  bear  a  considerable  price.  Ue 
was  also  a  lover  of  music  and  gardening,  and 
used  to  intermingle  among  his  plants  figures  of 
serpents,  drawn  so  much  to  the  life  thai  his  visi- 
tors were  apt  to  mistake  them  for  real  ones. 
Hannibal  Caracci  himself  when  he  went  to  see 
him,  was  so  far  deceived  by  the  figure  of  a  book 
upon  the  wall  that  he  went  to  take  it  off  the  sup- 
posed shelf,    fle  died  in  1529. 

Bassan  (Leander  and  Francis),  sons  of 
Giacomo,  inherited  their  Other's  genius  for 
painting,  and  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
art;  but  unfortunately  they  also  inherited  a 
species  of  lunacy  from  their  mother,  which 
snortened  their  lives  and  their  usefolness. 

BASSANI  (Giovanni  Battista),  maestro  di 
capella  of  the  cathedral  church  of  Bologna,  about 
the  middle  of  die  last  century,  was  a  very 
voluminous  composer  of  music,  having  published 
no  fe^er  than  thirty-one  different  wotlLs.  He  ii 
equally  celebrated  as  a  composer  for  the  church 
and  for  concerts;  and  being  also  a  celebrated 
performer  on  the  violin,  he  taught  Corelli.  His 
compositions  consist  of  masses,  psalms,  motets 
with  instrumental  parts,  and  wnatas  for  violins: 
his  fifth  opera  in  particular,  containing  twelve 
sonatas  for  two  violins  and  a  bass,  is  muck 
esteemed ;  it  is  written  in  a  style  wonderfully 
grave  and  pathetic.  He  was  one  of  the  first  who 
composed  motets  for  a  single  voice,  with  accom- 
paniments of  violins ;  a  practice  liable  to  objec- 
tion, as  it  assimilates  church-music  too  nearty  to 
that  of  the  chamber.  Two  of  his  operas,  viz.  die 
eighth  and  thirteenth,  were  printed  in  London, 
by  Pearson,  above  fifty  years  ago,  widi  die  title 
of  Harmonia  Festiva. 

BASSANO,  a  floorishmg  town  of  Italy,  on  die 
river  Brenta,  in  the  Venetian  territory.  It  is 
scarcely  one  Italian  mile  in  circuit,  but  has 
spacious  suburbs,,  and  contains,  according  to  the 
last  French  enumeration,  11,500  inhabitants.  A 
stone  bridge,  182  feet  in  length,  connects  it  with 
die  large  village  of  Vieantino.  The  neighbour- 
hood is  highly  fiivorable  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine  and  olive,  and  a  good  trade  is  carried  on 
in  silk,  cloth,  and  leather'.  Theextensiveprintiog- 
office  of  Remondni  issues  a  number  of  el^iant 
publications.  In  the  kingdom  of  Italy  this  town 
belonged  to  the  depattment  of  the  Tagliamento : 
Buonaparte  erected  it  into  a  duchy,  with  £2,500 
sieriing  annual  revenue,  which  he  conferred  m 
1809  en  Maret,  bis  minister  for  foreign  affidn. 
It  is  twelve  miles  north  of  Vicenza,  and  twenty 
west  of  Treviso.  Long.  11*  4^  E.,  laL  45** 
46'  N. 

Bass  A  NO,  or  Bassavella,  a  small  town  in  the 
Papal  states,  die  head  of  a  duchy,  belonging  to 
the  house  of  Colonna.  It  gives  name  to  die  Uke 
of  Bassano,  from  which  issues  the  river  La 
Barca,  the  ancient  Cremera.  Here  vras  bom  the 
celebrated  Venetian  printer,  Aldus  Manntius. 
Three  miles  west  of  Orta. 

Bassano  (St.),  a  small  town  of  Italy,  in  die 
duchy  of  Milan,  and  district  of  Lodi. 

BASSANUS,  in  ornithology,  a  species  of  Pe> 
lecanus,  as  large  as  a  common  goose,  with  a 
wedge-shaped  tail;  body  white;  bin  and  pri- 
mary quill-feathers  black;  and  foce  blue.  Gmcdio. 
Latham,  &c. 


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This  is  the  common  gamiet,  or  solan  goose, 
a  bird  found  in  great  plenty  on  all  the  northern 
coasts  of  Britain,  but  rather  less  common  to  the 
southward.  The  adult  birds  have  the  plumage 
nearly  all  white  ;  but  during  the  fint  years  it  is 
of  a  dusky  color,  and  only  speckled  with  white. 
The  bill  is  bluish-ash  color,  about  six  inches  in 
length,  and  has  the  nostrils  placed  in  a  furrow ; 
the  mouth  within  is  black ;  the  throat  is  bare ; 
and  the  skin  very  dilatable,  forming  a  pouch  of 

efficient  size  to  contain  five  or  six  herrings ;  the 
legs  are  black,  marked  with  a  stripe  of  pea- 
t,rreen  before ;  and  the  claw  of  the  middle  tOe  is 
pectinated.  The  males  and  females  are  veiy 
much  alike  in  plumage.  The  gannet  is  par- 
ticularly abundant  in  the  isleof  Ailsa  in  the  nrth 
of  Clyde ;  the  rocks  adjacent  to  St.  Kilda  ;  the 
stalks  of  Souliskerry,  near  the  Orkneys;  the 
Skelig  isles  off  the  coasts  of  Kerry,  Ireland'; 
and  the  Bass  island  in  the  firth  of  Edinburgli. 
Dr.  Hervey  gives  some  account  of  the  latter  in 
these  words.  'There  is  a  small  island,  called 
by  the  Scotch  Bass  island,  not  more  than  a  mile 
in  circumference ;  the  surface  is  almost  wholly 
covered  during  the  months  of  May  and  June 
with  nests,  eggs,  and  young  birds;  so  that  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  walk  without  treading  on 
them ;  and  the  flocks  of  birds  in  flight  are  so 
prodigious  as  to  darken  the  air  like  clouds ;  and 
their  noise  is  such  that  you  cannot  without  dif- 
ficulty hear  your  next  neighbour's  voice.  If  you 
look  down  upon  the  sea  from  the  top  of  the  pre- 
cipice, you  will  see  it  on  every  side  covered 
vnth  infinite  numbers  of  birds  of  different  kinds, 
swimming  and  hunting  for  their  prey;  if  in 
sailrag  round  the  island  you  survey  the  hanging 
cliffs,  you  see  in  every  cragg  or  fissure  of  the 
broken  rocks  innumerable  birds  of  various  sorts 
and  sizes,  more  than  the  stars  of  heaven  when 
viewed  in  a  serene  night ;  if  from  afar  you  see 
the  distant  flocks  either  flying  to  or  from  the 
island,  you  would  imagine  them  to  be  a  vast 
swarm  of  bees. 

'The  gannet,'  observes  Dr.  Latham,  'inhabits 
the  colder  parts  of  this  kingdom,  and  more  es- 
pecially several  of  the  northern  isles,  and  in  par- 
ticular that  of  Bass  in  Scotland,  whence  the 
name.  It  generally  first  makes  its  appearance 
in  March,  and  after  making  a  circuit  of  the 
island,  departs  in  October  or  November.  This 
race  seems  to  be  in  pursuit  of  the  herrings  and 
pilchards,  whose* motions  it  watches;  and  the 
fishermen  know  the  coming  of  these  fish  by  the 
appearance  of  the  birds.  That  this  is  tiie  in- 
ducement seems  probable,  as  they  are  likewise 
seen,  in  the  month  of  December,  as  far  south  as 
the  coast  of  Lisbon  and  Gibraltar,  plunging  for 
sardinae.  The  gannet  is  also  common  on  the 
coasts  of  Norway  and  those  of  Iceland,  and  now 
and  then  met  with  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Greenland.  In  Amerfca  it  is  found  on  the  coasts 
of  Newfoundland,  where  it  breeds,  migrating  in 
winter  as  far  as  Carolina :  said  also  to  have  been 
met  with  frequently  in  the  southern  ocean ;  but 
we  are  not  clear  whether  the  sort  meant  by  them 
is  the  common  gannet,  or  the  lesser  one.' 

'The  gannets,'  Mr.  Pennant  remarks,  'are 
birds  of  passage.  The  first  appearance  in  those 
islands  beinjr  in  March^  and  their  continuance 


till  August  or  September,  aocording  as  the  in- 
habitants take  or  leave  their  first  egg;  but  in 
general  the  time  of  breeding  and  that  of  their 
departure  seems  to  coincide  with  the  arrival  of 
the  herring,  and  the  migration  of  that  fish,  which 
is  their  principal  food,  out  of  those  seas.'  '  I 
have  in  the  month  of  August,'  he  adds  in  another 
place,  '  observed  in  Caithness  their  northern  mi- 
grations. I  have  seen  them  passing  the  whole 
day  in  flocks,  from  five  to  fineen  in  each.  In 
calm  weather  they  fly  high,  in  storms  they  fly 
low  and  near  the  shore ;  but  never  cross  over 
land,  even  when  a  bay  with  promontories  inter- 
venes, but  follow  at  an  equal  distance  the  course 
of  the  bay,  and  regularly  double  every  cape.  I 
have  seen  many  of  the  parties  makp  a  sort  of 
halt  for  the  sake  of  fishiiig ;  then,  darting  head- 
long into  the  sea,  make  the  water  foam  and 
spring  up  with  the  violence  of  their  descent: 
uter  which  they  pursued  their  route.  I  enquired 
whether  they  ever  were  observed  to  return  south- 
ward in  the  spring,  but  was  answered  in  the  ne- 
gative ;  so  that  it  appears,  they  annually  encirde 
&e  whole  island.' 

They  are  well  known  on  most  of  our  coasts 
by  different  names.  In  Cornwall  and  in  Ireland 
they  are  called  gannets,  aiKl  by  the  Welsh  gan. 
It  comes  on  the  coasts  of  Cornwall  in  the  latter 
end  of  the  summer  or  beginning  of  autumn, 
hovering  over  the  shoals  of  pilchards  that  come 
up  through  the  St.  George's  channel  from  the 
north  sea.  The  gannet  seldom  comes  near  the 
land,  but  is  constant  to  its  prey  ;  and  when  the 

Silchards  retire,  which  happens  about  the  end  of 
fovember,  they  are  seen  no  more. 
The  nest  of  the  gannet  is  composed  of  various 
materials,  such  as  grass  and  water  plants,  inter- 
mixed wilh  any  thing  the  birds  find  floating  on 
the  water.  Each  bird,  if  ondislurbed,  would 
lay  only  one  egg  in  the  year ;  but  if  that  be  taken 
away  they  will  lay  another,  and  if  that  be  taken 
away  also,  they  will  lay  a  third,  but  no  more. 
The  young  gannets,  as  well  as  the  eggs,  are 
eaten.  Martin  assures  us,  that  the  inhabitants 
of  St.  Kilda  consume  annually  no  less  than 
22,600  young  birds  of  this  species,  besides  an 
amazing  quantity  of  their  eggs ;  these  being  their 
principal  support  throughout  the  year:  they 
preserve  their  eggs  and  fowls  in  pyramidal  stone 
buildings,  covering  them  with  turf  ashes  to  pro- 
tect them  from  moisture.  This  is  a  dear-bought 
food,  and  earned  at  the  hazard  of  their  lives, 
either  by  climbing  the  most  difficult  and  narrow 
paths,  where  to  appearance  they  barely  cling, 
and  ^lat  too  at  an  amazing  height  above  the 
raging  sea;  or  else,  being  lowered  dovm  from 
alx)ve,  they  collect  their  annual  provision,  thus 
hanging  tnidway  11  the  air,  ana  placing  their 
whole  dependence  on  the  uncertain  footing  of 
one  person  who  holds  the  rope  by  which  Uiey 
are  suspended  at  the  top  of  the  precipice.  The 
young  birds  are  a  favorite  dish  with  the  north 
Britons  in  general,  during  the  season  they  are 
constantly  brought  frotn  the  Bass  isle  to  Edin- 
burgh, and  are  roasted  and  served  up  a  little 
before  dinner  as  a  whet :  the  price  they  are  sold 
for  in  the  markets  is  twenty-pence  a  piece. 

The  following  account  of  the  gannets  in  the 
isle  of  St.  Kilda  is  given  by  Mr.  Macauley: 


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'  T^e  rocks  are  m  Bummer  totally  covered  ^th 
the  solan  geese  and  other  fowls,  and  appear  at 
a  distance  like  so  many  mountains  covered  with 
snow.  The  nests  of  the  solan  geese,  not  to 
mention  those  of  other  fowls,  are  so  close,  that 
when  one  walks  between  them,  the  hatching  fowls 
on  either  side  can  alwajs  take  hold  of  one's 
clothes ;  and  they  will  onen  sit  till  they  are  at- 
tacked, rather  than  expose  their  eggs  to  the 
danger  of  being  destroyed  by  the  sea  gulls :  at 
the  same  time  an  equal  number  fly  about,  and 
furnish  food  for  their  mates  that  are  employed  in 
batching ;  and  there  are,  besides,  large  flocks  of 
barren  fowls  of  the  difierent  trib^  that  frequent 
the  rocks  of  St.  Kilda. 

'The  solan  geese,  almost  equal  the  tame 
ones  in  size.  The  common  amusement  of  the 
herring-fishers  shows  the  great  strength  of  this 
fowl.  The  fishers  fix  a  herring  upon  a  board, 
which  has  a  small  weight  under  it  tp  sink  it  a 
little  below  the  sur&ce  of  th^  sea :  the  solan 
goose  observing  the  fish,  darts  upon  it  perpen- 
dicularly, and  with  so  much  force,  that  he  runs 
his  bill  irrecoverably  through  the  board,  and  is 
taken  up  directly  by  the  fishers. 

*  The  solan  seese  repair  to  St.  Kilda  in  the 
month  of  Marcn^  and  continue  there  till  after 
the  beginning  of  November.  Before  the  middle 
of  that  montib  they,  and  all  the  other  sea-fowls 
tliat  are  fond  of  thb  coast,  retire  much  about  the 
same  time  into  some  other  fiBtvorite  regions ;  so 
that  not  a  single  fowl  belonging  to  their  element 
is  to  be  seen  about  St.  Kilda  from  the  beginning 
of  winter  down  to  the  middle  of  February. 
Before  the  young  soland  geese  fly  off,  they  are 
larger  than  their  mothers,  and  the  faX  on  their 
breast  is  sometimes  three  inches  deep.  Into 
what  quarter  of  the  world  these  tribes  of  wild 
fowl  repair,  after  winter  sets  in,  whether  into  the 
northern  ocean,  the  native  country  and  winter- 
quarters  of  herrings  in  general,  or  into  some 
other  region  near  the  sun,  or  whether  they  be  of 
the  sleeping  kind,  they  who  pry  into  the  myste- 
ries of  natural  history,  or  have  conversed  much 
with  writers  of  voyages,  can  best  explain.  I  shall 
only  pretend  to  say  that  these  difierent  nations 
of  the  feathered  kind  are  taught  to  choose  the 
most  proper  habitations  and  feedii^g  places,  and 
to  shift  their  quarters  seasonably  by  the  unerring 
hand  of  God. 

*  From  the  account  given  above  of  the  multi- 
tudes.of '  sea-fowls  that  seek  their  food  on  this 
coast,  we  may  justly  conclude  that  there  must  be 
inexhaustible  stores  of  fish  there.  Let  us  for  a 
moment  confine  our  attention  to  the  consump- 
tion made  by  a  single  species  of  fowls.  The 
solan  goose  is  almost  insatiably  voracious ;  he 
flies  with  great  force  and  velocity,  toils  all  the 
day  with  little  intermission,  and  digests  his  food 
in  a  veiy  short  time ;  he  disdains  to  eat  any 
thing  worse  than  herring  or  mackerel,  unless  it  be 
in  a  very  hungry  place,  which  he  takes  care  to  avoid 
or  abandon.  We  shall  take  it  for  granted  that 
fhere  are  a  hundred  thousand  of  that  kind  around 
&e  rocks  of  St  Kilda;  and  this  calculation  is 
ty  far  too  moderate,  as  no  less  than  twenty  thou- 
sand of  this  kind  are  destroyed  every  year,  in- 
cluding the  youLg  ones.  \Ve  shall  suppose,  at 
the  same  time^  that  the  solan  geese  sojourn  in 


these  seas  for  about  seven  months  in  the  year ; 
that  each  of  them  destroys  five  herrings  in  a  day, 
a  subsistence  infinitely  poor  for  so  gfeedy  a 
creature,  unless  it  were  more  than  half  supported 
at  the  expence  of  other  fishes.  Here  we  have 
100,000,000  of  the  finest  fish  in  the  world  de- 
voured aimually  by  a  single  species  •f  the  St. 
Kilda  sea-fowls,'  &c. 

It  is  proper  to  observe  that  le  grand  fou  of 
Brisson  and  Buffon,  and  great  booby  of  Cat^by, 
an  inhabitant  of  the  sea-shores  of  Florida,  is 
supposed  to  be  the  young  or  at  least  a  variety  of 
pelecanus  bassanus ;  and  that  observed  by  nari- 
gators  so  common  on  Ascension  island,  peleca- 
nus piscator,  a  different  species. 

BASSATERRE.    See  Basse-Teres. 

BASSEE,  La,  in  geography,  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  North,  the  ci- 
devant  French  Netherlands,  remaikable  on  ac- 
count of  the  many  sieges  it  has  sustained.  It  is 
seated  on  a  canal  which  fiills  into  the  river 
Deule;  eighteen  miles  south-west  of  Lille. 
Its  prineipal  commerce  is  in  cattle,  linen,  and 
turf;    Population  about  2200. 

Basse,  in  ichthyology,  the  English  name  of 
the  searwolf^  the  lupus  piscis  of  authors.  The 
Greeks  have  called  this  labrax ;  and  some  of  the 
later  writers,  as  Paulus  Jovius  and  others,  spigola. 
It  is  properly  a  species  of  pearch,  and  is  dis- 
tinguishea  by  Artedi  by  the  name  of  the  pearch 
wiUi  thirteen  rays  in  the  second  fin  of  the  back, 
and  fourteen  in  the  pinna  auri.  See  Lupus, 
Marinus. 

Bassb,  in  writers  of  the  middle  age,  a  collar 
for  cart-horses,  made  of  flags.  Hence  also  the 
round,  inatted  cushion  of  flags,  or  hassock,  used 
for  kneeling  in  churches,  is  c^led  basse ;  in  Kent 
a  trush. 

Basse-<our,  in  building,  a  court  separated 
from  the  principal  one,  and  destined  tor  the 
stables,  c(nch-houses,  and  livery  servants.  lo 
the  country  it  is  applied  to  the  yard,  or  place 
where  the  cattle,  fowls,  &c.  are  kept. 

Basse  Enciente,  or  Basse  Enclosure,  in  for- 
tification, a  false  trench,  made  to  hide  arnl  one. 

BASSEEN,  a  sea-port  of  Hindostan,  the  pro- 
vince of  Aurungabad,  separated  from  the  island 
of  Salsette  by  a  narrow  strait,  in  long.  72^  54'  £., 
lat.  19°  18'  N.  The  district  around  is  in  a  vety 
improved  state  of  cultivation,  although  under  a 
Mahratta  government  Many  of  the  cultivators 
are  Roman  Catholics.  The  Teak  forests,  which 
supply  the  marine  yard  at  Bombay,  lie  along  the 
western  side  of  the  Ghaut  mountains,  to  the 
north  and  north-east  of  Basseen .  In  1 780  it  was 
taken  from  the  Mahrattas  by  the  British,  but  re- 
stored in  1782.  Distant  27  miles  nocth  of 
Bombay,  and  152  south  of  Surat. 

BASSEIN,  or  Persaim,  a  du  in  the  south- 
west part  of  Pegu,  where  the  British  ibnneriy 
had  a  factoiy ;  but  ihe  Bunnans  now  prevent  any 
European  vessel  from  entering  this  branch  of  the 
river  Irrawaddy.    Long.  95**  E.,  lat.  16°  50'  N. 

BASSEN,  or  Bassuk,  a  small  town,  castle, 
and  lordship  of  Germany,  in  the  county  of 
Hoya,  in  Westphalia,  with  a  Lutheran  abbey. 
It  belongs  to  Hesse  Cassel ;  but  the  abbey  stands 
under  the  sovereignty  of  Hanover.  Sixteen 
miles  west  of  Hoya. 


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BASSES,  a  numerous  cluster  of  islets,  called 
che  Thousand  isles  by  Maurelle,  oif  the  north-west 
point  of  New  Guinea.  The  most  south  is  iu 
lonj?.  139®  ar  E.,  lat.  1**  40'  S. 

BASSET,  or  Bas£tte,  a  game  at  cards,  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  a  noble  Venetian,  for 
^wbich  he  was  banished.  It  was  iirst  introduced 
into  France  by  Signior  Giustiniani,  ambassador  of 
A^euice,  in  1674.  Severe  laws  were  made  against 
it  by  Louis  XIV.,  to  elude  which  they  disguised 
basset  under  thef  name  of  pour  et  contre,  that  is, 
*  for  and  against,*  which  occasioned  new  arrets 
and  prohibitions  of  parliament.  The  parties  con- 
cerned in  it  are  a  dealer  or  banker ;  his  assistant, 
who  supervises  the  losing  cards ;  and  the  punter, 
or  any  one  who  plays  against  the  banker.  The 
other  terms  used  in  this  game  are :  1.  The  fasse 
or  face,  which  is  the  first  card  turned  up  by  the 
tailleur  belonging  to  the  pack,  by  which  oe  gains 
half  the  value  of  the  money  laid  down  on  every 
card  of  that  sort  by  the  punters.  2.  The  couch, 
or  first  money  which  Qvery  punter  puts  on  each 
card  ;  each  person  that  plays  having  a  book  of 
thirteen  several  cards  before  him,  on  which  he 
may  lay  his  money,  more  or  less,  at  discretion. 

3.  The  paroli,  which  is,  when  a  punter  having 
won  the  first  stake,  ind  having  a  mind  to  pursue 
his  (^'ood  fortune,  crooks  the  comer  of  his  card, 
and  lets  his  prize  lie,  aiming  at  a  sept  et  le  va. 

4.  Ihe  masse;  when  having  won  the  first  stake, 
the  punter  is  willing  to  venture  more  money  on 
the  same  card.  5.  The  pay;  when  the  punter 
having  won  the  first  stake,  be  it  a  shilling,  bal^ 
crown,  guinea,  or  whatever  he  laid  down  on  his 
card,  and  not  caring  to  hazard  the  paroli,  leaves 
off,  or  goes  the  pay :  in  which  case,  if  ^he  card 
turn  up  wrong,  he  loses  nothing,  having  won  the 
couch  before;  whereas,  if  it  turn  right,  he  by 
this  adventure  wins  double  the  money  staked. 
6.  The  alpiew;  much  the  same  with  paroli,  and 
used  when  a  couch  is  won  by  turning  Up  or 
crooking  the  corner  of  the  winning  (»rd.  7. 
Sept  et  le  va,  the  first  great  chance  or  prize, 
when  the  punter,  having  won  the  couch,  makes 
a  paroli,  and  goes  on  to  second  chance ;  so  that 
if  his  winning  card  turns  up  again,  it  comes  to 
sept  et  le  ?a,  which  is  seven  times  as  much  as  he 
laid  down  on  his  card.  8.  Quinze  et  le  vaisthe 
next  higher  prize,  when  the  punter,  having  won 
the  former,  is  resolved  to  push  his  fortune,  and 
lay  his  money  a  second  time  on  the  same  card 
by  crooking  another  comer ;  in  wliich  case,  if  it 
comes  up,  he  wins  fifteen  times  the  money  laid 

,  down.  9.  Trent  et  le  va  is  the  next  higher 
prize,  when  the  punter,  crooking  tlie  fourth  cor- 
ner of  his  winning  card,  if  it  turn  up  wins  thirty- 
three  times  the  money  he  first  staked.  lO.Soixant 
^i  le  va  is  the  highest  prize,  and  entitles  the  winner 
to  sixty-seven  times  his  first  money ;  which,  if  it 
were  considerable,  stands  a  chance  to  break  the 
bank :  but  the  bank  stands  many  chances  first  of 
breaking  the  punter.  This  cannot  be  won  but 
by  the  tailleur's  dealing  the  cards  over  again. 
The  rules  of  the  game  of  basset  are  as  follows :  1 . 
The  banker  holds  a  pack  of  fifty-two  cards,  and 
having  shu£Bed  them,  he  turns  the  whole  pack  at 
once,  so  as  to  discover  the  last  card ;  after  which 
be  lays  down  all  the  cards  by  couples.  2.  The 
Vol.  III. 


punter  has  his  book  of  tlurteen  cards  in  hii  hand, 
ft-om  the  king  to  the  ace ;  out  of  these  he  takes 
one  card,  or  more,  at  pleasure,  upon  which  he 
lays  a  stake.  3.  The  punter  may,  at  his  choice, 
either  lay  down  his  stake  before  the  pack  if 
turned,  or  immediately  afler  it  is  turned,  or 
after  any  number  of  couples  are  down.  4.  Sup- 
posing the  punter  to  lay  down  his  stake  after  the 
pack  is  turned,  and  calling  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  &c.  the 
places  of  those  cards  which  follow  the  card  in 
view,  either  immediately  after  the  pack  is  turned, 
or  after  any  number  of  couples  are  drawn.  Then, 
5.  If  die  card  upon  whicn  the  punter  has  laid  a 
stake  comes  out  in  any  even  place,  except  the 
first,  he  wins  a  stake  equal  to  his  own.  6.  If  the 
card  upon  which  the  punter  has  laid  a  stake 
.  comes  out  in  any  even  place,  except  the  second, 
he  loses  his  stake.  7.  if  the  card  of  the  punter 
comes  out  in  the  first  place,  he  neither  wins  nor 
loses,  but  takes  his  own  stake  again.  8.  If  the 
card  of  the  punter  comes  out  in  the  second  place, 
he  does  not  lose  his  whole  stake,  but  only  one- 
half;  and  this  is  the  case  in  which  the  punter  is 
said  to  be  faced.  9.  When  the  punter  chooses 
to  come  in  after  any  number  of  the  couples  are 
down,  if  his  card  happens  to  be  tut  once  in  the 
pack  and  b  the  last  of^all,  there  is  an  exception 
m>m  the  general  mle :  for  though  it  comes  out  in 
an  odd  place,  which  should  entitle  him  to  win  a 
stake  equal  to  his  own,  yet  he  neither  wins  nor 
loses  from  that  circumstance,  but  takes  back  his 
own  stake.  This  game  has  been  the  object  of 
mathematical  calculations.  M.  de  Moivre  solves 
this  problem :  to  estimate  at  basset  the  loss  of 
the  punter  under  any  circumstance  of  cards  re- 
maining in  the  stock  when  he  lays  his  stake,  and 
of  any  number  of  times  that  his  card  is  repeated 
in  the  stock.  From  this  solution  he  has  formed 
a  table,  showing  the  several  losses  of  the  punter 
in  whatsoever  circumstances  he  may  happen  to 
be.  From  this  table  it  appears,  1.  llie  fewer  the 
cards  are  in  the  stock,  the  greater  is  the  loss  of 
the  punter.  2.  That  tlie  least  loss  of  the  punter, 
under  the  same  circumstances  of  cards  remaining 
in  the  stock,  is  when  his  card  is  but  twice  m  it ; 
the  next  greater  when  but  three  times;  still 
greater  when  four  times ;  and  the  greatest  when 
but  once.  The  gain  of  the  banker  upon  all  the 
money  adventured  at  basset  is  15s.  m.  per  cent. 

Basset  (Peter),  a  gentleman  of  a  good  family, 
was  chamberlain,  or  gentleman  of  the  privy- 
chamber,  to  Henry  V.  a  constant  attendant  on 
that  brave  prince,  and  an  eye-witness  of  his  most 
glorious  actions  at  home  and  abroad  ;  all  which 
he  particularly  described  in  a  work  entitled.  The 
Acts  of  King  Henry  V.  which  remains  in  MS.  in 
the  college  of  heralds. 

BASSE-TERRE,  the  chief  town  of  St.  Chris- 
topher's, in  the  West  Indies,  situated  at  the  south- 
east end  of  the  island,  and  at  the  mouth  of  a  river 
opening  into  a  bay  called  Basse-Terre  road.  It 
consists  of  a  long  street,  containing  800  houses, 
is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and  defended  by 
three  batteries.  Long.  62**  36'  W.,  lat.  17**  24'  N . 

Basse  Terre,  Fort  oe  la,  a  castle  of  the 
island  of  Guadaloupe,  on  the  west  coast.  '  It  ii 
also  the  name  of  a  part  of  tlie  island,  between  a 
point  of  which,  called  Grosse  Mome,  to  that  of 

3S 


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A.ntigua  in  the  Grande  Terre,  the  basin  called 
the  Great  Cul  de  Sac  is  five  or  six  leagues  in 
len^h,  and  affords  safe  riding  for  ships. 

BASSETING,  in  the  coal  mines,  denotes  tlie 
rise  of  the  vein  of  coal  towards  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  till  it  comes  within  two  or  three  feet  of  the 
sur£eu!e  itself.  This  is  also  called  by  the  work- 
men croppine ;  and  stands  opposed  to  dipping, 
which  is  tne  descent  of  the  vein-  to  such  a  aepth 
that  it  is  rarely,  if  ever  followed  to  the  end. 

BASSETTO,  a  bass  viol  of  the  smallest  siie. 

BASSEVILLE  (Citizen),  secretary  to  the 
French  legation  at  Rome,  one  of  the  many  vic- 
tims to  the  French  revolution,  but  who  fell,  not 
by  the  hands  of  the  zealots  of  liberty,  but  by  the 
daemons  of  despotism  and  priestcraft,  in  March 
1793.  Having  received  orders  from  the  Con- 
vention to  put  up  the  arms  of  the  republic  over 
the  consular  house,  instead  of  those  of  the  ci-de- 
vant royalty,  the  popular  furor  was  excited;  and, 
though  Basseville  himself,  being  a  man  of  mode- 
rate principles,  was  against  the  measure,  the  blind 
zealots  of  superstition  stabbed  him  in  the  belly 
with  a  razor,  in  the  house  of  Moutte  the  banker, 
which  they  afterwards  plundered  and  burnt, 
calling  out '  Long  live  the  pope ! — Long  live  reli- 
gion ! '  &c.  Baaieville  died  in  thitty-six  hours; 
and  the  convention  decreed  a  pension  to  his 
widow,  wiUi  reyersion  to  his  child,  whom  they 
also  decreed  to  be  educated  at  the  public 
expense. 

BASSI  (Laura)^a  celebrated  Italian  lady,  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  She  received  a  liberal 
education,  not  only  m  the  branches  considered 
as  belonging  to  her  sex,  but  in  the  languages  and 
sciences ;  and  such  was  her  progress  in  learning, 
that  in  1732,  she  got  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Pm- 
losophy.  In  1745  she  read  lectures  on  experi- 
mental philosophy,  and  continued  to  do  so 
during  her  life.  She  married  Dr.  Verati,  and 
preserved  an  excellent  character,  as  the  practiser 
of  every  virtue.    She  died  in  1778. 

BASSIA,  a  genus  of  the  monogynia  order,  be- 
longing to  the  dodecandria  class  of  plants,  the 
characters  of  which  are :  The  cal.  is  quadriphyl- 
lous ;  the  coa.  octofid,  with  the  tube  inflated ; 
the  STAM.  are  fifteen ;  and  the  drupe  is  quin- 
quespermous.  There  is  but  one  species,  viz.  B. 
.longifolia,  native  of  Malabar. 

BASSIGNY,  a  district  of  France,  belonging, 
before  the  revolution,  to  Upper  Champagne,  and 
the  duchy  .of  Bar.  At  present  it  is  included  in 
the  department  of  the  Upper  Mame,  with  the 
exception  of  some  small  portions  which  are  in 
the  departments  of  the  Vosges  and  Maese.  There 
is  in  It  a  small  town  of  the  same  name,  but  ^e 
chief  places  are  Chaumont  and  Vaucouleurs. 

BASSINGTHWATE,  or  Bassenthwaite, 
Water,  a  lake  in  Cumberland,  four  miles  long, 
and  one  broad,  having  on  one  side  the  vale  of 
Bassingthwate  and  the  lofty  Skiddaw,  and  on  the 
other  Ae  steep  woody  mountains  of  Withop. 

BASSO,  in  music,  generally  signifies  die  bass, 
but  sometime^  in  pieces  of  music  for  several 
voices,  the  singing  bass  is  more  particularly  so 
called.    Thus  also. 

Basso  Conceetantc>  or  Recitante,  implies 
the  bass  of  the  little  chorus,  which  plays  through- 
out the  whole  piece. 


Basso  Coktinuo,  the  continual  or  thorough 
bass,  distinguished  with  figures  over  the  notes, 
for  the  organ,  harpsicord,  or  theorbo.  It  origi- 
nally meant  the  accompaniment  to  the  higher  parts 
of  a  sonata,  &c.  in  whatever  cliff  it  was  written. 

Basso  Rilievo.  Italian.  In  sculpture,  a 
modem  term  for  that  kind  of  sculpture  in  wlUch 
the  figures  do  not  stand  out  from  the  ground  in 
their  ftill  proportion.  The  term  belongs  exclu- 
sively to  later  times.  Pliny  (xxxiii.  11.)  applies 
the  word  avayXvicTa  to  workmanship  of  this  xind ; 
but  it  is  a  term  by  no  means  so  distinctive  as  the 
Italian  basso-rilievo.  All  works  in  sculpture  are 
classed  as  bassi  rilievi  when  the  subjects  repre- 
sented are  not  isolated,  but  adherent  to  the 
ground,  whether  they  are  of  a  similar  or  different 
material,  and  appliM  or  fixed  to  the  ground,  or 
form  a  part  or  the  material  in  which  they  are 
wrought.  There  are  three  sorts  of  relief  in  sculp- 
ture, alto  rilievo,  mezzo  rilievo,  and  basso  lilievo. 
Strictly  taken,  alto  rilievo  is  that  relief  in  which 
the  fibres  are  entire,  or  nearly  so,  being  attached 
only  m  a  few  places,  and  are  relieved  from  the 
ground  like  the  metopes  of  the  Parthenon ;  mezzo 
rilievo  is  that  in  which  half  the  figure  stands  clear 
from  the  ground,  and  the  other  appears  buried 
therein;  and  basso  rilievo  that  in  which  the 
figures  lose  their  projecture,  and  are  represented 
as  nearly  flat,  like  the  Panatheneic  procession  of 
the  same  temple.  Custom,  however,  has  nearly 
abolished  two  of  these  terms ;  and  basso  rilievo 
is  often  applied  to  each  sort,  be  the  projections 
what  they  may. 

The  true  basso  rilievo,  which  has  but  small 
projectipn,  requires  more  skill  in  the  sculptor 
than  that  in  which  the  projection  is  more  con- 
siderable; because  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
give  a  natural  effect  to  a  figure  which  is  of  its 

S-Qper  height  and  size,  but  fells  short  of  its  real 
icxness.  WlMt  is  more  difficult  even  than  this, 
in  the  style  of  sculpture  now  under  consideratioo, 
ispicturesque  composition  in  grouping  the  figures, 
because  the  artist  cannot,  as  in  painting,  employ 
different  backgrounds  remote  from  each  other; 
and  as  the  shadows  in  sculpture  are  real,  and  not 
imitative,  he  must  calculate  bis  composition,  and 
arranffe  its  form  for  the  light  in  which  it  b  to  be 
placed. 

The  ancients  used  bassi  rilievi  in  decorating 
architectural  designs,  and  in  omameDting  their 
domestic  fiimiture.  All  nations,  however,  in  the 
history  of  the  arts  have  used  them,  and  they  re- 
semble in  style  that  of  their  other  works.  The 
Egyptians  ornamented  their  temples  with  an  innu- 
merable quantity  of  figures  and  hieroglyphics,  of 
which  the  greater  part  have  the  oatlmes  only 
suiJc,  and  me  area  thus  formed  only  pamted; 
but  many  of  them  are  of  the  class  bassi  relievi 
(See  Denon's  Traveb  iU  Egypt,  Captain  Norden, 
and  Dr.  Pococke;  also  the  Egyptian  sculp- 
tures in  the  British  Museum,  those  brought  to 
Europe  by  Belzoni,  &c.)  Their  manner  of  exe- 
cuting these  sculptures  is  singular:  they  first 
channelled  an  outline  in  the  stone,  and  sunk  it 
round  the  figure,  so  that  it  did  not  project  bej(»d 
the  original  face ;  being  in  &ct  more  a  species  of 
engraving  than  sculpture.  The  cabinet  of  the 
ro^  library  at  Pans  possesses  a  very  corioos 
Egyptian  sculpture  dius  wTQught,  and  many  of 


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4w  same  description  are  found  in  Egypt,  princi* 
pally  on  the  frontispieces  of  the  temples  where 
the  Scarabeas  extends  his  reign.  The  Persians 
were  also  partial  to  the  use  of  bassi  rilievi,  as  in 
the  walls  of  Tschelminar,  the  ancient  Persepolis. 
(See  Persepolis.)  They  aze  executed  in  very 
high  relief. 

The  Etruscans  also  used  bassi  rilievi;  but 
Winckelman  errs  in  attributing  to  this  people  all 
those  works  in  which  the  figures  are  clothed  in 
draperies,  with  straight  square  folds,  designed  in 
a  stiff  formal  st^le  like  the  antique  altar  of  the 
Cardinal  Albani,  on  which  is  represented  their 
twelve  principal  god).  On  the  oontiary,  e?eiy 
well  intbrmea  archaiologist  allows  these  and 
other  similar  monuments  of  art  to  belong  to  the 
very  earliest  period  of  the  Greeks.  S6me  basn 
rilievi  of  clay,  painted  in  water  colors,  found  near 
the  country  of  the  Volseii,  which  are  preserved 
in  the  cabinet  of  Cardinal  Borgia,  and  published 
under  his  patronagje,  prove,  beyond  a  doubt, 
that  the  Etruscans,  Uke  the  Greeks,  often  painted 
their  sculptural  figures. 

The  bassi  rilievi  used  by  the  ancients  were 
often  formed  of  baked  clay :  sometimes  of  ivoiy 
and  various  metals,  but  oftenei  of  marble. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  Greek  bassi  rilievi 
of  antiquity  are  those  which  Phidias  carved  in 
ivory,  upon  the  shield  and  the  base  of  the  statue 
of  Minerva  at  Athens.  Those  which  ornamented 
the  throne  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  executed  by  Al- 
camenes;  those  of  Apollo,  at  Amycls,  in  Laco- 
nia ;  the  bassi  rilievi  of  the  temple  of  Hercnlas, 
at  Thebes,  executed  by  Praxiteles ;  those  of  the 
temple  of  Delphos,  the  joint  work  of  Praxias  and 
Andrpetbenes;  the  celebrated  funeral  monument 
of  Mausolus,  called  the  mausoleum,  executed  by 
Scopas,  Bryaxis,  Timgtheus,  and  Leochares ;  the 
thirty-six  columns  of  the  temple  of  Diana,  at 
Ephesus,  &c. 

The  sculptures  in  the  metopes  and  pediments 
of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  which  were  entire  in 
the  time  of  Spon,  who  has  described  them,  are  in 
alto  rilievo,  like  statues  affixed  to  a  back  ground 
of  marble.  Their  great  size  and  height  preserved 
them  from  those  accidents  to  which  they  would 
have  been  liable  in  a  lower  situation,  and  to 
which,  on  the  sa^ne  account,  they  gave  a  less 
projection.  Many  of  these  invaluable  relioB  of 
the  brightest  days  of  Grecian  art,  were  brought 
to  England  by  Lord  Elgin,  and  are  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum, 

As  the  greater  part  of  the  antique  bassi  rilievi, 
now  remaining,  are  executed  in  marble,  they 
form  the  principal  criterion  by  which  we  can 
judge  of  the  excellency  of  their  jKulptors.  Many 
of  the  best  preserved  were  used  to  ornament  their 
altars,  as  is  seen  in  those  which  are  in  the  muse- 
um capitolinum.  One  of  these  represents  the 
educaUon  ^f  Jupiter,  and  the  others  the  labors 
of  Hercules.  They  were  also  used  as  decorationa 
to  the  bases  of  statues,  and  oftener  to  their  tombs; 
and  even  sometimes  to  the  pedestals  or  stones  on 
the  margin  of  wells,  as  may  be  seen  on  one  be- 
longing to  the  hist-named  museum,  representing 
the  education  of  Achilles ;  and  a  beautiftil  one  of 
nymphs  and  fiiwns,  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Romans  made  use  of  bassi  rilievi  to 
commemorate  victories  and  embellish  columns. 


triumphal  arches,  &c.  But  the  greater  number 
now  preserved  were  attached  to  sarcopliagi. 
The  custom  of  burning  their  dead  had  fiilleninto 
disuse,  partly  from  a  scarcity  of  fuel,  and  partly 
because  they  had  acquired  many  of  ^e  religious 
opinions  of  the  eastern  nations,  fifom  whom  they 
adopted  the  mode  of  occasionally  interring  tlie 
bodies  of  their  dead  in  coffins  of  marble,  and 
other  valuable  materials.  Their  numbers  at 
length  became  immense,  both  in  the  city  and  in 
the  environs  of  Rome,  if  we  may  judge  only 
from  those  whidi  are  to  be  found  in  the  cabinets 
of  the  curious.  The  bassi  rilievi,  with  which 
these  sarcophagi  are  ornamented,  are  usually 
wrought  with  little  cfl^,  and  by  sculptors  of  mi- 
nor t^ents ;  but  tbey  preserve  to  us  many  of  the 
finest  compotfitions  of  their  greatest  artists,  which 
were  the  aamiration  of  antiquity  I  In  many  of  the 
Greek  bassi  rilievi,  the  &ce  of  the  deceased  only 
is  finished,  and  many  antiquaries,  fram  this  cir- 
cumstance, have  conjectured  that  it  was  a  sort  of 
manuiacture  in  Greece,  to  make  sarcophagi  for 
the  Romans,  and  that  they  were  to  be  finished 
after  they  were  sold.  The  bad  style  of  these 
sculptures  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that  these 
marbles  were  not  carved  in  Greece,  because  in 
the  time  of  the  emperors,  the  best  Grecian  artists 
were  removed  to  Rome,  and  those  of  meaner 
talents  remained  at  home.  From  the  great  quan- 
tity s>f  marble  that  Attica,  and  indeed  all  Greece, 
possessed,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  those 
sculptora  who  remained  behind  in  their  country 
would  execute  bassi  rilievi  for  sarcophagi,  when 
so  ready  a  sale  was  found  for  them  at  Rome. 
Many  archaiologists  have  supposed  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  compositions  which  are  found 
on  these  sarcophagi,  were  copied  from  the  gpreat 
mastersi  of  which  the  originals  Tas  the  paintings 
of  Paneenus  and  Polignotus  in  tne  ^oekile,  &,c.) 
periiQied,when  the  cities  of  Greece  were  pillaged 
and  ransacked. 

The  study  of  the  ancient  bassi  rilievi  is  of  great 
service  in  the  history  of  the  arts;  as  from  them 
may  be  collected,  many  important  facts  of  the 
mythology,  customs,  costume,  &c.  of  the  ancients. 
The  finest  collections  of  bassi  rilievi  now  exist- 
ing, are  those  of  the  British  Museum,  formtriy 
the  Townly  collection;  the  Elgin  marbles  in  the 
$une  museum;  the  collections  of  Mr.  Thnraas 
Hope,  and  Mr.  Soane,  the  professor  of  architecture 
in  tne  Royal  Academy  of  London ;  and  several  fine 
casts  in  the  Royal  Academy.  In  Paris  they  had. 
some  fine  antique  bassi  rilievi  in  the  Royal  Mn* 
seum ;  in  the  museum  of  the  Augustine;  and 
many  private  collections.  The.  application  of 
bassi  nlievi  among  the  modems  is  the  same  at. 
among  theanci^ts;  being  used  to  decorate  pub* 
lie  buddings,  palaces,  churches,  triumphal  arches, 
theatres,  concert  rooms,  and  private  houses ;  fur 
niture,  tombs,  and  other  subjects  of  omamentA. 
architecture.  The  most  celebrated  spedmeos  of 
bassi  rilievi  (properly  so  called)  of  modem  art 
in  England,  are  those  of  the  t]finpannm  of  the 
pediment  of  the  East  India  house,  by  Bacon; 
the  monument  of  Captain  Millar  in  apennetof 
St.  Paul's  cathedral,  by  Flaxman.  Several  others 
on  the  public  monuments,  erected  in  that  cathe- 
dral, and  in  Westminster  abbey,  by  Baeon, 
Banks,  Bacon,  jun.  Rossi,  Chantrey,  kendrick^ 

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Hopper,  and  Westmacott.    And  on  (he  conti-  Baharin,  and  coffee  from  Mocha,  iron,    lead, 

nent,  *most  of  the  sculptures  are  thus  decorated,  and  woollen  cloth,  from  Europe.    Some  of  these 

and  embrace  the  names  of  the  most  celebrated  commodities  are  shipped  on  board  small  Arabian 

artists.    The  French  critics  particularly  admire  vessels;  but  the  greater  part  is  brought  by  £u- 

the  bassi  rilievi  on  the  Porte  St.  Denys,  begun  ropean  vessels.    Yet  all  European  commodities 

by  Girardon,  and  finished  by  Michel  Anguiere,  are  ^^  here ;  a  decided  preference  is  given  to 

and  those  on  the  Fountain  of  the  Innocents,  called  articles  of  English  manufacture,  especially  broad 

the  Nymph's  Fountain,  by  the  celebrated  Jean  cloth  and  watches.  Many  of  the  products  of  other 

Goujon.  countries  are  re-exported,  and  an  eictensive  traffic 

Basso  Ripieno,  the  bass  of  the  ground  chores,  ^  carried  on  in  horses,  which,  being  very  strong 

or  that  which  plays  only  in  particular  places.  ^^  beautiful,  are  exported  by  the  English.    Its 


Basso  Violino,  the  bass  for  the  bass  viol. 

BASSOON,  bus  sorij  Fr.  low  sound ;  an  in- 
strument which  forms  the  natural  base  to  the 
hautbois.  It  is  played  like  that  instrument,  with 
a  reed,  and  forms  a  continuation  of  its  scale 
downwards.  The  reed  is  fixed  to  a  crooked 
mouth-piece  issuing  from  the  side  of  the  bassoon. 
Three  keys  communicate  to  the  ventages  which 
otherwise  are  too'  remote  for  fingering.    The 


population  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Parsons,  who 
was  here  in  1775,  at  200,000 ;  but  it  is  now 
thought  not  to  exceed  60,000  ;  but  it  is  still  the 
second  city  of  the  pachalic  of  Bagdad.  It  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  (who  took  it  from 
the  Persiatis)  in  1688 ;  was  re-taken  by  Persia  in 
1777,  but  resigned  to  the  Turkish  army  the  fol- 
lowing year.  The  Arabs  expelled  the  Turks  in 
1787,  but  the  latter,  under  Soliman  Pach%  of 


Italian  name  fagotto  is  derived  from  its  appear-    Bagdad,  regain^  it  shortly  after,  and  have  held 


ance ;  it  consists  of  four  tubes  bound  together  so 
as  somewhat  to  resemble  a  fagot.  Its  compass 
is  three  octaves,  from  double  AA  in  the  base,  to 
a  in  the  second  space  of  the  treble. 

.  BASSORA,  Balsora,  Bossora,  or  Basra,  a 
city  between  Arabia  and  Persia,  situated  in  the 


it  ever  since.  It  is  distant  from  Ispahan  210 
miles  south,  903  from  Alexandietta,  and  1815 
south-east  from  Constantinople.  Long.  44°  46' 
E.,  lat.  30°  32'  N. 

BASSO  VIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  class  pentandria,  and  order  monogynia.    Its 


extremity  of  the  deserts  of  Irak,  a  little  west  of  generic  characters  are,  cal.  perianth  one-leaved : 
the  Tigtis,  where  it  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  ^^^-  one-petalled :  stam.  filaments  five;  anthers 
600  tons,  and  not  far  from  its  junction  with  the  ovate ;  pist.  germ  ovate ;  style  short ;  stigma 
Euphrates.  It  was  built  by  Uie  khaliff  Omar,  in  thickish  :  per.  berry  ovate ;  seeds  very  many.— 
the  fifUi  year  of  the  Hegira,  for  the  sake  of  carry-  Th®  only  species  is  the  B.  sylvatica,  a  perennial, 
ing  on  more  commodiously  an  extensive  com-  native  of  Guiana, 
merce  between  the  Syrians,  Arabians,  Persians,  BASS  Viol.  See  Bass. 
and  India.  It  is  at  present  a  famous  emporium  BASSUM,  a  district  in  the  province  of  Nan- 
of  Eastern  commerce,  and  stands  upon  a  thick  ^^^9  ^  ^^  Nizam*s  dominions,  Hindostan.  It 
stony  soil,  as  the  name  imports.  That  mouth  of  ^'"^  ^'n  uneven  hilly  surface,  intersected  by  several 
the  Tigris  which  empties  itself  into  the  Persian  small  streams,  which  flows  into  the  Godavery; 
Gulf  after  passing  the  town,  is  called  from  it,  ^md  it  lies  between  the  twenty-first  and  twenty- 
the  Bay  of  Bassora.  The  circumjacent  country  is  second  degrees  of  north  latitude.  The  chief 
regarded  by  the  Arabs  as  one  of  the  m68t  delight-  ^^^  ^  Bassan,  which  is  situated  six  miles  from 
ful  spots  in  Asia,  and  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  ^^  Gim^  Very  little  is  known  respecting  this 
beautiful  tracts  in  the  world;  however,  the  hot  P^5  PlJ?^^^®"^' 
winds  that  frequently  blowliere  are  very  trouble- 
some to  travellers,  and  sometimes  overwhelm 
them  with  sand.  The  city  is  inhabited  by  Nes- 
torians,  Jews,  Mahommedans,  and  Chaldean 
Christians,  or  Christians  of  St.  John,  which  last 
are  pretty  numerous.  The  walls  are  about  seven 
miles  in  circuit,  and  twenty-five  feet  thick.  The 
city  is  entered  by  five  gates ;  but  much  of  this 
space  is  occupied  by  plantations  and  gaitiens,  in- 
terspersed with  canals,  which  are  cleansed  by  the 
tide  flowing  into  them  twice  every  day,  to  the 
height  of  nine  or  ten  feet.    The  city  is  indiffer- 


BAST,  lime  tree  bark  made  into  ropes  or 
mats. 

BASTAGA,  from  j3a?a^<y,  portare,  to  cany, 
the  office  of  carriage  or  conveyance. 

BASTAGARII,  in  ecclenastical  antiquity, 
those  who  carry  the  images  of  saints  at  fHO- 
cessions. 

,    BA'STARD,  ».  II.  &  a^jr.-j     Baf*i«M,Weldi, 
Ba'stardize,  th(tttarde,¥T.  of  [cm 

Ba'starolt,  ^  birth,    from   base, 

Ba'stardy.  *  and  oid,  A.  S.,  the 

^         .  -„   one  signifies  mean,  disgraceful;  and  the  other 

ently  built ;  the  houses  very  mean,  and  con-  source  and  origin;  thus  bastard  means  base- 
strncted  chiefly  of  clay;  the  streets  are  irregular,  bom.  It  is  al^  applied  to  any  thing  not  pn>- 
and  notwithstanding  the  advantage  of  the  canals,  ceeding  from  a  legitimate  source ;  to  whatever  is 
are  kept  in  a  filthy  state.  Even  the  bazaars,  spurious  or  mixed.  In  the  earlier  writers  it  is 
though  containing  the  richest  products  of  the  not  uncommon  to  meet  with  bast  without  the 
East,  are  but  miserable  edifices.  The  English  termination  ard. 
factory  is  the  best  building  in  the  city.  The 
abbe  Raynal  describes  its  trade  as  consisting  of 
lice,  sugar,,  plain  striped  and  flowered  mus- 
lins from  Bengal,  spices  from  Ceylon  and  the  a„^  .^  v  /  *  \  «■  •  «  •  v 
Molucca  islands,  coarse  white  and  blue  cottons,  fjlijl  '^"^  ^""7  ^T^  ^f?^  !l/^, 
'Z.'^^r^'fi.  cardannun  pepper,  Sanders!  "S^X:^.  ^:l,^VlT^^ 
wood,  from  Malabar,  gold  and  silver  stuffs,  tur^  again  committed  to  the  coiTodie  of  the  naen<»* 
tians,  shawls,  mdigo,  from  Suiat,   pearls  from    woolfe.  Cfrafitm.  Bidmi  III. 


When  he  was  uyned.  he  M&t  to  Harald, 
And  said  that  a  bastard  no  kyngdom  tuld  hald. 

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And  (Nier  this  he  (Sir  H.'  Bolyftgbrooke)  hadde  of 
boMt,  whlehe  after  were  made  legyttyxnat,  by  dame 
Katheryne  Swynforde  iii  aonnya. 

Fabsfam,  Atm.  1386.  R.  2. 
When  thoa  shalt  find  the  catalogue  enroU'd 
Of  thy  misdeeds,  there  shall  be  writ  in  text. 
Thy  bottardmg  the  issues  of  a  prihce. 

F<frd*t  Love'i  Sacrifice. 
Peaee  is  a  very  apoplexy,  lethargy,  insensible,  a 


lock.  And  the  reason  of  our  law,  he  continues, 
is  surely  much  superior  to  that  of  the  Roman,  if 
we  consider  the  principal  ^nd  and  design  of 
establishing  the  contract  of  marriage,  taken  in  a 
civil  light,  abstractedly  from  any  religious  view; 
which  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  legitimacy  or 
illegitimacy  of  the  children.  The  main  end  and 
design  of  marriage,  being  to  ascertain  and  fix 


getter  of  more  ha$tafd  children  than  war's  a  destroyer    «pon  some  cerUm  person,  to  whom  the  care,  the 


of  men.  Shaktpeare. 

I  should  have  been  what  I  am»  had  the  maiden- 

licst  star  in  the  firmament  twinUed  on  my  bartard- 

ising.  Id, 

Once  she  slandered  me  with  btutardjf ; 
But  whether  I  be  true  begot  or  no. 
That  still  I  lay  upon  my  mother's  head.  Id, 

Words 
But  rooted  in  your  tongue ;  baatardi  and  syllables 
Of  no  allowance  to  your  bosom's  truth.  Id. 

Score  a  pint  of  bastard. — 
Then  your  brown  bastard  is  your  only  drink.  Id, 

We  are  bastards  all ; 
And  that  most  venerable  man,  which  I 
Did  call  my  father,  was  I  know  not  where 
When  I  was  stampt ;  some  coiner  with  his  tools 
Made  me  a  counterfeit :  yet  my  mother  seem'd 
The  Dian  of  tMit  time  :  so  doth  my  wife 
The  nonpareil  of  this.  Dotme, 

Good  seed  degederates,  and  oft  obeys 
The  soil's  disease,  and  into  cockle  strays ; 
Let  the  mind's  thoughts  but  be  transplanted  so 
Into  the  body,  and  bastardly  they  grow.  Id, 

She  lived  to  see  her  brother  beheaded,  and  her 
two  sons  deposed  from  the  crown,  bastarded  in  their 
blood,  and  cruelly  murdered.  Bacon. 

lie 
That  kills  himself  t'  avoid  misery,  fears  it. 
And  at  the  best  shows  but  a  bastard  valour. 

Massinger. 
Of  all  passions,  as  I  have  already  proved,  love  is 
most  violent,  and  of  those  bitter  potions  which  this 
low-melancholy  affords,  this  bastard  jealousie  is  the 
greatest,  as  appears  by  those  prodigious  symptoms 
which  it  hath,  and  that  it  produceth. 

Bwton's  Anatomgf  of  Mdanchci^. 
In  respect  of  the  evil  consequents,  the  wife's  adul- 
tery is  worse,  as  bringing  bastardy  into  a  family. 

Taylor. 
Him  to  the  Lydian  king  Lycimnia  bare. 
And  sent  her  boasted  bastard  to  the  war. 

Dryden. 
Men  who,  under  the  disguise  of  publick  good,  pur- 


protection,  the  maintenance,  and  the  education 
of  the  children,  should  belong:  1.  Because  of 
the  very  great  uncertainty  there  will  generally  be, 
in  the  proof  that  the  issue  was  really  begotten  by 
the  same  man ;  whereas,  by  confining  the  proof 
to  the  birth,  and  not  to  the  begetting,  our  law  has 
rendered  it  perfectly  certain  what  child  is  legiti- 
mate, and  who  is  to  take  care  of  the  child.    2. 
Because  by  the  Roman  law  a  child  may  be  con- 
tinued a  bastard,  or  made  legitimate  at  the  option 
of  the  father  or  mother,  by  a  marriage  ex  post  racto ; 
thereby  opening  a  door  to  many  frauds  and  par- 
tialities, which  by  our  law  are  prcrented.     3. 
Because  by  those  laws  a  man  may  remain  a  bas- 
tard till  forty  years  of  age,  and  then  become  legi- 
timate by  the  subsequent  marriage  of  his  parents ; 
whereby  the  main  end  of  marriage,  the  protection 
of  infants,  is  totally  frustrated.    4.  Because  this 
rule  of  the  Roman  law  admits  of  no  limitation  as 
to  the  time,  or  number,  of  bastards  to  b^  so  legi- 
timated ;  but  a  dozen  of  them  may,  twenty  years 
ai^er  their  birth,  by  the  subsequent  marriage  of 
their  parents,  be  admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of 
legitimate  children.    This  is  plainly  a  great  dis- 
couragement to  the  matrimonial  state ;  to  which 
one  main  inducement  is  usually  not  only  the 
desire  of  having  children,  but  also  the  desire  of 
procreating  lawful  heirs.     Whereas  our  constitu- 
tion guards  against  this  indecency,  and  at  the 
same  time  gives  sufficient  allowance  to  the  frail- 
ties of  human  nature. 

By  the  law  of  Scotland,  following  the  canon 
law,  bastards  may  be  legitimated,  or  made  Law- 
ful, 1.  By  the  subsequent  intermarriage  of  the 
mother  of  the  child  with  the  father;  and  this  legi- 
timation entitles  the  child  to  all  the  rights  of  law- 
ful children.  The  subsequent  marriage,  which 
produces  legitimation,  is  considered  by  the  law 
to  have  been  entered  into  when  the  child  legiti- 
mated was  begotten ;  and  hence,  if  he  be  a  male. 


sue  their  o^m  designs  of  power,  and  such  kuLd    ^^  excludes,  bv  his  right  of  primogeniture,  the 

-  Jons  procreated  after  the  marriage,  from  the  suc- 

cession of  the  father*s  heritage,  though  these  sons 
were  lawful  children  from  the  birth.  Hence, 
also,  those  children  only  can  be  thus  legitimated, 
who  are  begotten  of  a  woman  whom  the  father 
might  at  that  period  have  lawfully  married.  2. 
Bastards  are  legitimated  by  letters  of  legitima- 
tion from  the  sovereign 

A  bastard,  as  such,  is  excluded  by  the  Scottish 
law.  1.  From  his  ilather's  succession;  because 
law  knows  no  father  who  is  not  marked  out-by 
marriage.     2.   From   all   heritable   succession, 

civil  and  canon  law.    The  civil  and  canon  laws    whether  by  the  father  or  mother;  because  he  can- 


honours  as  attend  them.  Temple* 

Not  more  of  simony  beneath  black  gowns, 
Not  more  of  bastardy  in  heirs  to  crowns.         Pope, 
A  basUwd,  by  our  English  laws,  is  one  that  is  not 
only  begotten,  but  born,  out  of  lawful  matrimony. 

BlackMione*s  Commentaries, 
And  these  are  men,  forsooth ! 
Heroes  and  chiefs,  the  flower  of  Adam's  bastards, 

Byron. 
Bastards;  in  the  English  law.      The  cele- 
brated Blackstone  observes  in  his  Commentaries 
on  the  difference  between  our  common  and  the 


do  not  allow  the  child  to  remain  a  bastard,  if  the 
parents  afterwards  intermarry :  and  herein  tliey 
diflfer  most  materially  from  our  law;  which, 
though  not  so  strict  as  to  require  that  the  child 
should  be  begotten,  yet  makes  it  an  indispensible 
conation  that  it  should  be  bom  after  lawful  wed- 


not  be  pronounced  lawful  heir  by  the  inquest,  in 
terms  of  the*  brief.  And,  3.  From  the  movable 
succession  of  his  mother ;  for  though  the  mother 
be  known,  the  bastard  is  not  her  lawfiil  child, 
and  legitimacy  is  implied  in  all  succession  con- 
ferred by  law.    Yet  a  bastard,  though  he  cannot 


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succeed  jure  sanguinifi  may  tuooeed  hj  desUna- 
tiony  where  he  is  specially  called  to  the  succeasioD 
by  an  entail  or  testament 

Every  attempt  to  introduce  the  ciyil  law.  in 
tliis  respect)  into  England,  by  declaring  chilaren 
legitimated  by  a  sulMequent  marriage,  has  been 
steadily  i«|e(^.  It  was  upon  an  occasion  of 
this  kind,  tluit  the  barons  of  England,  assembled 
in  the  parliament  of  Merton,  A.D.  1272,  made 
that  &moos  answer,  « Nolumus  leges  Anglie 
mutare.*    20  Hen.  IIL  cap.  9. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  appears,  that  all 
children  bom  before  matrimony  are  bastards  by 
our  law :  and  so  it  is  of  all  children  bom  so  long 
after  the  death  of  the  husband,  that,  by  the  usual 
course  of  gestation,  they  could  not  be  begotten 
by  him.  But  this  being  a  matter  of  some  uncer- 
tainty, the  law  is  not  exact  as  to  a  few  days. 
But  if  a  man  dies,  and  his  widow  soon  after 
marries  again,  and  a  child  is  bom  withir  such  a 
time  as  that  by  the  oounie  of  nature  it  might  hare 
been  the  child  of  either  husband :  in  this  case,  he 
is  said  to  be  more  than  ordinarily  legitimate';  for 
he  may,  when  he  arrives  at  the  yearn  of  discre- 
tion, choose  which  of  the  fathers  he  pleases.  To 
prevent  this,  among  other  inconveniences,  the 
civil  law  ordained  that  no  widow  should  marry 
infia  annum  luctus;  a  rale  which  obtained  so 
early  as  the  reign  of  Augustus,  if  not  of  Romu- 
lus: and  the  same  constitution  was  probably 
handed  down  to  our  early  ancestors  from  the 
Rdmaos,  during  their  stay  in  this  island :  for  we 
find  it  established  under  the  Saxon  and  Danish 
governments. 

As  bastards  may  be  bom  before  the  coverture 
of  marriage-state  is  begun,  or  after  it  is  deter- 
mined, so  also  children  bom  during  wedlock 
may  in  some  circumstances  be  bastards.  As  if  the 
husband  be  out  of  the  kingdom  of  England,  or  as 
the  law  loosely  phrases  it,  extra  quatnor  maria, 
for  above  nine  months,  so  that  no  access  to  his  wife 
can  be  presumed,  her  issue  during  that  period 
shall  be  bastards.  But  generally  during  coverture, 
access  of  tlie  husband  shall  be  presumed,  unless 
the  contrary  shall  be  shown ;  which  is  such  a 
negative  as  can  only  be  proved  by  showing 
him,  to  be  elsewhere;  for  the  general  rale  is 

Sraesumitur  pro  legitimatione.  But  modem 
ecisions  have  considerably  narrowed  this  rule. 
It  is  now  held  that  the  husband's 'being  within 
the  four  seas  is  not  conclusive  evidence  of  the 
legitimacy  of  the  child,  and  it  is  left  to  a  jury  to 
determine  whether  the  husband  had  access  or 
not.  3  P.  W.  275, 276.  2  Str.  925.  And  evi- 
dence may  be  given,  that  the  husband  was  from 
natural  or  incidental  causes  impotent.  2  Stra.  940. 
1  Roll.  Abr.  358. 1  Salk.  123.  But  in  this  latter 
case  an  impossibility  must  be  proved,  and  not  a 
bare  improbability.  In  a  di voroe,  a  mensa  et  thoro 
if  the  wife  breeds  children  they  are  bastards ;  for 
the  law  will  presume  the  husband  and  wife  con- 
formable to  tne  sentence  of  separation,  unless  ac- 
cess be  proved ;  but  in  a  voluntary  separation  by 
agreement,  the  law  will  suppose  access,  unless  the 
negative  be  shown.  So  also  if  there  be  an  appa- 
rent impossibility  of  procreation  on  the  part  of 
the  husband,  as  n  he  oe  only  eight  years  old,  or 
the  like,  there  the  issue  of  the  wife  shall  be 
bastards.    Likewise,  in  case  of  divorce  in  the 


spiritual  court  a  yinculo  matrimonii,  all  tlia  i 
hom  during  the  coverture  are  baslard» ;  because 
such  divorce  is  always  upon  some  came  that 
rendered  the  marriage  unlawful  and  null  from 
the  beginning. 

As  to  the  ri^ts  apd  incapacities  which  appertain 
to  a  bastard:  the  former  are  very  few,  being 
only  such  as  he  can  acquire ;  for  he  can  inherit 
nothing,  being  looked  upon  as  the  son  of  nobody, 
and  sometimes  called  filiusnulliusisometimes  filius 
populi.  Yet  he  may  gain  a  surname  by  reputa 
tion,  though  he  has  none  by  inheritance.  All 
other  children  have  their  pnmary  settlement  in 
their  father's  parish :  but  a  bastard  in  the  parish 
where  bom,  for  he  hath  no  fitther.  However,  in 
case  of  fraud,  as  if  a  woman  be  either  sent  by 
order  of  justices,  or  comes  to  beg  as  a  vagrant, 
to  a  parish  whidi  she  does  not  belong  to,  the 
bastard  shall,  in  the  first  case,  be  settled  in  the 
parish  from  whence  she  was  illegally  removed ; 
or  in  the  latter  case,  in  the  mother's  own  parish, 
if  the  mother  be  apprehended  for  her  vmgiancy. 
Bastards  also  bom  m  any  licensed  hosfwtal  for 
pregnant  women,  are  settled  in  the  parishes 
m  which  the  mothers  belong.  The  incapacity  of 
a  bastard  consists  princifnlly  iif  this,  that  he 
cannot  be  heir  to  any  one ;  for  being  nullhis  fi- 
lius, he  is  therefore  of  kin  to  nobody,  and  has  no 
ancestors  from  whom  any  inheritable  blood  can  be 
derived.  Therefore,  if  there  be  no  other  claim- 
ant upon  an  inheritance  than  such  illegitimate 
child,  it  shall  escheat  to  the  lord.  And  as  bas- 
tards cannot  be  heirs  themselves,  so  neither  can 
they  have  any  heirs  but  those  of  their  own  bodies. 
For  as  all  collateral  kindred  consists  in  being 
derived  from  the  same  conmion  ancestor,  and  as 
a  bastard  has  no  legal  ancestors,  he  can  have  no 
collateral  kindred ;  and  consequently  can  have 
no  legal  heirs,  but  such  as  chum  by  a  lineal  de^ 
scent  nrom  himself.  And  therefore,  if  a  bastaid 
purchases  land,  and  dies  seised  thereof  vrithoot 
issue,  and  intestate,  the  land  shall  escheat  to  the 
lord  of  the  see.  A  bastard  was  also,  in  strict- 
ness, incapable  of  holy  orders ;  and  thoueh  that 
were  dispensed  with,  yet  he  vras  utterly  disqoa- 
lified  from  holding  any  dignity  in  the  diurch ; 
but  this  doctrine  seems  now  obsolete ;  and  in 
all  other  respects  there  is  no  distinction  between 
a  bastard  and  another  man.  And  really  any 
other  distinction  but  that  of  not  inheritii^,  which 
civil  policy  renders  necessary,  wonli^  with  re- 
gard to  the  innocept  ofipring  of  his  pareof  s 
crimes,  be  odious,  unjust,  and  crael,  to  the  last 
degree ;  and  yet  the  civil  law,  so  boasted  of  for  its 
equitable  decisions,  made  bastards  in  some  cases 
incapable  even  of  a  gift  from  their  parents.  A  bas- 
tard may,  lastly,  be  made  legitimate  and  capable 
of  inheriting  by  the  transcendant  power  of  an  act 
of  parliament,  and  not  otherwise :  as  was  done  in 
the  case  of  John  of  Gaunt's  bastard  children,  by 
a  statute  of  Richard  II. 

The  principal  duty  of  parents  to  bastard 
children,  by  the  English  law,  is  that  of  mainte- 
nance. For  though  bastards  are  not  looked  upon 
as  children  to  any  civil  purposes ;  yet  the  ties  of 
nature,  of  which  msuntenance  is  one,  are  not  so 
easily  dissolved ;  and  they  hold  indeed  as  to  many 
other  intentions ;  as  particularly  that  a  man  shall 
not  marry  his  bastard  sister  or  daughter,  &c.  Tht 


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method  in  which  the  English  law  proTides  main*  riting  fiom  their  fiidiers,  put  themBelvet  at  the 
tenance  for  them  is  as  follows :  When  a  woman  head  of  robbers  and  plunderers  to  maintain 
is  deliTered,  or  declares  herself  with  child,  of  a   themselves. 


bastardy  and  will  by  oath  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace  charge  any  person  with  haringgot  her  with 
child,  ^e  justice  snail  cause  such  person  to  be  ap* 
prehended,  and  commit  him  till  he  gives  security, 
either  to  maintain  the  child,  or  appear  at  the  next 


Bastaeds,  in  the  sea  language,  large  sails  of  a 
galley,  which  will  make  way  with  a  slack  wind. 

Bastaed  CEnAE  Teee,  called  guazuma  in  the 
West  Indies. 

Bastaed  Flowee  Pence.  See  Adenantheea. 


quarter-sessions  to  dispute  and  try  the  &ct.  But  The  flowers  of  this  plant  bruised  and  steeped  in 
if  tlie  woman  dies,  or  is  married,  before  delivery,  breast  milk  are  a  gentle  anodyne,  for  whicn  pur- 
er miscarries,  or  proves  not  to  have  been  with  pose  they  are  often  given  in  the  West  Indies  to 
child,  the  person  shall  be  discharged ;  otherwise  quiet  very  young  children.    The  leaves  are  used 
the  sessions,  or  two  justices  out  of  the  sessions,  in  Barbadoes  and  the  Leeward  islands.    In  Ja- 
«ipon  original  application  to  them,  may  take  or-  maica  the  plant  is  called  Sena, 
der  for  the  keeping  of  the  bastard,  by  me  charg-  Bastaed  Hemp.    See  Datisca 
ing  of  the  mother  or  the  reputed  father  with  the  Bastaed  Roceet.    See  Resed  . 
payment  of  mon^  or  other  sostentation  for  diat  Bastaed  Scaelet  is  a  name  given  to  red  dyed 
purpose.    And-  if  such  putative  &ther,  or  lewd  with  bale-madder,  as  coming  nearest  the  bow-dye, 
naotner,  run  away  from  tne  parish,  the  overseers  or  new  scarlet. 

by  direction  of  two  justices  may  seize  their  rent,  Bastaed  Stae  of  Bethlehem.    See  Albvca. 

goods  and  chattels,  m  order  to  bring  up  the  said  BASTARDY,  aocordins  to  Eustathius,  was 

bastard  child.    Yet  such  is  the  humanitv  of  our  held  among  the  Greeks  as  honorable  as  legitima- 

laws,  that  no  woman  can  be  compulsively  ques-  cy,  down  even  tP  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war ; 

tioned  concerning  the  fiitherof  her  child  till  one  but  the  course  of  antiaui^  seems  against  him. 

month  dier  her  delivery ;  which  indulgence  is,  The  ancient  Greeks  indeed,  appear  to  have  been 

however,  very  frequently  a  hardship  upon  ^  proud  of  their  reputed  descent  from  the  gods, 

rishes,  by  giving  the  parents  opportunity  to  escape,  out  Potter  and  others  show  that  there  never  was 
By  the  stat.  18  £liz.  e.  3,  two  justices  may 


itt.  e  _ 

take^order  for  the  punishment  of  the  mother  and 
reputed  father ;  but  what  that  punishment  shall 
be,  is  not  therein  ascertained :  though  the  con- 
temporary eEpositioD  was,  that  a  corporeal  pu- 
nishment was  intended.  By  stat  7  Jac.  I.  c.  4. 
a  specific  punishment,  via.  commitment  to  the 
house  of  correction,  is  inflicted  on  the  woman 
only.  But  in  both  cases,  it  seems  that  the  pe- 
nalty can  only  be  inflicted  if  the  bastard  becomes 
chargeable  to  the  parish ;  for  otherwise  the  very 
maintenance  of  the  child  is  considered  as  a  de- 
gree of  punishment  By  the  last  mentioned  sta^- 
tute  the  justice  may  commit  the  mother  to  the 
house  of  correction,  there  to  Hm  punished  and 
set  on  work  for  one  year ;  and  in  case  of  a  second 
ofience,  till  she  find  sure^  never  to  ofiend  again, 


a  time  when  bastardy  was  not  a  disgrace.  In 
the  time  of  our  William  the  Conqueror,  however, 
it  seems  not  to  have  implied  any  reproach,  that 
monarch  himself  not  scrupling  to  assume  the 
appellation  of  bastard.  His  epistle  to  Alan,  count 
of  Bretagne  begins.  Ego  WiUielmus,cognomento 
bastardus. 

Bastaedy,  in  relation  to  its  trial  in  law,  is 
distinguished  into  general  and  special. 

Bastaedy  Geneeal,  is  a  certificate  from  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  to  the  king's  justices,  after 
inquiry  made,  whether  the  party  is  a  bastard  or 
not,  upon  some  question  of  inheritance. 

Bastaedy  Special,  is  .a  suit  commenced  in 
the  king's  courts,  against  a  person  that  calls 
another  a  bastard. 

Bastaedy,  Aems  of,  should  be  crossed  with  a 


It  was  enacted  by  statute  21  Jac.  I.  c.  87.  that    bar,  fillet,  or  traverse,  from  the  left  to  the  right, 
if  any  woman  be  delivered  of  a  child,  which  if  They  were  not  formerly  allowed  to  carry  the 


bom  alive,  should  by  law  be  a  bastard,  and  en* 
dea?onr8  privately  to  conceal  its  death,  hj  buiy- 
ing  the  child  or  the  like;  the  mother  so  oronding 
shall  suffer  death,  as  in  the  case  of  murder,  un- 
less she  can  prove  by  one  witness  at  least  that 
the  child  was  actually  bom  dead.  This  law  is 
to  be  met  with  also  in  die  criminal  codes  of 
many  other  nations  of  Europe ;  as  the  Danes,  the 
Swedes,  &c.  but  it  has  been  repealed  1^43 
Geo.  III.  c.  58.  called  Lord  Ellenborough's  act. 
Women  can  only  be  convicted  of  murder  in  this 


arms  of  their  father,  and  therefore  thev  invented 
arms  for  themselves ;  and  this  is  still  done  by  the 
natural  sons  of  a  king. 

BASTARN^  or  Basteemjb,  a  people  of 
German  original,  mannere,  and  language,  who 
estended  themselves  a  great  way  to  the  east  of  the 
Vistula,  the  east  boundary  of  Germany  among 
the  Sarmats,  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Ister 
and  the  Euxine,  and  were  divided  into  several' 
nations. 

BASTARNIC^  Alps,  in  ancient  geography, 


case  on  proof  of  the  diild  being  actually  bom    mountains  extending  between  Poland,  Hun^y, 


alive :  but  in  all  cases  when  a  child  would 
ha-ve  been  a  bastard,  are  punishable  for  conceal- 
ment of  birth,  whether  the  child  be  bora  ali?e  or 
otherwise,  by  imprisonment  for  two  years. 

Bastards,  in  nistory,  a  troop  of  iMuiditti  who 
rose  in  Guienne  about  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  joining  with  some  English 
parties,  ravaged  the  country,  and  set  fire  to  the 
eity  of  Saintes.    Mezeiay  s^pposes  them  to  have 


and  Transylvania,  called  also  the  Carpeu,  and 
now  the  Carpathian  mountains. 

BASTAVGE,  a  bay  on  the  east  side  of  Yell, 
one  of  the  Shetland  islands.  Long,  l""  16'  W., 
lat.  60**  59*  N. 

BASTE',  -)  Participle  pass,  ftotfec?, 

Bastika'de,  v.  &  n.  >or  batten,  Fr.  boitofmer, 
Bastina'do^  v.  &  n.  3  Bosalo,  in  the  Armorick 

„_^ ^     rr  dialect,  signifies  to  strike  with  a  stick;  from 

consisted  of  the  namnd  sons  of  the  nobility  of    whidi  perhaps  batton  a  stick,  and  all  its  deriva^ 
Goienney  who  being  escluded  the  right  of  inhe-    tives^  or  colbterals,  may  be  deduced ;  to  strike^ 


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V<eat,  bang,  bethwack  with  a  cudgel ;  so  Cotgrave. 
Applied  to  noisy  abuse  with  the  tongue. 

What  cannoneer  begot  this  lusty  blood  ? 
He  speaks  plain  cannon,  fiie,  and  smoke  and  bounce ; 
He  gives  the  boitinado  with  his  tongue  ; 
Our  ears  are  cudgell'd  ;  not  a  word  of  his 
But  buffets  better  than  a  fist  of  France. 
Zounds  !  I  was  never  so  bethump'd  with  words 
Since  I  first  call'd  my  brother's  father  dad. 

But  this  courtesy  was  worse  than  a  hattmado  to 
Zelmane  ;  so  with  rageful  eyes  she  bade  him  defend 
himself.  Sidney, 

I  am  not  apt  upon  &  wound. 
Or  trivial  basimg,  to  despond ; 
Yet,  I'd  be  loth,  my  days  to  curtail. 

Hudibras, 
,       The  beaten  soldier  proves  most  manful. 
That  like  his  sword  endures  the  anvil. 
And  justly's  held  more  formidable. 
The  more  his  valour's  malleable. 
But  he  that  fears  a  battinado. 
Will  run  away  from  his  own  shadow.  Id, 

Quoth  8he,'l  grant  it  is  in  vun 
For  one  that's  btuted  to  feel  pain  ; 
Because  the  pangs  his  bones  endure 
Contribute  nothing  to  the  cure.  Id, 

Basfmgt  heavy,  dry,  obtuse. 
Only  dulnesa  can  produce ; 
While  a  little  gentle  jerking 
Sets  the  spirits  all  a-working.  Swijt, 

Nick  seized  the  longer  end  of  the  cudgel,  and  with 
it  began  to  hastinndo  old  Lewis,  who  had  slunk  into  a 
ccmer,  waiting  the  event  of  a  squabble.       Arbuthttot. 
In  Turkey,  says  Montesquieu,  where  little  regard 
is  shown  to  the  lives  and  fortunes  of  the  subject,  all 
causes  are  quickly  decided.     The  bashaw,  on  a  sum- 
mary hearing,  orders  which  party  he  pleases  to  bo 
bastinadoed,  and  then  sends  them  about  Uieir  business. 
Blackstone's  Commentariea, 
Basie,  v.    To  baste  meat ;  to  drop  butter,  or 
any  thing  else  ubon  it  as  it  turns  upon  the  spit. 
This  was  former1^^!rwith  a  stick  covered  with  fat, 
and  it   is  therefore  probable,  that  the  term  to 
baste,  to  strike  with  a  stick,  came  at  length  to  be 
thus  employed. 

Sir,  I  think  the  meat  wants  what  I  have,  a  basting. 

^Uihspear^. 
The  fat  of  roasted  mutton  falling  on  the  birds,  will 
serve  to  basie  them,  and  so  save  tin<e  and  butter. 

Swift, 
Baste',  v.  Besten,  To  sew  or  stitch  together 
slightly.    Fr.  batter,  to  stitch. 

And  on  her  legs  the  painted  buskins  wore. 
Basted  with  bands  of  gold  on  every  side  ; 
And  mailes  betweene;  and  laced  close  afore. 

Spenser.  Faerie  Qtieene, 
Shall  the  proud  Lord 
That  bastes  his  arrogance  with  his  own  scam. 
And  never  suffers  matter  of  the  world 
Enter  his  thoughts  ;  saire  such  as  do  revolve 
And  ruminate  himself,  shall  he  be  womhipt ; 
Of  that  we  hold  an  idol  more  than  he. 

Shakspeare,  Troihis  and  Cresstda, 
BASTERNA,  a  kind  of  vehicle,  or  chariot, 
used  by  the  ancient  Roman  ladies.  Papias  thinks, 
that  bastema  was  first  written  for  restema,  but 
the  word  seems  better  derived  from  the  Greek 
PacaZuj  porto,  I  carry.  Salmasius  observes,  that 
the  basterna  succeeded  the  lectica,  or  litter ;  from 
which  it  differed  very  little,  except  that  the  litter 
was  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  slaves,  and  the 
bastema  drawn  by  beasts.    The  inside  they  cal- 


led the  cavea,  or  cage:  it  had  soft  cushions  o 
beds,  and  glanes  on  each  side  like  our  chariots 
Bastemae  passed  from  Italy  into  Gaul,  and  thence 
into  other  countries;  and  to  this  we  owe  our 
chariots,  which,  though  we  call  them  currus,  yet 
they  have  no  conformity  to  the  ancient  curras, 
but  are  in  effect  bastems  improved.  The  bas- 
tema appears  also  to  have  been  used  in  war,  for 
carrying  baggage. 

BASTI,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town  of  the 
province  of  Betica  in  Spain,  situated  to  the  west 
of  the  Campus  Spartanus,  now  called  Baza  ia 
Granada. 

BASTIA,  a  sea-port  town  of  Albania,  in  Tur- 
key in  Europe,  over  against  the  island  of  Corfu. 

Bastia,  a  town  of  the  island  of  Corsica,  oo 
the  north-east  coast,  seated  on  a  hill,  in  the  foim 
of  an  amphitheatre.  It  is  ill  built,  and  has  nar- 
row streets,  but  is  defended  by  a  citadel,  and  has 
a  safe  but  not  very  commodious  harbour.  The 
inhabitants  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine, 
skins,  pulse,  oil,  and  figs,  and  the  stilettos  made 
here  are  much  valued  by  the  Italians.  In  1745, 
it  was  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  English,  but 
restored  to  the  Genoese  the  following  year.  The 
Ajustrians  and  Piedmontese  besieged  it  unsuccess- 
fully in  1 748 .  It  was  annexed  to  France  in  1 768» 
and  with  the  exception  of  a  short  period  alter  its 
capture  by  the  English  in  1794,  has  remained 
ever  since  in  the  hands  of  that  power.  It  con- 
tained a  population  of  11  or  12,000  souls,  and 
before  the  French  revolution  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  island,  the  seat  of  the  governor,  and  of  the 
principal  offices  of  state,  and  courts  of  justice, 
it  was  also  the  see  of  the  bishop  of  Marian  and 
Acci.  On  the  new  modelling  of  the  French  ter- 
ritory in  1791,  it  was  created  the  capital  of  the 
department  of  the  Golo,and  subsequently  the  head- 

?uarters  of  the  twenty-third  military  division, 
t  is  now  the  chief  town  of  an  arrondissement  in 
the  department  of  Corsica,  the  residence  of  a  sub- 
prefect,  and  the  seat  of  a  civil  and  a  commetcial 
tribunal.  Thirty-three  miles  E.N.E.  of  Calvi* 
and  fifty-eight  north-east  of  Ajaccio.  Long.  9^ 
26'  30"  E.,  lat.  42°  41'  36*  N. 

BASTI  DE  DE  Clerence  La,  a  town  of  Lower 
Navarre,  France,  the  head  of  a  canton  in  the 
department  of  the  Lower  Pyrenees,  arrondissement 
of  Bayonne.  It  is  about  six  miles  £.  S.  £.  of 
Bayonne,  and  has  2000  inhabitants. 

Bastide,  La,  a  town  of  France,  in  Quercy, 
the  head  of  a  canton  in  the  department  of  the 
Lot,  arrondissement  of  Gourdon,  with  1200 
inhabitants,  ten  miles  south-east  of  Gourdon. 

Bastide  DE  Seron,  La,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  county  of  Foix,  department  of  the  Arriege, 
arrondissement  of  Pamiers,  with  1760inhalHtants, 
nine  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Foix,  and  twelve  north- 
west of  Tarascon. 

BA'STILLE,  or-j     BoMtUU,  Fr.,  hastUk,  Sp. 

B ASTi  LE,  >  from  French  bastir,  to  build, 

Ba'stillions.  3  probably  from  the  Greek 
and  Latin  basis,  q.  d.  basUare,  i.  e.  to  raise  upon 
a  basis  or  foundation ;  applied  to  military  for- 
tresses, and  to  places  of  special  defence,  and  of 
confinement. 

These  lordea  caused  basSUes  to  be  made  voonde 
abont  the  cytie,  with  which  they  tronUed  their  ene- 
mies and  assaulted  the  walles.   HaiL  EMgEawjfVl, 


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The  sanK  seaion  Atfo  wu  a  capytayne  at  Calais, 

Sir  Johan  Delnarnes,  who  receyued  the  bysahoppe 

and  hit  company  with  grete  ioye ;  and  so  they  landed 

lytell  and  lytell,  and  all  their  hones  and  baggage, 

and  60  lodged  in  Calays,  and  thereabout  in  ba$iylls9 

that  they  made  dayly.  Froissart.  Cronyc/^, v. i.e. 329. 

Our  soldiers  rose  at  the  call  of  their  captains,  and 

removed  their  munitions  farr  from  the  wall,  providing 

to  fight  more  close  and  short  along  the  high  bastile$, 

or  countermures,  which  now^  that  they  were  finished, 

overtopped  the  walh.  ^     Holland.     Ammianut. 

Thus  fortune  fares  her  children  to  cmponnd. 

Which  on  her  wheel  their  baitiUi  bravely  beeld. 

Mirror  for  Magittrotet, 
Near  which  there  stands 
A  battUe  built  to  imprison  hands.  Hudihnu, 

Bastile,  anciently  used  as  a  common  name 
for  a  prison,  under  the  feudal  system  in  our  own 
country,  was  a  name  particularly  applied  to 
several  state  prisons  in  France:  but  that  which 
was  termed  tne  bastile,  by  way  of  distinction, 
was  situated  near  the  gates  of  Paris,  on  the  road 
to  St.  Anthony.  The  building  was  originally 
commenced  by  order  of  Charles  V.,  and  finished 
in  1383  under  the  reign  of  his  successor.  The 
original  projector  was  Hugh  d'  Aubriot,  mayor  of 
Paris,  who  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  foundation 
on  the  22d  of  April,  1370.  Descended  from  an 
obscure  parentage,  this  person  liad  been  raised  by 
his  merit  into  the  favor  of  his  sovereign,  and  so 
unqualified  was  the  confidence  reposed  in  him, 
that  the  charge  of  the  capital  was  committed  ex- 
clusively to  his  care. 

The  bastile,  as  planned  by  d'  Aubriot,  consisted 
only  of  two  round  towers,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
road  leading  into  Paris,  from  the  suburbs  of  St. 
Anthony,  and  united  by  means  of  a  strong  high 
wall,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  the  gate  of  the 
town.  Several  additional  towers  were  afterwards 
erected,  and  in  the  succeeding  reign  two  com- 
plete courts  were  formed  by  means  of  intervening 
walls,  which  composed  the  body  of  the  edifice. 
The  road  itself  turned  off  to  the  right  of  the  cas- 
tle, and  left  the  whole  building  enclosed  by  a 
deep  ditch,  and  secured  by  a  counterscarp  of 
nearly  thirty-six  feet  from  the   bottom.     The 
usual    entry   into   the   bastile    was    from    St. 
Anthony  street.    Above  the  first  gate  was  an 
armoury,  and  on  the  right  side  of  the  entrance  a 
guard  room,    The  first  enclosure,  from  which  a 
gate  led  to  the  arsenal,  contained  barracks  for  the 
garrison,  coach  houses  and  stables  for  the  gover- 
nor and  officers,  shops  for  the  sutlers,  &c.    A 
draw-bridge  led  firom  the  court  into  the  second 
enclosure,  on  entering  which,  was  a  guard-room 
to  the  lefl,  and  the  governor's  house  to  the  right ; 
and  at  the  end  a  terrace,  on  which  stood  a  pavi- 
lion, with  beautiful  walks,  shaded  with  rows  of 
trees.     Opposite  the  governor's  house  was  the 
entrance  into  the  castle,  and  between  the  two  were 
kitchens  and  other  conveniences,  erected  on  a 
blind  bridge  thrown  across  the  ditch.    From  the 
second  court  was  a  draw-bridge,  which  led  into 
the  castle,  and  within  the  gate  was  another  guard- 
room.   The  first  court  was  102  feet  long,  and 
seventy-two  broad.     It  had  six  towers,  and  was 
terminated  by  a  modem  building,  on  the  ground- 
floor  of  which  was  the   council  chamber  and 
library,  and  over  it  the  apartments  of  the  Lieu- 
tenant du  Roi,  the  surgeon,  major,  and  other 


officers,  together  with  some  rooms  appropriated 
for  prisoners  of  distinction.  The  second  court 
was  seventy-two  feet  long,  and  forty-two  broad, 
containg  two  towers,  and  lodgings  for  persons 
belonging  to  the  castle. 

The  prisoners  were  chiefly  confined  in  the 
towers  of  the  bastile,  the  entrances  to  which 
were  secured  hy  double  doors  of  oak,  and  con- 
ducted to  a  winding  stair-case,  lighted  by  narrow 
grated  windows,  which  led  to  the  rooms  above, 
and  the  dungeon  below.     The  dungeons  had  no 
fire  place,  and  instead  of  windows  a  small  cre- 
vice towards  the  ditch,  that  served  the  twofold 
purpose  of  letting  in  air  and  light.      They  were 
arched,  paved,  and  lined  with  stone,  and  were 
said  to  be  places  for  the  temporary  punishment 
of  those  unhappy  persons  who  might  attempt  to 
make  their  escape.    In  these  dungeons  the  un- 
fortunate princes  of  Armagnac,  sons  of  James, 
who  was  beheaded,  were  confined  by  Louis  XL, 
the  oldest  of  whom  lost  his  senses  in  prison,  and 
the  youngest,  obtaining  his  liberty  on  the  death  of 
the  tyrant,  related  a  tale  of  suffering  which,  if 
it  were  not  corroborated  by  the  most  unqualified 
evidences,  would  almost  exceed  belief.    Above 
each  of  these  dungeons  were  four  stories,  con- 
taining each  a  single  room,  some  of  them  having 
a  small  dark  closet  adjoining  them,  indented  in 
the  thickness  of  the  wall.     The  rooms  had  each 
one  window,  glazed  within,  and  doubly  grated,  ' 
one  near  the  centre  of  the  wall,  and  again  at  its 
exterior  surface.    Each  room  had  a  fire  place 
and  stove,  the  vents  of  the  chimneys  being  se- 
cured by  strong  iron  grates.     The  double  doors 
were  secured  by  several  locks  and  bars,  and 
many  of  the  rooms  had  double  ceilings ;  the  first 
was  composed  of  la(h  and  plaster,  and  the  second 
of  oak,  supporting  the  floor  of  the  room  imme- 
diately above.     The  walls  and  ceilings  of  these 
apartments  were  all  plastered  and  white-washed, 
and  the  floors  laid  with  tile  or  stone ;  they  were 
perfectly  dry,  owing  to  the  extreme  thickness  of 
the  building,  being  nearly  seven  English  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  top,   and  gradually  increasing 
downwards  to  the  foundation.     The  three  first 
stories  were  irregular  polygons  of  about  eighteen 
feet  in  diameter,  and  as  many,  in  height ;  but  the 
fourth,  or  top  room,  called  calotte,  was  neither 
so  large  nor  so  high  as  the  others,  and  was 
arched  to  support  the  stone  roof  or  platform  with 
which  it  was  overlaid. 

Such  was  the  place  of  horror,  in  which  hun- 
dreds were  connned  at  the  canrice  of  an  arbi- 
trary monarch,  or  minister ;  and  so  rigidly  were 
the  wretched  victims  conceded,  that  many  have 
been  shut  up  for  years,  cut  off  from  all  commu- 
nication with  mankind,  except  the  turnkeys  and 
keepers  of  the  prison,  and  neither  friends  nor 
relations  have  •  known  what  was  become  of  the 
persons  so  mysteriously  lost. 

The  officers  who  had  the  charge  of  the  bastile 
were  a  governor,  lieutenant  du  roi,  a  mayor, 
two  adjutants,  a  surgeon  and  his  assistant,  a 
chaplain,  and  four  turnkeys :  these,  with  a  com- 
pany of  invalids  and  ofiicers,  lodged  in  the  castle ; 
oesides  whom,  a  physician,  two  priests,  a  keepei 
of  records,  a  clerk,  a  superintendent  of  buildings, 
and  an  engineer,  who  lodged  in  the  town,  his 
services  being  only  occasionally  required. 


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The  king  allowed  the  governor  a  daily  sum 
for  the  maintenance  of  each  prisoner,  according 
to  his  rank  in  Society ;  namely, 

liivres* 
For  a  prince  of  the  blood    ,    .    .    50  per  day. 
For  a  marshal  of  France     ...    36 
For  a  lieutenant-general      ...    24 
For  a  person  of  quality  or  a  member 

of  parliament    ......    15 

For  an  oidinary  judge,  a  priest,  or 

persons  in  the  finances    ...    10 
For  a  respectable  citizen    ...      5 

which,  together  with  an  additional  salary  for 
firing,  candles,'  washing,  ficc.,  more  than  indem- 
nified him  for  the  expenses  of  the  prison. 

The  mode  of  arresting  prisoners  was  by  ^ettres 
de  cachet,  which  were  sometimes  signed  by  the  king 
himself,  and  always  countersigned  by  the  minister 
of  Paris,  or  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state.  We 
subjoin  the  following  as  a  copy  of  one  of  these 
hm  instruments. 

*  MON  CODSIN, 

'  Etant  peu  satisfait  de  votre 
conduite,  je  tous  fiiis  cette  lettre,  pour  vous 
dire,  que  mon  intention  est  qu'  aussitot  qu'  elle 
▼ous  aura  ii6  remise,  vous  aycz  k  vous  rendre  en 
mon  chiLteau  de  la  Bastile,  poury  rester  ^usqu'  k 
nouvel  ordre  de  moi.  Sur  ce  je  pne  Dieu 
qu'il  Tous  ait,  mon  Cousin,  en  sa  sainte  garde. 
Ecrit  it  Vennilles,  25  Juin,  1748. 

'  Sign^  Louis, 

•  Voyer  d'  Argenson.' 

The  aboTe  was  inscribed, 

<  A  mon  Cousin,  le  Prince  de  Monaco,  Briga- 
dier en  mon  Infanterie. 

Every  prisoner,  on  coming  to  the  Bastile,  had 
an  inventory  made  of  every  thing  about  him. 
His  trunks,  doUies,  linen,  and  pockets,  were 
searched,  to  discover  whether  there  were  any 
papers  in  them  relative  to  the  matter  for  which 
ne  was  apprehended.  It  was  not  usual  to  search 
persons  of  a  certain  rank ;  but  they  were  asked 
for  their  knives,  razors,  scissars,  watches,  canes, 
jewels,  and  money.  These  were  put  into  a  box, 
and  labelled,  with  the  tower  and  number  of  the 
chamber  in  which  he  was  to  be  confined,  and  by 
which  he  was  afterwards  called ;  so  that  the  name 
of  a  prisoner  was  never  pronounced,  nor  even 
known,  among  the  inferior  officers  of  the  Bastile, 
the  appellation  being  No.  1,  de  la  Bertaudiere; 
No.  2,  dn  Tr^sor;  No.  3,  de  la  Libert^, '&c. 

After  this  examination  of  his  person,  the  pri- 
soner was  usually  conducted  to  his  apartment, 
where  he  was  carefiilly  locked  up,  and  an  invalid 
soldier  appointed' to  attend  him,  who  slept  near 
him  and  waited  upon  him.  The  unhappy  vic- 
tim soon  found  that  in  this  castle  all  was  mystery, 
tric|c,  artifice,  and  treachery;  the  attendant 
conveyed  all  his  words  to  the  police,  while  the 
officers,  turnkeys,  va}ets,  &c.  used  every  effort  to 
draw  him  on  to  speak  against  government,  merely 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  a  reward  for  revealing 
what  was  said.  On  a  prisoner*8  first  entrance, 
lie  was  not  permitted  to  write  to  any  person,  not 
tven  the  lieutenant  of  the  police.    When  a  per- 


son had  obtained  permission  to  write  to  the  Uncr 
gentleman,  he  might  solicit  the  inda^enoe  of 
being  allowed  to  address  a  lettier  to  his  fiunily, 
and  reoeive  their  answers,  which  on  some  oeoa-  j 

sions  was  granted ;  but  letters  when  sent  were 
commonly  intercepted,  and  seldom  delivered  to 
the  friends.  The  officers  of  the  staff  took  the 
charge  of  conveying  the  letters  df  the  prisoners 
to  the  police,  by  whom  they  were  sent  regularly 
twice  a  day,  and  suitable  answers  were  addressed 
to  the  major,  vrho  communicated  them  to  the  pri- 
soner;  bu*  if  no  notice  was  taken  of  any  request 
contained  in  the  letter  of  the  prisoner,  it  was  to 
be  considered  as  a  nfiual.  A  Ofiminal  might 
ask  to  see  the  lieutenant  of  the  police  when  he 
came  to  the  Bastile,  and  in  that  case  the  eonver- 
sation  always  turned  upon  the  cause  of  his  con- 
finement. This  gentleman  would  sometimes  ask 
for  written  and  signed  declarations,  and  on  these 
occasions  nothing  that  the  prisoner  wrote  or  said 
was  forgotten.  A  person  confined  in  the  Bastile 
was  never  anticipated  in  any  thing — he  must  ask 
for  every  thing ;  even  for  permission  to  be  shaved, 
an  office  always  performed  by  the  suigeop ;  who 
also  fiimished  sick  or  indisposed  persons  with 
sugar,  coffee,  tea,  chocolate,  confections,  and  the 
remedies  necessary  for  their  complaints.  Their 
hour  of  dining  was  eleven,  and  ot  sopping,  six ; 
and  the  time  Slowed  for  walking  was  commonly 
one  hAur  in  the  day,  sometimes  an  hour  in  the 
mominff  and  an  hour  in  the  evening,  in  the  great 
coxlA  of  the  fortress. 

To  give  the  reader  some  imperfect  idea  of  die 
internal  discipline  of  the  BasHle,  under  its  mildest 
regime,  we  sliall  quote  a  short  extract  from  the 
account  of  a  prisoner,  once  confined  tiiere. — 
'About  five  in  the  morning,'  says  he,  'on  the 
2d  of  April,  1771, 1  was  awaked  by  a  violent 
knocking  at  my  chamber  door,  and  was  com- 
manded in  the  name  of  the  king  to  opeo  it.  I 
did  so,  and  an  exempt  of  the  police,  three  men 
and  a  commissary,  entered  my  room.  They  de- 
sired me  to  dress  myself,  and  began  to  search  the 
apartment.  They  ordered  me  to  open  my 
drawers ;  and  having  examined  my  p^wrs,  they 
took  such  as  they  chose  and  put  ihem  into  a  box, 
which,  as  I  understood  afterwards,  was  carried  to 
the  police-office.  The  commissary  asked  me  my 
name,  my  age,  the  place  where  I  was  bom,  how 
long  I  had  been  at  Paris,  and  the  manner  m 
which  I  had  spent  my  time.  The  examination 
was  written  down ;  a  list  was  made  of  every  thing 
found  in  die  room,  which,  with  the  examination, 
I  was  desired  to  read,  and  sign.  The  exempt 
then  told  me  to  take  all  my  body-linen,  and  sodi 
clothes  as  I  chose,  and  to  come  with  them. 
Having  shut  and  sealed  the  drawers,  they  desired 
me  to  follow ;  and  in  going  out  they  locked  the 
chamber  door,  and  took  me  key.  On  coming 
into  the  street  I  found  a  coach,  into  which  I  was 
desired  to  go,  and  the  others  followed  me.  After 
sitting  for  some  time,  the  commissary  told  me 
they  were  carrying  me  to  the  Bastile,  and  soon 
afterwards  I  saw  the  towers.  They  did  not  go 
the  shortest  and  direct  road :  the  coach  slopped 
at  the  gate  in  the  street  of  St.  Anthcmy.  1  saw 
the  coachman  make  signs  to  the  sentinel,  and 
soon  after  the  gate  was  opened;  the  goaid  was 
under  arms,  and  the  gate  shut  again.    On  coming 


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to  Ifae  fint  diaw-lnridge,  it  was  let  down,  the 
govd  there  also  being  under  arms.  The  coach 
went  on  and  entered  the  castle,  where  a  third 
guard  was  stationed.  I  was  conducted  to  a  room 
Siat  I  heard  named  the  council  ehamber.  After 
an  eiamination  similar*to  that  of  the  commissaryy 
1  was  desired  to  empty  mv  pockets,  and  laj  wlmt 
I  had  in  them  on  the  table.  My  handkerchief 
and  snuff-box  being  returned  to  nie,  my  money, 
watch,  and  indeed  ereiy  thing  else,  were  put 
into  a  box,  and  an  inyentory  having  been  made^ 
were  sealed  up  in  my  presence.  The  major  then 
called  for  the  turnkey,  vHiose  turn  of  duty  it  was, 
and  asked  what  room  was  empty.  He  said  the 
calotte  de  la  Bertaudiere.  He  was  ordered  to 
convey  me  to  it,  and  to  carry  thither  my  linen 
and  my  clothes.  The  turnkey  having  done  so, 
left  me  and  locked  the  doors.  The  weather  was 
still  extremely  cold,  and  I  was  glad  to  see  him 
return  soon  after  with  fire-wo<Ki,  a  tinder-box, 
and  a  candle.  He  made  my  fire,  but  told  me, 
on  leaving  the  tinder-box,  that  I  might  in  future 
do  it  myself  when  so  inclined.  At  eleven  the 
tumkev  entered  with  my  dinner,  ^Having  spread 
the  table  with  a  clean  napkin,  he  pl^ea  the 
dishes  on  it,  cut  the  meat^  and  retired,  taking 
away  die  knife;  the  dishes,  plates,  fork,  spoon, 
and  goblet  were  of  pewter.  The  dinn^  con- 
sisted of  soup  and  bouillie,  a  piece  of  roasted 
meat,  a  bottle  of  good  table  wine,  a  pound  loaf 
of  the  best  kind  of  household  bread.  In  the 
evening  at  seven  he  brought  my  supper,  which 
consisted  of  a  roast  dish,  and  a  ragout  The 
same  ceremony  was  observed  in  cutting  the  meat, 
to  render  the  knife  unnecessary  to  me.  He  took 
away  the  dishes  he  had  brought  for  dinner,  and 
returned  at  eight  next  morning  to  remove  ^ 
supper  thinss.  Fridays  and  Saturdays,  being  fest 
or  maipe  days,  the  c&nners  consisted  of  soup,  a 
dish  of  fish,  and  two  dishes  of  vegetables;  die 
suppers  of  two  dishes  of  garden-stuff,  and  an 
omelet,  or  something  made  with  eggs  and  milk. 
The  dinners  and  suppers  of  each  day  in  the  week 
were  different,  but  eveiy  Friday  was  the  same; 
so  that  the  ordinary  class  of  prisoners  saw  in  the 
course  of  the  first  week  their  bill  of  fiue  for  fifty 
years,  if  ther  staid  so  long.  I  had  remained  in 
my  room  about  three  weeks,  when  I  was  one 
morning  carried  down  to  the  council  chamber, 
and  again  examined  by  the  commissary.  He 
then  asked  if  I  had  any  knowledge  of  some  works 
he  named,  meaning  those  which  had  been  written 
by  me,  if  I  was  acquainted  with  the  author  of 
them,  whether  there  were  any  persons  concerned 
with  him,  and  if  I  knew  whetner  they  had  been 
printed?  I  told  him  that  as  I  did  not  mean  to 
conceal  any  thing,  I  should  avoid  giving  him 
needless  trouble ;  that  I  was  mvself  the  author 
of  the  works  he  had  mentioned,  and  guessed  I 
was  there  on  that  account ;  that  they  never  had 
been  printed ;  that  the  work  which  I  conceived 
was  the  cause  of  my  confinement  had  never  been 
shown  to  any,  but  one  person,  whom  I  thought 
my  friend,  and  having  no  accomplices,  the  offence, 
if  there  was  any,  rested  solely  with  myself.  He 
said  my  examination  was  one  of  the  shortest  he 
had  ever  been  employed  at,  for  it  ended  here. 
I  was  carried  back  to  my  room,  and  the  next  day 
vas  shaved  for  the  first  time  since  my  confine* 


ment,  it  being  usual  never  to  shave  a  prisoner 
till  after  his  first  examination.  A  few  days  after- 
wards I  wrote  to  the  lieutenant  of  the  police, 
requesting  to  be  indulged  with  the  use  of  tK>ok», 
pen,  ink,  and  paper,  which  was  granted ;  but  I 
was  not  allowed  to  go  down  to  the  lib*vy  (a  col- 
lection of  about  500  volumes,  founded  by  some 
prisoner  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury) to  dioose  the  books.  Several  volumes^were 
brought  to  roe  by  the  turnkey,  who,  when  I  de- 
sired it,  carried  them  back  and  brought  others. 

After  m  V  last  examination  I  was  taken  down 
almost  daily,  and  allowed  to  walk  about  an  hour 
in  the  court  within  view  of  the  sentinel ;  but  my 
walks  were  frequently  interrupted,  for  if  anyone 
appeared  the  sentmel  called  out  *  au  cabinet  V 
and  I  v^as  then  obliged  to  conceal  myself  hastily 
in  a  kind  of  dark  closet  in  the  vrall. 

'  The  sheets  of  my  bed  were  changed  once  a 
fortnight  I  was  allowed  four  towels  a-week,  and 
my  linen  was  taken  to  be  washed  every  Saturday. 
I  had  atallow  candle  daily,  and  in  the  cold  season 
a  certain  number  of  pieces  of  fire  wood.  After 
being  detained  above  eig^t  months  I  was  in- 
formed that  an  order  had  come  to  discharge  me. 
I  was  desired  to  go  down  to  the  council  chunber, 
every  thing  I  had  brought  with  me  was  returned, 
together  vrith  the  key  of  my  apartment,  which  I 
found  exactly  in  the  state  I  left  it  During  my 
confinement  I  wrote  many  letters  to  sereiml  of 
my  friend^  which  were  always  received  with 
civility,  but  not  one  of  diem  had  been  deli- 
vered.' 

The  above  was  a  case  of  uncommon  indul- 
gence, and  displays  a  lenity  unusual  in  the  Bas- 
tile.  In  common  cases  the  course  pursued  was 
as  follows : — The  prisoner,  a  few  days  after  his 
entrance  into  the  Bastile,  was  brought  down  to  the 
council  chamber,  where  a  commission  of  interro- 
gatory was  executed  by  the  lieutenant  of  the 
police,  a  counsellor  of  state,  a  master  of  re- 

2uests,  a  counsellor  or  a  commissioner  of  the 
'hatelet  When  the  lieutenant  of  the  police 
did  not  himself  interropale,  he  casually  came  at 
the  end  of  the  exammation.  These  commis- 
sioners were  mere  tools.  Frequently  they  at- 
tempted to  frighten  a  prisoner:  laying  snares 
for  nim,  and  employing  the  meanest  artifices  to 
draw  a  confession  fix>m  nim.  With  this  insidious 
view,  it  was  customary  to  pretend  proofr,  and 
exhibit  papers  without  suffering  him  to  read 
them;  asserting  that  they  were  instruments  of 
unavoidable  conviction.  Their  interrogatories 
were  always  vague,  and  turned  not  only  on  the 
prisoner's  own  words  and  actions,  but  on  his 
most  secret  thoughts,  and  on  the  discourse  and 
conduct  of  persons  of  his  acquaintance,  whom 
they  likewise  vrished  to  bring  into  question.  The 
examiner  usually  told  the  prisoner  that  his  life 
was  at  stake ;  that  on  that  day  his  &te  depended 
on  himself;  that  if  he  made  a  friir  declaration, 
they  were  authorised  to  promise  him  a  speedy 
release;  but  if  he  refiisea  to  confess  he  would 
be  given  up  to  a  special  commission :  that  they 
were  in  posstjssion  of  decisive  documents,  and 
authentic  proofs^  more  than  sufficient  to  ruin 
him;  thatnis  accomplices  had  discovered  all; 
that  the  government  nad  unknown  resources,  of 
which  he  could  have  no  suspicion.    The  pri- 


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soners  were  thus  beguiled  by  raried  and  infinitely 
.multiplied  interrogatories ;  by  promises,  caresses, 
menaces,  &c.  If  the  prisoner  made  the  re- 
.quired  confession,  the  commissioners  then  told 
him  that  they  had  no  precise  authority  for  his 
enlargement,  but  they  had  every  reason  to  ex- 
pect it ;  that  they  were  going  to  solicit  it,  &c. 
■The  prisoner's  confession,  far  from  bettering  his 
condition,  usually  gave  occasion  to  new  interro- 
gatories, often  lengthened  his  confinement,  drew 
in  the  persons  with  whom  he  had  connexions, 
and  exposed  himself  to  new  vexations.  But 
although  there  were  rules  adapted  to  all  oc- 
casions, yet  every  thing  was  subject  to  excep- 
tions arising  from  influence,  recommendation, 
protection,  intrigue,  &c.  Very  frequently,  per- 
sons confined  on  the  same  account  were  treated 
very  differently,  according  as  their  recommenda- 
tion was  more  or  less  considerable.  The  falsest 
things  were  told  the  prisoners  vrith  an  air  of 
sincerity  and  concern ;  as  Mt  is  very  unfortunate 
that  the  king  has  been  prejudiced  against  you. 
His  majesty  cannot  hear  your  name  mentioned 
without  being  irritated.  The  affair  for  which  you 
have  lost  your  liberty  is  only  a  pretext.  They 
.had  designs  against  you  before,  you  have  power- 
ful enemies'  These  discourses  were  the  etiquette 
of  the  place.  It  was  in  vain  for  a  prisoner  to 
ask  leave  to  write  to  the  king,  for  he  never  could 
obtain  it.  What  constituted  the  perpetual  and 
most  insupportable  torment  of  this  cruel  and 
odious  inquisition,  was  the  vague,  indeteiminate, 
false,  or  equivocal  promises,  inexhaustible  and 
constantly  deceitful  hopes  of  a  speedy  release, 
exhortations  to  patience,  and  blind  conjectures, 
of  which  the  lieutenant  of  the  police  and  his 
officers  were  very  lavish.  To  cover  the  odium 
of  the  barbarities  exercised  here,  and  slacken  the 
zeal  of  relations  or  patrons,  to  obtain  justice  for 
incarcerated  innocence,  the  most  absurd  and 
.contradictory  slanders  against  the  prisoner  were 
frequently  published  ;  whilst  the  true  causes  of 
imprisonment,  and  real  obstacles  to  his  release, 
were  concealed.  These  resources,  so  infinitely 
varied,  were  inexhaustible.  When  a  prisoner 
who  was  known  and  protected  had  entirely  lost 
his  health,  and  his  life  was  thought  in  danger,  he 
was  always  sent  out ;  the  ministry  not  choosing 
that  persons  well  known  should  die  in  the  Bas- 
tile.  Whenever  a  prisoner  happened  to  die 
there,  he  was  interred  in  the  Parish  of  St.  Paul, 
under  the  name  of  a  domestic ;  and  this  falsity 
.was  also  written  in  this  register  of  deaths,  in 
order  to  deceive  posterity.  But  there  was  another 
.register  in  which  the  true  names  of  the  deceased 
were  ^tered ;  though  it  was  not  without  great 
difficulty  that  extracts  could  be  procured  from  it: 
and  when  this  indulgence  was  granted,  the  com- 
missary of  the  Bastile  was  first  to  be  informed  of 
the  use  the  family  intended  to  make  of  the  extract. 
Singular  Distress  of  an  aged  Prisoner 
IN  THE  Bastile.  Nowhere  else  on  earth,  per- 
haps, has  human  misery,  by  human  means,  been 
rendered  so  lasting,  so  complete,  or  so  remediless, 
as  within  the  dire  walls  of  the  Bastile  of  France. 
This  the  following  case,  the  particulars  of  which 
are  translated  from  that  elegant  and  energetic 
writer  M.  Mercier,  may  sufficiently  show.  The 
lieiuous  offence  which  merited  an  imprisonment 


surpassing  torture,  and  renderii^  dekfh  a  bles- 
sing, though  for  obvious  reasons  not  specified  hy 
our  author,  is  known  from  other  sources  to  have 
consisted  in  some  unguarded  expression  of  dis- 
respect towards  the  Gallic  monarch  Louis  XV. 
Upon  the  accession  of  his  late  unfortunate  suc- 
cessor, the  ministers  then  in  office,  moved  by  hu- 
manity, began  their  admhiistration  with  an  act 
of  clemency  and  justice :  they  inspected  the  re^ 
gisters  of  the  Bastile,  and  set  many  of  the  pri- 
soners at  liberty.  Among  the  number  was  an 
old  man,  who  had  groaned  in  confinement,  for  a 
period  of  forty-seven  years,  between  four  thick 
and  cold  stcne-walls.  Hardened  by  adversity. 
Which  strengthens  both  the  mind  and  the  consti- 
tution, when  men  are  not  overpowered  hy  it, 
he  had  resisted  the  horrors  of  his  long  im- 
prisonment with  an  invincible  and  manly  spirit. 
His  locks^  white,  thin,  and  scattered,  had  almost 
acquired  the  rigidity  of  iron ;  whilst  his  body^ 
environed  for  so  long  a' time  by  a  coffin  of  stone, 
haa  borrowed  from  it  a  firm  and  compact  habit. 
The  narrow  door  of  his  tomb,  turning  upon  its 
grating  hinges,  opened  not  as  usual  by  halves  ; 
and  an  imknown  voice  announced  his  liberty, 
and  bade  him  depart.  Believing  this  to  be  a 
dream,  he  hesitated  ;  but  at  length  rose  up  and 
walked  forth  with  trembling  steps,  amazed  at  the 
space  he  traversed :  the  stairs  of  the  prison,  the 
halls,  the  court,  seemed  to  him  vast,  immense,  and 
almost  without  bounds.  He  stopped  from  time 
to  time,  and  gazed  aromid  like  a  bewildered 
traveller :  his  vision  was  with  difficulty  recon- 
ciled to  the  clear  light  of  day :  he  contemplated 
the  heavens  as  a  new  object :  his  eyes  remained 
fixed,  and  he  could  not  even  weep.  Stupified 
with  the  newly  acquired  power  of  changing  his 
position,  his  limbs,  like  his  tongue,  in  spite  of 
his  efforts,  refused  to  perform  their  office  ;  at 
length  he  got  through  the  formidable  gate  which 
so  long  before  had  closed  upon  him.  When  he 
felt  the  motion  of  the  carriage  designed  to  con- 
vey him  to  his  former  habitation,  he  screa.'ned 
out,  and  uttered  some  inarticulate  sounds ;  and 
as  he  could  not  bear  this  new  movement,  he 
was  obliged  to  descend.  Supported  by  a  bia;e- 
volent  arm,  he  sought  out  the  street  where  he 
liad  formerly  resided:  he  found  it,  but  no  trace 
of  his  house  remained  :  one  of  the  public  edi- 
fices occupied  the  spot  where  it  had  stood.  He 
now  saw  nothing  that  brought  to  his  recollection, 
either  that  particular  quarter,  the  city  itself, 
or  the  objects  with  which  he  had  formerly 
been  acquainted.  Tlie  houses  of  his  nearest 
neighbours,  which  were  fresh  in  his  memoiy, 
had  assumed  a  new  appearance.  In  vain  were 
his  looks  directed  to  all  the  objects  around  him; 
he  could  discover  nothing  of  which  he  had  the 
smallest  remembrance.  Terrified,  he  stopped 
and  fetched  a  deep  sigh.  To  him,  what  did  it 
import  that  the  city  was  peopled  with  livin? 
creatures  ?  none  of  them  were  alive  to  him ;  he 
was  unknown  to  all  the  world,  and  be  knew 
nobody :  and  whilst  he  wept,  he  regretted  his 
dungeon.  At  the  name  of  the  Bastile,  which  he 
often  pronounced,  and  even  claimed  as  an  asylum, 
and  the  sight  of  his  clothes  that  marked  a  for- 
mer age,  the  crowd  gathered  round  him :  cu- 
riosity, blended  with  pity,  excited  their  attention. 


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The  most  aged  asked  him  many  questions,  but 
had  no  remembrance  of  the  circumstances  he 
recapitulated.  At  length  accident  brought  in 
his  way  an  ancient  domestic,  now  a  super- 
annuated porter,  who,  confined  to  his  lodge  for 
^f^cen  years,  had  barely  sufficient  strength  to 
open  the  gate  :  he  did  not  even  know  the  master 
he  had  served ;  but  informed  him  that  grief  and 
misfortune  had  brought  his  wife  to  the  grave 
thirty  years  before,  that  his  children  were  gone 
abroad  to  distant  climes,  and  that  of  all  his  rela- 
tions and  friends  none  now  remained.  This  re- 
cital was  made  with  the  indifference  which  people 
discover  for  events  long  passed,  and  almost  for- 
gotten. The  miserable  man  groaned,  and  groaned 
alone.  The  crowd  around,  offering  only  un- 
known features  to  his  view,  made  him  feel  the 
excess  of  his  calamities  even  more  than  he  would 
have  done  in  the  dreadful  solitude  that  he  had 
lately  quitted.  Overcome  with  sorrow,  he  pre- 
sented himself  before  the  minister,  to  whose  hu- 
manity he  owed  that  liberty  which  was  now  a 
burden  to  him.  Bowing  down,  he  said,  '  restore 
me  again  to  that  prison  from  which  you  have 
taken  me :  I  cannot  survive  the  loss  of  my 
nearest  relations;  of  my  friends;  and,  in  one 
word,  of  a  \yhole  generation.  Is  it  possible  in 
the  same  moment  to  be  informed  of  tnis  univer- 
sal destruction,  and  not  to  wish  for  death  ?  This 
general  mortality,  which  to  the  rest  of  mankind 
comes  slowly  and  by  degrees,  has  to  me  been 
instantaneous,  the  operation  of  a  moment. 
Whilst  secluded  from  society,  I  lived  with  my- 
self only ;  but  here  I  neither  can  live  with  my- 
self nor  with  this  new  race,  to  whom  my  anguish 
and  despair  appear  only  as  a  dream.  There  is 
nothing  terrible  in  dying;  but  it  is  dreadful 
indeed  to  be  the  last.'  The  minister  was  melted ; 
he  caused  the  old  domestic  to  attend  this  unfor- 
tunate person,  as  only  he  could  talk  to  him  of  his 
family.  This  discourse  was  the  single  consolation 
that  he  received :  for  he  shunned  all  intercourse 
with  a  new  race,  bom  since  he  had  been  exiled 
from  the  world ;  and  he  passed  his  time  in  the 
midst  of  Paris  in  the  same  solitude  as  he  had 
done  whilst  confined  in  a  dungeon  for  almost  half 
a  century.  But  the  mortification  of  meeting  no 
person  who  could  say  to  him,  <  we  were  formerly 
known  to  one  another,'  soon-  put  at  end  to  his 
existence. 

The  man  with  the  mask  was  the  most  astonish- 
ing prisoner  ever  known  to  have  been  within  the 
waJls  of  the  Bastile ;  of  whom,  notwithstanding 
all  the  curiosity  and  conjecture  that  have  been 
employed  to  ascertain  his  quality  and  pedigree, 
notning  authentic  has  tran.«pired  to  the  present 
time.  In  1698  he  was  brought  from  the  island'of 
St.  Marguerite  by  Mons.  de  St.  Mars,  the  newly 
appointed  governor  of  the  Bastile,  was  attended 
with  the  greatest  respect,  maintained  a  sumptuous 
table,  and  had  every  possible  indulgence  shown 
him  till  the  time  of  his  death  in  Nov.  19,  170^. 
This  mysterious  prisoner,  on  his  removal  to  the 
Bastile,  was  carried  in  a  litter,  accompanied  by 
several  men  on  horseback,  who  had  orders  to  put 
liim  to  death  if  he  made  the  smallest  attempt  to 
show  his  face  or  otiierwise  discover  himself. 
His  hce  was  concealed  by  a  mask  of  black  vel- 
vet with. springs  of  steel,  which  were  so  contrived 


that  he  could  eat  without  taking  it  off.  A  phy- 
sician of  the  Bastile,  who  had  often  attended  nim, 
said  he  had  never  seen  his  face,  though  he  had 
frequently  examined  his  tongue  and  other  parts  o. 
his  body ;  but  added,  that  he  was  admirably  well 
made,  that  his  skin  was  brown,  his  voice  interest- 
mg;  that  he  was  very  accomplished,  read  much, 
played  on  the  guitar,  and  had  an  exquisite  taste 
for  lace  and  fine  linen. 

The  pains  taken  for  his  concealment  shows  that 
he  was  a  person  of  considerable  quality  and  im- 
portance, and  from  the  following  circumstances 
It  appears  singular  that  he  was  never  discovered. 
Whilst  at  St.  Marguerite,  he  one  day  wrote 
something  with  his  knife  on  a  silver  plate,  and 
afterwards  threw  the  plate  through  the  window 
towards  a  boat  which  lay  near  the  tower.  A 
fisherman  took  up  the  plate  and  brought  it  to  the 
governor,  who,  with  great  ajtonishment,  asked 
the  man  if  he  had  read  the  writing  or  shown  it 
to  any  other  person ;  and,  although  he  answered 
in  the  negative,  put  him  into  confinement  till  he 
was  perfectly  satisfied,  after  which  he  dismissed 
him,  saying, '  It  is  lucky  for  you  that  you  can- 
not read.'  The  abb^  Papon  says,  in  the  year 
1778  I  had  the  curiosity  to  visit  the  apartment -ot 
this  unfortunate  prisoner:  it  looks  towards  the 
sea.  I  found  in  the  citadel  an  officer  in  die  inde- 
pendent company  there,  ^venty-nine  years  of 
age.  He  told  me  that  his  Either  had  often 
related  to  him  that  a  young  lad,  a  barber,  having 
seen  one  day  something  white  floating  on  the 
water,  took  it  up.  It  was  a  very  fine  shirt,  writ- 
ten almost  all  over;  he  carried  it  to  Mons.  de  St. 
Mars ;  who,  having  looked  at  some  parts  of  the 
writing,  asked  the  lad,  with  an  appearance  ot 
anxiety,  if  he  had  not  had  the  curiosity  to  read 
it.  He  assured  him  that  he  had  not,  but  two 
days  afterwards  the  boy  was  found  dead  in 
his  bed. 

Mons.  de  Jonca,  for  many  years  Lieutenant  du 
Roi,  kept  an  exact  ioumal  ot  all  that  passed  in 
the  Bastile.  He  thus  records  tlie  death  of  the 
black  mask.  '  Monday,  Nov.  19,  1703.  The 
unknown  prisoner,  tvhom  Mons.  de  St.  Mars 
brought  with  him  from  the  island  St.  Marguerite, 
where  he  had  been  a  long  time  under  his  care, 
and  who  has  always  been  masked  with  a  mask  Ot 
black  velvet,  found  himself  worse  yesterday  in 
coming  from  mass  and  died  this  evening  at  ten 
o'clock,  without  any  great  illness.  The  smell, 
however,  is  not  less  offensive.  Mons.  Girault, 
our  chaplain,  confessed  him  yesterday,  his  death 
being  sudden  he  had  not  an  opportunity  of 
taking  the  sacraments ;  but  our  chaplain  exhorted 
him  a  few  minutes  before  he  expired.  lie  was 
buried  on  Tuesday,  the  20th  of  November,  in 
the  burying-place  of  our  parish  of  St.  Paul.  Ilis 
burial  cost  forty  livres.' 

Immediately  after  the  prisoner's  death  his  apparel, 
linen,  clothes,  mattresses,  and  every  thing  that  had 
been  used  by  him,  were  burnt;  the  wtdls  of  his 
room  were  scraped,  the  floor  was  taken  up,  and 
every  precaution  used  that  no  trace  of  him  might 
be  left  behind;  and  yet  there  are  traces.  When 
he  was  on  the  road  from  St.  Marguerite  to  his 
last  residence,  Mons.  de  St.  Mars  was  overheard 
to  reply  to  a  question  of  the  prisoner,  relative  to 
any  design  against  his  life.    *  No,  prince,  your 


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life  u  in  safety;  you  must  only  allow  yourself  to 
be  conducted.'  A  prisoner  told  Mons.  la 
Grange  Chancel  that  ne  was  lodged,  with  other 
prisoners,  in  the  room  immediately  over  this  cele- 
Drated  prisoner,  and  found  means  of  speaking  to 
him  by  the  vents  of  the  chimney ;  but  ne  refused 
to  mform  them  who  he  was,  alleging,  that  it  would 
cost  his  own  life,  as  well  as  the  lives  of  those  to 
whom  the  secret  might  be  revealed .  Various  have 
been  the  mdividuak  supposed  to  be  the  masked 
prisoner ;  particularly  tne  duke  de  Beaufort,  the 
count  de  Vermandois,  a  foreign  minister,  and  the 
duke  of  Monmouth,  have  been  conjectured  in  turn. 
Collateral  facts,  nevertheless,  demonstrate  that 
neither  of  these  could  have  been  the  person. 
Voltaire,  who  has  expressly  written  on  this  mys- 
terious affair,  says,  that  the  secret  was  knovm  to 
Mons.  de  Chamillard,  and  that  the  son-in-law  of 
that  minister  conjured  him  on  his  death-bed,  to 
tell  him  the  name  of  the  man  with  the  mask ;  but 
he  replied  that  it  was  a  secret  of  state  which  he 
had  sworn  never  to  divulge.  The  most  singular 
circumstance  of  the  whole,  perhaps,  is,  that  dur- 
ing the  confinement  of  this  man  with  the  mask 
no  person  of  importance  was'missing  in  Europe; 
whence  it  has  been  thought  that  he  was  the  twin 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  whose  birth  was  concealed 
by  the  advice  of  cardinal  Richelieu,  but  himself 
preserved,  lest,  by  the  death  of  his  brother,  it 
should  be  necessary  to  &vow  him. 

Upon  the  whole,  after  a  long  series  of  oppres- 
sions, the  horrors  of  the  Bastile  becaime  so  noto- 
rious that  in  July,  1789,  the  peojple  made  an 
attack  upon  the  building,  whicn  held  out  a  few 
hours  and  afterwards  surrendered.  The  govern 
nor  was  seized,  carried  through  the  streets,  and 
afterwards  beheaded.  The  major,  aid-major,  and 
lieutenant  of  the  invalids,  were  killed  in  the  streets. 
One  soldier  was  killed  and  four  wounded  in  the 
defence;  but  numbers  were  wounded,  another 
killed,  and  two  hanged,  at  the  Gr^e,  by  the 
populace,  as  soon  as  they  gained  possession;  the 
pnsoners  were  feasted  and  made  public  spectacles 
in  Paris,  the  governor's  house  and  adjacent  build- 
ings were  levelled,  and  the  mayor  afterwards 
decreed  that  the  whole  edifice  should  be  demo- 
lished. See  Boulanvilliers'  Histoire  de  I'ancien 
Gpuvemement,  tom.  iii.;  Memoiresdu  Mar6cbal 
Due  de  Richelieu  The  History  of  the  Bastile, 
Lond.  1790,  8vo. 

BASTIMENTGS,  several  small  islands  near 
Terra  Firma,  in  South  America,  at  the  moutib  of 
the  bay  of  Nombre  de  Dios,  east  of  Porto-Bello. 
These  islands  form  a  very  good  port  which 
serves  as  a  watering-place  for  smugglers.  Here 
admiral  Hosier  lay  with  a  Britisn  sauadron 
many  years  ago,  and  the  station  being  unbealthy 
it  proved  fiital  to  himself  and  the  greater  part  of 
his  men.  Long.  79*^  40*  W.,  lat.  9**  32*  N.  It 
was  on  this  circumstance  that  Glover,  the  author 
of  Leonidas,  grounded  his  spirited  ballad  of 
Hosier's  Ghost. 

Babtinade,  Bastonade,  or  Bastonado,  the 
punishment  of  beating  a  criminal  with  a  stick. 
It  was  in  use  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  Romans, 
and  Jews,  and  still  is  among  the  Turks.  The 
Romans  called  it  fiistigatio,  tustium  admonitio, 
or  fustibus  csdi ;  which  differed  from  the  flagel- 
latio,  as  the  former  was  done  with  a  stick,  the 


latter  with  a  rod,  or  scourge.  The  fustigatioo 
was  a  lighter  punishment,  inflicted  on  freemen ; 
the  flagellation  more  severe,  and  reserved  ibrslaves. 
It  was  also  called  tympanum,  because  the  patient 
here  was  beaten  with  sticks,  like  a  drum.  It  is 
much  used  in  the  East  to  this  day.  The  method 
there  practised  is  this :  the  criminal  being  laid  on 
his  belly,  his  feet  are  raised,  tied  to  a  stake,  and 
held  fast  by  officers  for  the  purpose,  in  which 
posture  he  is  beaten  by  a  cudgel  on  the  soles  of 
nis  feet,  back,  chine,  &c.  to  the  number  of  100 
or  more  blows.  Dr.  Shaw  suggests  (Travels,  p. 
253.),  that  it  was  probably  in  this  manner  that 
St.  Paul  was  *  thrice  beaten  with  rods.* 

BASTION,  n.  s.  Fr.  bastion,  A  huge  mass 
of  earth,  usually  faced  with  sods,  sometimes  with 
brick,  rarely  with  stone,  standing  out  from  a 
rampart,  of  which  it  is  a  principal  part,  and  was 
anciently  called  a  bulwark. 

And  with  five  haMtiont  it  did  fence. 
As  aiming  one  for  every  tense. 

To  ward  :  bat  how  ?  ay  there's  the  qneition : 

Fierce  the  assault,  nnarm'd  the  I 


Bastion,  in  fortification,  a  lar^  mass  of  earth 
at  the  angles  of  a  work,  connecting  the  curtains 
to  each  other.  It  is  formed  by  two  &ces,  two 
flanks,  and  two  demigorges.  The  two  faces  fonn 
the  saliant  angle,  or  ande  of  the  bastion ;  the 
two  flanks  form  with  the  faces,  the  epaules  or 
shoulders ;  and  the  union  of  the  other  two  ends 
of  the  flanks  with  the  curtains,  forms  the  two 
angles  of  the  flanks.  There  are  various  kinds  of 
bastions:  such  as, — Battion  composed^  when 
two  sides  of  the  interior  polygon  are  very  une- 
qual, making  the  gorges  also  unequal.  Aatum 
cut,  or  Bastion  with  a  tcnailUy  is  that  whose  point 
is  cut  off,  and  which  instead  thereof  has  a  re-en- 
tering angle,  or  an  angle  inwards,  with  two  points 
outwards.  It  is  used  either  when  vrithout  such  a 
contrivance  the  angle  would  be  too  acute,  or  when 
water  or  some  other  impediment  binders  the 
carrying  on  the  bastion  to  its  fiill  extent  Bastiom 
deformed,  is  when  the  irregularity  of  flie  lines 
and  angles  throws  the  bastion  out  of  shape ;  as 
when  it  wants  one  of  the  demigorges,  one  side  of 
the  interior  polygon  being  too  short,  &c.  Bastion 
fiat,  is  one  built  in  the  middle  of  the  curtain, 
when  it  is  too  long  to  be  defended  by  the  usual 
bastions  of  the  extremities.  Bastion  kalfj  or  Dasi- 
bastion,  also  called  an  epaulement,  has  but  one  &oe 
and  flank.  Bastion,  solid,  is  one  entirely  filled 
up  with  earth  to  the  height  of  the  rampart,  with- 
out any  void  space  towards  the  centre.  Bastion, 
void,  or  hollow,  has  the  rampart  and  parapet  rang- 
ing only  round  tlie  flanks  and  spaces,  so  that  a 
void  space  is  left  within  towards  the  centre, 
where  the  ground  is  so  low  that  if  the  rampart 
be  taken,  no  retrenchment  can  be  made  in  the 
centre,  but  what  wiU  lie  under  the  fire  of  the  be- 
sieged. 

BASTOGNE,  or  Bastognac,  a  large  town 
of  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  in  the  Netheriands. 
It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  com  and 
cattle,  and  was  formerly  mucb  more  flourishing 
than  at  present ;  but  is  still,  after  Luxembuii^ 
the  best  town  in  this  part  of  the  Netheriands 
The  French  took  it  in  1688,  and  demolished  the 
fortifications.  Twenty-two  miles  north-west  of 
Luxemburg,  and  thirty-five  south  of  liege. 


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Bastok,  Baton,  or  Batton,  in  heraldij.  See 
Batton. 

Baston,  Batoon,  in  architecture,  a  moulding 
in  the  base  of  a  column,  called  also  torus.  See 
Architecture,  Index. 

Baston,  in  law,  one  of  the  serrants  to  the 
warden  of  the  Fleet-prison,  who  attends  the  king's 
courts  with  a  red  staff,  for  taking  into  custody 
such  as  are  committed  by  the  court.  He  also  at- 
tends on  prisoners  who  are  permitted  to  go  at 
large  by  licence. 

Baston  (Robert),  a  Carmelite  monk,  prior  of 
the  convent  at  Scarborough,  and  poetlaureat  and 
public  orator  at  Oxford,  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
£dward  I.  in  his  exnedition  inta  Scotland  in 
1304,  took  Baston  witti  him  to  celebrate  his  rio- 
tories  oyer  the  Scots ;  but  the  poet  being  taken 
prisoner,  was  obliged  to  change  his  note,  and 
sing  the  successes  of  Robert  Brace.  He  wrote 
several  books  in  Latin,  on  the  Wars  of  Scotland, 
the  Luxury  of  Priests,  Synodical  Sermons*  &c. ; 
and  also  a  volume  of  Tragedies  and  Comedies 
in  English.    He  died  about  A.  D.  1310. 

BASTONIER,  or  Batonier,  one  who  keeps 
the  staff  of  a  community,  and  carries  or  follows 
it  in  processions. 

BASTWICK  (Dr.  John),  bom  at  Writtie,  in 
Essex,  in  1593.  He  was  educated  at  Emanuel 
College,  Cambridge,  from  whence  he  went  to 
Padua,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.  D.  He 
afterwards  practised  physic  at  Colchester;  but 
being  a  man  of  warm,  imagination,  and  a  good 
Latin  scholar,  he  used  great  freedom  in  writing 
against  popery.  About  1633  he  printed  in  Hol- 
land a  Latin  treatise,  entitled  Elenchus  religionis 
Papisticae,  with  Flagellum  Pontificis  et  Episco- 
porum  Latialium,  in  which  the  English  prelates, 
thinktne  themselves  aimed  at,  he  was  fined 
£1000  m  the  high  commission  court,  excommu- 
nicated, prohibited  from  practising  physic,  his 
hooks  ordered  to  be  burnt,  and  himself  to  remain 
in  prison  until  he  recanted.  Instead  of  recanting, 
he  wrote  in  prison,  Apologeticus  ad  pnesules 
Anglicanos;  and  another  lx>ok  called,  The  Li- 
tany ;  wherein  he  severely  exclaimed  against  the 
proceedings,  and  taxed  the  bishops  with  an  in- 
clination to  popery.  He  was  now  condemned 
by  the  star-cnamber  to  pay  a  fine  of  £5000,  to 
be  pilloried,  lose  his  ears,  and  endure  perpetual 
imprisonment.  The  parliament  in  1 640  reversed 
theie  proceedinffs,  and  ordered  Dr.  Bastwick  a 
reparation  of  £5000  out  of  the  estates  of  the 
commissioners  who  had  prosecuted  him. 

BAT,  V.  &  n.-s     BatE,  Sax.  This  word  seems 

Ba'tlet,        f  to  have  given  rise  to  a  great 

Ba'toit,         t  number  of  words  in  many  lan- 

B'atteb.  -'guages;  as,(«rffre,Fr.tobeat; 
hatan^  haitle^  beat,  hatty^  and  others.  It  proba- 
bly signified  a  weapon  that  did  execution  by  its 
weight,  iti  opposition  to  a  sharp  edge ;  whence 
whirlbat  and  brickbat ;  a  heavy  stick  or  club :  the 
citation  of  Spenser  gives  another  meaning,  which 
agrees  vrith  the  provincial  usage  of  the  word  in 
Sussex,  where  a  walking-stick  is  called  a  hat; 
the  bat  is  also  now  a  common  word  for  what 
was  once  the  stick  in  driving  back  the  ball  at  the 
game  of  cricket. 

But  while  he  spake,  lo  Judas,  oon  of  the  twelve 
laaae,  and  with  him  a  freet  company  with  swerdis 
Widiffe,     ».  Matt,  xxvi.  47. 


Id. 


Here  were  we  fint  ^hatred  with  the  daitei 
Of  our  owne  foen  from  the  hye  templet  top. 

f  Surrey. 

Bat  neither  iword  nor  dagger  he  did  beare ; 
Seemei  that  no  foet  revengement  he  did  feare ; 
Instead  of  them  a  handsome  bai  he  held» 
On  which  he  leaned,  as  one  far  in  elde. 
Estsoones  the  ape  himself  gan  to  vpreare 
And.  on  his  shoulders  high  his  bat  to  beare. 
As  if  good  service  he  were  fit  to  doe. 
Nay,  come  not  near  the  old  man,  keep  out,  che  vor* 
ye,  or  I'se  try  whether  your  costard  or  my  ^/  be  the 
harder.  Shakapeare, 

And  I  rememher  kissing  of  her  hatUft  [a  handle 
used  in  beating  linen  when  taken  out  of  the  buck]  and 
the  cows'  dugs  that  her  pretty  chopped  hands  had 
milked.  Id. 

They  were  fried  in  arm  chairs,  and  their  hones 
broken  with  bait.  HaktwUl, 

Wt  came  dose  to  the  shore  and  offered  to  lead ; 
but  straightway  we  saw  divers  of  the  people  with 
AoHont  in  their  hands,  as  it  were  forbidding  us  to 
land.  fiooon. 

Oet  me  a  baton  ;  'tis  twenty  times  more  court-like, 
and  less  trouble ;  and  yet  you  wear  a  sword. 

BeaumoHi  ltd  Fletcher.    Elder  Brother. 

That  does  not  make  a  man  the  worse. 

Although  his  shoulders  with  batoon 

Be  daVd  and  cudgell'd  to  some  tune.  Hudibrat. 

BAT,  ^      Skinner's  conjecture   that 

Ba-Keted,  this  word  is  derived  from  -the 

Ba'T'tish,  i  old  Saxon  word  bat,  a  boat, 

Bat'fowler,    I  because  the  creature  it  dc- 

BAT'fowLiNG,     scribes,  with  its  wings  ex- 

Bat'ty.  J  panded,   resembles    a    boat 

impelled  by  oars,  is  more  ingenious  than  solid. 

Our  ancestors  were  accustomed  to  denominate 

the  animal  back ;  it  is  called  so  in  Huloet's  old 

dictionary;  that  and  reremouse  appear  to  have 

been  the  usual  words  for  it ;  ^  the  otner  &ce  had 

wings  like  a  backe  or  flindermouse.'  See  Knight. 

Tryal    of  Truth,    1580,  fol.  96;  from  lience, 

probably.  Dr.  Jamieson's  derivation  of  backie- 

bird,  its  modem  name  in  Scotland;  we  know 

not  the  reason  for  the  change  into  bat. 

Sttihtbat  hath  flown 
His  cloister'd  flight,  ere  to  black  Hecate's  summons 
The  shard-borne  beetle  with  his  drowsy  hums 
Hath  sung  night's  yawning  peal,  there  shall  be  done 
A  deed  of  dreadful  note«  Shakipearw, 

Wool  of  bmt,  and  tongue  of  dog. 
Adder's  foi^  and  blind  worm's  sting, 
Lisard's  leg  and  owlet's  wing. 
For  a  charm  of  powerful  trouble. 
Like  a  hell-broth  boil  and  bubble.  Id. 

GoN.  You  are  gentlemen  of  brave'  mettle;  you 
would  lift  the  moon  out  of  her  sphere  if  she  would 
continue  in  it  five  weeks  without  changing. 
8bb.  We  would  to,  and  then  go  a  bat-fneimg. 

Yet  oonld  his  bei^d  legions  euly  see 
In  this  daik  chaos.        Fletektr.    Pmpk  Idmd. 
Bat  then  grew  reason  dark ;  that  she  no  more 

Could  the  fair  forms  of  good  and  truth  diseem ; 
Batt  they  became,  that  eagles  were  before ; 

And  this  they  got  by  their  desire  to  learn.    Daieiet. 

Some  animiJs  are  placed  in  the  middle  betwin 
two  kinds,  as  batt,  which  iutve  something  of  birds 
and  beasts.  Xoefte. 

Where  swallows  in  the  winter  season  keep. 
And  how  the  drowsy  bat  and  dormouse  sleep.      Gay, 

Bodies  lighted  at  night  by  fire,  must  have  a 
brighter  lustre  than  by  day, — aa  sacking  of  cities,  btit- 
fouling.  Peacham, 


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Far  different  there  fiom  all  that  charm'd  before. 

The  various  terrors  of  that  horrid  shore ; 

Those  matted  woods  where  birds  forget  to  sing. 

But  silent  bat$  in  drowsy  dusters  clin^.     GoUkmith, 

The  birds  of  passage  would  in  a  dark  night  imme- 
diately make  for  a  light-house,  ana  destroy  them- 
selves by  flying  with  violence  against  it,  as  is  well 
known  to  bat-fbwlen. 

Bat,  Batch,  Bate,  or  Batz.    See  Batz. 

Bat-Fowlino,  a  particular  manner  of  bird- 
catching  in  the  night-time,  while  they  are  at 
roost  upon  perches,  trees,  or  hedges.  They  light 
torches  or  straw,  and  then  beat  the  bushes  :  upon 
which  the  birds,  flying  to  the  flames,  are  caught 
either  with  nets  or  otherwise. 

Bat,  in  zoology.    See  Vespertilio. 

Bat-Horses,  or  Baw-Horses,  in  military  af- 
fairs, baggage-horses  belonging  to  the  officer 
when  on  actual  duty.  Bat-men,  or  Baw-men, 
originally  servants  hired  in  war  time  to  take  care 
of  the  horses  belonging  to  the  artilleiy,  &c.  The 
same  name  is  now  given  to  those  who  are  ex- 
cused regimental  duty  for  the  express  purpose  of 
attending  to  the  horses  belonging  to  the  officers. 

BATA,  in  botany,  the  MusaParadisiaca  of  Lin- 
naeus. 

BATACOLO,  a  small  fort  and  garrison  on  the 
east  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  Lat.  7°  45'  N., 
long.  81°  60'  £.  This  place  has  little  or  no  con- 
nexion with  the  south  and  west  parts  of  the 
island,  the  harbour  being  incommodious.  Here 
is  also  an  uncommonly  bold  shore,  and  immense 
rocks  of  very  grotesque  figures,  such  are  the 
Friar's  Hood,  die  Elephant,  and  the  Pagoda 
Jlocks. 

BATANY,  Batakg,  or  Batany  Hook,  a  sea- 
port town  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of  Gi- 
lolo,  where  cruizing  vessels  were  formerly  kept 
by  the  Dutch  for  the  prevention  of  smuggling. 
There  is  a  spacious  natural  fortress  on  a  point  of 
land  of  very  difficult  access,  and  containing  se- 
veral houses  and  gardens.  The  whole  area  thus 
surrounded  is  about  three  miles  in  circum- 
ference. 

BATARDEAU,  in  bridge  building.  See 
Coffer-dams. 

BATATAS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  aca- 
rus,  found  on  the  potatoe  in  Surinam,  and  some 
other  parts  of  South  America.  It  is  rather  rough 
and  sanguineous ;  anterior  legs  as  long  as  the  body. 

BATAVA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  citadel  of 
Vindelicia,  so  called  from  the  Cohors  Batava,  in 
garrison  under  the  commander  in  Rhaetia ;  now 
Passau ;  being  called  Batau,  from  the  Batavi ; 
then  Bassau,  and  Passau ;  situated  in  Bavaria, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Danube,  Inn,  and  Iltz. 
See  Passau. 

BATAVI,  the  ancient  Batavians,  a  branch  of 
liie  Catti,  who,  in  a  domestic  sedition,  being  ex- 
pelled their  country,  occupied  the  extremity  of 
the  coast  of  Gaul,  or  the  modem  Holland,  at  that 
time  uninhabited,  together  with  the  island,  called 
from  them  Insula  Batavorum,  situated  among 
shoals.    Thus,  Lucan,  1.  1,  v.  431. 

Vangiones :  Batavique  truces^  qaos  sere  recnrvo 

Strldentes  acuere  tubse  : 
Tlieir  name  Batavi  they  carried  with  them  from 
Germany,  there  being  some  towns  in  the  territory 
of  the  Catti,  called  Battenberg,  and  Battenhau- 
sen.    The  bravery  of  the  Batavi,  especially  the 


horsemen,  procured  them  not  only  great  honor 
from  the  Romans,  being  called  their  brothers  and 
friends ;  but  an  exemption  from  taxes,  being 
obliged  only  to  furnish  men  and  arms. 

BAT  A  VIA,  a  city  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
island  of  Java,  the  capital  of  the  Dutdi  settle- 
ments in  the  East  Indies.  It  stands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Jacatra,  in  the  bosom  of  a 
large  commodious  bay,  which  is  one  of  the 
safest  harbours  inlndia.  Lat.  6**  12' N.,  long.  107" 
4'  E.  The  Jacatra  passes  through  the  midst  of 
the  town,  and  forms  various  canals  of  nmnin? 
water,  all  faced  with  freestone,  and  adorned  with 
trees :  over  these  canals  are  upwards  of  fifty 
bridges,  besides  those  which  lie  without  the  town. 
The  streets  are  all  perfectly  straight,  and  each, 
on  an  average,  thirty  feet  broad.  The  houses  are 
built  of  stone.  The  city  is  about  a  league  and 
a  half  in  circumference,  and  has  five  gates ;  bat 
there  are  far  more  houses  without  than  within 
them. 

A  circular  range  of  islands  protects  the  har- 
bour of  Batavia  from  any  heavy  swell,  and  ren- 
ders it  safe  anchorage,  these  are  Onrust,  Edam, 
Cooper's  Isle,  and  Purmerend,  containing  ware- 
houses, hospitals,  and  naval  arsenals.  From  the 
roadstead  there  are  scarcely  any  of  the  buildings 
of  Batavia  visible,  except  the  great  church,  the  rest 
being  hid  by  the  palms  and  other  high  spreading 
trees. 

Batavia  is  well  fortified,  and  the  approaches 
both  by  sea  and  land  are  secured  by  strong  out- 
works. On  an  island,  at  the  entrance  of  the  har- 
bour, there  is  a  fort  which  commands  that 
passage,  and  protects  the  extensive  dock-yards. 
The  citadel,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Jacatra,  is  a 
regular  fortress,  built  of  coral  rock :  it  contains 
the  house  of  the  governor-general  of  the  Indies, 
and  the  principal  authorities.  The  great  church 
is  said  to  have  cost  £80,000 ;  but  the  public 
buildings,  generally,  are  inferior.  There  are  be- 
sides five  other  Christian  churches,  a  mosque, 
and  a  temple  belonging  to  the  Chinese;  the 
stadt-house,  bridewell,  infirmary,  orphan-house, 
and  two  public  hospitals,  one  of  which  is  in  the 
island  of  Purmerend.  Here  are  also  arsenals  and 
magazines,  well  stocked  with  military  stores  and 
ammunition.  The  government  consists  of  a 
council  formed  by  the  governor-general  of  the 
East  Indite,  who  is  president,  the  director-gene- 
ral, or  governor  of  Java,  nine  members,  and  two 
secretaries.  The  power  of  this  body  is  absolute ; 
and  the  governor-general  may,  on  his  own  re- 
sponsibility, adopt  any  measures  rejected  by  tlie 
others.  The  police  and  criminal  magistracy  is 
under  a  Fiscal,  who  can  levy  fines  and  inflict 
punishments  at  discretion.  The  regulation  of  all 
matters  relating  to  navigation  are  under  the 
marine  fiscal ;  and  a  Shkh-bender,  or  captain  of 
the  port,  acts  as  consul-general  for  all  naiions. 
A  garrison  of  about  5000  men  was  main- 
tained by  the  Dutch,  in  Batavia,  before  it 
was  caj^tured  by  our  troops,  under  Sir  Samuel 
Auchmuty  in  1811.  At  that  period  the  number 
of  inhabitants  was  47^217. 

In  1792  this  city  contained  upwards  of  5000 
houses  liable  to  be  rated ;  and  a  population  of 
115,960  souls,  of  which  6000  were  citizens* 
22,000  Chinese,  and  17,000  slaves !    The  total 


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population  of  Batavia  and  its  immediate  depen- 
dencies, is  estimated  at  150,000  souls.  The 
last  census  of  the  town  is  as  follows : 

Europeans,  543;  Arab,  318;  Javanese,  3331 ; 
Bali-men,  7720 ;  M oluccans,  82 ;  native  Dutch, 
1485:  Malays,  3155;  Macassars,  4115;  Sum- 
bayans,  237;  Timorotes,  24 ;  Chinese,  11.854; 
Slaves,  14,239. 

The  principal  articles  imported  are  cloths, 
drugs,  and  bpium,  from  Bengal ;  camphor,  ben- 
zoin, birds-nests  (hirundo  esculenta),  coa-lin, 
and  ivory,  from  Sumatra;  gardens-seeds,  butter, 
Madeira  and  Cdnstantia  wines,  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  porcelain,  tea,  silks,  nankeens, 
alum,  borax,  sulphur,  cinnabar,  mother  of  pearl, 
paper,  sweetmeats,  and  tobacco,  irom  Cnina; 
copper,  swoid-bUdes,  camphor,  soy,  porcelain, 
lackered  ware,  and  silks,  from  Japan.  The  ex- 
poru  from  Batavia  are  pepper,  sugar,  rice,  coffee, 
and  anack;  sanchCi,  (burnt  wine.)  a  kind  of 
Chinese  arack.  To  China,  besides  these  arti- 
cles, they  send  birds-ncsts,  of  ;the  edible  swal^ 
low,  ^bicho  do  mar,  sea-slug,  or  holothuria; 
cotton,  spices,  tin,  rattans,  sapan-wood,  sago, 
and  wax.  To  Borneo  and  the  Moluccas,  piece- 
goods,  opium,  md  a  few  European  articles.  To 
the  other  Dutch  settlements,  rice.  Bullion  was 
the  principal  article  imported  from  Europe  be- 
fore the  French  revolution. 

Batavia  has  always  been  unhealthy ;  and  the 
mortality  in  tlie  garrison  of  the  fort  is  almost  in- 
credible. This  arises  evidently  from  the  pecu- 
liar position  of  the  town,  and  its  injudicious  or- 
naments. The  plain  around  b  flat,  and  filled 
with  rice  grounds,  which  must  necessarily  be  often 
laid  under  water;  while  the  streets  have  each  its 
canal  and  row  of  evergreens,  which  at  once  oc- 
casion pestiferous  exhalations,  and  prevent  a 
liee  circulation  of  tlie  air.  A  part  of  the  plain, 
also,  on  the  left  of  the  fort,  is  an  impracticable 
morass.  The  thermometer  at  Batavia  is  seldom 
above  90^,  and  usually  as  low  as  84^ :  hence  it  is 
not  excess  of  heat  that  makes  it  so  unhealthy,  yet 
such  is  the  mortality,  that  one-fifth  of  the  Euro- 
pean inhabitants  die  annaally. 

Amongst  other  causes  of  mis,  however,  the  in- 
temperance of  the  mode  of  living  must  not  be 
overlooked.  The  vile  habits  of  the  Pagan  and 
Mahommedan  natives  are  but  too  contagious 
with  the  Europeans.  The  multitude  of  domestic 
slaves  is  a  source  of  the  worst  habits :  and  most 
of  the  female  part  of  society  are  a  degenerate, 
•debased  race,  lost  in  indolence  and  sensuality. 

*  Notwithstanding  the  republican  form  of  the 
Dutch  government,*  says  Mr.  Hamilton,  '  in  no 
part  of  Uie  world  is  the  distinction  of  ranks  so  mi- 
nutely and  frivolously  attended  to  as  at  Batavia, 
and  the  salaries  allowed  to  the  Dutch  Company's 
servants  being  inadequate  to  the  support  of  the 
establishment  they  think  necessary  tor  the  sup- 
port of  their  dignity,  corruption  and  bribery  are 
universal. .  In  society  every  individual  is  as  stiff 
and  formal,  and  as  feelingly  alive  to  every  infrac- 
tion of  his  privileges,  as  if  his  happiness  or  mi- 
sery depended  on  Uie  due  observance  of  them. 
Nothing  is  more  particularly  attended  to  at  en- 
tertainments by  the  master  of  the  house,  than  the 
seating  of  every  guest)  and  drinking  their  healths 
in  the  exact  order  of  precedency. 
Vol  III. 


To  provide  against  future  disputes  on  the 
subject  of  precedency,  the  respective  ranks  of 
all  the  company's  servants  were  ascertained  by  a 
resolution  of  government,  which  was  revised  and 
renewed  in  1764.*  The  act  by  which  these  rules 
were  first  established  consists  of  131  articles,  and 
enters  into  the  most  minute  details  respecting 
tlie  carriages,  horses,  chairs,  servants,  &c.  &c.  of 
the  company's  servants. 

'  By  the  eighth  article,  little  chaises  for  children, 
drawn  by  the  hand,  must  not  be  gilt  or  painted 
but  in  exact  proportion  to  the  rank  of  the  pa- 
rents. Ladies  whose  husbands  are  below  the 
rank  of  counsellors  of  the  Indies,  may  not  wear 
at  one  time  jewels  more  in  value  than  six  thou- 
sand rix  dollars :  wives  of  senior  merchants  are 
limited  to  four  thousand ;  others  to  three,  two, 
and  one  thousand  rix  dollars.  , 

'Article  forty-ninth  permits  ladies  of  the  higher 
ranks  to  go  abroad  witn  three  female  attendants, 
who  may  wear  ear-rings  of  single  middle  sized 
diamonds,  gold  hair  pins,  petticoats  of  cloth,  of 
gold,  or  silver  gauze;  chains  of  gold  and  of 
beads,  and  giitlles  of  gold;  but  they  must  not 
wear  diamonds,  pearls,  nor  any  kind  of  jewels  in 
their  hair.  Wives  of  senior  merchants  may  have 
two,  and  ladies  in  an  inferior  station  one  female 
attendant,  who  may  wear  ear-rings  of  small  dia- 
monds, gold  hair  pms,  a  jacket  of  fine  linen,  and 
a  chintz  petticoat ;  but  no  gold  or  silver  stuffs  or 
silks,  or  any  jewels,  true  or  false  pearls,  or  any 
ornament  of  gold.  The  eighu-third  article  recom- 
mends to  the  Dutch  East  India  Company's  ser- 
vants in  Bengal,  not  to  surpass  their  predecessors 
in  pomp  of  dress  and  appearance ;  and  the  110th 
permits  the  director  of  the  factory  at  Surat,  when 
he  goes  abroad  in  state,  to  carry  among  other 
things,  four  fans,  made  after  the  fashion  of  the 
country,  with  the  feathers  of  the  bird  of  para- 
dise and  cow-hair,  with  gold  cases  and  hands. 
It  is  remarkable,  that  in  these  regulations  the 
tax  on  carriages  increases  downwards,  from  the 
higher  to  the  lower  ranks,  andr  penalties  are 
attached  to  the  infraction  of  these  statutes.' 

The  Chinese,  who  are  the  most  effective  part  of 
the  population,  are  indefatigably  industrious,  but 
notorious  at  the  same  time  for  cunning  and  dis- 
honesty. *  The  Dutch,'  they  say,  *  have  only  one 
eye,  but  the  Chinese  have  two.'  All  the  mecha- 
nic trades  are  carried  on  by  them ;  and  the  more 
wealthy  are  merchants,  some  of  whom  &rm  the 
customs  and  taxes.  They  inhabit  a  separate 
towuyor  campong,  close  to  the  city ;  it  is  thronged 
with  men  and  pigs,  of  which  tlie  Chinese  keep 
some  hundred  tnousands.  The  Malays,  who  are 
Mahommedans,  have  a  bad  character ;  but  they 
have  been  misrepresented  by  the  Dutch,  whose 
narrow,  tyranniod  policy  has  alienated  the  affec- 
tions of  most  of  the  natives.  The  Amboynese, . 
generally  employed  as  builders,  are  bold  and  tur- 
bulent. 

The  foundations  of  Batavia  were  laid  in  1619 
by  the  Dutch  commodore  Koen,  and  so 
prompt  and  successful  were  his  companions, 
that  it  soon  became  the  metropolis  of  tne  East 
India  possessions.  In  1629  it  compelled  an 
army  of  200,000  Javanese  to  retire,  after  a  siege 
of  several  months.  Not  long  after,  the  viceroy 
rebelled  against  the  emperor  of  Java :  the  Dutch 

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did  not  fiiil  to  turn  this  circumstance  to  their  own 
advantage ;  and  at  length  contrived  to  get  these 
sovereigns  completely  into  their  power.  Their 
avarice  and  injustice,  however,  made  the  natives 
v<vy  anxious  to  emancipate  themselves,  and  in 
1722  a  general  conspiracy  was  discovered,  only 
just  in  time  to  prevent  its  execution.  In  1740, 
not  twenty  years  afterwards,  12,000  Chinese  were 
massacred  in  one  day,  by  order  of  the  governor, 
on  d)e  plea,  reaf  or  pretended,  of  a  similar 
movement. 

In  1798  a  new  camp  at  Welte  Freden  was 
established  in  a  woody  plain,  a  league  and  a  half 
up  the  country.  The  road  to  it  is  along  a  fine 
causeway,  widi  country  seats  on  one  side,  and 
on  the  other  a  navigable  canal.  The  barracks, 
which  are  built  of  wood  and  stone,  occupy  a 
third  of  Uie  ground  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
entrance.  The  Tannabang,  a  large  Malay  village, 
in  which  there  are  several  Chinese  families, 
stands  on  a  height  two  leagues  and  a  half  from 
the  city.  Mester  Comelis  is  a  small  fort,  a 
league  beyond  Welte  Freden,  surrounded  by 
small  Javanese,  Malay,  and  Chinese  villages. 
The  ground  rises  insensibly  to  Mester  Cor- 
nells, which  is  seen  half  a  mile  off.  This 
fort  lies  in  a  hollow,  on  the  bank  of  the  great  river, 
commanded  by  a  small  height.  On  the  right  and 
left  of  the  road  are  bamboo  barracks  for  the 
Maduran  artillery,  of  which  this  is  the  dep6t. 
The  fort  is  built  of  stone,  but  is  not  strong,  the 
demi-bastions  being  scarcely  two  feet  thick,  by 
four  high,  and  surrounded  by  a  dry  ditch.  The 
entrance  is  by  a  stone  bridge,  within  which  is 
the  guard-house,  and  near  to  it  another  house 
occupied  by  the  European  artillery.  The  fort  is 
quitted  by  another  bridge  on  the  opposite  side, 
communicating  with  a  range  of  wooaen  barracks, 
in  which  are  the  artillery  officers  and  companies 
imder  training. 

The  whole  of  the  Dutch  policy  here  has  been 
wretchedly  arbitrary  and  severe ;  and  although 
Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  the  British  governor,  dur- 
ing our  possession  of  the  place,  very  successfully 
lelormea  their  system,  the  new  authorities  are 
said  to  have  returned  to  it.  But  Sir  Stamford 
observes, '  of  the  splendor  and  magnificence  which 
procured  for  thb  capital  the  title  of  the  Queen  of 
the  East,  little  is  now  to  be  found.  Streets  have 
been  pulled  down,  canab  half  filled  up,  forts  de- 
molished, and  palaces  levelled  with  the  dust.  The 
stadt-house,  wnere  the  supreme  court  of  justice 
and  magistracy  still  assemble,  remains;  mer- 
chants transact  their  business  in  the  town  during 
the  day,  and  its  warehouses  still  contain  t:se 
richest  productions  of  the  island,  but  few  Euro- 
peans of  respectability  sleep  within  its  limits.' 

Batavia,  the  ancient  name  of  Holland.  See 
Batavobum. 

BATAVIAN  Republic,  one  of  the  late  de- 
mocratic states,  formed  upon  the  plan  of  the 
French  republic,  out  of  the  ci-devant  United 
Provinces,  or  States  of  Holland.  The  Stadhold- 
erate  was  abolished  in  1795,  and  the  republic 
established  March  1796.  On  the  24th  ot  May 
1806,  it  was  converted  into  a  kingdom,  and  Prince 
Ix>uis  Napoleon  appointed  hereditary  and  con- 
stitutional king  of  Holland.    See  Holland. 

BATAVORUM  Oppidum,  in  ancient  geogra- 


phy, a  town  in  the  island  of  Batavia,  mentioned 
by  Tacitus :  some  suppose  it  to  be  Nimeguen. 

BATCALE,  or  Batacole,  a  sea-port  on  the 
coast  of  Malabar,  Hindostan,  where  the  Eait 
India  Company  formerly  had  a  settlement  In 
1 670  all  the  settlers  were  murdered  by  the  natives ; 
but  it  was  again  ceded  to  the  company.  Twenty 
miles  north  from  Barcelore. 

Batchelor's  Pear,  a  name  g^ven.to  a  species 
of  nightshade.    See  Solan uh. 

BATCH,  the  past  participle  of  bahm,  to 
bake ;  any  entire  quantity ;  a  oatch  of  bread  is 
the  bread  baked  at  the  same  time. 

How  now,  thoa  core  of  envy. 

Thou  crnsty  batch  of  nature,  what's  the  news  ? 

Ssoepc  he  were  of  the  Mtme  metl  and  haich. 


BATCHIAN  IsLANn,  one  of  the  Moluccas, 
separated  from  Gilolo  by  a  narrow  strait,  and 
situated  between  the  equator  and  the  first  degree 
of  south  latitude.  It  is  of  an  irregular  shape,  in 
length  about  fiffy-two  miles,  by  twenty  the 
average  breadth.  In  1 775  the  Sultan  of  Batchtan 
claimed  dominion  over  the  islands  of  Ooby,  Ce- 
ram,  and  Goram,  but  was  himself  entirely  sub- 
ject to  the  influence  of  the  Dutch.  Tbe  inhabi- 
tants of  Batchian  are  Malay  Mahommedans. 
BATE,  -1  Dr.  Johnson  thinks  it  is  con- 
Ba'ta^lc,  >tracted  from  debate;  ^nner 
Ba'teful.  J  imagines  that  it  is  derived  from 
Ang.  Sax.  beatan  to  beat  to  strike ;  Todd  says 
positively  it  is  from  the  Saxon  bare,  contention, 
strife  or  a  make-bate. 
Among  whioh  foolet  (matk  Baldwiae)  I  am  one. 

That  woold  not  etay  iDjself  in  mine  eetate  ; 
I  thought  to  rule,  bat  to  obey  to  none. 
And  therefore  fell  I  with  my  king  at  Aote. 

JttfTOT  jvt  Jfie^iiifinfei. 
Naked  as  from  the  womhe  we  came,  if  we  depart. 
What  toyle  to  seeke  that  we  must  leve  !     what  haic 
to  vex  the  heart? 
What  lyef  leade  tcstcy  men,  they  that  oonsnme  iheir 
days 
In  inwarde  froets,  ontemper'd  batei,  at  ttzyef  with 
sum  alwaies.     Smttg,  Kodtt,  chap.  ir. 
Pletyng  the  lawe' 
For  ev'iy  strawe. 
Shall  prove  a  thrifty  man. 
With  hoU  and  strife^ 
But  by  my  life 

I  cannot  tell  you  whan.    Sir  Tko^  Mwe. 
Breeds  no  hate  with  telling  of  discreet  atoriea. 


An  honest,  willing,  kind  fellow,  as  ever 
shall  oome  in  house  withal ;  and  I  warrant  you  no 
tell-tale  nor  no  breed4ate.  /d. 

This  sour  inlbrmer,  this  iois-bieeding  spy. 

This  canker  that  eats  «p  love's  tender  spring. 
This  cany-taie,  dissensious  jeahrasy. 

That  sometimes  true  news,  samctiBMa  Idae,  dock 
bring.  id,  VaaamtiAdam. 

These  appear  unto  us  like  unto  the  haimiU  groond 
lying  betwixt  England  and  Scotland,  (whilest  as  yet 
two  distinct  kingdomes)  in  so  dubious  a  postore  it  is 
hard  to  say  to  which  side  they  do  belong. 

FuOnr.     Generrd  Worthia. 

BatabU  ground  is  terra  pngnabilis  BaiaNe  ground 
seems  to  be  the  ground  heretofore  in  question,  whether 
it  belonged  to  £ngland  or  Scotland,  lying  between 
both  kingdoms.  Otmdl, 

He  knew  her  haunt,  and  haunted  in  the  same. 
And  taught  his  sheep  her  sheep  in  food  to  *^»«^^ 


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Which  MMm  ao  it  did  katefid  qaetlion  frame. 

Be  might  oft  knees  confer  hie  guilhr  l>»rt.       Sidiup. 

Bate»  "x     Contracted  from  abate,  old 

Bate'less,   f  Saxon;  to  beat  down;  to  de- 

Bate'mekt,!  press;  to  lessen;  to  diminish; 

Ba'tiKo.  3 to  sink;  or  cause  to  sink;  to 
cut  off;  to  take  away ;  to  remit 

Shall  I  bend  low,  and  in  a  bondtman't  key, 
With,  baud  bieath,  and  whiap'ring  hnmblenen. 
Say  tfiit?  ShaJupeart,     Merchant  of  Vemce. 

GoN.  Sir,  we  were  talking,  that  oar  garments  seem 
now  as  fresh,  as  when  we  were  at  Tunis,  at  the  mar- 
riage of  your  daughter :  who  is  now  queen. 

A  NT.  And  as  Uie  rarest  thing  that  e'er  came  there. 
Bate,  I  beseech  you,  widow  Dido.  Id.     Tempeat. 

Baidolph,  am  not  I  fallen  away  vilely  since  this 

last  Section?    Do  I  not  bate?    Do  I  not  dwindle? 

Why  my  skin  hangs  about  me  like  an  old  lady's  loose 

gown.  Id.    Henry  IV. 

Yet  I  argue  not 

'Ghunat  Heaven's  hand  or  will,  nor  bate  a  jot 

Of  heart  or  hope;  bttt  still  bear  up  and  steer 

Right  onward.  MUUm. 

Abate  thy  bpeed,  and  I  will  bate  of  mine.    Dr$d^, 

When  the  landholder's  rent  falls,  he  must  either 
hate  the  labourer's  wages,  or  not  employ  or  not  pay 
him.  Loche. 

To  abate,  is  to  waste  a  piece  of  stuff:  instead  of 
asking  how  much  was  cut  off,  carpenters  ask  what 
batemeia  that  piece  of  stuff  had. 

Jfojwn'tf  Mee^atueai  Bxerdaee. 

But  I  hate  disputes ;  and  (therefore  ba^  religious 
points,  <or  sach  u  touch  society,)  I  would  subscribe  to 
nny  thing  which  does  not  choak  me  In  the  first  pas* 
•age,  rather  than  be  drawn  into  one.  SUrtie. 

Bate,  v.  a  term  in  &lconry;  to  flatter  the 
wings,  as  preparing  for  flight,  particularly  at  the 
sight  of  prey :  probably  from  oattre,  Fr. 

All  plumed  like  eatridges  that  wing  the  Vind  ^ 

Baud  like  eagles  having  lately  bathed. 

Shahrpeare.     L  Hemg  IV, 

Hood  my  unmann'd  blood  batiig  in  my  cheek. 

Id.     Romeo  and  JvUet, 

It  is  a  natural  action  with  birds,  after  bathing, 
to  shake  the  moisture  from  their  wings;  al»> 
when  desirous  of  their  food  or  prey,  as  in  the 
following  passage : 

No  sooner  are  we  able  to  prey  for  ourselves,  but 
they  brail  and  hood  us  so  with  sour  awe  of  parenU, 
that  we  dare  not  o£fer  to  bate  at  our  desires. 

AtbmnaMor.     OU  Play  vii.  179. 

The  true  meaning  of  the  word  is  beautifully 
exemplified  in  the  following  passage  of  Bacon : 

Wherehu  (vis.  in  matters  of  business)  I  would  to 
God  that  I  wens  hooded,  that  I  saw  less;  or  that  I 
could  perform  more ;  for  now  I  am  like  a  hawk  that 
haiea,  when  I  see  occasion  of  service ;  but  cannot  fly 
because  I  am  ty'd  to  another's  first* 

Bate  (George),  an  eminent  phy^cian,  bom 
at  Maid's  Morton,  near  Buckingham,  in  1606. 
In  1639  he  obtained  a  licence,  and  for  some 
years  practised  in  and  about  Oxford;  chiefly 
among  the  Puritans.  In  1637  he  took  his  de- 
gree of  M.  D.,  and  became  so  eminent,  that  when 
king  Charles  I.  kept  his  court  at  Oxford  he  was 
his  principal  physician.  When  the  king's  affairs 
declined.  Dr.  Bate  removed  to  London,  where  he 
became  physician  to  the  Charter-house,  hWovr  of 
the  college  of  physiciaYiS|  and  afterwards  princi- 
pal physician  to  Oliver  Cromwell.  Upon  the 
restoration  he  again  got  into  favor  with  the  royal 
party,  was  made  principal  physician  to  king 


Charles  II.,  and  fellow  to  the  Roya.  Society ; 
and  this,  as  we  are  told  by  Wood,  owing  to  a 
report  raised  by  his  friends  that  he  gave  the  pro- 
tector a  dose  which  hastened  his  death.  Dr. 
Bate  wrote  in  Latin  a  history  of  the  civil  vrars  in 
England,  and  some  other  tracts  on  physical  sub- 
jects. He  died  at  his  house  in  Hatton-garden, 
and  was  buried  at  Kingston-upon-Thames  ir. 
Surrey. 

Bate  (John),  prior  of  the  monastery  of  Car- 
melites at  York  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  borr. 
in  Northumberland,  and  educated  at  York  and 
Oxford.  Bate  abimdantly  answered  the  hopes 
conceived  of  him,  and  became  an  eminent  phi- 
losopher and  divine,  remarkable  for  his  skill  in 
the  Greek  tongue.  He  took  the  degree  of  D.  D. 
at  Oxford,  and  afterwards  distineuished  himself 
as  an  author.  The  Carmelites  of  York  were  so 
sensible  of  his  merit,  that,  upon  a  vacancy,  they 
offered  him  the  government  of  their  house ; 
which  he  accepted,  and  discharged  that  office 
with  great  prudence  and  success.  He  died  in 
1423,  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 

Bate  (Julius),  a  voluminous  author,  and  an 
intimate  friend  of  the  celebrated  Hutchinson ;  by 
whose  recommendation  he  obtained  from  Charles, 
duke  of  Somerset,  a  pr^ntation  to  the  living  of 
Sutton  in  Sussex.  His  publications  were :  1.  An 
Essay  towards  explainmg  the  first  Chapter  of 
Genesis,  in  answer  to  Mr.  Warburton,  1741,  8vo. 
2.  The  Philosophical  Principles  of  Moses  as- 
serted and  defended  against  the  Misrepreslenta- 
tions  of  Mr.  David  Jennings,  1744,  8vo.  3. 
Remarks  upon  Mr.  Warburton*s  Remarks,  shew- 
ing that  the  Ancients  knew  there  was  a  Future 
State,  and  that  the  Jews  were  not  under  an  equal 
Providence,  1745,  8vo.  4.  The  Faith  of  the 
Ancient  Jews  in  the  Law  of  Moses,  and  the  Evi- 
dence of  the  Types,  vindicated  in  a  Letter  to  Dr. 
Stebbing,  1747,  Svo.  5.  Micah,  v.  2.  and  Mat- 
thew, ii.  C.  reconciled,  1749,  Bvo.  6.  An  He- 
brew Grammar,  formed  on  the  Usage  of  the 
Words  by  the  Inspired  Writers,  1750,  Bvo.  7. 
The  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy,  and  History  of 
the  Fall,  cleared,  1750,  Oto. ;  this  was  occasioned 
by  Middleton's  Examination  of  Sherlock.  8.  The 
Blessing  of  Jndah  and  Jacob  considered,  and  the 
^ra  of  Daniel's  Weeks  ascertained,  in  two  Dis- 
sertations, 1753,  8vo.  The  Integrity  of  the  He- 
brew Text  and  many  Passages  of  Scripture 
vindicated  from  the  Objections  and  Misconstruc- 
tions of  Mr.  Kennicot,  1755,  Svo.  10.  A  Reply 
to  Dr.  Sharp's  Review,  and  Defence  of  his  Dis- 
sertations on  the  Scripture  Meaning  of  Eloim 
and  Berith,  !755,  Bvo.  11,  A  Reply  to  Dr. 
Sharp's  Review  and  Defence  of  his  Dissertation 
on  tne  Scripture  Meaning  of  Berith ;  with  an 
Appendix  in  Answer  to  the  Doctor's  Discourse 
on  Cherubim,  Part  II.,  1755,  8vo.  12.  Remarks 
upon  Dr.  Benson's  Sermon  on  the  Gospel  Method 
of  Justification,  1755,  8to.  13.  Critica  Hebrsa, 
or  a  Hebrew  English  Dictionary  without  Points, 
&c.  1764,  4to.  14.  A  new  and  literal  Transla- 
tion from  the  original  Hebrew  of  the  Pentateucli 
of  Moses,  and  of  the  Historical  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  to  the  end  of  II.  Kings ;  with  Notes 
critical  and  explanatory,  1 737, 4to.  This  learned 
writer  died  April  7th,  1771. 

Bate,  or  Bhatta  Isle   an  island  of  the  pro- 


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BATH. 


?ince  ox  Oujrat,  Hindostan,  at  the  south-west 
extremity  of  the  gulf  of  Cutch.  It  possesses  a 
good  harbour,  and  a  fort,  but  is  very  barren.  Tht 
town  consists  of  about  2000  houses,  principally 
inhabited  by  Hindoos.  Long.  69°  21'  £.,  lat. 
22*  22'  N. 

BATECUMBE,  or  Badkcombe  (William),  an 
eminent  mathematician,  supposed  to  have  flou- 
rished about  1420,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  where  he  applied  himself  to 
natural  philosophy,  but  chiefly  to  the  mathe- 
matics, in  which  he  made  a  very  great  proficiency. 
His  writings  are:  1.  Of  the  Formation  and  Use 
of  the  Concave  Sphere.  2.  Of  the  Solid  Sphere. 
3.  Of  the  Use  of  the  Astrolabe.  4.  Philosophi- 
cal Conclusions. 

BATEMAN  (William),  bishop  of  Norwich  in 
the  fourteenth  century,  was  bom  at  Norwich. 
In  1328  he  was  collated  to  the  archdeaconry  of 
that  see :  soon  after,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he 
so  distinguished  himself  that  he  was  promoted  by 
the  pope  to  the  place  of  auditor  of  the  palace. 
He  was  likewise  advanced  by  him  to  the  deanery 
of  Lincoln ;  and  sent  twice  as  nuncio  to  endea- 
vour to  procure  a  peace  between  Edward  III. 
ind'thc  king  of  France.  In  1343  he  appointed 
him  bishop  of  Norwich^  and  consecrated  him 
with  hb  own  hands.  In  1347  bishop  Bateman 
founded  Trinity-hall  in  Cambridge,  for  the  study 
of  the  civil  and  canon  laws;  and  another  hall 
dedicated  to  the  Annunciation  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  for  the  study  of  philosophy  and  divinity. 
He  was  often  employed  by  the  king  and  parliar 
ment  in  afiairs  of  the  highest  importance.  •  In 
1354  he  was,  by  order  of  parliament,  despatched 
to  the  court  of  Rome,  with  Henry  duke  of  Lan- 
caster, and  others,  to  treat,  in  the  pope's  presence, 
of  a  peace.  This  journey  proved  fatal  to  him ; 
for  he  died  at  Avignon,  where  the  pope  resided, 
HI  1354-6,  and  was  buried  with  great  solemnity 
in  the  cathedral  church  of  that  city. 

BATENITES,  a  sect  of  apostates  from  Ma- 
hommedanism  dispersed  through  the  East,  who 
fell  into  the  same  abominable  practices  vritb  the 
Ismaelians  and  Karmatians.  Tne  word  properly 
signifies  esoteric,  or  people  of  inward  or  hidden 
light ;  they  are  also  called  Batenians. 

BATES  (William),  D.D.  an  eminent  non- 
conformist divine,  bom  in  November  1625,.  was 
admitted  of  Emanuel  college,  Cambridge,  and 
thence  removed  to  Kind's  college  in  1644.  He 
was  one  of  the  commissioners,  at  the  conference 
in  the  Savoy,  for  reviewing  the  Litur^,  and  was 
concerned  in  drawing  up  the  exceptions  against 
the  Common  Prayer;  however,  soon  after  the 
Restoration,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  king 
Charles  II.,  and  became  minister  of  St.  Dun- 
stan's  in  the  west,  but  was  deprived  of  that  bene- 
fice for  nonconformity.  He  bore  a  very  high 
character;  and  was  honored  with  the  fiiendship 
of  the  lord  keeper  Bridgman,  the  lord  chancellor 
Finch,  the  earl  of  Nottingham,  and  archbishop 
Tillotson.  At  the  Restoration  he  was  oflered 
the  deanery  of  Litchfield,  which  he  refiised.  He 
published  Select  Lives  of  illustrious  and  pious 
Persons,  in  Latin.  His  works,  except  his  Select 
lives,  have  been  printed  in  one  volume  in  folio. 
He  died  July  14th,  1699.  Dr.  Bates  was  well 
acquainted  not  only  with  theology,  but  with 


poetry  and  the  belles  lettres ;  hb  styklaile 
much  and  justly  praised  for  iti  eiegBce;  jl 
has  obtained  for  him  the  appelbtioa  ^^s» 
tongued  Bates. 

Bath,  one  of  the  most  elegant  dtis  c  tr 
kingdom,  and  a  bishop's  see;  is  vtaasd  s 
delightful  vale,  and  on  the  accliritj  of  i  L 
facing  the  south  and  south-east,  id  tbeoorMi 
extremity  of  Somersetshire,  near  the  bordse 
Gloucester  and  Wilts.  Itistwdw  miksf-. 
Bristol,  nineteen  from  Wells,  thirty-e^t- 
Salisbury,  forty-two  from  Gloooester,  sxtr  k 
Oxford,  and  105  from  London,  by  way  of  I:;- 
penham,  or  107  through  Devises ;  Boni»akb 
an  amphitheatre  of  hills,  of  oonsidenbkttiv 
tion,  it  enjoys,  by  means  of  the  mo  A«i 
.  which  is  here  of  considerable  DBgutde,  e 
passes  through  a  great  poition  of  die  on.. 
direct  communication  witn  the  Briitol  dass: 
the  Kennet  and  Avon  canal,  which  hexbSst 
the  Avon,  completes  the  inland  oosudoszcl 
by  water,  from  London. 

This  was  ren  early  afcforitestaiioBafa 
Romans,  and  called  by  them  Aqoa  Solis,  Its 
Calidi,  Badinia,  and  Therms  AchamaoiBo.  h 
1755  the  abbey-house  or  prioiy  was  takaor- 
and,  about  twenty  feet  below  thesDifatt,^? 
discovered  the  remains  of  numeroasRom^ 
and  sudatones,  or  sweating  rooms,  drcsbr.ff^ 
circular,  and  oblong;  pa^  with  sisk^^k- 
stones,  with  appropriate  aoartmeots  x^oox 
beautifully  ornamented  with  tessdKei  ^ 
ments,  &c.  Such  were  the  frtgidaiiiun,a:6: 
room,  where  the  bathers  undrosed ;  tfae^-^- 
rium,  or  warmer  apartment,  witiiin, si? 
oleothesion,  a  small  room  comainiDgoli,*!^ 
ments,  and  perfumes;  under  these «ef«^^ 
ingeniously  contrived  to  convey  and  mi-  ^ 
warmth  required  for  the  apartmems  ib«  ^ 
444,  when  the  Romans  left  this  country, 'i-'^ 
extended  12,000  ieet  in  length,  aod  li^  - 
breadth ;  and  was  surrounded  by  a  »^  e3 
feet  thick,  and  twenty  feet  high ;  some  re*^ 
of  which  are  now  to  be  seen.  1^  ^f^  r^ 
have  been  taken  down  at  different  tinia  > 
west  gate  lately),  to  open  and  impioR  ^  ^ 
proaches. 

Various  other  vestiges  of  this  peopk  a?  i^ 
possession  of  pnvate  individuals, Wmoitff^ 
are  preserved  and  classed  in  a  building  ei«^^ 
that  purpose,  by  the  corporation;  amos^'* 
are  the  remains  and  fragments  of  colaBft  '«'- 
nices  and  capitals,  of  a  magnificent  tnapie,^^' 
cated  to  Minerva,  by  Julius  Agricoh. «  ^ 
present  site  of  the  great  pump-ioom. 

The  coins  which  have  been  feiii»d,««*^ 
those  of  Claudius,  Vespasian,  Tttjan,  .^ 
Antoninus  Pius,  Sevenis,  Maximian,  Cas3^ 
and  Constantine.  Near  the  burial  pl«o<J^ 
soldiery,  under  Lansdown,  qaantitie!  rf'^ 
fibulae,  anuillae,  and  diains,  have  beend^ 

By  the  Saxons,  Bath  was  known  asAcff^ 
nes-cea|-qi,  the  city  of  sick  men;  A^^*"^- 
t«m,  and  Lette«un.  It  was  a  lwi?l»  »"V 
the  kingdom  of  Wessex.  lo  775  it  *«,^ 
by  Oflfe,  king  of  Mercia,  who  etaWisW^ 
college  of  secular  canons.  ^^^^^Z^ 
of  the  Danes  in  the  eighth  cenniiy,  ftj^ 
almost  destroyed;  but,  in  the mgn rfAas** 


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it  once  more  recovered  its  grandeur.  Coins 
were  at  this  time  struck,  and  the  grants  to  the 
monastery  here  augmented.  King  Edgar  was 
inaugurated  here,  and  gave  many  privileges  to 
the  town.  Manv  of  the  Danish  monarchs  re- 
sided here.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Confessor's 
reign  it  was  held  hy  his  consort  Editha;  hut  it 
reverted  to  the  crown  after  her  father's  death, 
and  was  attached,  to  the  royal  demesnes  in  the 
time  of  William  the  Conqueror.  In  the  reign  of 
William  Rufus,  during  the  insurrection  of  Odo, 
bishop  of  Bayeux,  and  the  Norman  lords  who 
espoused  tl.e  cause  of  the  unfortunate  Robert,  it 
was  plundered  and  burnt.  The  city  owes  its 
restoration  to  the  liberality  of  John  de  Villula, 
a  native  of  Tours,  who  purchased  it  of  William 
II.  for  500  marks,  and  obtained  leave  to  remove 
the  bishop's  seat  from  Wells  hither,  uniting  it  to 
the  monastery  and  church.  He  may  indeed  be 
considered  as  its  second  founder;  all  the  public 
edifices  were  rebuilt  by  him;  and,  becoming 
bishop  of  the  see  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  he 
bestowed  large  endowments  on  the  monastery. 
The  monks,  at  this  and  subseouent  periods,  are 
said  to  have  greatly  encouragea  manufactures  of 
woollen  cloth.  Corruption,  however,  crept  among 
them,  along  with  the  rest  of  the  religious  orders ; 
and,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  bishop  King 
was  compelled  to  introduce  several  regulations  to 
correct  their  excesses.  Bath  is  indebted  to  this 
prelate  for  her  beautiful  Abbey-church,  &c.,  de- 
dicated to  St.  Peter  and  St.  Faul,  built  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  and  considered  to  be  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  extant  of  the  pure  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. It  was  begun  by  him  in  1495,  and 
finished  in  1532.  The  dimensions  of  the  win- 
dows are  nearly  uniform;  they  are  large  and 
beautifully  formed :  firom  the  centre  of  the  croes 
rises  a  tower  162  feet  high,  crowned  with  light 
open  battlements.  The  body  of  the  abbey  is 
210  feet  long  from  east  to  west,  and  126  from 
north  to  south;  and  the  breadth  of  the  body  and 
aisles  is  seventy-two  feel.  The  principal  en- 
trance at  the  west  is  dirough  a  fine  archcKl  door- 
way, and  the  attention  of  visitors  is  forcibly 
arrested  by  the  excellent  proportion  and  beauti- 
ful symmetry  of  this  noble  pile.  In  the  interior 
is  a  handsome  altar-tomb  to  the  memory  of 
bishop  Montague.  The  vestry  contains  a  small 
library,  found^  by  bishop  Lake.  .  Bath  has  four 
parishes,  each  of  which  has  its  church.  The 
abbey  church  is  in  the  parish  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul;  the  names  of  the  three  others  are  St. 
James's,  a  freestone  building,  erected  in  1768,  at 
the  west  end  of  which  is  a  square  tower,  contain- 
ing eight  bells :  St.  Michael's,  which  was  begun 
in  1734,  has  a  fine  dome,  and  is  of  the  Doric 
order :  Walcot  church  is  dedicated  to  Sl  Swithtn, 
and  was  rebuilt  in  1780;  this  parish  has  a 
church  entirely  devoted  to  the  accommodation 
of  the  lower  orders,  and  contains  four  chapels  of 
ease.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  the  several 
parishes  of  Bath  were  consolidated  into  one 
rectory. 

Here  are  also  two  reading-schools,  many  pub- 
lic libraries,  and  literary  and  philosophical  insti- 
tutions, the  West  of  England  Agricultural  Society. 
&c. 

Nor  is  Bath  deficient  m  charitable  establish- 


ments. Here  is  a  great  hospital  and  infirmary, 
capable  of  receiving  150  patients,  who  have 
advice  and  the  use  of  the  waters  gratis ;  Bellot's 
hospital,  and  the  Black  alms;  the  Stranger's 
Friend  Society;  the  Eye  Infirmary,  and  the 
Puerperal,  or  Child-bed  Society.  The  free 
Grammar-school,  and  Blue-coat  school,  are  also 
well-conducted  establishments.  The  places  of 
divine  worship  for  dissenters  are  numerous; 
that  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catholics  was  for- 
merly the  theatre. 

By  the  census  returned  to  parliament  in  1021, 
Bath  contained  5127  houses  and  36,811  inha- 
bitants ;  exclusive  of  the  out-parishes  of  Bath- 
wick,  Bathhampton,  Batheaston,  and  Bathford. 
The  city  was  at  one  time  governed  by  a  steward ; 
but,  in  1590,  queen  Elizabeth  granted  it  a  char- 
ter, declaring  it  a  city,  sole  in  itself,  and  vesting 
the  government  in  a  mayor,  recorder,  ten  alder- 
men, and  twenty-four  common-council;  from 
the  body  of  aldermen  the  mayor  is  elected,  and 
from  the  council  are  chosen  the  chamberlain, 
two  bailiffs,  and  two  constables,  annually.  It 
sends  two  members  to  parliament,  who  are 
elected  by  the  corporation.  The  see  of  Bath 
and  Wells  comprenends  the  whole  county  of 
Somerset,  except  a  few  churches  in  Bristol,  and 
contains  388  parishes,  and  503  churches  and 
chapels.  Sixty  of  the  parishes  are  impropriate. 
The  bishop's  palace  is  at  Wells.  The  vicarage 
of  the  abbey  is  included  in  the  rectory  of  Ba&, 
and  Walcot  is  a  rectory.  Bath  races  are  held  in 
September,  on  Lansdown,  one  of  the  highest  hills 
near  the  city,  about  three  miles  in  extent.  On 
this  down  is  also  held  an  annual  fidr,  on  the  10th 
of  August,  for  cheese,  cattle,  horses,  and  all  kinds 
of  merchandise,  and  a  fair  is  also  held  in  Hollo- 
way,  on  the  other  side  of  the  city,  May  14th; 
two  other  fidrs  are  held  in  the  town. 

By  &r  the  largest  and  finest  part  of  this  beau- 
tiful city  is  without  the  walls,  particularly 
Queen  Square,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  a  garden 
with  gravel  walks,  and  having  an  obelisk  tn  the 
centre.  Another  principal  ornament  of  this  *part 
of  the  town  is  the  King's  Circus,  with  three 
openings  at  equal  distances,  leading  into  as  many 
streets.  The  fronts  of  the  houses  are  adorned 
with  three  rows  of  columns,  in  pairs  of  the  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders,  standing  over  each 
other,  and  the  frieze  is  embellished  with  sculp- 
ture. In  the  centre  is  a  large  covered  reservoir 
of  water,  filled  from  springs  rising  in  the  adjacent 
hills,  and  serving  for  tne  supply  of  the  neighbour- 
hood. 

The  Royal  Cresent  is  another  striking  object : 
the  whole  extensive  ^nt  is  of  an  elliptical  form, 
consisting  of  thirty-one  noble  stone  houses,  uni- 
formly built,  with  rustic  basements,  surmounted 
wirii  columns  of  the  Ionic  order.  It  stands  on 
an  eminence,  with  an  open  and  gentle  declivity 
or  lawn  of  twenty  acres  before  it,  down  to  the 
Avon,  commanding  delightful  and  uninterrupted 
prospects  of  the  city,  the  vale  below,  and  the 
river  as  it  meanders  towards  Bristol ;  as  well  as  of 
the  opposite  hills,  and  numerous  villas,  ham- 
lets, and  roads,  which  intersect  and  adora  it. 
Behind  this  crescent  rise  St.  James's  Square, 
Lansdown  Crescent,  Somerset  Place,  Camden 
Phce,  Portland  Place,  Catherine  Place,  Mount 


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ZioD,  a  lar^e  extent  of  buiidingi  on  the  summit 
of  Beacon  Hill ;  Cavendish  Crescent  and  Place, 
I^nsdown  Grove,  LAnsdown  Place,  snd  Belle 
Vue.  Besides  these  are  Belvidere,  Belmont,  and 
Paragon  Buildings,  Marlborough  Buildings, 
Burlington  Place,  and  many  other  intenrening 


the  entrance  from  ike  London' Road,  are  man) 
new  ranges  of  magnificent  buildings,  with  paved 
terraces,  called  Kensington,  Piccadilly,  Grosve- 
nor  Place,  and  Walcot  Terrace. 

The  amusements  of  Bath  are  under  ihe  snper- 
intendance  of  two  masters  of  the  ceremonies,  who 


streets  and  buildings.    Nothing  indeed  can  be  are  elected  to  that  office  by  the  subscriber  to 

more  picturesque  than  the  appearance  of  this  the  assemblies,  balls,  &c.,  one  of  whom  presides 

part  ot  the  town.  at  the  Upper  Rooms,  and  the  other  at  the  Lower 

Across  the  Avon,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  city.  Rooms.   Besides  these,  there  is  a  third  appointed 

stands  Fulteney. Bridge,  an  elegant  structure,  of  to  preside  at  the  city  assemblies  at  tne  Tcwu 

one  arch,  covered  on  each  side  vnth  shops,  and  Hall.    The  lodging-houses  are  numeions  and 

leading  immediately  from  High  Street,  in  the  commodious,  and  adapted  to  all  ranks  who  may 


centre  of  the  city,  to  Bathwick,  where  several 
elegant  new  erections  have  lately  arisen.  I^aura 
Place,  which  is  a  square,  built  in  the  form  of  a 
lozenge,  is  peculiarly  beautiful;   and  passing 


be  induced  to  seek  benefit  from  these  salutary 
waters.  Sedan-chairs  are  established  here,  die 
(ares  of  which  are  r*ettled  by  the  mayor  and 
justices ;  and  here  are  also  hackney-coadies  ana 


through  the  centre  of  this  place  diagonally,  in  a  chariots,  regulated  as  in  London.    Besides  the 

direct  line  from  the  bridge,  is  Great  Pulteney  Assembly  Rooms  and  Pump  Room,  which  are 

Street,  of  considerable  length,  uniformly  built,  the  usual  promenades  for  persons  of  fashion,  in 

and  lighted  with  gas.    At  the  distant  extremity  of  wet  or  unfavorable  weather;   and  die   Riding 

this  street,  in  front,  is  Sydney  Gardens,  or  Vaux-  Schools,  which  are  the  resort  of  equestrians  on 

hall,  which -range  and  expand  up  the  side  of  similar  occasions;  the  neighbourhood  of  Balh 

Claverton  Hill,  and  are  very  tastefblly  laid  oat.  abounds  with  beautiful  vralks  and  rides,  and 

Here  also  runs  the  Kennet  and  Avon  canal,  or-  particularly  Clavertop  Down,  and  lansdown  for 

namented    with   two  cast-iron  bridges  in   the  the  latter,  affording  the  most  salubrious  air,  and 


Chinese  style.  At  the  top  of  the  hill  is  an  ex- 
tensive plantation  of  firs.  Around  Sydney  Gar< 
dens  extends  Sydney  Place,  an  admirable  speci* 
men  of  architectu^re,  forming  an  area,  of  which 


the  most  extensive  prospects. 

The  old  bridge  over  the  Avon  is  a  handsome 
structure,  with  stone  balustrades.  The  inter- 
course between  Bath  and  Bristol  is  very  great, 


the  fsardens  are  the  centre.    In  one  of  the  wings    and  besides  carnages  for  the  conveyance  of  goods, 


of  this  place  her  late  majesty,  queen  Charlotte, 
resided  during  her  illness  in  1817;  and  near  it 
Stands  the  elegant  new  parish  church  of  Bath- 
wick, built  in  the  modem  gothic  style,  and 
dedicated  to  St.  Mary. 


and  private  carriages  of  every  description,  there 
are  not  less  than  forty  stage-coaches,  that  rega- 
lariypass  forward  and  backward  between  the 
two  cities.  The  whole  city  of  Bath  is  amply 
supplied  vrith  the  most  excellent  spring-water. 


In  the  south-east  part  of  the  town  is  Orange  brought  from  the  neighbouring  hills,  and  distii- 

Grove,  a  spacious  area,  planted  with  elms,  and  butea  to  every  house  by  means  of  l^den-pipes. 
having  an  obelisk  in  its  centre ;  adjoining  to  this       The  Guildhall,  situate  on  the   east  side  of 

are  the  walks  where  the  Old  Assembly  Rooms  High  Street,  is  worthy  of  such  a  city.     Besides 

are  situated,  and  near  to  them  are  the  North  and  the  Vestibule  and  the  Ifublic  Hall,  for  the  city 

South  Parades.     Tliese  are  two  elegant  rows  of  sessions,  court  of  record,  justices'  meetings,  court 

hous^,  each  580  feet  long,  elevated  on  arches,  of  conscience,  and  other  public  business,  is  a 


and  uniformly  built,  with  paved  terraces  in  front, 
fifty-two  feet  wide:  whence  are  extensive  and 
enchanting  views  of  Prior  Park,  the  magnificent 
seat  of  the  late  Ralph  Allen,  esq.  Beechen 
Cliff,  with  its  hanging  woods,  ana  Claverton 
Hill,  richly  diversified  with  villas  and  enclosures, 
and  crowned  with  an  ornamental  castellated 
structure,  which  is  surrounded  with  a  plantation 
of  firs,  to  a  considerable  extent.    In  the  gardens 


record-room,  the  town-clerk's  and  other  offices, 
and  above  stairs  is  a  noble  banqueting  and  ball- 
room, vrith  a  music-gallery,  tea-room,  drawing- 
room,  &c.  Behind  this  elegant  structure  is  the 
market-place,  which  is  exceedingly  commodious, 
spacious,  well  paved,  and  under  cover.  The 
markets  are  hela  daily  for  all  kinds  of  provisioo ; 
and  in  point  of  supply  and  regulation  are  ex- 
celled by  none  in  England.    The  principal  day» 


below  the  South  Parade,  on  the  banks  of  the    for  butchers*  meat,  are  on  Wednesday  and  Satar- 


Avon,  is  now  building  an  elegant  new  square, 
to  be  called  Kingston  Square,  which,  with  the 
intended  new  streets,  and  a  spacious  esplanade 
next  the  water,  will  occupy  the  whole  space  of 
ground  between  the  city  and  the  river  on  that 
side.  On  the  lower  side  of  the  town  are  mSmy 
ranges  of  building,  which,  in  most  other  places, 
would  be  deemed  fine;  among  these  are  St. 
James's  Parade,  and  Westgate  Buildings,  and 
adjacent  to  Kingsmead  Square  are  New  King 
Street,  Green-Park  Place,  east  and  west;  forming 
two  sides  of  a  triangle,  the  base  or  hypothenuse 
of  which  opens  to  the  river,  and  Brunswick 
Terrace,  and  Kingsmead  Terrace,  pleasantly  over- 


day;  and  for  fish,  Monday,  Wednesday,  and 
Friday.  The  city  prison  is  a  handsome  edifice, 
built  of  freestone,  near  the  river  in  Bathwick. 

After  this  general  outline  of  the  place,  the  seve- 
ral public  baths  next  claim  attention— 4hese  are, 
the  King's,  the  Queen's*  the  Cn^s,  the  Hot,  anJ 
the  Corporation  baths,  which  are  the  propert) 
and  under  the  superintendence  of  the  corpo- 
ration ;  besides  which  are  the  Kingston,  or  Abbey 
baths,  now  the  property  of  lord  Manven^  vrhich 
are  commodiously  fitted  up,  and  where  invalids 
are  accommodated  at  any  hour  of  the  day  o* 
night.  The  taste  of  the  waters  is  pleasant 
impregnated  vrith  a  vitriolic  principle,  which 


looking  the  meadows,  and  commanding  views  of    yields,  upon  evaporation,  a  small  portion  of 
the  surrounding  country.  neutral  salt,  with  a  calcareous  earth  and  itDO. 

On  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  the  town,  at    They  prove  highly  serviceable  in  bilious 


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plaints,  as  well  as  in  nervous,  paralytic,  rheu- 
matic, and  goutjT  disorders.  Th%  King's  bath  is 
a  laige  basin  of  sixty-fiTe  feet  by  forty,  and  con- 
tains rather  more  than  346  tons  of  water,  when 
filled  to  its  usual  height.  A  brass  hand-rail,  of 
an  octagonal  form,  encloses  the  centre :  under  it 
is  a  large  reservoir,  into  which  the  main  spring 
rises  with  great  force,  and  from  whence  the  water 
is  conveyed,  in  its  greatest  purity,  by  means  of 
pipes,  to  the  pumps  above,  for  drujking,  as  well 
as  distributed  with  more  equable  heat  through- 
out the  bath,  in  which  the  main  spring  has  its 
source;  the  sides  of  the  bath  are  surrounded 
by  a  handsome  colonnade  of  the  Doric  order,  to 
shelter  the  bathers  from  tlie  inclemency  of  the 
weather.  Two  commodious  rooms  are  connected 
with  this  bath,  fitted  up  with  pumps  and  pipes 
to  direct  the  hot  vrater  to  any  particular  part  of 
the  body.  The  Queen's  bath,  which  is  attached 
to  the  King's,  and  opens  into  it,  forms  a  square 
of  twenty-five  leet,  and  is  furnished  with  similar 
conveniences;  itstempexature  is  somewhat  lower., 
The  Cross  bath  received  its  appellation  from  a 
cross  erected  in  its  centre  by  the  earl  of  Mel- 
fort,  in  the  time  of  James  II.  which  is  now 
removed.  It  is  situate  at  the  western  extremity 
of  Bath-street,  about  150  yards  from  the  two 
former,  is  of  a  triangular  form,  and  has  a  small 
neat  pump-room  attached  to  it.  Fahrenheit's 
thermometer  rises 'in  it  to  between  93  and  94. 


The  Hot  bath  stands  about  forty  yards  south- 
west of  the  King's,  and  is  so  called  from  the  su- 
perior heat  of  its  waters,  which  approaches  to  117 
of  Fahrenheit.  This  structure,  which  is  about 
fifty-six  feet  square,  was  built  under  the  direction 
of  John  Wood,  Esq.  The  usual  time  of  bathing 
in  the  King's  and  Cross  baths  is  between  six  and 
ten  in  the  morning,  after  which  time  the  water  is 
discharged,  and  the  springs  afford  a  fresh  supply 
of  water  for  the  next  dav.  The  seasons  for 
bathing  are  the  spring  and  fall. 

Dr.  Uiggens  has  proved  that  a  Winchester 
gallon  of  Bath  water  contains. 

oz.    dwt.    gr. 
Calcareous  earth  combined  with 

vitriolic  acid  in  the  form  of 

selenite •     • .  •      ^    ^  ^^^ 

Calcareous  earth  combined  with 

acidulous  gas 0    0    2?ft 

Marine  salt  of  magnesia   ...       00    22^ 

Sea  salt -    0    1    14* 

Iron   combined   with  acidulous 


gas 


0     0      Of, 


Acidulous  gas,  besides  that  which 

is  contained  in  the  above  eartii 

andiron 12    0      0 

Atmospheric  air  ....    *     .      20      0 

Dr.  Monro  gives  the  highest  degree  of  heat 
attributed  to  them  by 


From  the 

pump 

the 


be-) 


r  King's  bath 
^  Hot  bath.  . 
(.Cross  bath  . 


Dr. 
Howard. 
113 
115 
108 


Dr. 

Dr. 

Charlton. 

Lucas. 

116 

119-> 

f            ^ 

116 

119  S    .     . 

.    ^     Fahrenheit's 

110 

1145 

(.     thermometer; 

and  states  that  on  evaporation,  a  gallon  has  been 
found  to  contain  of  ijon  j^  ^'  A  P^  ^^  ^  SF^ ° » 
calcareous  eaith  22^  grains,  selenite  31  ^  grains, 
Glauber's  salt  25}  grains,  sea  salt  51i  grains, 
which  were  mixed  with  an  oily  matter,  but  not 
more  so  than  is  common  to  sdl  waters.  From 
this  it  appears  that  the  Bath  waters  are  acidulous 
chalybeates,  in  which  iron  and  earth  are  kept 
suspended  by  means  of  aerial  acid ;  and  that  they 
are  impregnated  with  a  small  portion  of  selenite, 
sea  salt,  and  muriated  magnesia.  They  were 
for  a  long  time  esteemed  sulphureous;  but  they 
clearly  are  not,  for  they  do  not  affect  the  color 
of  silver  or  metallic  solutions,  nor  produce  any 
other  effect  of  v^ater  impregnated  with  suli)hur. 
There  u  some  probability  that  azotic  gas  is  an 
active  ingredient  in  them,  but  this  has  not  been 
properly  ascertained.  Dr.  Gibbes  has  lately 
added  to  their  impregnations  the  silicious  earth. 
But  their  contents  have  never  been  sufficiently 
investigated  to  account  for  all  their  effects.  They 
operate  powerfully  by  urine,  and  promote  per- 
spiration ;  if  drank  quickly  and  in  large  draughts 
ihey  purge,  but  if  taken  slowly  and  in  small 
quantities  have  an  opposite  effect.  These  waters 
are  adapted  to  atonic  j^ut,  to  visceral  obstruc- 
tions, nephritic  complaints,  dyspepsia,  and  to 
weak  and  exhausted  constitutions;  they  relieve 
externally  in  all  the  coipplaints  for  which  the 
more  stimulant  power  of  the  balneum  is  em- 
ployed. To  the  young  and  plethoric  they  are 
trequently  injurious;  uid  unless  some  evacua- 


tions are  premised,  they  often  disagree  with  the 
patient,  occasioning  headache,  heat  in  the  hands, 
drowsiness,  and  giddiness.' 

J  The  other  public  buildings  in  Bath  are  the 
upper  and  lower  assembly  rooms.  The  former^ 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  circus,  was 
finished  in  1791,  at  the  expense  of  £20,000 ;  the 
ball  room  is  105  feet  long,  forty-three  wide,  and 
twenty-two  high ;  one  of  the  card  rooms  is  an 
octagon,  forty-eight  feet  in  diameter,  the  other  it 
seventy  feet  by  twenty-seven;  these,  with  the 
tea  and  coffee  rooms,  library,  billiard  room,  and 
other  appropriate  apartments,  form  the  most  su- 
perb suite  of  rooms  dedicated  to  pleasure,  in  the 
kingdom.  The  lower  assembly  rootns,  near  the 
parades,  are  also  very  elegantly  fitted  up,  and 
Doth  are  appropriated  chiefly  to  public  meetings, 
promenades,  balls,  concerts,  cards,  and  other 
amusements,  during  the  winter  and  spring  sea- 
sons. The  pump  room  presents  \mrivalled 
attractions ;  it  was  built  in  1797,  is  eighty-five 
feet  long,  forty-six  w  ide,  and  thirty-four  high ; 
the  interior  is  adorned  with  columns  of  the  Corin- 
thian Older,  crowned  with  a  rich  entablature. 
In  a  recess  at  the  west  end  is  a  music  gallery, 
and  at  the  other  end  is  a  marble  statue  of  Beau 
Nash ;  here  the  company  promenade  and  drink 
the  waters  from  eight  or  nine  till  three,  attended 
by  an  excellent  band  of  music.  The  theatre,  on 
the  south  side  of  Beaufort-square,  was  opened  in 
1805,  and  in  point  of  size,  elegance  of  structure, 
and  magnificence  of  decoration,  is  superior  to 


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BATH. 


any  provincial  theatre.  "Die  company  of  per- 
formers hare  long  been  esteemed  the  best  out  of 
the  metropolis. 

Bath,  a  town  of  Berkely  county,  Virginia.  It 
is  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  small  mountain,  known 
W  the  name  of  the  Warm  Spring  mountain. 
Contiguous  are  springs  much  celebrated.  The 
country  round  is  agreeably  variegated  with  hills, 
and  the  soil  rich  and  wdl  cultivated.  It  is  thirty- 
five  miles  from  Winchester,  twenty-five  from 
Martinsburg,  and  269  from  Philadelphia. 

Bath,  a  large  mountainous  county  of  Virginia, 
sixty  miles  in  length,  and  fifty  in  breadth.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Augusta,  on  the  west  by 
Green-brier  county,  on  the  north  by  Pendleton, 
and  on  the  south  by  Botetourt.  In  this  county 
are  two  springs  remarkable  for  their  medicinsd 
quality.  They  are  called  the  worm  and  hot 
spring,  and  rise  near  the  foot  of  Jackson's  moun- 
tain, but  more  generally  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Warm-Spring-Mountain.  The  hot  spring,  so 
called  from  its  possessing  a  greater  degree  of  heat 
than  the  warm  spring,  has  frequently  been  so  hot 
as  to  have  boiled  an  egg.  Some  believe  its  heat 
to  be  now  diminished.  The  stream  which  issues 
from  it  is  small.  A  fountain  of  common  water, 
which  rises  near  i1^  margin,  gives  it  a  striking 
appearance.  The  warm  spring  rises  about  six 
miles  firom  the  former,  and  issues  with  a  bold 
stream  sufficient  to  turn  a  grist  mill,  and  to  keep 
the  water  of  its  basin,  which  b  nearly  100  feet 
in  circumference,  at  the  vital  warmth.  The  water 
is  strongest  in  the  hottest  weather,  which  occa- 
sions their  being  visited  in  the  months  of  July 
and  August.  They  remove  rheumatisms  and 
various  other  complaints.  It  rains  here  four  or 
fire  days  every  week. 

Bath,  a  town  of  the  United  States,  New  York, 
in  the  county  of  Steuben,  handsomely  situated  on 
the  east  side  of  the  river  Conhocton.  It  con- 
tained in  1813,  when  its  trade  and  population 
were  rapidly  increasing,  fifty  houses  and  stores, 
besides  the  country  buildings.  The  Conhocton 
is  here  seventy-five  feet  wide,  and  is  navigable 
for  boats  to  the  Tioga.  It  is  forty-two  miles 
south-east  from  Williamsbuif^,  and  200  north 
fix>m  Philadelphia. 

Bath,  a  small  town  of  Hyde  county,  North 
Carolina;  situated  near  a  bay  which  sets  north 
from  Tar  river,  leleven  miles  east  by  south  of 
Washington,  and  sixty-one  south  by  west  of 
Edenton. 

Bath,  a  village  in  the  island  of  Jamaica,  so 
named  fix)m  a  &mous  hot  spring  in  its  vicinity. 
The  water  is  sulphureous,  and  too  hot  to  admit 
a  hand  being  held  in  it. 

Bath,  in  Jewish  antiquity.  Some  distinguish 
five  kinds  of  Hebrew  measures  so  called,  viz.  the 
greater  bath  containing  eighty  pounds  of  water, 
or,  according  to  Josephufr,  1440  Roman  ounces; 
tlie  second  bath  contaming  100  ounces;  the  third, 
66f  ounces;  the  fourth  containing  25  ounces; 
and  the  fifth,  6}  ounces  of  water.  Some  have 
estimated  the  sacred  'bath  at  half  as  much  again 
as  the  common  bath ;  but  there  is  no  sufficient 
reason  for  this  distinction.  The  word,  in  Hebrew, 
signifies  literally  a  daughter.    See  Bath-kol. 

Bath,  in  metallurgy,  is  used  to  signify  the 
fusion  of  metallic  matter  in  certain  operations. 


Iti  refining  or  capelling,  for  example,  the  metal? 
are  said  to  be  m  bsSti  when  they  are  melted : 
thus,  bath  of  gold  signifies  melted  antimony  when 
gold  is  purifieid  in  it;  and  bath  of  the  kiag  is  Ibe 
title  given  to  melted  antimony  by  jdcheraists, 
who  style  gold  the  king  of  metai^s,  oecaiise  gold 
onhr  can  resist  the  8/6tion  of  antimony. 

oath.  Knights  of  the,  a  military  order  of 
England,  concerning  the  origin  of  which  antiqua- 
ries difier.  The  most  prolMtble  account  is  that 
the  ancient  Franks  and  inhabitants  of  Lower  Ger- 
many, with  whom  it  is  highly  probable  the  Saxons, 
who  invaded  England,  had  the  same  descent,, 
introduced  it,  wi&  other  customs,  upon  their 
settling  here.  These  ancient  Franks,  when  they 
conferred  knighthood,  practised  bathing  amongst 
other  rites,  beftwe  they  performed  their  vigils; 
and  they  were  hence  denominated  Knights  of  the 
Bath.  Henry  IV.,  on  the  day  of  his  coronation 
in  the  tower  of  London,  conferred  the  degree 
upon  the  forty-six  esquires,  who  had  watched  all 
the  night  before,  and  had  bathed  themselves. 
From  Siat  time  it  was  customary  with  our  kinp 
to  confer  this  dignity  preceding  their  coronatioDs, 
the  coronations  of  their  queens,  the  births  and 
marriages  of  the  royal  issue,  &c. ;  several  knights 
of  the  bath  were  made  at  ihe  coronation  of  king 
Charles  11.  in  1661 ;  after  which  the  order  wis 
neglected  until  1725,  when  George  I.  revived  it, 
and  ordered  a  book  of  statutes  for  the  govern- 
ment of  it  By  this  the  number  of  kni^ts  is 
fixed  to  thirty-eight,  viz.  the  sovereign,  and  thii^- 
seven  knights-companions.  The  apparel  of  a 
knight  of  the  bath  is  a  red  fiir  coat,  lined  and 
edged  with  white,  girded  about  witii  a  white  gir- 
dle, without  any  ornament  thereon ;  the  mantle  is 
of  the  same  color  and  lining,  made  fest  about  the 
neck  with  a  lace  of  white  silk,  having  a  pair  of 
gloves  tyed  therein,  with  tassels  of  nlk  and  gold 
at  the  end;  which  mantles  are  adorned  upon  tlie 
left  shoulders  with  tfie  ensign  of  the  order,  being 
three  imperial  crowns,  or,  surrounded  with  tli« 
ancient  motto  of  this  knighthood,  Tria  jnncta  in 
uno,  wrought  upon  a  circle  gules,  with  a  gloiy 
or  rays  issuing  from  the  centre,  and  under  it  the 
lace  of  white  silk  heretofore  worn  by  the  knights 
of  the  bath.  They  have  red  breeches  and  stock- 
ings, and  have  wtute  hats,  with  a  plume  of  while 
feathers  in  them.  The  king  allowed  the  chapel 
of  king  Henry  VII.  to  be  the  chapel  of  the  order; 
and  ordered  that  each  knights  banner,  with 
plates  of  his  arms  and  styles,  shonld  be  placed 
over  their  several  stalls,  in  Uke  manner  as  the 
knights  of  the  garter's  in  St.  George's  chapel  in 
the  castlfrof  Windsor^  and  he  allowed  them  snp- 
porters  to  their  arms.  The  dean  of  Westminster 
n>r  the  time  being  is  dean  of  the  order;  the  other 
officers  are,  bath  king  at  arms,  a  genealogist, 
registrar,  secretary,  gentlenmn  usher,  luid  messen- 

Ser.  These  several  officers  have  their  jniticnlar 
uties  assigned  them  by  the  statutes.  The  office 
of  genealogist  is  a  distinct  office  of  record,  for 
the  pedigrees  of  the  knights  of  the  order  and  their 
esquires,  which  are  entered  in  a  regular  series, 
from  1399,  the  period  at  whicK  the  order  was 
originally  instituted,  to  the  present  time. 

An  esquire  of  the  order  is  allowed  to  hunt  and 
fish  in  the  king's  royalty,  and  is  exempt  not  only 
ftom  serving  the  office  of  high  dienl^  but  any 


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puiMShial  office.  To  prevent  anj  abases  in  the 
claiming  these  privileges  and  exemptions,  the 
i>llowiiig  notification  was  inserted  in  the  gaiette  in 
1803,  previously  to  the  installation  of  twenty-two 
knights,  attended  by  their  esquires,  sixty-six  in 
number. 

'  It  is  hereby  notified,  that  no  exemplifioate 
will  be  issued  to  any  esquire,  from  his  royal 
highness  the  duke  of  York,  after  the  ensuing 
installation,  until  it  shall  be  certified  to  his  royal 
highness,  by  the  genealogist,  tliat  the  pedigree 
and  coat  armour  of  the  several  knights  and  their 
respective  esquires  have  been  entered  in  the 
genealogical  books  of  the  order,  in  obedience  to 
the  said  statutes.  Given  at  the  Horse  Guards, 
this  13th  day  of  May  1803;  FaEDEaicK,  acting  a<« 
great  master  of  the  said  most  honorable  military 
order  of  the  bath.' 

We  need  hardly  add,  that,  both  in  the  number 
of  knights  and  the  brilliancv  of  its  appearance, 
this  order  maintained  its  niU  splenaor  at  the 
coronation  of  the  fourth  sovereign  of  the  House 
of  Brunswick. 

Bath  Metal  is  a  preparation  of  copper  with 
zinc,  which  gives  a  more  beautifiil  color  than  the 
calamine  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  common 
brass.    See  Prince's  Metal. 

Baths,  in  ancient  architecture,  buildings  of 
various  descriptions  erected  for  the  purpose  of 
bathing,  Baths  made  a  part  of  the  ancient  gym- 
nasia, though  they  were  frequented  more  for  the 
sake  of  pleasure  than  health.  The  most  magni- 
ficent among  the  Romans,  were  those  of  Titus, 
Paulus  yEmilius,  and  Dioclesian,  of  which  there 
are  some  ruins  still  remaining.  It  is  said  that  at 
liome  there  were  856  public  baths.  Fabricius 
adds,  that  the  excessive  luxury  of  the  Romans 
appeared  in  nothing  more  visibly  than  in  their 
baths.  Seneca  complains,  that  the  baths  of  ple- 
bians  were  filled  from  silver  pumps;  and  that 
the  freedmen  trod  on  gems.  Statins  has  plea- 
santly described  one  in  his  poem  upon  the  baths 
of  Claudius  Etruscus,  the  steward  of  the  em- 
peror Claudius. 

Nil  ibi  plebeiam ;  nnsqaam  Temesaea  videbis 
^ra,  sed  aigento  felix  propellitur  unda, 
Arf^entoqne  cadit,  labrisque  nitentibos  instate 
Delicias  mirata  tvaa,  et  abire  recusat. 

Macrobius  tells  us  of  one  Sergius  Oratus,  a 
voluptuary,  who  had  pendent  baths  hanging 
in  the  air.  According  to  Dion,  Maecenas  was 
the  first  who  made  a  bath  at  Rome ;  yet  there 
are  instances  of  public  baths  prior  to  this ;  but 
they  were  of  cold  water,  small,  and  poorly  deco- 
rated. Agrippa,  in  his  sedilate,  built  a  number 
of  baths,  where  the  citizens  might  be  accommo- 
dated, either  with  hot  or  cold  water,  gratis. 
AAsr  his  example,  Nero,  Vespasian,  Titufi,  Domi- 
tian,  Severus,  Gordian,  Aurelian,  Maximian,  Dio- 
clesian, and  most  of  the  emperors  who  studied  to 
t'ain  the  afiections  of  the  people,  erected  baths 
laid  with  the  richest  marble,  ana  wrought  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  the  most  delicate  architecture. 
The  rich  had  baths  at  home,  and  frequently  very 
magnificent  ones,  especially  after  the  time  that 
the  practice  of  pillaging  provinces  had  began ; 
but  they  only  used  them  on  extraordinary  occa- 
sions.  The  great  men,  and  even  emperors  them- 


selves, sometimes  bathed  in  public  with  the  rest 
of  the  people.  Alexander  Severus  was  the  first 
who  allowed  the  public  baths  to  be  opened  in 
the  night  during  the  heats  of  summer. 

Dioclesian  is  said  to  have  erected  baths  which 
would  accommodate  1800  bathers.  According 
to  Albert!,  in  the  eighth  book  o^  his  architec- 
ture, the  extent  of  an  ancient  Roman  bathioi^ 
establishment  was  at  least  100,000  square 
feet.  Now,  if  we  consider  the  great  extent  of 
their  ruins,  the  number  o(  their  apartments,  courts,, 
and  halls,  which  were  enclosed  and  served  for 
recreation  and  exercise,  Alberti  does  not  err  on: 
the  side  of  excess.  They  were  generally  of  a 
square  or  oblong  form,  and  surrounded  with 
walls;  this  space  had  three  enclosures,  each  of 
which  surrounded  \h€  building,  as  it  were,  one 
placed  within  the  other.  The  first,  or  what  sur- 
rounded the  exterior,  contained  the  halls  in 
which  the  philosophers  gave  their  instructions. 
and  those  which  were  used  by  the  athletse.  The 
second  division  contained  open  places,  planted 
with  trees,  for  the  exercise  of  the  youths.  In  the 
third  division,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the 
building,  were  the  baths,  surrounded  with  por- 
ticoes and  open  courts.  Sometimes  the  entire 
building  was  enclosed  by  a  park,  like  that  of 
Alexander  Severus,  which  contributed  greatly  to 
the  embellishment  of  the  whole  structure. 

They  were  careful  to  place  their  public  baths 
m  a  warm  situation ;  to  protect  them  from  the 
north  winds,  and  expose  them  to  the  south  or 
south-west  as  much  as  possible,  that  they  might 
receive  heat  from  the  sun  during  the  hours  in 
which  the  bath  was  generally  used.  In  the 
baths  of  individuals,  especially  in  towns  or  cities, 
they  sometimes  made  a  distmcuon  between  sum- 
mer and  winter  baths.  In  the  first,  they  placed 
the  cold  bath  towards  the  north,  and  in  the  win- 
ter baths,  towards  the  south. 

The  Greek  baths  were  usually  annexed  to 
palestrte  or  gymnasia,  of  which  they  were  consi- 
dered as  a  part.  These  baths  consisted  of  seven 
different  apartments,  usually  separated  from  each 
other,  and  intermixed  with  other  buildings  belong- 
ing to  the  other  sorts  of  exercises.  These  were, 
first,  the  cold  bath,  frigida  lavatio ;  secondly,  the 
olaeothesium,  or  room  where  they  were  anointed 
with  oil;  thirdly,  the  frigidarium,  or  cooling 
'room;  fourthly,  the  propnigeum,  or  eattance  of 
the  hypocaustum,  or  stove;  fifthly,  the  vaulted 
room,  for  sweating  in,  or  vapor  bath,  called 
concamerata  sudatio,  or  tepidanum ;  sixthly,  the 
laconicum,  or  dry  stove;  seventhly,  the  hot  bath, 
called  callida  lavatio.  The  baths  separate  fron» 
the  palestrae  appear  to  have  been  usually  double, 
one  for  men,  the  other  for  women ;  but  so  near, 
that  the  same  fiirnace  heated  both.  The  middle 
part  was  possessed  by  a  large  basin  that  received 
water  by  several  pipes,  and  was  surrounded  by  a 
balustraide,  behind  which  there  was  an  area  for 
the  reception  of  those  who  waited  to  use  the 
bath.  They  were  vaulted  over,  and  only  received 
light  from  the  top.  In  the  Roman  baths,  the 
first  part  tha(  appenared,  was  a  large  basin,  called 
KoXvfififfipa  in  Greek,  and  natatio  or  piscina  in 
Latin,  in  the  middle  was  tiie  hypocaustum, 
which  had  a  row  of  four  apartments  on*eac1i 
side,  called  balnearia;  these  were  the  stove,  tlm 


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bath,  cold  bath,  and  tepidarium.  The  two  stoves^ 
called  laconicum  and  tepidariiim,  were  circulai 
and  joined  together.  Their  floor  was  hollow  and 
suspended,  in  order  to  receive  the  heat  of  a  large 
furnace,  T?^hich  was  communicated  to  the  stoves 
through  the  vacuities  of  their  floor.  This  fiir*^ 
nace  also  heated  another  room  called  vasarium, 
in  which  were  three  large  brazen  vessels  called 
miliaria,  respectively  containing  hot,  warm,  and 
cold  water;  which  were  so  disposed,  that  the 
water  might  be  made  to  pass  by  syphons  and 
pipes  out  of  one  or  other  of  them  into  the 
bath,  in  order  to  adjust  its  temperature.  The 
description  is  given  by  Vitruvius. 

The  baths  or  thermae  of  the  Romans,  as  well  as 
the  gymnasia  of  the  Greeks,  were  sumptuously 
decorated  with  bassi  rilievi,  statues  and  paint- 
.  ings;  the  basins  were  of  marble,  the  pavements 
of  mosaic,  and  the  cupolas  splendidly  deco- 
rated. The  remains  of  those  at  Rome  prove, 
more  than  any  other  of  their  architectural  ruins, 
the  love  of  magnificence  and  luxury  which  char 
ract^rised  the  ancient  Romans;  and  as  the  public 
baths  were  intended  to  coUect  together  a  great 
number  of  people,  they  were  divided  into  so 
many  various  apartments,  which  afibrded  their 
architects  an  ample  field  for  the  display  of  taste 
and  splendor  of  ornament.  Agrippa  ornamented 
the  apartments  of  his  bath  with  encaustic  paint* 
ing,  and  covered  the  walls  of  the  caldarium  with 
slabs  of  marble,  in  which  were  inserted  small 
paintings.  In  the  earlier  period  of  the  Roman 
history,  before  the  arts  and  luxuries  of  Greece 
were  much  known  to,  or  practised  by,  the  Romans, 
their  baths  were  small  and  simple,  only  calcur 
lated  [for  the  mere  act  of  bathmg,  like  that  of 


Scipio  Afirkantts,  described  by  SeiMca.  ^Wl« 
the  ruins  of  the  baths  of  Titas,  Cazacalla,  Nero, 
Dioclesian,  and  Antoninus,  are  the  most  tplcmlid 
examples  of  these  kinds  of  buildings,  and  an- 
ciently contained  the  finest  statues  that  were 
brought  from  Greece.  The  Laocoon  was  fbnmd 
in  the  baths  of  Titus,  and  the  Famese  Hereules 
in  those  of  Cacacalla. 

In  Italy  and  thie  east,  bali»  on  a  large  scale  are 
still  constantly  seen.  Denon,  in  his  Egy^  des- 
cribes the  hot  vapor  baths  of  the  countries  mrm^ 
which  he  passed;  and  in  St  Petersborgh,  at  Flo- 
rence, and  in  several  European  capitids,  these 
are  coming  much  into  use. 

BATHE  (Henry  De),  a  learned  knigbt  and 
justiciary  of  the  thirteenth  ceotuiy,  bom  at  Bathe 
House,  in  Devonshire,  the  fimnly  seat.  In  12^ 
he  was  appointed  justice  of  the  Common  Pleas; 
and  withm  the  succeeding  twelve  years,  an  itine- 
rant justice  for  eight  difierent  counties.  Id  1951 
he  lost  the  royal  favor,  and  being  accused  of  ac- 
cepting bribes,  pervei^ng  justice,  Ice.  aDd,  above 
all,  of  seditiously  alienating  the  afiectioDS  of  his 
majesty's  subjects,  Henry  III.  became  so  irritated 
against  him,  that  De  Bathe,  either  horn,  his  ianfy- 
cence,  or  popularity,  being  acquitted  of  the  cihnes 
laid  to  his  cnarge,  Henry  is  said  toliavededared 
from  the  throne,  that  whosoever  shoold  kill 
Henry  De  Bathe,  should  have  a  royal  pardoo  for 
him  and  his  heirs  I — Not  long  after,  however,  by 
the  mediation  of  friends,  and  the  payment  of 
2000  marks  to  the  king,  he  was  restored  to  fiiror, 
and  all  his  former  offices,  along  with  diat  of  jus- 
tice of  the  king's  bench,  whidi  he  enjoyed  till 
his  death  in  1261. 


BATHING. 


BATHE',  -J  Ang.-Sax.  hathiariy  Dut.  and 
Bath',  >  Ger.  baden,  Swed.  bada.  To  wet, 
Bath'ing.  3  to  immerse  in  water  or  other 
liquid.  A  bath,  the  receptacle  of  the  fluid,  in 
which  subjects  are  coverea  or  immersed,  is  either 
hot  or  cold,  either  of  art  or  nature.  It  is  also  a 
technical  term  in  chemistry. 

The  sleer  of  himself  yet  saw  I  thei«. 
His  herte-biood  hath  bathed  all  hii  here. 

Chaucer.   The  Knighttt  Tale, 
Quod  he, 
Brenne  hire  right  in  a  hath  widi  flames  rede. 
And  as  he  bade  right  so  was  don  the  dede. 
For  in  a  haihe  they  gonne  hire  fast  shetten. 
And  night  and  day  gret  fire  they  under  batten. 

Id,  Second  Nonnet  Tale. 
And  whilst  he  slept  she  over  him  wAuld  spred 
Her  mantle,  C(^oarM  like  the  starry  skyes. 
And  her  soft  atme  lay  underneath  his  hcd. 
And  with  ambrosiall  kisses  baihe  his  eyes.      Spmuer, 
Except  they  meant  to  bathe  in  reeking  wounds, 
I  cannot  tell.  Shakqteare.  Macbeth, 

Sleep, 
The  birth  of  each  day's  life,  sore  labour's  bath. 
Balm  of  hurt  minds.  Id, 

Thereupon,  belike,  this  humour  of  melancholy  is 
called  balneum  diaboli,  the  devil's  hath ;  die  devil 
•pying  his  opportunity  of  buch  humoun,  drives  them 


many  times  to  despair,  fury,  rage,  &c.  mingling  lua 
self  among  ^these  humours. 

Bfal<m*9  Anatoaof  of  MdtastAis^ 
But  lo !  the  day  is  ended  with  my  song. 
And  sporting  baika  with  that  fair  ooean  dimL 
FUAdter,  Pmpie  Uemd. 

Others  on  silver  lakes  and  rivers  haih*d 
Their  downy  breast ;  the  swan,  with  arched  ne^ 
Between  her  white  wings  manding  pioodly,  row* 
Her  state  with  oary  feet.  Jfibsa. 

Mars  could  in  mutual  blood  the  centaurs  taifir. 

And  Jove  himself  give  way  to  Cynthia's  wradi. 

Jhydem, 

She  rear'd'her  arm,  and  with  her  sceptre  streck 
The  yawning  cliff  £rom  its  disparted  height  \ 
Adown  the  mount  the  gushing  torrents  ran. 
And  cheer'd  the  vallies ;  there  the  heav'nly  mother 
Baih*d,  mighty  king,  thy  tender  limbs. 

Prktr.  Pint  B^m»  ¥f  CaBm. 

Queen  lilies :  and  ye  painted  popnlace. 
Who  dwell  in  fields,,  and  lead  ambrosial  lives; 
In  mom  and  ev*ning  dew,  your  beaoties  bmtke. 
And  drink  the  sun.  Ytmmg. 

Constantine  survived  that  solemn  festival  about  ten 
months  ;  and,  at  the  mature  age  of  sixty-foor,  after  m 
short  illness,  he  ended  his  memorable  life  al  the 
palace  of  Aquyrion,  in  ihe  suburbs  of  Nicflmedia, 
whither  he  had  retired  for  the  benefit  of  the  air,  ai^ 
with  the  hope  of  recruiting  his  exhausted  strength  by 
the  use  of  the  wann  bath,  CflUam, 


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Bathing,  for  medicinal  or  salutary  purposes, 
demands  consideration  under  several  distinct 
heads ;  in  the  first  place,  as  the  temperature  of 
the  bath  may  be  concerned :  thus  we  hare  cold, 
hot,  and  tepid  or  temperate  baths.  Secondly, 
as  the  mode  may  vanr  m  the  application  of  the 
media  employed;  for  immersing  die  body, 
pouring  water  over  the  whole,  or  part  of  its  sur- 
face, the  use  of  sponges  or  cloths  to  the  naked 
body,  immersing  the  body  in  or  exposing  it  to 
vapor,  and  letting  water  fall  from  a  greater  or 
less  height  upon  the  head  and  shoulders,  are,  in 
foct,  all  varieties  of  bathing.  We  have,  thirdly, 
also  to  consider  the  question  of  specific  qualities 
in  the  agencies  employed ;  some  substances,  as 
we  shall  see  in  the  sequel,  being  used  for  the  im- 
pregnation of  baths  which  are  supposed  to 
operate  with  positive  powers  of  a  medicinal 
kmd.  And,  lastly,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the 
material  itself  varies  beyond  the  circumstance  of 
temperature  or  peculiar  quality;  for  besides 
water  and  vapor,  air  and  earth  have  been 
brought  into  requisition  as  subservient  to  the 
purposes  for  which  the  practice  of  bathing  was 
instituted. 

The  term  Cold  Bath  is  generally  made  to  in- 
clude the  whole  range  of  temperature,  from  a 
little  above  thirty-two  to  eighty  degrees  of  Fah- 
renheit's thermometer;  by  sudden  immersion 
in  water,  of  this  low  temperature,  the  whole 
suHace  becomes  contracted,  the  bulbs  of  the 
hair,  as  a  modem  author  states,  are  made  con- 
spicuous, and  the  skin,  resembling  that  of  a' 
newly  picked  goose,  has  been  styled  cutis  anse- 
rina.  The  debility  and  tremor  are  considerable, 
a  sense  of  weight  is  felt  in  the  head,  the  respi- 
ration is  quick  and  laborious.  These  appearances 
are  followed  by  a  very  different  series.  A  glow 
soon  returns  to  the  suHace,  the  weight  in  Uie 
head  is  almost  instantaneously  relieved,  and 
every  function  appears  to  be  carried  on  with 
increased  activity.  If  a  person  sta^  for  a  longer 
period  in  the  bath,  die  glow  will  be  slighter 
and  will  soon  disappear,  while  every  previous 
symntom  of  debility  will  return  and  continue. 

If  this  immersion  be  repeated  at  due  intervals, 
and  the  stay  in  the  bath  be  not  improperly  con- 
tinued, the  general  health  and  spirits  are  greatly 
improved,  die  different  necessary  evacuations 
properly  carried  on  and  supported,  and  the 
body  and  mind  appear  to  act  with  increased 
vigor. 

The  explanation  of  these  phenomena,  says  the 
author  from  whom  we  extract,  is  not  difficult : 
the  cold,  by  its  sedative  powers,  represses  the 
circulation  in*  the  extreme  vessels,  ana  the  fluids 
are  accumulated  in  die  larger  arteries  and  veins : 
and  he  goes  on  to  state,  tnat  re-action  is  set  up 
to  produce  the  subsequent  glow ;  this  after-glow, 
however,  and  indeed  the  immediate  impression 
of  the  cold  w9ter,  are  probably  more  complicated 
operations  than  those  persons  imagine  who  readily 
receive  the  explication  of  the  circumstances  as 
referrible  to  a  sort  of  mechanical  action  and  re- 
action. The  cold  plunge  seems  to  affect  not 
merely  by  directing  the  blood  inwardly  upon  the 
large  blood-vessels  and  viscera,  but  there  may 
be  a  coDStringing  agency  produced  through  the 
whole  series  of  capillary  vessels;  and  the  con- 


sequent diminution  of  the  capacity  of  these 
vessels,  or  of  their  diameter,  must,  as  is  irell 
remarked  by  another  writer  on  the  subject,  ne- 
cessarily increase  that  part  of  the  resistance  to 
the  blood's  motion  which  is  derived  from  its 
friction  against  die  sides  of  the  vessels,  and  must 
therefore  tend  materially  to  lessen  its  velocity. 
He  might  have  added,  mat,  upon  this  principle, 
die  generation  of  cold,  or  rather  the  subduction 
of  the  sensadon  of  heat  is  probably  in  a  greater 
measure  than  would  be  the  consequence  of  the 
mere  cold  immersioa,  had  not  this  mode  of  ap- 
plying cold  some  constnnging  as  well  as  mere 
sedative  power;  this  term  sedative,  we  may  here 
incidentally  remark,  has  been  employed  by  phy* 
siological  and  pathological  writers  with  too  much 
laxity  of  signification. 

In  considering  the  phenomena  direcdy  and 
indirecdy  produced  by  cold  badiing,  reference 
ought  likewise  to  be  had  to  the  sensations ;  for 
it  will  be  found  that  both  the  first  and  subsequent 
effects  are  very  materially  regulated,  both  as  to 
their  degree  and  duration,  by  the  condition  of 
the  percipient  power.  That  sensation  has  a 
great  deaX  to  do,  both  with  the  principle  of  its 
operation  and  the  salutary  or  injurious  effects  of 
cold  bathing,  has  been  shown  with  a  great  deal 
of  ingenuity  by  die  late  Dr.  Currie,  in  his  ex- 
periments on  cold  water  as  a  febrifiige  power; 
and  that  the  glow  which  succeeds  to  the  first 
sensation  of  cold,  may  be  ascribed  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  increased  sensibility  of  the  nerves 
after  a  partial  torpor,  cannot  be  denied.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  admitted,  that  there  is  not 
only  a  relative  but  an  actual  increase  of  heat  on 
the  suriace  of  the  body,  during  the  re-action 
following  the  temporary  torpor ;  and  it  i»  pro- 
bable, we  are  told,  the  causes  concerned  in  the 
production  of  animal  heat  are  called  up  into  a 
more  vigorous  exertion  in  a  strong  constitution, 
whenever  they  are  reauired  for  the  purposes  of 
life;  so  that  they  at  first  suppljr  the  superficial 
parts  of  the  body,  during  the  immersion,  with 
as  much  heat  as  is  necessary  to  overcome  the 
painful  sensation  of  cold ;  and  afterwards,  by  a 
continuation  of  the  same  action,  occasion  an 
actual  elevation  of  temperature  above  the  natural 
standard. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  re-action,  as  it 
is  called,  or  heat  following  exposure  to  cold 
water,  sometimes  occurs,  even  when  there  has 
been  no  prior  depression  of  temperature.  Dr. 
Currie  found  that  during  the  afiusion  of  a  bucket 
of  cold  saltwater  on  the  heads  and  whole  bodies 
of  two  healthy  persons,  no  depression  of  tem- 
perature was  oDservable ;  but,  in  a  minute  or 
two  aftenvards,  although  they  remained  without 
motion,  the  mercury  rose  two  degrees ;  and  in  a 
diird  person,  of  feebler  constitution,  although  the 
temperature  remained  equally  unchanged  during 
the  afiusion,  it  sunk  in  a  minute  after,  half  a 
degree.  These  effects  seem  to  be  almost  entirely 
independent  of  any  change  in  the  state  of  the 
circulation,  which  must  be  rather  retarded  than 
accelerated,  while  the  generation  of  heat  is 
increased.  It  is  true  that  the  heart  might  be 
called  into  more  powerful  action  at  the  same 
time  that  the  pulsation  of  the  wrist  became 
feeble,  from  the  permanent  contraction  of  die 


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mdial  artery ;  but  the  action  of  the  heart  would 
still  be  exhibited  by  the  carotids,  undisguised  by 
this  modification;  and  the  carotids  have  not 
been  observed  to  beat  more  strongly  in  the  cold 
bath  than  at  other  times,  although  Dr.  Currie 
has  remariced,  that  when  the  pulse  could  hardly 
be  felt  at  the  wrist,  the  heart  pulsated  with  great 
steadiness  and  due  force. 

Much,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  wanting  in  the 
way  of  physiological  experiment  before  we  can 
satisfactorily  explain  the  laws  of  temperature  of 
the  human  body,  or  the  vascular  changes  thai  are 
concomitant  with,  or  perhaps  in  some  measure 
the  causes  of,  these  changes ;  and  indeed  it  is  not 
easy  to  say  precisely  upon  what  principles  cold 
bathing,  when  it  proves  a  sanauve  or  salutary 
process,  operates  the  beneficial  purpose :  a  prioriy 
we  should  scarcely  have  supposed  that  a  tempo- 
rary suspension,  to  be  followed  by  excitation, 
that  excitation  itself  proving  but  transient,  would 
have  been  attended  with  much  benefit  to  the 
constitution;  and  yet  we  do  see  that  much  and 
unequivocal  good  occasionally,  nay  frequently, 
follows  the  temperate  and  judicious  employment 
of  the  agent  now  under  consideration.  Much 
mischief  is  also  the  result  of  its  indiscriminate  or 
injudicious  use,  and  we  shall  now  proceed  to 
point  out  in  what  cases  and  circumstances  cold 
bathing  is  desirable  or  admissible ;  where  it  is 
contra-indicated ;  and  in  what  mode  it  is  best 
administered. 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  cold  bathing 
may  be  used  with  advantage  under  certain  modi- 
fications of  febrile  heat ;  it  is,  however,  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  attend  to  certain  precau- 
tions which  its  use  demands,  when  employed  as 
a  febrifuge.  Dr.  Currie  tells  us  that  cold  bathing 
or  affusion,  in  fever,  can  only  then  be  had  re- 
course to  with  safety  and  ffood  effect,  when  the 
heat  of  the  body  is  steadily  above  the  natural 
standard,  when  there  is  no  sense  of  chilliness, 
and  especially  when  there  is  no  general  nor  pro- 
fuse perspiration.  If  used  during  the  cold  stage 
of  fever,  even  though  the  heat  be  higher  Uian 
natural,  it  brings  on  interruption  of  respiration, 
a  fluttering,  w^,  and  extremely  quick  pulse, 
and  certainly  might  be  carried  so  far  as  to  ex- 
tinguish animation  entirely.  (See  Medicine, 
article  Fever,  &c). 

In  another  affection,  very  opposite  to  fever, 
viz.  tetanus,  cold  bathing  has  been  used  with 
decidedly  beneficial  effect ;  and,  in  this  case,  it 
may  be  remarked  that  the  principle  of  its  operar 
tion  must  be  different ;  the  shock  given  to  the 
sensations,  and  the  whole  order  of  organic  move- 
ments, being  temporarily  changed,  having  more 
seemingly  to  do  with  its  healing  influence  than 
any  circumstances  abstractedly  connected  with 
change  of  temperature.  The  observation  is  as 
old  as  Hippocrates^  that  the  remedy  under  re- 
mark is  best  adapted  to  these  convulsive  dis- 
ordera  when  they  are  the  result  rather  of  general 
mobility  of  a  morbid  kind,  than  connected  with 
local  affection  ;  aviv  iXntoc  is  the  expression  of 
the  Coan  sage,  and  we  allude  to  it  partly  because 
it  is  confirmatory  of  what  we  are  immediately  to 
advance  on  the  objectionable  circumstances  to 
cold  bdthmg  in  other  complamts  and  tendencies. 
But  it  will  not  bo  requisite  or  proper  in  this 


article  (which  is  intended  rather  for  popalar  than 
for  professional  direction),  to  go  through  the 
various  disorders  in  nosological  order,  for  whidi 
the  practice  of  cold  bathing  has  been  instituted ; 
suffice  it  to  say,  that  it  has  generally  been  used 
and  recommended  in  those  conditions  of  fibroos 
^  debility  which  are  under  the  grade  of  actual 
*  disease,  and  in  which  those  medicinal  agencies 
are  demanded  which  pass  under  the  name  or 
tonic.  Such  states  are  marked  by  irreguJaritie 
in  the  displays  of  nervous  power,  by  tremors,  by 
more  than  natural  sensibility  to  cold,  by  the  easy 
excitation  of  profiise  discharges  from  the  skin, 
by  head-aches,  listlessness,  and  febricula,  with 
lowness  of  spirits,  irregular  appetite,  deficient 
digestion,  and  torpid  bowels.  Individuals,  in 
this  condition  of  the  nervous  and  muscular 
powers,  may  be  greatly  benefited  by  the  daily 
employment  of  cold  water  to  the  surfiice,  in  the 
manner  immediately  to  be  pointed  out. 

But  it  may  be  right  first  to  dismiss  the  modi 
agitated  and  very  interesting  question  respecting 
the  propriety  of  bathing  or  washing  children; 
and  this,  perhaps,  will  be  best  done  by  extracting 
from  a  modem  writer  on  consumption.  '  Immer- 
sion in  cold  water,'  says  Dr.  Reid,  <  daring  the 
period  of  infancy,  has  been  very  generally  recom- 
mended, and  too  frequently  had  recourse  to  in 
an  indiscriminate  manner,  to  preserve  health  and 
insure  hardiness.  The  author  has  remarked 
several  instances  where  sensible  and  sometimes 
serious  injury  has  arisen  from  neglecting  to  ob- 
serve the  precautions  necessary  to  regulate  the 
employment  of  this  important  agent  in  very  early 
years.  In  infancy,  danger  to  the  lungs  from 
cold  bathing  has  been  stated  to  exist  in  a  veiy 
inferior  degree ;  and  by  the  practice  of  dipping 
in&nts  in  cold  water,  susceptibility  to  the  in- 

Clous  impression  of  cold  in  succeeding  years 
.been  tnought  to  be  materially  diminished. 
This  principle,  in  the  abstract,  is  undoubtedly 
correct ;  ana,  with  the  exception  and  precautioos 
now  to  be  mentioned,  may  be  pursued  with  pro- 
priety and  advantage.  Two  infants  may  be  sop- 
posed  of  one  family,  with  reverse  constitutions ; 
in  the  one,  a  general  torpor,  debility,  and  great 
susceptibility  to  the  impression  of  cold  shall  pre- 
vail ;  in  the  other,  comparative  vigor,  activity, 
and  warmth.  To  pursue,  without  discriminatioii, 
the  same  course  with  respect  to  immersion  in 
water  with  each  of  these  children,  would  be 
obviously  improper.  That  degree  of  cold  which 
would  refresh  and  invigorate  the  one,  would 
confirm  debility,  and  augment  torpor,  in  the 
other.  A  bath  which  is  not  cold  to  the  sensa- 
tions must,  in  the  first  instance,  at  least,  be  re- 
sorted to  for  the  weaker  in&nt;  and  in  netther 
case  should  immersion  in  cold  water  be  practised 
when  the  external  temperature  of  the  body  is  in- 
ferior in  decree  to  its  general  standard,  wh^i 
after  immersion  the  body  appears  to  be  chilled, 
or  when  returning  heat  is  attended  with  febrile 
languor,  instead  of  the  gratefiil  and  genial  warmth 
characteristic  of  the  appropriate  action  of  excit- 
ing powers.  If  the  practice  of  immersion  be 
guided  by  a  cautions  observance  of  these  particu- 
lars, it  may  be  pursued  with  safety,  and  will  be 
attended  with  success;  but  a  total  neglect  of 
bathing  wore  gready  preferable  to  the  severe  and 


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incautious  xnumer  in  which  infants  are  frequently 
exposed  to  these  violent  and  rapid  changes  in 
temperature/ 

We  may  further  remaik,  that,  both  in  the 
states  of  infancy  and  youth,  cold  bathing  must 
be  cautiously,  and  only  under  professional  per- 
mission, employed,  when  the  constitution  is  de- 
cidedly of  a  scrofulous  cast;  and  more  especially 
when,  with  that  general  condition  of  the  organi- 
sation to  which  the  term  scrofula  would  be 
applied,  tendencies  manifest  themselves  of  local 
or  topical  disorder.  Under  the  somewhat  me- 
chanical notion  of  hardening  the  frame,  as  some 
inanimate  bodies  are  hardened  by  being  plunged 
into  cold  media,  cold  bathing  has  been  employed, 
and  persevered  in,  to  a  deleterious  extent ;  and 
under  the  circumstances  of  consumptive  disposi- 
tion, or  verging  towards  any  internal  or  visceral 
disorder,  the  shock,  and  irregular  impulses,  and 
internal  rushes,  if  we  may  so  say,  which  the 
frequent  plunges  into  cold  water  imply,  instead 
of  strengthening,  irritate  the  feeble  frame,  and 
assist  the'  constitutional  bias  towards  structural 
and  Irremediable  disorder.  Dr.  Beddoes  pre- 
sents an  important  and  instructive  example  of 
this  principle  and  practice,  on  the  audiority  of 
the  late  Dr.  Pulteney.  '  T.  C.  was  rickety  in  hit 
mfan^,  and  very  weakly  for  several  years  after. 
In  the  winter  of  1759  he  had  pleuretic  symp- 
toms ;  a  rheumatic  fever  left  him  next  summer 
afflicted  with  chronic  rheumatism ;  he  was  ad- 
vised to  go  into  the  cold  bath ;  he  did  so ;  but  on 
coming  out  again  felt  such  an  increased  load, 
Minting,  and  anxiety,  about  the  precordia,  that 
he  thought  he  should  hardly  recover  the  shock  it 
gave  him.  Nevertheless  he  ventured  in  again  a 
day  or  two  afterwards,  but  experienced  the  for- 
mer ^mptoms  in  ah  aggravated  degree,  and 
from  this  time  dated  the  a»ordcr  that  terminated 
his  life.' 

As  mischievous  mistakes  have  occasionally 
arisen  in  the  practice  of  cold  bathing,  from  too 
abstractly  considering  it  a  tonic  or  strengthening 
process,  so  much  error  has  connected  itself  with 
vie  mode  and  circumstances  of  immersion.  It 
has  been  too  generally  considered  that  to  be  fitted 
for  immersion,  the  body  should  be  cooled  down 
nearer  to  the  temperature  of  the  bath,  than  after 
a  little  exercise  it  is  made ;  and  that  iS  a  person 
have  hurried  to  the  side  of  the  water  into  whidi 
he  is  about  to  plunge,  he  ought  to  rest  until  part 
of  the  artificial  heat  he  has  produced  from  exercise, 
be  dissipated  in  the  surrounding  air.  This  is  an 
erroneous  motion,  which  Dr.  Currie  was  the  first 
fullv  to  refute  and  rectify ;  it  is  singular  how 
it  should  have  arisen,  since  our  own  feelings,  as 
well  as  our  observation  on  the  instinct  of  animals, 
aeem  to  direct  to  a  different  conclusion  and  prac- 
tice. The  opposite  doctrine,  too,  was  taught  by 
che  ancients.  *  When  we  are  fatigued  or  dried 
up  by  exercise  (says  Galen,  as  quoted  by  Dr. 
Young)  the  bath  restores  us  to  comfort,  and  defends 
vs  from  fevers.  A  strong  young  man  in  the 
country  will  plunge  into  cold  water  at  once, 
when  heated,  and  be  much  refreshed  by  it.  Ani- 
mals also,  wash  themselves  when  they  are  hot,  by 
a  natural  idstinct,  as  they  eat  when  they  are  hun- 
gry, and  seek  warmth  when  they  are  cold.  In 
^ecs,  if  we  had  sufficient  powers  of  discrimi- 


nation, we  might  probably  someUmes  derive 
material  advantage  from  the  use  of  the  cold  bath, 
without  premising  the  hot;  and  some  persons 
have  been  actually  benefited  by  this  remedy. 
But  without  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  dis- 
eases than  we  possess,  we  cannot  generally  ven- 
ture on  the  practice ;  and  least  of  all  in  hectic 
fevers,  where  there  is  not  strength  enough  to  bear 
the  shock.  A  stout  young  man  having  a  fever 
in  warm  weather,  without  visceral  inflammation, 
would,  bring  on  a  salutaiy  prespiration  by  bath- 
ing in  cold  water ;  and  it  he  were  in  the  habit 
of  cold  bathing,  he  might  have  recourse  to  it  with 
more  confidence;  but  for  hectic,  it  is  unsafe, 
especially  where  there  is  much  emaciation ;  thus 
in  a  hot  and  dry  summer,  those  who  have  travelled 
far,  and  are  b^ome  thin  and  weak,  have  no  need 
of  being  cooled,  nor  would  it  be  safe  for  them 
to  use  the  cold  bath,  without  first  going  into  the 
warm.  For  we  seem  to  be  hardened  by  the  cold 
batb>  like  iron  when  heated  first ;  and  if  we 
previously  warm  ourselves  by  exercise,  the  effect 
IS  the  same.' 

We  have  extracted  these  observations  of  Galen, 
because  their  practical  inference  is  precisely  the 
same,  as  that  to  which  the  good  sense  and  phi- 
losophic acumen  of  Dr.  Currie  have  brought  us; 
and  because  they  are  strongly  contrasted  with  the 
vulgar  conceit,  which,  almost  universally,  and 
still  too  generally,  prevails.  It  is  well  observed 
by  the  writer  from  whom  we  now  borrow  (see 
supplement  to  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica),  that 
Dr.  Currie's  relation,  ot  an  adventure  of  his 
own,  might  almost  be  supposed  to  have  been 
intended  as  a  commentary  on  these  remarks  of 
Galen.  '  On  the  first  of  September,  1778,  two 
students  of  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  set  out  on 
foot  on  a  joumev,  a  considerable  part  of  which 
lay  along  one  of  the  rivers  of  Scotland.  They 
started  by  sun-rise,  and  proceeded  with  alacrity 
in  the  cool  of  the  morning.  At  the  end  of  eight 
miles  they  breakfested,  rented  for  an  hour,  and 
then  resumed  their  journey.  The  day  grew  warm 
as  it  advanced,  and  after  a  march  of  eight  miles 
more,  they  arrived  heated,  but  not  fatigued,  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  above  mentioned,  about 
eleven  in  the  forenoon.  Urged  by  the  fervor  of 
the  day,  and  tempted  by  the  beauty  of  the  stream, 
they  stripped  instantly  and  threw  themselves  into 
the  river.  The  utmost  refreshment  followed,-  and 
when  they  retired  to  a  neighbouring  inn,  this 
was  succeeded  by  a  disposition  to  sleep,  which 
was  indulged.  In  the  afternoon  they  pro- 
ceeded, and  travelling  sixteen  miles  further,  at  a 
single  stretch,  arrived  at  the  inn  where  they  were 
to  sleep  a  litde  after  sunset.  The  afternoon  had 
been  warm,  and  they  perspired  profusely ;  but 
the  evening  was  temperate  and  rather  cooL 
They  had  travelled  for  some  miles  slowly,  and 
arrived  at  the  end  of  their  journey,  stiffened  and 
wearied  with  exercise.  The  refreshment  which 
they  had  experienced  in  the  morning  from  bathing 
induced,  however,  one  of  them  to  repeat  the 
experiment,  and  he  went  perfectly  cool  into  the 
same  river,  expecting  to  relax  his  limbs  in  thf 
water,  and  afterwards  to  enjoy  profound  sleep. 
The  consequences  were  very  different.  The 
Tweed,  which  was  so  refreshing  in  the  morning, 
now  felt  extremely  cold,  and  be  left  the  watei 


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hastily.  No  genial  glow  succeeded,  but  a  feverish 
chill  remained  for  some  time,  with  a  small  fre- 
<iuent  pulse,  and  flying  pains  over  the  body. 
Warm  liquids,  and  frictions  at  length  brought  on 
considemole  heat,  and  towards  morning,  perspi- 
ration and  sleep  followed.  Next  day,  about  noon, 
they  proceeded  on  foot,  but  the  traveller  who  had 
bathed  was  extremely  feeble;  and  though  they 
had  to  perform  a  journey  of  a  single  stage  only, 
as  some  part  of  it  was  difficult  and  mountainous, 
he  was  obliged  to  take  the  assistance  of  a  carriage,  ■ 
which  overtook  them  on  the  road.  It  was  several 
days  before  he  recovered  his  usual  vigor.' 

It  b  generally  known  that  the  Russian  goes 
reeking  from  a  bath,  heated  almost  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  endurance,  and  immediately,  without 
staying  to  cool  himself,  rolk  his  naked  bod^  in 
snow:  and  the  experiments  made  some  time 
since  by  Fordyce  and  Bls^den  prove  that  a  rapid 
transition  from  high  heat  to  cold  may,  under 
some  circumstances,  be  made  with  the  utmost 
safety.  So  erroneous  is  the  notion  we  are  now 
combating,  that  the  body  requires  to  be  cooled 
in  order  to  render  it  fit  for  a  chilling  medium. 
Still,  there  are  certaid  fiEu:ts  connected  with  the 
action  of  cold  and  heat  on  the  living  system, 
which  prove  that  we  must  not  take  too  precipi- 
tately, or  in  too  unqualified  a  manner,  the  reverse 
rule  for  our  guide  Uirough  all  circumstances.  As 
an  example,  says  a  modem  writer,  of  the  injuri- 
ous tenden<^  of  a  precipitate  application  of  cold 
when  the  body  is  heated,  in  a  more  than  ordi- 
nary degree,  the  sufferings  of  the  Macedonian 
conqueror,  trom  plunging  into  the  river  Cydnus, 
have  frequently  been  adduced.  Dr.  Currie,  how- 
ever, has  endeavoured  to  prove,  that  the  situation 
of  Alexander,  previously  to  bathing,  was  different 
from  that  more  commonly  imagined ;  and  that 
his  subsequent  illness,' as  related  by  his  historian, 
is  referrible  to  circumstances  exactly  opposite  to 
those  to  which  they  are  generally  attributed. 
From  the  length  and  difficult  of  the  march,  it  u 
natural  to  suppose  that  he  must  haver  been  cooled 
as  well  as  debilitated,  by  excessive  perspiration 
and  fatigue;  and  under  such  circumstances,  im- 
mersion in  the  cold  and  rapid  Cydnus  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  consequences  which  we  should 
expect  from  the  principles  already  laid  down. 

Other  circumstances,  however,  have  been 
arrayed  as  evidences  against  the  propriety  and 
safety  of  a  sudden  application  or  cold  subse- 
quently to  violent  heat  Many  well  attested 
instances  are  on  record,  of  instantaneous  death, 
or  violent  disorders,  which  have  terminated 
fatally,  following  imprudent  exposure  to  cold, 
while  the  body  has  been  overheated;  and  in 
some  of  these,  the  application  of  the  noxious 
cause  has  confessedly  been  made  previously  td 
the  production  of  £Bitigne  or  coldness.  It  is  by 
no  means  uncommon  for  violent  inflammation  of 
the  stomach  or  lungs  to  be  occasioned  by  large 
draughts  of  cold  water,  incautiously  taken  to 
abate  thirst,  consequent  upon  excessive  heat; 
and  the  injurious  efiects  of  the  external  appli- 
cation of  cold  water,  both  to  the  whole  surrace, 
and  merely  to  a  part  of  the  body,  have  been 
circumstantially  related,  in  order  to  invalidate  or 
qualify  the  inferences  of  Dr.  Currie. 

Tliese  apparently  contradictory    deductions, 


(says  lieid),  on  this  very  inteiesting  sobiecty 
may  perhaps  be  in  some  measure  reooncilad  by 
the  following  considerations : — 

The  state  of  the  body,  in  relation  to  its  suscep- 
tibility of  being  acted  on  by  cold  media,  has 
more  reference  to  the  kind  than  degree  of  previ- 
ously existing  heat;  or,  more  correctly  speaking, 
although  an  equal  quantity  of  heat  may  be  pre- 
sent in  the  system,  such  heat  may  be  afastraded 
with  greater  or  less  fiuility  and  seiety,  according 
to  the  mode  in  which  it  has  been  generated. 
The  increase  of  temperature  occasioned  by  what 
is  termed  an  inflammatory  action  pervadnig  the 
whole  system,  such  as  is  sometimes  observed  in 
violent  mflammation  of  th^ lungs;  that  attended 
with  an  extremely  debilitated  state  of  the  vital 
power,  as  in  instances  of  what  has  been  tenaed 
uiproperly  putrid  fever;  the  heat  consequeat 
upon  violent  exercise,  and  that  produced  by 
communication  from  without,  as  in  the  example 
of  hot  baths,  or  exposures  to  other  sources  of 
great  heat,  while  the  body  continues  inactive ; 
are  all  essentially  dtffeient  in  their  nature :  and, 
although  in  each  case  the  quantity  may  be  equal, 
and  the  thermometer  applied  to  any  part  of  the 
body  shall  indicate  the  same  temperature,  yet 
from  such  temperature  alone  it  would  be  im- 
proper to  form  a  judgment  of  the  expediency 
and  safety-  of  the  sudden  application  of  cold.  In 
the  authOT's  recollection  a  case  occurred,,  of  vio- 
lent  inflamtoation  of  the  whole  thoracic  viscera, 
which  speedily  terminated  in  death,  almost  inn 
mediately  following  a  large  draught  of  cold 
water,  when  the  body  had  been  heated  from 
unusual  exercise.  The  deceased  was  previoasly 
to  the  event  a  strong  and  healthy  man,  in  the 
prime  and  vigor  of  life.  In  this  case  the  iiqury 
appeared  to  arise,  not  from  the  sudden  abs^ac- 
tion  of  heat,  but  from  the  precipitate  interrup- 
tion of  those  actions  by  which  the  increase  of 
temperamro  had  been  generated.  Had  the  seme 
quantity  of  water  equally  cold  been  suddenly 
swallowed  by  a  person  oppressed  and  debilitated 
by  febrile  heat  and  irritation,  these  fatal  oonse- 

auences  would  not  have  succeeded,  because  in 
lis  latter  case  the  cold  fluid  would  have  oper- 
ated in  deducting  from  the  superfluous  quantity 
of  generated  and  oppressive  neat,  and  the  re- 
freshing sensation  excited  in  consequenee  would 
have  stimulated  the  languid  frame.  The  same 
principle  likewise  applies  in  the  applioatioD  of 
oold  media,  either  partial  or  general,  to  the 
external  surfeoe.  Dr.  Beddoes  relates  the  case 
of  an  obstinate  eruptive  afiRecUon  being  produced 
on  the  face,  in  consequence  of  the  immenioD  of 
that  part  in  cdd  water,  when  the  subject  of  the 
affection  was  heated  and  thrown  into  perora- 
tion by  play.  Had  this  immersion  imniedialely 
succeeded  to  hot  bathing,  or  been  made  during 
the  existence  of  dry  febrile  beat,  the  iniurious 
effects  would  not  have  resulted;  for  this  reason, 
that  the  action  of  the  cutaneous  vessels  would 
not  in  the  latter  cases  have  been  injuriously 
interrupted,  and  thus  indirectly  stim«laled  inio 
inordinate  excitement. 

The  seeming  contrarieties  of  specniatian  on  dK 
subject  of  temperature,  may,  perhaps,  likewise, 
in  some  measure,  have  arisen  from  the  veiy  im- 
portant circumstances  of  cooling  appIicatioiKt 


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acting  through  successive  moments,  or  by  succes- 
sive quantities.  If  a  person  in  a  heated  state 
drink  half  a  pint  of  cool  liquid,  that  may  not 
sensibly  reduce  him  below  the  natural  healthy 
state.  But  if  he  p-'^ur  down  double  that  quantify 
at  once,  the  last  half  pint  may  be  regarded  as 
operating  upon  the  system  reduced  by  the  first, 
and  sinking  into  a*  dangerous  chilliness.  So  im- 
mersion for  a  moment  in  a  sunny  river  may 
strengthen  and  refresh,  as  many  pedestrian 
travellers  have  experienced;  whereas  delay  in 
the  water  would  be  attended  with  great  hazard^ 
on  account  of  the  continued  operation  of  a  heat- 
abstracting  medium  upon  a  system  sufficiently 
reduced  m  its  temperature  and  action  by  the 
first  plunge.  Whatever  might  have  been  the 
actual  condition  of  Alexander,  when  he  plunged 
into  the  Cydnus,  the  injurious  effects  of  his 
bathing  unquestionably  originated  from  the  sud- 
den r^uction  of  heat  below  the  standard  of 
health.  'Vixque  ingressi  subito  horrore  artus 
rigore  ceperunt:  pallor  deinde  sufiusus  est,  et 
totum  propemodum  corpus  vitalis  calor  reli- 
^uit.'  in  this  case,  perhaps,  an  exposure  to  cool 
air,  or  immeision  in  water  of  a  superior  tempera- 
ture, but  which  would  nevertheless  have  abstract- 
•ed  a  certain  degree  of  heat  from  the  languid 
frame,  would  have  displayed  effects  exactly  con- 
trary to  what  the  historian  here  relates.  In  like 
manner,  the  Russian,  who  reeking  from  his 
vapor  bagnio,  immediately  rolls  in  snow;  or, 
who,  after  immersion  in  a  bath  which  has  been 
heated  almost  beyond  endurance,  instantaneously 
plunges  into  contiguous  cold  water,  requires 
that  the  medium  to  which  he  is  first  exposed  be 
extremely  great,  or  the  succeeding  cold  appli- 
cation would  debilitate,  and  perhaps  destroy. 
Upon  this  principle,  likewise,  the  statement  of 
Dr.  Fordyce  is  explained,  that  a  person  passing 
from  a  violent  degree  of  heat  to  much  cold,  will 
gradually  return  to  his  proper  standard  of  tem- 
peratare,  while  from  a  sudden  change  from  heat 
to  cold,  when  the  heat  has  not  been  so  high, 
diseases  will  often  be  generated. 

To  revert  to  the  subject  more  especially  under 
our  present  consideration,  we  may  remark,  that 
cold  bathing  will  in  general  be  found  applicable 
to  those  conditions  of  nervous  and  muscular  las- 
situde and  weadcness,  in  which,  though  the  powers 
«C  the  system  are  thus  below  their  due  grade, 
there  is  sufficient  energy  to  insure  a  healthy 
re-action;  while  its  use  is  objectionable  and  fear- 
ful, where  local  and  especially  visceral  irritation 
of  a  vascular  kind  accompanies  the  general  de- 
bility; and  this  condition  of  the  frame,  it  is  ri^ht 
to  remark,  is  of  more  common  occurrence  than 
is  sometimes  suspected;  thie  topical  affection 
often  being  masked,  as  it  were,  or  concealed 
under  the  systematic  weakness;  and  the  detection 
of  that  something  which  is  thus  preying  upon  the 
vitals  requiring  frequently  the  nicest  tact,  and 
most  extended  experience.  It  will  have  been 
remarked,  that  the  two  highest  of  the  ancient 
authorities  in  medicine,  spesJc  of  local  and  hectic 
circnmstanoes  as  contra-indicating  the  propriety 
of  eold  immersion ;  and  it  will  be  recollected, 
that  we  gave  a  case  in  point,  as  substantiating 
the  propriety  of  these  cautions— cautions,  how- 
iTf  which  on  the  other  hand,  must  not  be  con- 


ceived and  acted  Upon  with  too  much  nicety,  lest 
we  lose  sight  altogether  of  radical  weakness ;  and 
fear  to  stimulate  and  excite,  where  excitation 
may  prove  abundantly  serviceable. 

In  regard  to  the  mode  and  times  of  using  the 
cold  bath,  the  following  directions,  tekea  from 
Dr.  Willich,  may  be  worthy  attention.  *lst. 
Every  cold  bath  applied  to  the  whole  body 
ought  to  be  of  short  duration ;  all  depends  upon 
the  first  impression  the  cold  makes  on  the  skin 
and  nerves,  it  being  this  impression  which 
hardens  us  against  the  effects  of  rough  and  cold 
weather.  2d,  The  head  should  be  always  first 
wetted,  either  by  immersion,  by  pouring  water 
upon  it,  or  the  application  ot  wet  cloths,  and 
then  plunging  over  head  into  the  bath.  8d,  The 
immersion  ought  always  to  be  sudden ;  not  only 
because  it  is  less  felt  than  when  we  enter  the  batli 
slowly  and  timorously,  but  likewise  because  the 
effsct  of  the  first  impression  is  uniform  all  over 
the  body,  and  the  blood  in  this  manner  is  not 
propelled  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  parts. 
Hetice  the  shower  bath  possesses  great  advan- 
tages, as  it  pours  the  water  suddenly  upon  the 
whole  body,  and  thus  in  the  most  perfect  manner 
fulfils  the  three  rules  above  speciued.  4th,  The 
due  temperature  of  the  cold  bath  can  only  be 
ascertained  in  relation  to  individual  cases,  as  it 
extends  from  33°  to  56**  of  Fahrenheit,  except  in 
partial  bathings,  where  the  degree  of  cold  may, 
and  often  ought  to  be,  increased  by  ice,  nitre, 
alum,  salt,  sal-ammoniac,  or  other  artificial 
means.  5th,  Gentle  exercise  ought  to  precede 
the  cold  batfi,  to  produce  some  re-action  of  the 
vascular  system  upon  entering  it;  for  neither 
complete  rest  nor  violent  exercise  is  proper, 
previously  to  the  use  of  this  remedy.  6th,  The 
morning  or  forenoon  is  the  most  proper  time  for 
cold  bathing,  unless  it  be  in  a  river ;  then  the 
afternoon  or  towards  the  evening,  when  the 
water  has  been  vnurmed  by  the  sun,  and  the 
dinner  has  been  digested,  are  the  most  eligible 

Seriods  of  the  day ;  a  light  break&st  will  not  be 
etrimental  before  using  the  bath.  7th,  While 
in  the  water  we  should  not  remain  inactive,  but 
move  about  in  order  to  promote  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  from  tiie  centre  of  the  body  to  the 
extremities.  8th,  After  immersion,  the  whole 
body  ought  to  be  wiped  as  quickly  as  possible, 
with  a  dry  and  somewhat  rough  cloth.  Mode- 
rate exercise  out  of  doors,  if  convenient,  is  pro- 
per, and  indeed  nec^sary.* 

We  now  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  hot 
or  warm  bathings  from  the  temperature  of  ninety 
to  above  a  hundred  degrees,  about  which  much 
of  what  is  erroneous  in  theory  has  also  been  con- 
ceived. As  cold  immersion  was  supposed  to 
harden,  by  constringing  and  contracting  the 
fibres  of  the  body,  so  has  it  been  thought  that 
immersion  in  warm  water  would  tend  to  soften 
and  relax  the  material  fabric  of  which  the  framfe 
is  made  up.  That  there  may  be  something  of 
foundation,  in  fact,  for  these  notions,  we  would 
not  in  ioto  deny ;  but  it  seems  more  consistent 
with  the  laws  that  govern  organised  existence  to 
refer  the  effects  to  excitation,  direcUy  or  indi- 
rectly induced,  than  to  imagine  the  fibres  of  the 
body  capable,  or  rather  susceptible,  of  those 
mutations  that  take  place  in  inanimate  matter ; 


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and,  in  point  or  fact,  we  find  that  some  indi- 
vidual or  individuals  in  some  circumstances, 
after  a  reiterated  use  of  warm  or  hot  water  to  the 
whole  or  part  of  tlie  body's  surface,  shall  be  ren- 
dered firmer  and  more  robust  than  they  were 
prior  to  the  employment  of  this  relaxing  agency. 

Another  effect  has  also  been  attributed  to  the  use 
of  hot  water,  or  vapor,  as  a  bath,  about  which 
there  is  some  reason  also  to  doubt  the  full  legiti- 
macy  of  the  inferences  that  have  been  deduced : 
viz.  its  expanding  or  rarefying  qualities,  displayed 
upon  the  fluids  of  the  body,  more  especially  upon 
the  blood ;  and  some  writers  have  reasoned  upon 
the  operation  of  the  hot  bath  from  beginning  to 
end  under  this  assumption ;  we  are  told,  how- 
ever, by  experimenters,  that  the  blood  is  very 
little  expansible  by  heat  under  any  circumstances; 
and  it  has  been  observed,  that  the  mean  tempe- 
rature of  all  the  fluids  of  the  body  is  seldom  ele- 
vated more  than  a  degree  or  two  by  a  bath  of  any 
kind ;  and  even  if  the  elevation  were  ten  degrees, 
the  expansion  of  all  the  circulating  fluids  would 
not  exceed  the  bulk  of  a  single  additional  ounce 
of  blood  or  of  water.  So  that  to  a  certain  sort  of 
stimulation,  rather  than  to  mechanical  or  chemical 
impulse,  are  we  to  attribute  the  intemal  changes 
that  occur  in  the  fluids  and  solids  of  the  body, 
from  alterations  of  exterior  temperature.  That 
these  changes  to  some  extent  do  occur,  is,  how- 
ever, pretty  certain;  and  the  swelling  of  the 
veins,  with,  indeed,  the  temporary  increase  of 
bulk  in  the  feet,  when  immersed  in  hot  water, 
would  seem  attributable  either  to  an  entrance  of 
some  of  the  fluid  from  without  in  among  the 
fluids  of  the  body  (the  possibility  of  which,  as 
we  shall  immediately  see,  is  questioned),  or  to 
an  altered  state  of  the  fluids  and  secretions,  and 
perhaps  of  the  solids,  induced  by  a  modification 
and  mixture  of  exciting  and  expanding  agency ; 
-w  hich,  in  our  present  state  of  knowledge  respect- 
ing the  laws  and  limits  of  vital  forces  in  their 
contest  with  inanimate  matter,  would  appear  not 
sufiiciently  explained. 

In  observing  upon  the  conditions  of  the  body 
in  which  warm  bathing  is  likely  to  prove  salutary 
on  the  one  hand,  or  is  open  to  objections  on  the 
other,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  some  of  the 
circumstances  which  render  cold  bathing  fearful, 
cause  warm  bathing  to  be  objectionable  likewise. 
Thus,  in  apoplectic  fulness,  in  tendencies  to 
hemorrhage  from  the  lungs,  or  from  the  head,  in 
some  species  of  asthma,  and  in  many  of  the  dis- 
orders ranged  under  the  division  of  phlegmasis  by, 
.mtematic  writers,  we  should  equally  avoid  botn 
the  hot  and  cold  bath;  and  were  the  old  doctrines 
of  reaction  and  expansion  permitted  to  explain 
our  objections,  we  should  say  that,  in  the  first 
case,  rarefaction  of  fluids  and  consequent  disten- 
sion of  vessel  constituted  the  points  of  objection ; 
while  iu  the  other,  the  rush  of  fluids  into  vessels 
already  in  a  condition  of  over  excitement  ren- 
dered the  practise  dangerous ;  and  to  some  ex- 
tent, it  does,  we  repeat,  appear  to  us,  in  spite  of 
modem  refinements  in  theory,  that  we  should  be 
correct  in  our  reasoning. 

There  is  one  curious  circumstance  connected 
with  the  efiects  of  warm  bathing  upon  the  sys- 
tem, which  is,  that  it  may,  bv  proper  manage- 
ment, be  brought  to  reduce  me  inordinate  heat 


of  fever;  and  Dr.  Currie  has  particularly  recom- 
mended it  with  this  view,  ui  cases  where  objec- 
tions might  lie  against  the  employment  of  cold 
water  for  the  same  purpose;  the  possession  of 
this  property  and  influence  may  be  taken  in  full 
proof  that  much  remains  still  to  be  explained  o» 
the  subject  of  living  temperature ;  it  should  be 
observed  that  the  efiect  in  question  is  often 
operated  without  reference  to  perspiration,  or  at 
least  before  perspiration  appears  externally  upon 
the  body;  and  Dr.  Currie  nas  proposed  an  inge* 
nious  exolanation  of  the  fact,  by  suggestiag- 
whether  the  secretion  of  the  perspirable  fluid, 
before  it  is  poured  out  upon  the  surface,  may 
not  occasion  an  absorption  of  heat  and  conse- 
quent reduction  of  temperature,  by  the  greater 
capacity  that  the  matter  of  perspiration  has  for 
heat  than  the  blood  had  from  which  it  was 
formed.  See  Tempebatuke  (Animal),  and 
Physiology. 

From  the  mode  and  kind  of  excitation  whidi 
warm  bathing  produces,  it  might  be  supposed 
that  chronic  riieumatism,  that  old-standing  affec- 
tions of  a  paralytic  kind,  tha(  contracted  limbs 
from  arthritic  disorders,  that  spasms  and  ob- 
structions in  the  bowels,  that  many  maladies 
which  implicate  the  nervous  organisation  witliout 
producing  plenitude  of  vessels,  and  that  morbid 
conditions  of  the  external  surface,  whether  of  the 
skin  merely,  or  whether  the  cutaneous  afiection 
have  had  to  do  with  the  state  of  intemal  mem- 
branes and  visceral  derangement,  would  mate- 
rially be  benefited  by  its  judicious  employment — 
and  this  we  find  to  be  the  case.  In  several  of 
the  functional  disturbances  that  ^re  incident  to 
children,  arising  from  the  extreme  mobility  of 
the  frame  common  to  the  infantile  period  of 
existence,  warm  bathing,  by  equalising  the  cir- 
culation, and  determining,  as  it  is  expressed,  to 
the  surkce,  often  proves  conspicuously,  and 
very  speedUy  serviceable;  but  m  instances  of 
the  occurrence  of  disorder,  whether  croiipaly 
convulsive,  or  intestinal,  it  is  often  necessary  H> 
premise  purging  or  blood-letting,  especsally 
should  the  cMld  be  of  a  full  habit,  otherwise  the 
stimulating,  and,  if  we  may  be  permitted  to  siy 
80,  expanding  power  of  the  heated  water  mi^ 
tend  to  the  production  of  vascular  plenitude  to 
a  dangerous  excess.  It  must  be  allowed  that 
the  tendency  of  warm  bathing  to  occasion  co- 
pious perspiration  is  calculated,  in  some  mea- 
sure, to  obviate  the  objection  now  preferred 
against  its  indiscriminate  use ;  but  then  the  mis- 
chief is  sometimes  done  before  the  system  shall 
have  been  thus  relieved ;  and  we  have  ventured 
upon  this  intimation,  because  we  think,  in  the 
general  way,  too  little  regard  is  given  in  domestic 
medicine  to  the  circumstances  calculated  at 
once  to  promote  the  efiicacy  and  insare  the 
safety  of  the  measure  under  consideratioo. 

Without  reference  to  actual  or  positive  disease, 
it  may  be  stated,  generally,  that  warm  bathing  is 
serviceable  in  those  low  condidons  of  the  ner- 
vous and  vascular  and  muscular  eneigy,  m 
which  the  same  use  of  cold  water  wmild  prove 
rather  injurious  than  useful;  it  is  a  cammon^ 
and  occasionally  a  good  practice,  lo  pfemise  its 
employment  when  it  is  eventually  intended  that 
the  individual  shall  go  into  the  cold  h9ik ;  the 


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mulus  of  the  fonner  beiug  of  such  kind  and 
tent  as  to  insure  against  Sie  hurtful  tendency 
the  latter ;  and  the  good  which  results  from 
is  method  would  prore  that  the  idea  is  erro- 
ous,  which  supposes  an  individual  more  liahle 

take  cold,  as  it  is  called,  while  using  the 
a.rm  bath  than  when  not  subjected  to  these 
langes  of  temperature.  The  ancients  were  in 
e  practice  of  gradual  transition  from  the  hot 
til  or  caldariuro,  to  the  tepidarium  or  cooler, 
id  thence  to  the  frigidariam  or  cold;  but  if 
ere  be  any  correctness  in  the  principles  above 
opoundedy  respecting  the  innoxious  nature  of 
•la  immediately  upon  heat,  these  precautions  in 
ference  ^o  successive  temperatures,  were  un- 
tcessary ;  and,  indeed,  in  some  cases  might  be 
orse  than  useless. 

Witli  respect  to  the  tepid  bath  very  little  need 
I  said  on  the  present  occasion,  since  water  from 
ghty  to  ninety  degrees  is  very  seldom  em- 
oyed  except  as  a  mere  abluent ;  unless,  indeed, 

those  instances  of  natural  or  artificial  waters 
hich  are  impregnated  with  substances  that  are 
mceived  to  have  a  specific  agency  of  a  medical 
Lture.  In  some  disorders  of  the  skin,  indeed, 
id  in  other  chronic  ailments,  tepid  bathing  may 
:casionally  be  advisable  when  circumstances 
rbid  the  employment  of  water  of  either  a  very 
•w  or  very  high  temperature. 
The  modes  of  using  cold  water  are,  first,  by 
lunging,  which  is  the  best  calculated,  perh&ps, 
•  insure  all  the  good  of  bathing ;  secondly,  by 
fusion,  or  pouring  water  over  the  head  and 
EK:k,  which  is  especially  applicable  to  those 
ates  of  nervous  weakness,  and  vascular  fulness 
:id  head-disorder,  in  which  the  common  bath 
iight  be  objectionable ;  and,  thirdly,  by  spong- 
ig  the  whole  surface  of  the  body  immediately 
pon  rising  from  bed;  which  last  practice  may, 
I  the  case  of  most  individuals,  be  pursued  with 
ifety  and  convenience.  Tlje  writer  of  these 
iinarks,  sincd  he  has  been  accaitomed  to  daily 
slution  in  this  way,  has  found  himself  much 
ss  liable  to  catarrml  disorder  than  before ;  and 

may  be  observed,  that  he  tried,  some  years 
nee,  cold  bathmg  by  immersion,  without  the 
iT[\e  agreeable  or  salutary  consequences;  but 
art  of  this  difference  of  effect  he  is  disposed  to 
ttribute  to  a  recent  improvement  in  constitu- 
lonal  energy,  which  would  probably  insure,  at 
le  present  time,  more  steady  re-action,  and 
etter  general  effect  than  formerly  followed  im- 
lersion/ 

Baths  with  Medici val  Impregnations. 
n  the  article  Waters,  we  purpose  to  enter  into 

somewhat  lengthened  detail  on  the  virtues  that 
ave  been  ascribed  to  the  several  medicinal 
p lings  that  are  resorted  to  by  the  invalid,  and 
k'hich  are  used  as  remedies,  some  in  the  way 
f  internal  administration,  exclusively,  others 
oih  externally  and  internally.  We  mean  here 
mncipally  to  confine  ourselves  to  one  or  two 
emarks,  bearing  upon  the  much  agitated  and 
till  unsettled  question,  respecting  the  degree  of 
fficacy  that  may  be  expected  to  attend  immers- 
ng  the  body  in  water,  containing  particular  im- 
jregnation,  or  applying  such  water  in  any  manner 
o  the  external  surface. 
Vol  hi. 


ThU  question  involves  in  it  the  very  interesting 
one  of  cutaneous  absorption,  as  it  has  been  called ; 
in  other  words,  the  enquiry,  whether,,  while  the 
outer  skin  be  whole  and  entire,  any  substances, 
however  subtle,  can  be  made  to  penetrate  throueh 
it;  it  must,  however,  be  recollected,  that  the 
negativing  of  this  proposition  would  not  imply 
the  denial  of  all  influence  from  exterior  applica- 
tions, since  the  materials  used  may  be  of  such  a 
stimulating  or  irriuiting  quality  as  to  produce  a 
sort  of  abrasion  of  the  scarf  or  outer  covering ; 
and  since  some  of  them  being  of  a  volatile  kind, 
and  surrounding  the  subject  of  the  experiment 
vrith  their  fiimes,  the  lungs  may  be  the  media 
through  which  the  whole  system  may  become  im- 
pregnated with  their  qualities. 

Now  several  authors,  who  have  written  on  the 
subject  of  bathing,  have  all  along  assumed  the 
permeability  of  the  outer  skin  to  the  water  em- 
ployed ;  and  one  of  them.  Dr.  Marcard,  states 
that  the  sufferings  of  Tantalus  vrill  not  be  rated 
Tery  highly  by  the  naturalist.  We  have  already 
said  that  the  bulk  of  a  limb,  which  is  immersed 
in  hot-water,  is  for  a  time  augmented ;  and  this 
has  been  attributed  by  those  who  reason  on  the 
supposition  of  cutjineous  inhalation,  or  imbibing, 
to  the  actual  penetration,  through  the  skin,  of 
some  iK>rtion  of  the  fluid.  Many  experiments, 
however,  have  been  instituted,  which  seem  to 
prove  that  there  is  some  fallacy  in  this  conclu- 
sion, and  that  the  weight  of  the  whole  body  is 
not  at  all  added  to  by  total  immersion,  for  some 
length  of  time,  in  water  even  of  a  high  tempera- 
ture. 

Seguin,  Rousseau,  Currie,  and  others,  have 
puisued  a  series  of  experiments,  to  which  more 
TOuticular  allusion  will  be  made  in  the  article 
Physiology  ;  and  from  which  they  infer,  that, 
while  the  skin  is  uninterfered  with,  either  by 
mechanical  pressure  or  by  actual  abrasion,  no 
matter  whatever,  solid  or  fluid,  medicinal  or 
otherwise,  can  be  received  from  without,  the 
scarf  skin  being  impenetrable  to  the  most  subtle 
material ;  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Currie,  *  though 
the  exhaJants  of  the  skin  pierce  the  epidermis 
(scarf  skin),  and  come  in  contact  with  the  ex- 
ternal air,  me  mouths  of  the  absorbents  terminate 
under  it,  and  are  covered  by  it;  and  while  it 
remains  unirritated  and  entire,  no  absorption  of 
solid,  liquid,  or  aeriform  elastic  fluid  takes  place 
on  the  surface.  In  the  instances,'  he  adds,  *  that 
are  supposed  to  favor  the  contrary  opinion,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  article  absorbed  is  forced 
through  the  epidermis  by  mechanical  pressure ; 
or  that  the  epidermis  has  been  previously  de- 
stroyed by  injury  or  disease ;  or,  if  sound,  that 
the  article  applied  to  it  is  of  an  acrid  nature, 
which  first  irritates  and  erodes  this  tegument, 
and  then,  coming  in  contact  with  the  mouths  of 
the  lymphatics  under  it,  is  of  course  absorbed. 
Seguin*s  words,  expressive  of  this  &ct  and  prin- 
ciple, are  equally  decided  and  forcible :  *  The 
epidermis  is  a  iMurier  which  no  kind  of  virus 
(and  he  includes  all  internal  matters)  can  pass 
while  that  tissue  is  in  a  sound  state  and  perfectly 
whole ;  nor  can  they  be  absorbed  by  the  skin.' 
For  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  this  interest- 
ing topic  we  must  refer,  as  abore,  intimat^,  to 
the  article  Physiology.   Under  the  word  Mbdi<- 

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rxN£,  too,  facts  in  support  of,  and  against  the 
doctrine  of  cutaneous  inhalation  will  call  for  no- 
tice and  comment;  we  must  here  limit  ourselves 
to  stating  that  the  anti-absorptionists  have  at  least 
proved  a  great  deal,  so  much  so,  that  it  may  be 
▼ery  fairly  doubted  whether  inferences  respecting 
impregnations  of  the  system  by  baths  have  not 
been  deduced  too  hastily  and  empirically.  But, 
on  Che  other  hand,  it  catnot  be  doubted  that  there 
are  substances  employed  which  have  the  power 
of  forcibly  perpeating  the  outer  skin  by  their 
irritating  and  eroding  quality;  and  are  in  this 
way  either  actually  absorbed  into  the  system  ge- 
nerally, or  by  the  sympathy  which  the  true  skin 
constantly  keeps  up  with  internal  organs;  the  in- 
fluence of  the  remedy  may  in  this  manner  be 
transmitted  to  the  interior  without  any  actual 
conveyance  of  matter.  There  is  still  another 
way  in  which  medicinal  substances  may  act  upon 
the  frame  without  being  actually  received  mto 
it,  viz.  either  by  corrugating  and  strengthening, 
or  relaxing  and  mollifying  the  fibres  of  Ae  body ; 
thus,  chalybeate  may  be  more  tonic  than  com- 
mon water,  by  the  tonic  influence  it  exerts  ex- 
teriorly. From  what  we  have  already  advanced, 
however,  in  another  part  of  the  present  paper, 
it  will  be  understood  that  this  principle  of 
agency  is  of  somewhat  equivocal  admission; 
and  that  it  is  at  any  rate  much  modified  and 
limited  by  the  laws  of  life. 

It  will  not  be  proper  to  dismiss  this  part  of 
our  investigation  without  adverting  to  one  par- 
ticular mode  of  exciting  interior  movements, 
through  the  medium  of  exterior  medicinals,  viz. 
by  the  use  of  mineral  acids  applied  to  the  sur&ce 
of  the  body;  which,  whether  they  act  through 
the  medium  of  the  absorbing  power,  or  whether 
their  agency  be  effected  by  means  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  that  sympathetic  relation  which 
we  have  already  stated  the  skin  maintains  with 
internal  parts ;  certain  it  is  that  they  do  display 
an  influence  upon  the  frame  which  gives  them  a 
fair  claim  of  aami:ision  into  the  catalogue  of  the- 
rapeutic agents.  From  Dr.  Good's  recently  pub- 
lished volumes,  entitled  the  Study  of  Medicine, 
we  shall  extract  an  account  of  the  bath  to  which 
we  now  refer. 

'  There  is  yet  another  remedy,'  says  Dr.  G. 
*  for  afiections  of  the  biliary  organs,  &c.  which 
of  late  years  has  excited  great  attention,  and  is 
now  surmounting  an  ungenerous  prejudice  that 
was  at  first  very  extensively  directed  against  it — 
and  that  is  the  diluted  aqua  regia  bath,  invented 
by  Dr.  Scott  of  Russell  Square.  For  nearly 
thirty  years  he  has  been  in  the  habit  of  using  this 
preparation,  and  has  tried  it  in  almost  every  va- 
riety of  strengths,  and  almost  every  variety  of 
Sroportions  which  the  two  acids  that  enter  into 
le  composition  may  be  made  to  bear  to  each 
other.  He  commenced  his  experiments  in  India, 
where,  on  account  of  the  greater  deeree  of  torpi- 
tude  the  liver  is  apt  to  acquire  than  in  more 
temperate  climates,  ne  was  in  the  habit  of  form- 
ing his  bath  stronger,  and  making  it  deeper  than 
he  has  found  it  proper  to  do  in  our  own  country; 
and  where,  upwards  of  twenty  years  ago,  ne 
plunged  the  duke  of  Wellington  into  one  up  to 
his  chin,  for  a  severe  hepatic  affection  he  was 
then  laboring  under,  and  thus  restored  him  to 
health  in  a  short  time.' 


In  England  it  is  not  often  that  he  finds  it  ne 
cessary  to  raise  the  bath  mudi  above  the  knees ; 
and  he  frequently  contents  himself  with  a  mere 
foot-bath  or  common  ii^rash-hand  basin  alone.  In 
both  which  cases,  however^  the  attendants  on  the 
patient  should  sponge  him  at  the  same  time  with 
the  diluted  aqua  regia  over  the  limbs,  and  occa- 
sionally over  the  body. 

The  aqua  regia  should  be  compounded  of 
three  parts  in  measure  of  muriatic  acid  and  two 
of  nitric  acid ;  and,  in  preparing  them  for  use,  a 
pint  of  the  combined  acia  is  to  be  mixed  with 
the  same  measure  of  water.  It  should,  however, 
be  observed  by  those  who  are  inclmed  to  forai 
this  mixture  extemporaneously  at  Jtheir  own 
houses,  that,  if  either  of  the  acids  be  poured  im- 
mediately on  the  other  a  large  volume  of  very . 
oflensive  gas  will  be  disengaged ;  on  which  ac- 
count it  will  be  better  to  pour  them  separately 
and  slowly  on  their  proper  measures  of  water. 

If  the  acids  be  of  adequate  strength,  the  mix- 
ture, subdiluted  for  bathing,  will,  to  the  taste, 
have  the  sourness  of  weak  vinegar,  and  perhaps 
prick  the  skin  slightly,  if  very  delicate,  I5^t  not 
otherwise,  afler  it  has  been  applied  to  the  sur- 
face for  half  an  hour.  But  since  these  acids 
vary  much  in  their  degree  of  concentration,  as 
distilled  by  difierent  chemists,  there  will  be  sovm 
variation  in  their  power.  The  strength  of  die 
bath,  however,  should  not  be  much  greater  at 
any  time  than  the  proportion  here  laid  down; 
for  otherwise  it  may  excite  a  troublesome  rash, 
and  give  a  yellow  hue  to  the  nails  and  skin  of 
the  feet,  or  whatever  other  part  is  exposed  to  its 
action.  A  narrow  tub,  for  a  knee^teth,  just 
wide  enough  to  hold  the  feet  and  reach  the 
knees,  should  contain  three  gallons  of  the  pre- 
pared bath  liquor,  and  consequently  about  nine 
ounces  in  measure  of  the  dUuted  aqua  regia. 
For  a  foot  bath  half  a  gallon  may  be  sufficient, 
and  a  common  wash-hand  basin  may  be  em- 
ployed as  a  vessel  for  the  purpose.  The  feet 
should  remain  in  the  bath  for  twenty  minutes  or 
half  an  hour,  and  the  legs,  thighs,  and  abdomen, 
be  in  the  mean  time  frequently  sponged  with  the 
same.  In  the  winter  the  water  may  be  used 
warm ;  but  this  is  not  necessary  in  the  snmmer. 
The  baths  may  be  employed  first  daily  for  a 
fortnight  or  three  weeks,  and  afterwaxds  every 
other  day,  or  only  twice  a  week. 

Dr.  Scott  affirms  that  he  has  employed  this 
process  with  decided  advantage  in  almost  all 
cases  depepdent  upon  a  morbid  secretion  of  bile, 
whether  the  secretion  be  superabundant,  de- 
fective, or  depraved.  He  finds  it  often,  within  a 
few  hours  of  the  first  bathing,  increase  the  flow 
of  bile  and  ameliorate  its  character;  and,  in  con- 
sequence hereof  excite  an  expulsion  of  daik- 
colored  fsces,  bright  colored  oile,  or  bile  of  a 
green  brown  or  black  color,  like  tar  mixed  with 
oil.  He  has  told  me,  also,  that  when  employed 
in  the  midst  of  a  paroxysm  of  severe  pain  firom 
spasm  of  the  biliary  ducts,  or  the  passing  of  a 
gall-stone,  he  has  often  known  it  to  operate  like 
a  charm,  and  produce  almost  immediate  ease. 

*  This  account,'  continues  Dr.  Good,  *  may 
be  rather  overcharged  Iroin  the  ardent  miikd  of 
its  intelligent  inventor ;  but  the  process  is  worth 
following  up,  and  varying  in  other  propoTtios*^ 
as  well  as  employing  in  other  fiunilies  of  dn- 


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eaMB.  My  own  use  of  it  is  at  present  too  limited 
to  epeak  with  decision;  yet  so  &r  as  I  have 
tried  it,  it  has  certainly  appeared  to  me  to  allay 
irritation,  and  produce  a  tonic  effect.  In  two  or 
three  instances  the  advanta^^  has  been  decisive ; 
and  patients  who  had  hitherto  been  seldom  two 
months  without  a  severe  return  of  the  complaint, 
have  entirely  escaped,  and  apparently  lost  the 
morbid  predisposition.  In  a  few  other  cases  it 
has  completely  fiuled/ 

Under  the  head  of  specific,  as  opposed  to 
common  bathing,  it  may  perhaps  be  right  to 
mention  the  tea  water,  which  is  generally 
miagined  to  possess  some  superior,  and  even 
different,  efficacy  from  fresh  water  of  the  same 
temperature.  It  is  a  vulgar  notion  that  exposure 
to  sea  water,  in  the  way  of  accident  or  otherwise, 
does  not  so  readily  engender  catarrhal  disorder 
as  would  the  like  exposure  to  ordinary  water ; 
and  if  this  be  a  well-founded  notion,  there  would 
seem  to  be  some  faculty  possessed  by  the  saline 
impregnation,  capable  of  counteracting  its  other- 
wise injurious  influence.  How  this  operates,  it 
does  not  seem  very  easy  to  understand,  and  we 
are  disposed  to  suspect  that  there  is  some  fallacy 
in  the  conclusion  altogether ;  it  may  be  that  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  that  habit,  that  the  superior  . 
robustness  of  those  individuals  who  are  mainly 
exposed  to  sea  water,  may  assist  in  its  compara- 
tive nq;ation  of  deleterious  influence,  and  that 
the  appendages  to  sea  bathing  may  likewise  act 
in  aid  of  its  superior  salubrity,  to  a  greater  ex* 
tent  than  is  usually  conceived.  While  we  throw 
out  these  intimations,  we  would  not,  at  the  same 
time,  wish  to  be  thought  unjustifiably  sceptical 
with  regard  to  the  greater  power  of  sea,  than  of 
common  bathing ;  and  it  may  be,  that  the  recent 
project  of  causing  'the  waters  of  the  ocean  to 
come  galloping  up  to  London,'  is  not  mere 
quackenr  or  chimera. . . 

Dr.  Parr  observes  that  'bathing  in  the  sea  is 
on  the  whole  preferable  to  common  bathing,  as 
the  heat  is  more  uniform.  It  is,  also,  perhaps 
from  the  agitation  of  the  water,  more  refreshing. 
Other  causes  of  preference  have  been  assigned; 
one  is  the  greater  pressure  of  the  water  impreg- 
nated with  salt ;  the  other  the  stimulus  or  that 
salt  left  on  the  skin.  Each  may  have  some 
effect,  and  the  latter  ground  of  proerence  is  as- 
suredly more  certain  than  the  former.  We 
cannot  easily  conceive  how  the  momentary 
increase  of  pressure  can  have  any  considerable 
effect,  except  by  the  increase  of  momentum ;  and 
the  Stay  in  the  sea  is  ,too  short  to  expect  much 
advantage  from  this  source.' 

Vapoh  Baths  can  scarcely  be  considered  as 
specifically  different  from  those  of  water,  heated 
to  an  extremely  high  temperature.  This  mode  of 
bathing,  though  lately  used  in  this  country  more 
than  formerly,  has  been  more  freely  and  .'gene- 
rally employed  on  the  continent,  and  especially 
in  Kossia,  where  it  constitutes  one  of  the  princi- 
pal luxuries  of  the  inhabitants  of  all  ranks :  and 
It  is  there  employed  for  a  multitude  of  diseases. 
It  conveys  heat  more  gradually  than  immersion 
in  water;  at  the  same  time,  more  heat  can  be 
applied  to  the  body,  and  its  application  may  be 
continued  for  a  longer  time.  The  vapor  bath 
was  used  by  the  ancient  Romans,  as  it  is  by  .the 


modern  Russians;  but  the  former,  as  we  have 
observed  in  a  former  part  of  tlie  present  article, 
did  not  practise  the  sudden  transitiou  which  is 
common  with  the  latter.    See  Vapor. 

Aia  Bato.  The  celebrated  Franklin,  by  his 
recommendation  of  reducing  the  temperature  of 
the  skin,  in  exposing  the  n^ed  body  to  the  air 
for  some  minutes,  and  thus  causing  a  healthy 
excitation  and  pleasant  feeling,  in  place  of  febrile 
irritation  and  morbid  heat,  has  brought  the  prac- 
tice of  air  bathing  into  pretty  general  employ. 
It  merelv  consists  in  getting  out  of  bed  without 
any  clothing,  and  walking  U>t  a  time  on  the  cold 
floor,  and  then  either  putting  on  the  clothes,  or 
what  is  better,  returning  to  ihe  warm  bed,  and 
lying  for  some  time  previously  to  dressing.  This 
may,  indeed,  be  practised  at  any  time  of  the  night 
with  safety,  when  the  individual  is  restless  and 
uncomfortable  from  feverish  heat;  the  effect  of  it, 
by  the  way,  proves  that  the  irritation  connected 
with  febrile  heat  has  reference  to  something  be- 
yond the  mere  augmentation  of  temperature, 
since  the  re-action  after  returning  to  bed  often 
brings  with  it  as  great,  though  not  so  uncom- 
fortable, a  measure  of  heat  as  that  which  pre- 
vailed previously  to  the  exposure  to  cold;  a 
mild  and  gentle  perspiration  sometimes  also 
succeeds,  which  likewise  shows  that  the  capil- 
lary vessels  of  the  surface  are  brought  into  a 
very  different  condition  of  being,  from  what  was 
their  state  prior  to  the  temporary  reduction  of 
temperature. 

On  Dry  Baths,  as  they  tiave  been  called,  we 
have  very  little  to  offer.  Some  time  since  a  good 
deal  of  attention  was  excited  to  a  proposal,  which 
indeed  was  put  in  practice,  of  burying  the  body 
in  earth  up  to  the  chin,  under  the  notion  that  its 
attractive  or  absorbing  powers  would  draw  mor- 
bid taints  from  the  Ix^y,  and  tlius  restore  health. 
In  the  commentaries  of  Van  Swieten,  on  the 
aphorisms  of  Boerhaave,  the  following  account  is 
given  of  this  practice: — ^*I  have  heard  from  a 
person  most  deserving  of  credit,  that  through  the 
whole  kingdom  of  Grenada,  they  have  a  method 
of  curing  phthisis  by  an  earth  bath ;  and  I  have 
since  read  the  same  account  in  the  works  of 
Francisco  Solano  de  Lugue,  who  caused  a  pit  to 
be  dug  in  the  earth,  where  no  plants  had  been 
sown;  and  into  this  pit  he  put  his  patients  up  to  . 
the  neck,  and  then  covered  them  with  the  same 
earth  which  had  been  dug  out,  and  there  left 
them  till  they  began  to  shiver,  when  he  caused 
them  to  be  taken  out  and  wrapped  in  linen 
cloths,  wetted  with  rose  water.'  A  Dr.  Graham, 
too,  an  empiric,  who  gained  some  celebrity,  pro- 
posed and  employed  earth  bathing ;  a  practice 
(says  a  modem  writer),  which  in  the  way  he 
used  it,  consigned  some  of  his  patients  to  a  per- 
petual mansion  under  the  ground. 

Sailors  have  been  in  the  practice  of  employing 
warm  sand  baths  for  scuxVy,  and  the  ancients 
adopted  many  modes  of  exciting  perspiration  by 
dry  heat ;  it  is  said  moreover  to  be  a  practice  at 
this  day,  in  some  parts,  to  cover  the  body  with 
horse  dung,  for  several  chronic  ailments;  but 
these  expedients  are  not  in  general  thoi^ght  avail- 
able by  individuals  of  the  present  period,  wbo 
make  physiology  and  pathology  the  ground-woik 
of  their  remedial  plans ;  and  we  are  not,  there- 

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BATHING, 


fore,  called  upon  to  engage  in  any  further  dis- 
quisition respecting  their  alleged  efficacy,  or 
supposed  modes  of  operation. 

Bathing  among  the  Tcjrks. — In  modem 
Turkey,  as  well  as  among  the  ancients,  bathing 
makes  a  part  of  diet  and  luxury ;  so  that  in  ev^ry 
town,  and  even  village,  there  is  a  public  bath. 
Indeed  the  necessity  of  cleanliness,  m  a  climate 
where  one  perspii'es  so  copiously,  has  rendered 
bathing  indispensable;  the  comfort  it  produces 
preserves  the  use  of  it ;  and  Mahomet,  who  knew 
Its  utility,  reduced  it  to  a  precept.  Of  these  baths, 
and  the  manner  of  bathing,  particularly  at  Cairo, 
the  following  account  is  given  by  Savary,  in  his 
Letters  on  Egypt :  *  The  first  apartment  one  finds, 
in  going  to  the  bath,  is  a  large  hall,  which  rises 
in  the  form  of  a  rotunda.  It  is  open  at  the 
top,  to  give  a  free  circulation  to  the  air.  A 
spacious  estrade,  or  raised  floor,  covered  with 
a  carpet,  and  divided  into  compartments,  goes 
around  it,  on  which  one  lays  one's  clothes.  In 
the  middle  of  the  building,  a  jet  d'eau  spouts  up 
from  a  basin,  and  agreeably  entertains  the  eye. 
When  you  are  undressed,  you  tie  a  napkin  round 
your  loins,  take  a  pair  of  sandals,  and  enter  into 
a  narrow  passage,  where  you  begin  to  be  sensible 
of  the  heat.  "Die  door  shuts  to;  and  at  twenty 
paces  off,  you  open  a  second,  and  go  along  a 
passage,  which  forms  a  right  angle  wiUi  the  for- 
mer. Here  the  heat  increases.  They  who  are 
afraid  of  suddenly  exposing  themselves  to  a 
stronger  degree  of  i^  stop  in  a  marble  hall,  in 
the  way  to  the  bath  properly  so  called.  The 
bath  is  a  spacious  and  vaulted  apartment,  paved 
and  Imed  with  marble,  around  which  there  are 
four  closets.  The  vapor,  incessantly  rising 
from  a  fountain  and  cistern  of  hot  water,  mixes 
itself  with  the  burning  perfumes.  These,  how- 
f  ver,  are  never  burnt  except  the  persons  who 
ire  in  th^  bath  desire  it.  They  mix  with  the 
steam  of  the  water,  and  produce  a  most  agreeable 
effect.  The  bathers  are  not  imprisoned  here  as 
in  Europe,  in  a  sort  of  tub,  where  one  is  never  at 
one's  ease.  Extended  on  a  cloth  spread  out,  the 
head  supported  by  a  small  cushion,  they  stretch 
themselves  freely  in  every  posture,  whilst  they 
are  wrapped  up  in  a  cloud  of  odoriferous  vapors, 
which  penetrates  into  all  their  pores.  After  re- 
posing tliere  some  time,  until  there  is  a  gentle 
moisture  over  the  whole  body,  a  servant  comes, 
presses  you  gently,  turns  you  over,  and  when  the 
limbs  are  become  supple  and  flexible,  he  makes 
all  the  Joints  crack  without  any  difficulty.  He 
masses  (i.  e.  touches  delicately),  and  seems  to  knead 
the  flesh  without  making  you  feel  the  smallest 
pain.  This  operation  finished,  he  puts  on  a  stuff 
glove,  and  rubs  you  a  long  time.  During  this 
operation,  he  detaches  from  the  body  of  the  pa- 
tient, which  is  running  with  sweat,  a  sort  of  small 
scales,  and  removes  even  the  imperceptible  dirt 
that  stops  the  pores.  The  skin  becomes  soft  and 
smooth  like  satin.  He  then  conducts  you  into  a 
closet,  pours  the  lather  of  perfumed  soap  upon  your 
head,  and  withdraws.  The  ancients  did  more 
honor  to  their  guests,  and  treated  them  in  a  more 
voluptuous  manner.  Whilst  Telemachus  was  at 
the  court  of  Nestor,  'the  beautiful  Polycasta,  the 
handsomest  of  the  daughters  of  the  king  of 
Pylos,  led  the  son  of  Ulysses  to  the  bath ;  washed 


him  with  her  own  hands ;  and,  after  anointing 
his  body  with  precious  oils,  covered  him  with 
rich  habits  and  a  splendid  cloak.'  Piaistiatas 
and  Telemachus  were  not  worse  treated  in  the 
palace  of  Menelaus.  '  When  they  had  admired 
its  beauties,  they  were  conducted  to  basins  of 
marble,  where  a  bath  was  prepared ;  beautiful 
female  slaves  washed  them ;  and,  after  anointing 
them  with  oil,  coveted  them  with  rich  tonics  and 
superb  pellices.'  The  closet  to  which  one  is  con- 
ducted IS  furnished  with  a  cistern  and  two  cocks ; 
one  for  cold,  the  other  for  hot  water.  There  you 
wash  yourself.  Soon  after  the  servant  retnms 
with  a  depilatory  pomatum,  which  in  an  instant 
makes  the  hair  fall  off  the  places  it  is  applied  to. 
Both  men  and  women  make  ^neral  use  of  it  in 
Egypt.  It  is  composed  of  a  mineral  called  msma, 
which  is  of  a  deep  brown.  The  Egyptians  burn 
it  lightly,  knead  it  with  water,  mixing  it  with  half 
the  quantity  of  slacked  line.  This  gra3rish  jnste 
applied  to  the  hair,  makes  it  fidl  off  in  two  or 
three  minutes,  without  giving  the  slightest  pain. 
After  being  well  washed  and  purifi^,  you  are 
wrapped  up  in  hot  linen,  and  follow  the  guide 
through  the  windings  that  lead  to  the  outer  apart- 
ment. This  insensible  transition  from  heat  to  cold 
prevents  one  from  suffering  any  inconvenience 
from  it.  Oh  arriving  at  the  estxade,  you  find  a 
bed  prepared  for  you ;  and  scarcely  are  you  laid 
down  before  a  child  comes  to  press  every  part 
of  your  body  with  his  delicate  fingers,  in  order 
to  dry  you  thoroughly.  You  change  linen  a 
second  time,  and  the  child  gently  grates  the  cal- 
losity of  your  feet  with  pumice  stone.  He  then 
brings  you  a  pipe  and  Moka  coffee.  Coming  out 
of  a  stove  wnere  one  was  surrounded  by  a  hot 
and  moist  fog,  where  the  sweat  gushed  from  every 
limb,  and  transported  into  a  spacious  apartment, 
tpen  to  the  external  air,  the  breast  dilates,  and 
one  breathes  with  voluptuousness.  Fertectij 
massed,  and,  as  it  were  regenerated,  one  expe- 
diences an  universal  comfort.  The  blood  circulates 
with  freedom ;  and  one  feels  as  if  disengaged  from 
an  enormous  weight,  together  with  a  suppleness 
and  lightness  to  which  one  has  been  hitnerto  a 
stranger.  A  lively  sentiment  of  existence  diffuses 
itself  to  the  very  extremities  of  the  body.  Whilst 
it  is  lost  in  delicate  sensations,  the  soul  sympa- 
thising with  the  delight,  enjoys  the  most  agreea- 
ble ideas.  The  imagination,  wandering  over  the 
universe,  which  it  embellishes,  sees  on  every  side 
the  most  enchanting  pictures,  every  where  the 
image  of  happiness.  If  life  be  nothing  but  the  soc*> 
cession  of  our  ideas,  the  rapidity  wi£  which  th^ 
then  recur  to  the  memory,  the  vigor  with  whi^ 
the  mind  runs  over  the  extended  chain  of  them, 
would  induce  a  belief  that  in  the  two  hours  of 
that  delicious  calm  that  succeeds  the  hath,  one 
has  lived  a  number  of  years.'  Sudi  are  the  baths, 
the  use  of  which  was  so  strongly  recommended 
by  the  ancients,  and  which  are  still  the  delight  at 
the  Egyptians.  It  is  by  means  of  them  that  they 
cure  rtieuroatisms,  catarrhs,  and  such  cutaneous 
disorders  as  are  produced  by  want  of  peiroiialion. 
'.rhere  are  no  people  who  make  more  trequent 
use  of  them  than  the  Egyptians,  and  diere  is  no 
country  where  there  are  fewer  asthmatic  people. 
The  asthma  is  hardly  known  there.  The  women 
are  passionately  fond  of  these  beiAs,  fieqncat 


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(hem  at  least  once  a  week^  and  take  with  them 
slaves  properly  qualified  to  assist  them.  More 
luxurious  than  the  men,  after  undergoing  the 
usual  preparations,  they  wash  their  bodies,  and 
above  all,  their  heads,' with-rose  water.  It  is  there 
that  female  head-dressers  form  their  long  black 
hair  into  tresses,  which  they  mix  with  precious 
essences  instead  of  powder  and  pomatum.  There 
they  blacken  the  edge  of  their  eye-lids,  and 


lengthen  their  eye-brows  with  cohel,  a  prepara* 
tion  of  tin  burnt  with  gall-nuts ;  and  stain  tlie 
finger  and  toe  nails  with  the  leaves  of  henne,  a 
shrub  common  in  Egypt,  which  gives  them  a 
golden  color.  The  linen  and  clothing  they  make 
use  of  are  passed  through  the  sweet  steam  of  the 
wood  of  aloes ;  and  when  the  work  of  the  toilet 
is  at  an  end,  they  remain  in  the  outer  apartment, 
and  pass  the  day  in  entertainments. 


Bathing  of  Hawks,  or  Falcons,  is  done 
when  they  have  been  thoroughly  reclaimed;  they 
are  then  ofi*ered  water  to  bathe  in  where  they  may 
stand  up  to  the  thighs,  choosing  a  temperate  clear 
day  for  that  purpose.  By  the  use  oi  bathing,  a 
hawk  gains  strength,  with  a  sharp  appetite,  and 
so  grows  bold. 

Bath-kol,  i.  e.  the  daughter  of  a  voice,  an 
oracle  among  the  Jews,  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  Talmud.  It  was  a  fimtastical  way  of  divina- 
tion invented  by  the  Jevrs,  though  called  by 
them  a  revelation  from  God's  will,  which  he 
made  to  his  chosen  people,  after  all  verbal  pro- 
phecies had  ceased  in  Israel.  It  was  in  fact  a 
method  of  divination  similar  to  the  sortes  Virgil- 
ianse  of  the  Heathens.  For,  as  with  them,  the 
first  words  they  happened  to  dip  into,  in  the 
works  of  that  poet,  were  a  kind  of  oracle  whereby 
they  predictea  future  events ;  so,  with  the  Jews, 
when  they  appealed  to  Bath-kol,  the  first 
words  they  heard  from  any  man's  mouth  were 
looked  upon  as  a  voice  from  heaven,  directing 
them  in  the  matter  they  enquired  about.  See 
Sortilege. 

BATHMUS,  BaBftcc,  from  paivta,  I  move; 
in  anatomy,  an  appellation  given  to  such  cavi- 
ties of  bones  as  receive  the  prominences  of  other 
bones  into  them. 

BATHRUM,  a  name  given  by  ancient  sur- 
geons to  a  kind  of  stool  or  bench  proper  for  the 
reduction  of  dislocated  bones.  This  is  called 
BaBpov  'IriroKpaTttov,  or  the  hyppocratic  stool. 
Its  description  and  use  are  represented  at  large 
by  Sculterus.  •  Arm.  Chir.  p.  i. 

BATHSHEBA,  or  Batshua,  the  daughter  of 
Eliam,  or  Ammiel,  wife  of  Uriah  the  Hittite. 
She  was  the  mother  of  four  sons  by  David,  of 
whom  Solomon  and  Nathan  are  reckoned  in  the 
genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ. 

BATHURST  (Allan),  earl  of  Bathurst,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  statesmen  of  queen  Anne's 
reign,  was  bom  in  1684.  His  studies  and  his 
education  were  equally  conducive  to  the  brilliant 
figure  he  was  destined  to  make  in  social  life  and 
in  the  senate,  as  a  polite  scholar,  and  a  patriot. 
These  talents  he  had  an  opportunity  of  displaying 
as  early  as  1705  ;  when,  at  the  request  of  his  fa- 
ther. Sir  Benjamin,  and  of  the  constituents  of  Ci- 
rencester, he  was  returned  to  parliament  for  that 
borough.  He  distinguished  hunself  particularly 
in  the  struggles  and  debates  relative  to  the  union 
with  Scotland,  and  firmly  supported  that  mea- 
sure. Though  he  consented  to  act  a  subordinate 
character  in  die  opposition  planned  by  Mr.  Har- 
ley  and  St.  John,  to  die  measures  of  the  duke  of 


Marlborough,  he  was  of  infinite  service  to  his 

a,  and  the  loss  of  the  battle  of  Almanza  se- 
id  his  efforts  to  dispel  the  intoxication  of 
former  successes.  Amidst  the  storms  of  politics 
he  steadily  maintained  a  personal  regard  for  Lord 
Somers,  president  of  the  council ;  and  when  that 
nobleman  was  divested  of  office,  Mr.  Bathurst 
preserved  his  esteem.  In  consideration  of  his 
zeal  and  services,  the  queen  advanced  him  m 
1711,  to  the  dignity  of  apeer,  by  the  title  of 
baron  Bathurst,  of  Battlesden,  in  Bedfordshire. 
He  continued,  however,  to  speak  his  sentiments 
with  an  undaunted  freedom  in  the  upper  house ; 
and  was  a  formidable  opponent  to  the  court  mea- 
sures during  the  whole  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole's 
administration.  The  acrimony  of  the  prosecution 
carried  on  against  the  earl  of  Oxford,  lord  Bo- 
lingbroke,  and  the  duke  of  Ormond,  particularly 
stimulated  his  indignation  and  his  eloquence ;  and 
on  this  occasion  he  observed,  '  that  the  king  of 
a  faction  was  but  the  sovereign  of  half  his  sub- 
jects.' The  South  Sea  scheme  having  infected 
the  whole  nation  with  a  spirit  of  avaricious  enter- 
prise, an  infinite  number  of  families  were  involved 
m  ruin.  Lord  Bathurst  publicly  impeached  the 
directors,  whose  arts  enabled  them  to  amass  sur- 
prising fortunes;  and  moved  for  having  them 
Sunished  by  a  forfeiture  of  their  estates.  When 
le  bill  of  pains  and  penalties  against  Atterbury, 
bishop  of' Rochester,  was  brought  into  the  house 
of  lords,  among  the  manv  friends  the  bishop's 
eloquence  and  ingenuity  had  procured  him  was 
Lord  Bathurst.  He  spoke  against  the  bill  with 
vehemence,  and  declared,  he  *  could  hardly  ac- 
count for  the  inveterate  malice  some  persons  bore 
to  the  ingenious  bishop  of  Rochester,  unless  it 
was  that  they  were  infatuated,  like  the  wild  Ameri- 
cans, who  believe  they  inherit  not  only  the  spoils, 
but  the  abilities  of  the  man  they  destroy.'  Sir 
Robert  Walpole,  having,  after  obstinate  strug- 
gles, been  forced  to  resign  all  his  employments, 
Lord  Bathurst  was  sworn  of  the  privy  council, 
and  made  captain  of  the  gentlemen  pensioners, 
which  post  he  resigned  in  1744.  He  was  ap- 
pointea  treasurer  to  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1757 
and  continued  in  the  list  of  privy  counsellors  at 
the  accession  of  George  III.  Lord  Bathurst's 
integrity  gained  him  the  esteem  even  of  his  op- 
ponents ;  and  his  humanity  and  his  benevolence^ 
the  afiection  of  all  that  knew  him  more  intimately. 
He  added  to  his  public  virtues  all  the  good 
breeding,  politeness,  and  elegance,  of  social  in- 
tercourse. Congreve,  Vanburgh,  Swift,  Prior, 
Rowe,  Addison,  Pope,  Arbuthnot,  Gay,  and  most 
men  of  genius  in  his  own  time,  cultivated  his. 


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B  A  T  H  U  R  S  T. 


of  the  usurpation,  appointed  pbysician  to  Ae 
state.  Upon  the  Restoration  he  quitted  physic; 
was  elected  F.  R.  S.  and  president  of  his  college ; 
and  having  entered  into  holy  orders,  was  made 
chaplain  to  the  king,  and  afterwards  dean  of 
Wells.  Soon  after,  he  served  as  rice-diancellor 
of  Oxford,  and  was  nominated  by  king  William 
and  queen  Mary  to  the  see  of  Bristol,  but  refused 
to  accept  it.  He  was  an  orator,  a  philosopher, 
and  a  poet :  he  possessed  an  inexhaustible  ftmd 
of  wit,  and  at  eighty  years  of  age,  was  a  facetious 
companion.  Ridicule  was  a  weapon  whidi  he 
had  always  at  hand.  His  poetical  pieces  in  the 
MusflB  Anglicanae  are  excellent.  He  wrote  fcre- 
ral  poems  in  English  and  Latin ;  and  died  in 
1704,  aged  eighty-four. 
Bathurst,  the  chief  town  of  a  new  settlement 


friendship,  and  were  proud  of  his  correspondence. 
Pope  thus  addresses  him^  in  his  Epistle  on  the 
Use  of  Riches : 

'  0  teach  us,  Bathurst,  yet  unspoilM  by  wealth ! 
That  secret  rare,  between  th'  extremes  to  move. 
Of  mad  good  natue,  and  of  mean  self-love.' 

And  Sterne,  in  his  letters  to  Eliza,  thus  speaks 
of  him  : '  This  nobleman  is  an  old  friend  of  mine : 
he  was  always  the  protector  of  men  of  wit  and 
genius ;  and  has  had  those  of  the  last  century 
always  at  his  table.  The  manner  in  which  his 
notice  bogan  of  me,  was  as  singular  as  it  was  po- 
lite. He  came  up  to  me  one  day  as  I  was  at  the 
Princess  of  Wales's  court;  *  I  want  to  know  you, 
Mr.  Sterne ;  but  its  fit  you  should  know  also 

who  it  is  tliat  wishes  this  pleasure:  you  have        , 

heard,  continued  he,  of  an  old  Lord  Bathurst,  of  near  the  Great  Fish  River,  on  the  eastward  of 
whom  your  Popes  and  Swifts  have  sung  and  the  colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  is  r^- 
spoken  so  much :  I  have  lived  my  life  wlSi  ge-  pidly  increasing.  A  large  inn  has  been  already 
ntuses  of  that  cast,  but  have  survived  them  ;  and  built  for  the  accommodation  of  visiters  ;  and  as 
despairing  ever  to  find  their  equals,  it  is  some  the  site  has  been  well  chosen,  Bathurst  is  ex-* 
years  since  I  have  closed  my  accounts,  and  shut  pected  very  soon  to  become  one  of  the  'first  towns 
up  my  books,  with  thoughts  of  never  opening    iq  the  colony. 

Bathuest,  also  a  new  British  settlement  oo 
the  island  of  St.  Mary,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gam- 
bia, on  the  western  coast  of  Africa.    Sir  Geoige 
continues,  '  he  has  all    Collier,  in  his  second  report,  on  the  settlements 


them  again :  but  you  have  kindled  a  desire  in 

me  of  opening  them  once  more  before  I  die, 

which  I  now  do ;  so  go  home,   and  dine  with 

me.'    *  At  eighty-five,' he  contii 

the  wit  and  promptness  of  a  roan  of  thirty;  a    of  this  coast,  says,  <  The  island  of  St.  Maxy,  upon 

disposition  to  be  pleased,  and  a  power  to  please    which  Bathurst,  the  capital,  is  rising  with  the 

others  beyond  whatever  I  knew  I'    In  the  latter    same  rapidity  that  the  most  healthful  climate. 


part  of  his  life,  he  preserved  his  cheerfulness^ 
and  was  always  accessible,  hospitable,  and  be- 
neficent. He  delighted  in  rural  amusements ;  and 
enjoyed  the  shade  of  many  a  lofty  tree  which  he 
had  planted  himself.  Till  within  a  month  of  his 
death,  he  constantly  rode  out  on  horseback  two 
hours  before  dinner,  and  drank  his  bottle  of  cla- 
ret or  Madeira  after  it.  He  used  to  declare  in  a 
jocose  manner,  he  never  could  think  of  adopting 
Dr.  Cadogan's  regimen,  as  Dr.  Cheyne  had 
assured  him,  fifty  years  ago,  he  would  not  live 


and  most  fruitful  and  productive  country  could 
desire,  is  a  barren,  sandy  spot,  in  many  places 
scarcely  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Bail^ingSy 
combining  neatness  and  beauty,  are  appearing ; 
and  St.  Mary  bids  fair  to  rival  every  spot  on  the 
lengthened  line  of  coast  of  western  Africa,  in 
commerce  and  industry/ 

BATHUS,  in  entomology,  a  species  of  papiho 
(Pleb.  Rur.),  with  entire  black  wings,  poised 
with  blue ;  beneath  white,  with  nameroiis  blat^ 
dots,  and  a  continued  fiilvous  band.    Fafaricias. 


seven  years  longer,  unleai  he  abridged  himself  Inhabits  Austria.    It  is  the  papilio  battus  of 

of  his  wine.    Pursuant  to  this  maxim,  having  Schmetterl,  and  papilio  telephii  of  Esper. 

invited  several  of  his  friends  to  spend  a  few  BATHYCHRUS  Color,  in  naintingy  a  tens 

cheerful  days  with  him  at  hb  seat,  and  being  one  used  by  the  Greeks  to  express  Wnat  the  Romans 

evening  very  loth  to  part  with  them ;  on  his  son  call  austerus  color. 


the  late  chancellor's  objecting  to  their  sitting  u] 
any  longer,  and  adding  that  health  and  long  life 
were  best  secured  by  regularity,  he  suffered  him 
to  retire  :  but  as  soon  as  he  was  gone,  the  cheer- 


BATHYERGUS,  finom  fiaOvtpyaa^,  to  wwk 
deeply  in  the  earth ;  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  ani- 
mals belonging  to  the  order  rodentia,  dass 
mammalia.   Its  generic  character  is,  incisor  teeth 


fill  father  said,  ^  Come,  my  good  friends,  since  large,not  covered  by  the  lips,  and  wedge-shaped; 

the  old  gentleman  is  gone  to  bed,  I  think  we  canine  none ;  grinders  four  on  either  side,  above 

may  venture  to  crack  another  bottle.'    He  was  and  below,  the  posterior  sloping  deeply  outwards ; 

advanced  to  the  dignity  of  earl  in  1772;  living  to  muzzle  broad;  eyes  small;  auricles  none;  tail 

seethe  above  nobleman,  his  eldest  son,  several  short  and  bristly ;  toes  five  on  each  foot,  short 

years  lord  high  chancellor  of  Great  Britain,  and  and  armed  with  thin  flat  nails.    The  two  species 

promoted  to  the  peerage  in  1771,  by  the  title  of  are,  1.  B.  maritimus,  lUig.  Cur. ;  mus  mariti- 

baron  Apsley.    Lord_ Bathurst  married  Catha-  mus,  Lin.;  la  grande  taup  du  cap,  Buff. ;  Afri- 


rine,  daughter  of  Sir  Peter  Apsley,  by  whom  he 
had  two  sons  and  five  daughters.  He  died,  after 
a  few  days  ilhiess,  at  his  seat  near  Cirencester, 
in  1775,  aged  ninety-one. 

Bathurst  (Ralph),  M.  D.  an  eminent  physi- 
cian and  divine,  bom  in  1620.  He  studied 
divinity  in  Trinity  College,  Oxford;  but  the 


can  rat,  Pen ;  sand  mole  ot  the  Dutch ;  about  the 
size  of  a  rabbit,  and  of  a  cinereous  brown  oolor; 
having  a  large  head  without  auricles,  and  ^ 
nose  slightly  flattened,  wriukled,  and  black;  the 
legs  are  short,  with  four  toes,  long  clawsy  and  a 
thumb,  with  a  short  claw  on  the  anterior  extre- 
mities.   Thehind  legs  are  long,  having  five  toes 


times  of  confusion  coming  on,  he  applied  himself  armed  with  short  claws.  It  inhabits  the  Cape, 
to  physic.  He  took  the  degree  ol  M.  D.  and  where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  zand  mde.  It 
rose  to  such  eminence,  that  he  was,  in  the  time    burrows  near  the  shore,  and  renders  travelling  on 


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^DTseback  dangerous.  Pennant  says,  they  some- 
imes  let  a  horse  sink  in  them  up  to  the 
shoulders  I  2.  B.  capensis,  Cur.;  mus capensis, 
Lin.  Pall.;  taup  du  cap  de  Bonne  Esperance, 
Buff,  Cape  rat;  Pen.  About  seven  inches  long, 
of  a  dusky  rufous  ash  brown  color,  with  a  white 
f tripe  round  the  eye  and  ear,  and  on  the  vertex ; 
muzzle  black.  It  is  very  common  in  the  gardens 
at  the  Cape,  and  called,  '  bless  moll.' 

BATHYLLUS  and  Pylades,  inventors  of 
pantomime  entertainments  on  the  stage.  Ba- 
thyllus  succeeded  in  representing  comedy;  Py- 
laaes  in  tragedy.  The  art  consisted  in  expressing 
the  passions  by  gestures,  attitudes,  ana  dumb 
show ;  not,  as  in  modem  times,  in  machinery, 
and  the  fooleries  of  harlequin. '  They  flourished 
at  Rome,  under  Augustus,  about  A.  D.  10. 
Each  of  them  kept  scholars,  who  perpetuated 
their  master's  name  :  the  followers  of  Bathyllus, 
who  excelled  in  the  comic  calling  themselves 
Bathylli ;  and  those  of  Pylades,  who  excelled  in 
the  tragic,  calling  themselves  Pyladae. 

BAtlLDA  (St.),  commonly  called  St.  Badour, 
a  Saxon  princess,  was  carried  away  from  Eng- 
land by  pirates,  and  sold  to  Archambaud,  mayor 
of  the  palace,  where  she  was  seen  by  Clovis  II., 
who  married  her,  and  had  by  her  Clotarius  III., 
Childeric  II.,  and  Thierri  III.  She  administered 
the  government  with  great  wisdom  after  his  death, 
and  after  founding  several  abbeys,  died  about 
680,  in  a  monastery. 

BATINDA,  a  small  district  in  Hindostan,  in  . 
the  north-west  quarter  of  the  province  of  Delhi, 
comprehending  the  Lachy  jungle,  celebrated  for 
its  breed  of  excellent  horses,  said  to  be  descended 
from  some  of  the  Persian  horses  stolen  firom  the 
camp  of  Nadir  Shah,  in  the  year  1739. 

BATIS,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  tetrandria 
order,  belonging  to  the  dioccia  class  of  plants, 
the  characters  of  which  are:  of  the  male,  the 
amentum  is  four  ways  imbricated,  and  both  the 
calyx  and  corolla  are  wanting ;  of  the  female,  the 
amentum  is  ovate,  the  involucrum  dyphyllous ; 
calyx  and  corolla  wanting ;  the  stigma  is  bilobate 
and  sessile;  the  berries  condumate  and  four- 
seeded.  There  Is  but  one  species;  viz.  B. 
mantima,  a  native  of  Jamaica. 

Batis,  in  botany,  the  name  by  which  Pliny 
and  some  authors  call  the  sea-plant  samphire. 

Batis,  in  ichthyology.  See  Batos,  and 
Raia. 

BATISCAN,  a  river  of  Lower  Canada,  rising 
in  the  ridge  of  mountains  that  run  westerly  into 
the  interior  from  Quebec.  It  falls  into  the  St, 
Lawrence,  about  fifty-four  miles  above  that  city. 
At  its  HKMith,  it  is  350  yards  broad,  but  is  so 
shallow  as  not  to  be  accessible  for  boats  higher 
than  six  or  seven  miles  up  the  stream,  which  is 
also  interrupted  by  many  fells  and  rapids. 

BATISTE,  in  commerce,  a  fine  wnite  kind  of 
linen  cloth  manufactured  in  Flanders  and  Picardy. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  batiste ;  the  first  very 
thin;  the  second  less  thin;  and  tiie  third  much 
thicker,  called  Holland  batiste,  as  coming  very 
near  the  goodness  of  Hollands.  The  chief  use 
of  batiste  is  for  neck-cloths,  bead-cloths,  surplices, 
&c. 

BATMAN,  in  commerce,  a  kind  of  weight 
used  at  Smyrna,  consisting  of  six  okes.    Forty 


batmans  make  a  earners  load,  and  amount  to 
about  720lb.  in  English  weight. 

Batman,  Persian,  or  Battament,  is  of  two 
kinds  :  one  called  the  king's  weight,  batman  de 
chahi,  or  cheray,  used  for  weighing  most  of  the 
necessaries  of  life,  equivalent  to  about  12|lb. 
Paris  weight ;  the  other  called  batman  of  Tauris, 
equal  to  6lb.  4oz.  Paris  or  Amsterdam  weight. 
These  &re  the  proportions  given  by  Tavemier. 
Chardin  rates  the  Persian  batmans  somewhat 
lower,  viz.  the  former  at  12lb.  12oz.  and  the  latter 
at5lb.  i4oz. 

Batman,  Turkish,  is  a)$o  of  two  kinds ;  the 
larger,  containing  six  okes,  ocques,.at3|lb.  Paris 
weight  the  ocque;  so  tliat  the  batman  amounts 
to  about  2!2|^lb.  (be  smaller,  composed  likewise 
of  six  ocques,  at  15  oz,  tbie  ocque,  amounting  to 
51b.  10  oz. 

BATM ANSON  (John),  prior  of  the  Carthu- 
sian  monastery,  in  the  suburbs  of  London.  He 
was  some  time  a  student  at  Oxford,  and  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  Edward  Lee,  archbishop 
of  York,  at  whose  request  he  wrote  against  Eras- 
mus and  Luther.  He  died  in  1531,  and  was 
buried  in  the  chapel  belonging  to  the  monastery. 
Bale  says  he, was  a  proud  forward  person ;  and  that 
Erasmus^  in. a  letter  to  the  bishop  of  Winchester, 
calls  him  .an  ignorant  fellpw.  But  Pitts  gives 
him  the  character  of  a  man  of  genius,  zeal,  piety, 
and  learning.  He  wrote,  1 .  Animadversiones  in 
Annotationes  Erasmi  in  Nov.  Testamentum.  2. 
ATreatise  against  some  of  Luther's  works.  These 
two  he  afterwards  retracted.  3.  Commentaria  in 
Proverbia  Solomonis.  4.  In  caii^ca  Canticorum. 
5.  De  unica  Magdalena.  6.  Institutiones  Novi- 
ciorum.  7.  De  Contemptu  Mundi.  8.  De 
Christo  duodenni,  9.  On  the  words  Missus 
est,  &c. 

BATONI  rPompeo),  a  celebrated  Italian  pain- 
ter,, bom  at  Lucca  in  1708.  Qe  gained  great 
fame  by  his  productions,  which  were  eagerly 
sought  after  by  persons  in  the  highest  stations. 
So  tiiat  honors  ana  riches  were  heaped  upon  him  ; . 
the  emperor  Joseph  granted  him  ap^ltent  of  no- 
bility. He  died  m  1787.  One  of  his  most  ad- 
mired pieces,  is  a  representation  of  Simon  the 
magician  contending  with  St.  Peter,  in  the  great 
church  dedicated  to  the  apostle  at  Rome. 

BATNEER,  a  town  of  Battie,  and  province 
of  Delhi,  in  Hindostan.  It  is  situated  on  th^ 
borders  of  a  sandy  desert,  and  was  formerly  a 
place  of  great  consequence.  It  was  taken  by  the 
celebrated  Timur,  or  Tamerlane,  in  the  year 
1398,  who  put  all  the  inhabitants  to  death,  and 
burned  the  city.  Long.  74".  45'.  E.,  lat.  29". 
28*  N. 

B4TON,  in  botany,  a  name  by  which  some 
authors  call  the  true  turpentine  tree. 

Baton,  in  military  affairs,  a  staff. 

Baton  a  di;ux  bouts,  a  quarter-staff. 

Baton  de  com  man  dement,  an  instrument  of 
particular  distinction,  which  was  f<»rmerly  given 
to  generals  in  the  French  army.  Henry  III.  be- 
fore his  re-ascension  to  the  throne,  was  made  ge- 
neral issimo  of  all  the  armies  belonging  to  his 
brother  Charles  the  IX.,  and  publicly  received 
the  baton,  as  a  mark  of  high  command. 

Baton  rouge,  a  flourishing  post  town  of 
Louisiana,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi, 


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about  140  miles  above  New  Orleans.  .  The  po- 
pulation b  estimated  at  5000  or  6000  persons. 

BATOON,  in  military  affairs,  a  truncheon,  or 
marshars  steff 

Batoons  of  St.  Paul  (Bastoncini  di  San 
Paolo),  in  natural  history,  a  name  given  by  some 
of  the  Italian  vniters,  as  Augustino  Sdlla,  and 
others,  to  the  lapides  Judaici,  or  other  spines  of 
echini.  These  are  found  in  vast  abundance  in 
the  island  of  Malta;  and,  like  almost  everything 
else  there,  are  denominated  from  St.  Paul. 

BATORI  (Stephen),  king  of  Poland.  He  vras 
bom  of  a  noble  &mily  in  Transylvania,  and 
elected  prince  of  his  native  country  in  1571 ; 
after  which  he  gained  such  reputation,  that  upon 
the  deposition  of  Henry,  duke  of  Anjou,  by  the 
Poles,  his  party  prevailed  over  that  of  Maximi- 
lian ;  and,  naving  married  the  princess  Anne,  he 
was  crowned  in  1576.  He  proved  an  excellent 
prince,  and  successfully  opposed  both  Russia 
and  Sweden;  while  he  gamed  great  honor  to 
himself  by  bis  merciful  conduct  in  the  midst  of 
the  most  horrible  cruelties  on  the  part  of  his 
enemies.    He  died  in  1586. 

BATOS,  in  ichthyology,  the  name  given  by 
Aristotle,  and  all  the  old  writers,  to  the  skait. 
They  have  generally  called  the  male  batos,  and 
the  female  batis.  It  is  a  species  of  the  raia,  and 
distinguished  by  Artedi  by  the  name  of  the  va- 
riegated ray,  with  the  middle  of  the  back  smooth, 
and  one  row  of  spines  on  the  tail.  Albertus 
calls  it  the  rayte,  and  rubus. 

BATRACHIA>  in  zoology,  one  of  the  orders 
or  great  divisions  of  the  class  Reptiles. 

BATRACHIAS  Lapis,  from  Pca-paxot,  a  frog ; 
the  frog-stone,  a  name  applied  by  different 
writers  to  two  very  different  substances ;  some 
understanding  by  it  lumps  of  common  flint, 
accidentally  formed  into  this  figure  ;  and  others, 
those  pieces  of  ember  which  contain  either  a 
whole  frog,  or  any  part  of  one. 

BATRACHOMYOMACHIA,   from   Baroor 

30C,  a  frog,  fivgy  a  mouse,  and  /laxut,  a  battle ; 
le  battle  of  the  frogs  and  the  mice,  the  title  of 
a  fine  burlesque  poem  generally  ascribed  to 
Homer. 

BATRACHUS,  from  fiaTpaxoc,  a  frog;  in 
zoology,  the  frog  fish.  A  genus  of  animsds  be- 
longing to  the  family  perca,  order  acanthopte- 
rygii,  class,  pisces.  The  generic  character  is 
head  flattened  horizontally,  larger  than  the  body ; 
ventral  fins  straight,  attached  under  the  throat; 
first  dorsal  fin  short,  supported  by  three  spinous 
rays ;  second  dorsal  lone  and  soft,  opposite  to 
which  the  anal  fin  also  soft ;  mouth  ana  gills  very 
large;  gill  flap  spined;  lips  sometimes  bearded . 
This  genus  was  established  by  Schneider  in  his 
Bloch's  Icthyology,  and  named  from  the  im- 
mense size  of  the  head,  resembling  that  of  the 
frog.  The  species  inhabit  the  southern  hemis- 
phere, and  are  separated  into  two  divisions, 
those  with  and  those  without  beards  or  cirrhi  on 
the  lip.  The  principal  are,  1.  With  beards, 
B.  didactylus ;  two  nngered  frog  fish,  inhabits 
Guinea;  B.  tau,  toad  fish;  Garden  states  that 
this  animal  is  called  by  the  inhabitants  of  Caro- 
lina the  '  toad  fish;'  by  the  French  it  has  been 
called  *  crapaud  de  mer.*  Its  habits  are  very 
little  known,  but  it   is  considered  predacious. 


It  is  found  in  hot  climates,  and  is  taken  on  the 
coasts  of  Carolina.  B.  grunniens,  Schneid. ; 
cottus  grunniens,  lin.  Bloch;  grunting  buQ 
head,  Shaw;  grunting  frog  fish.  This  animal 
is  about  ten  inches  long;  of  a  brown  color 
marked  with  white  on  the  sides ;  inhabits  Ame- 
rica and  ^he  Indian  Seas.  2.  Without  beards. 
B.  Surinamensis.  B.  Indicus,  are  founded  by 
Bloch,  the  cottus  insidiator,  and  B.  guavina 
of  the  Havannah. 

BATSCH  (Augustus  John  George  Charies), 
was  born  at  Jena  in  1761.  He  became  professor 
of  philosophy  in  the  university  of  his  native 
place,  where  he  founded  a  society  for  the  study 
of  natural  history,  of  which  he  was  president 
He  died  in  1802.  His  works  are — 1.  £lenchus 
Fungorum,  8vo.  2.  An  Introduction  to  the 
Knowledge  and  History  of  Vegetables,  Svo. 
3.  Essays  on  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physiology, 
Svo.  4.  Botany,  for  Ladies  and  Amateurs,  Svo. 
5.  Introductory  Essay  to  the  Knowledge  of 
Animals  and  Minerals,  Svo. 
« BATSEN,  or  Bacs,  a  county  and  town  of 
Hungary;  the  county  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  that  of  of  Scholt,  on  the  south  by  Bodrog,  on 
the  east  by  little  Camania  and  the  T^eyss,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Danube,  whidt  separates  it 
from  Sclavonia.  It  is  inhabited  by  Hungarians 
and  Rascians,  and  a  few  Germans.  After  being 
united  with  that  of  Bodrog,  it  was  separated 
from  it  for  several  years,  but  was  le-united  by 
Joseph  II.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  Spa- 
nish breed  of  sheep  the  trade  in  wool  has  been 
very  considerable.  This  county  has  been  fre- 
'  quently  the  theatre  of  war  between  Austria  and 
Turkey.  The  capital,  which  was  formeriymore 
considerable  tiian  at  present,  and  was  the  see  of 
a  bishop,  suffragan  of  Colocza,  is  situated 
four  miles  from  the  north  side  of  the  Danube, 
and  twenty  from  tlje  conflux  of  the  Danube  and 
Drave.  Twenty  miles  north-east  of  Fnnfkir- 
chen,  and  seventy-five  south  of  Buda.  Lon^. 
190.  10'.  E.,  lat.  46°.  18'.  N. 

BATTA,  a  country  of  Sumatra,  stretdiioi^ 
along  the  south-western  shore  l)etween  the  Sin- 
kell  and  Tabuyong,  runs  across  the  whole  idand. 
This  is  one  of  those  districts  that  have  become 
known  to  us  principally  by  the  modem  mis- 
sionary exertions.  In  the  autumn  of  1821  Mi. 
Burton  visited  the  interior,  opposite  to  the  East 
India  Company's  settlement  at  Natal,  and  found 
it  composea  of  rugged  hills,  covered  with  thidc 
forests,  and  separated  by  ravines  which  often 
formed  the  beos  of  rapid  rivers.  His  journey 
extended  as  fiir  as  Mora  Summa,  a  station  which 
has  lately  been  chosen  by  the  C<Hnpany's  resi- 
dent at  Natal,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a 
freer  communication  with  the  Battas.  This  sta- 
tion is  situated  about  the  middle  of  the  range  of 
lofty  mountains  seen  in  a  north-easteriy  direction 
from  Natal  hill,  and  within  three  days  walk  of 
the  Mendeeling  country,  which  is  spoken  of  in 
the  highest  terms  by  the  princes  nearer  the  ^re, 
who  have  visited  it ;  and  is  supposed  to  contsin 
a  population  of  100,000  individuab.  Mr.  Bur- 
ton says,  *  The  country  round  here  is  the  most 
beautiful  I  have  seen  on  Sumatra.  It  is  culti- 
vated chiefly  with  labangs,  for  several  miles  in 
every  direction.   There  is  no  sawah  ground.  The 


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BatU  people  of  this  place,  unlike  their  neigh- 
bours, and  unlike  Batta  people  of  other  places, 
live  on  their  respectiye  farms,  and  not  collected 
together  in  dusims  (villa^).  The  houses  scat- 
tered upon  the  surrounding  hills,  reminded  me 
much  of  my  &vohte  Gloucestershire,  as  I 
Tiewed  them  at  a  distance.' 

The  chief  products  of  this  country  are  pepper, 
plantains,  Indian  com,  c^phor«  cotton,  indigo, 
caasia,  and  gum  benzoin.  Gold  and  sulphur 
are  among  its  mineral  treasures;  the  first  of 
which  Mr.  B.  had  an  opportnnity  of  seeing  the 
Battas  procure  firom  the  beds  of  the  rivers, 
in  the  same  way  nearly  as  in  South  America. 
Among  the  animal  tribes,  monkeys,  elephantc, 
and  tigers, are  numerous;  but  there  are  very  few 
birds. 

The  Bjittas  Mr.  Burton  describes  as  fine,  tall, 
stout,  good-looking  people,  superior  in  s^PJ^u^ 
ance  to  the  generality  of  the  Malays.  They 
have  a  peculiarly  fierce  and  independent  look, 
are  well  dressed  in  cotton  cloths,  manufactured 
by  the  women,  and  wear  English  beads  as  orna- 
ments. '  These  people,'  he  remarks, '  are  per- 
fectly independent ;  they  have  no  idea  of  tneir 
own  inferiority  to  any  people  on  earth,  and  their 
carriage  and  behaviour  tell  you  so.  They  are 
▼enr  poLite  in  their  own  way,  are  good  speakers, 
and  know  perfectly  well  how  to  manage  every 
point  of  an  argument,  so  as  to  turn  it  to  their 
own  advantage. 

The  Battas  have  a  settled  language,  which  is 
extensively  written  and  understood,  and  many 
neatly  executed  books.  The  whole  population 
is  estimated  at  a  million,  2  or  300,000  of  whom 
can  read.  '  I  have  begun  to  read  their  language,' 
says  Mr.  B.,  <  and  find  there  is  nothing  to  fear 
relative  to  its  acquisition,  the  character  is  re- 
markably simple,  and  every  sound  having  its 
representative  mark,  the  language  may  be  pro- 
nounced correctly  by  any  person  who  has  ac- 
quired the  character,  though  he  may  not  under- 
stand what  he  reads.'  Mr.  Prince,  the  Compa- 
ny's Natal  resident,  drew  up  a  brief  account  of 
the  religion  of  these  people,  at  the  request  of 
Sir  T.  S.  Raffles,  firom  which  it  appears  to  be 
compounded  of  the  most  ridiculous  and  barba- 
rous superstitions.  They  do  not,  however,  wor- 
ship images,  but  belieie  in  the  existence  of  cer- 
Uiu  deities,  whose  attributes  indicate  a  much 
greater  degree  of  knowledge  and  civilisation  at 
some  former  period.  Dee  Battah  Assee  Assee  is 
the  Creator  and  Father  of  all  things,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  appointed  three  brothers  as  his 
agents  to  instruct  mankind. '  Bataraffourou,  the 
god  of  justice;  Seeree  Padah,  the  god  of  mercy; 
bot  Mahalabhoolan,  the  third  brother,  soon  dis- 
agreed with  the  other  two,  separated  from  them, 
an<l  propagated  tenets  direcUy  in  opposition  to 
theirs.  He  is  therefore  described  as  the  source 
of  *  discord  and  contention — the  instigator  of  ma- 
lice and  revenge — the  inciter  of  anger— the  source 
of  fraud,  deceit,  lying,  hypocrisy,  and  murder.' 
He  has  the  chief  influence  among  the  Battas,  and 
they  acknowledge  that  petitions  are  seldom  of- 
fered to  either  of  the  others.  The  only  semblance 
of  a  priest  among  them,  is  a  person  named  Dat- 
too,  who  is  skilled  in  all  their  superstitions ;  and 
jhere  is  generally  one  of  these  to  every  village; 


but  the  only  religious  ceremonies  the  existence 
of  which  Mr.  Prince  could  ascertain,  appeared 
to  consist  in  an  invocation  of  the  manes  of  the 
dead.  *  The  influence  of  the  Dattoos  over  the 
deluded  Battas  is  such,'  says  Mr.  P.,  *  that  they 
will  not  engage  in  any  undertaking,  however 
trifline,  without  first  consulting  them.  They  ex- 
pound all  their  religious  books,  and,  according  to 
their  interpretation,  a  day  is  chosen  as  propitious 
to  the  accomplishment  of  the  desired  object, 
whether  it  be  a  suit,  a  journey,  or  war.  The 
moral  conduct  of  these  people  appears  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  all  the  vile  passions  of  an  irregular 
and  irritable  constitution.  '  Truth  is  seldom'  re^ 
sarded  when  in  the  way  of  their  interests  or 
feelings;  and  honesty  is  never  founded  on  prin- 
ciple, but  on  the  fear  of  detection.  The  general 
tenor  of  their  lives  has  obliterated  the  recollec- 
tion and  practice  of  the  laws  of  Seeree  Padah 
and  Bataragourou,  and  they  have  no  priesthood 
or  rajah  to  recal  them,  or  to  reprove  their  obsti- 
nate adherenoe  to  the  principles  of  Mahalabhoo- 
lan, who  is  certainly  no  other  than  the  devil.' 

One  of  the  amusements  of  this  people  is  a 
peculiar  and  very  cruel  one,  thus  descrioed  by 
Mr.  Burton.  '  In  one  of  the  bazars,'  he  says, 
'were  about  100  persons  amusing  themselves 
with  a  most  crufel  game.  The^  drive  a  small 
stake  into  the  earth,  and  round  it  draw  a  circle, 
which  they  divide  into  four  equal  parts ;  in  each 
of  the  partitions  different  individuals  put  equal 
sums  of  money;  to  the  stake  is  tied  a  young 
fowl,  whose  throat  being  cut,  it  flutters  about 
for  a  short  time,  and  then  expires.  The  person 
whose  money  happens  to  be  in  the  partition 
where  the  fowl  lies  after  death,  sweeps  the  stakes. 
The  circle  may  be  divided  into  as  many  parts  as 
there  arepersons  who  wish  to  follow  the  amuse- 
ment. The  man  officiating  as  cut-throat  was  the 
imum,  or  priest,  of  the  place.' 

BATTJE,  a  people  of  ancient  Germany,  forr 
merly  inhabitants  of  what  is  now  called  Hesse. 
Being  dissatisfied  with  their  situation  there,  they 
settl^  on  the  island  formed  by  the  Vahalis  and 
the  Rhine,  which  from  them  took  the  name  of 
Batavia,  or  Batavorum  Insula.  Their  govern- 
ment was  a  mixture  of  monarchy,  aristocracy, 
apd  democracy.  Their  chief  was,  properly  speak- 
ing, nothing  more  than  a  prindpsd  citizen,  whose 
business  was  rather  to  advise  tnan  to  command. 
The  principal  men  who  exercised  jurisdiction, 
and  commanded  the  troops,  in  their  respective 
districts,  were  chosen,  as  well  as  the  kings,  in  an 
assembly  of  the  people.  A  hundred  persons, 
selected  from  among  the  people,  presided  over 
every  county,  and  acted  as  chie&  in  the  different 
hamlets.  The  whole  nation  was,  in  some  mea- 
sure^ an  army  always  in  readiness.  Each  family 
composed  a  bod^  of  militia,  which  served  under 
a  captain  of  their  own  choosing.  See  Batavi 
and  Batavorum  Insula. 
BATTAILj  V.  &  n.^  Fr.  battaiUe,  Ital.  bai- 
Battail'ant,  §  taglioy    Span,    battala. 

Battail'ous,  >  From  the  ancient  Saxon 

Batta'lion,  ibeatan,  to  fight,  or  to 

Batta'lia.  J  strike.  Battdlom  is  hav- 

ing the  appearance  of  a  battle ;  battalia  is  the 
order  of  IntUe ;  and  hattaiion  signifies  the  divi- 
sion of  an  army,  and  formerly  an  army  itself. 


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Sir  Edward  also  sone  )»er  gile  gan  he  knowe, 
Dight  him  to  bataUe  bone,  his  tmmpes  did  be  blotre. 

Lest  any  time  it  were  assail'd, 
Fal  we]  about  it  was  haUaiUd, 
And  round  environ  eke  were  set, 
Ful  many  a  rich  and  fair  touret. 

Chaucer.  RommmtoftheRoie. 
At  many  a  noble  armee  hadde  he  be ; 
At  mortal  haitailei,  hadde  he  ben  fiftene ; 
And  foughten  for  our  faith  at  Tramissene  , 
In  listes  thries— and  aye  slain  his  foe.  Id, 

Soon  after  this  I  saw  an  elephant, 
Adom'd  with  bells  and  boases  gorgeously^ 
That  on  his  backe  did  beare  (as  katieilant) 
A  gilden  towre  which  shone  exceedingly. 

Sprnter.   Vision  of  the  World's  Vanities, 
But  deeds  of  armes  must  I  at  last  be  fainn. 
And  ladies  love,  to  leave  so  dearely  bought  ? 
What  need  of  armes  where  peace  doth  aye  rematne. 
Said  he,  and  hattailes  none  are  to  be  fought  ? 
As  for  loose  loves  they  are  vaine,  and  vanish  into 
nought.  Id. 

He  started  up,  and  did  himself  prepayre. 
In  sun-bright  armes,  and  battailous  array  ; 
For  with  that  pagan  proud  he  oombatt  wiU  that  day. 

Id. 
When  sorrows  oom^,  they  come  not  single  spies. 
But  ia  battalions,  Shakspeare,  Hamiet, 

A  fiery  region,  stretcb'd 
In  battailous  aspect,  and  nearer  view 
Bristled  with  upright  beams  innumerable 
Of  rigid  spears  and  helmets  throng'd.        Milton. 
Next  morning  the  king  put  his  army  into  battalia. 

Clarendon, 
The  pierc'd  battaliens  disunited  fall 
In  heaps  on  heaps ;  one  fate  overwhelms  them  all. 

Pope, 
Battalia,  an  anny  ranged  in  ofder  of  battle, 
or  ready  for  engagement.  The  word  seems  formed 
from  the  Latin  batualia,  sometimes  also  written 
batalia,  denoting  a  sort  of  military  or  gladiatorial 
exercise,  as  fighting  with  foils,  or  tilting  at  a  post. 
In  this  sense,  we  meet  with  the  depth  of  a  b«itta- 
lia;'to  march  in  battalia,  with  tne  baggage  in 
the  middle ;  to  break  the  battalia,  &c.  In  the 
Roman  battalia,  the  bastati  made  the  front.  It 
further  implies  an  army  or  considerable  detach- 
ment of  troops  drawn  np  in  order  of  battle,  or 
in  any  other  proper  form  to  attack  the  enemy. 
See  Satflr 

Battalion,  in  the  British  army,  is  an  unde- 
termined body  of  infantry  in  regard  to  number, 
generally  from  600  to  1000  men.  The  royal 
regiment  of  artillery  has  consisted  of  ten  batta- 
lions, exclusive  of  the  invalid  or  veteran  battalion. 
Sometimes  regiments  consist  each  of  one  batta- 
lion only ;  but  if  more  numerous  are  divided 
into  several  battalions,  according  to  their  strength ; 
so  that  every  one  may  come  within  the  number 
mentioned.  A  battalion  of  one  of  our  marching 
regiments  consists  of  1000  and  sometimes  of 
1200  men,  officers  and  non-commissioned  in- 
cluded. When  there  are  companies  of  several  re- 
giments in  a  garrison  to  form  a  battalion,  those  of 
file  eldest  regiment  post  themselves  on  the  right, 
those  of  the  second  on  the  left,  and  so  on  till  the 
youngest  fells  into  the  centre.  The  officers  take 
their  posts  before  their  companies,  from  the  right 
and  left,  according  to  seniority.  Each  battalion 
is  divided  into  four  divisions,  and  each  division 
into  two  subdivisions,  which  are  again  divided 


into  sections.  Hie  companies  oi  grpnadiex* 
being  unequal  in  alt  battalions,  thetr^ost  most 
be  regulated  by  the  commanding  omcer.  See 
Regiment. 

The  Triangular  BAVtALtov  of  ancient  militaiy 
history,  was  a  body  of  troops  ranged  in  the  form 
of  a  triangle,  in  which  the  ranks  exceeded  each 
other  by  an  equal  number  of  men.  If  the  first 
consisted  of  one  roan  only,  and  the  diflereDce 
between  the  ranks  was  only  one,  then  its  ibim 
was  that  of  an  equilateral  triangle :  and  when 
the  difference  between  the  ranks  was  more  than 
one,  its  form  waf  an  isoscele,  having  two  sides 
equal,  or  scalene  triangle. 

The  Bound  Battalion,  is  that  in  which  the 
soldiers  are  ninged  in  concentric  circles.  This 
was  much  used  by  the  Romans,  and  <:alled  u» 
arhem.  Casar,  in  his  Commentaries,  has  given 
many  instances. 

The  Sqiuire  BATTAttON.  M.  Folard  shows  tt 
large,  in  his  book  de  la  Colonne,  the  weakness 
of  the  square  battalion,  and  decries  the  modeni 
method  of  ranging  battalions  so  shallow  as  to 
render  them  weak,  and  unable  to  support  each 
other:  so  that  they  are  easily  penetrated  or 
broken ;  an  essential  fault  in  tactics.  The  real 
strength  of  a  corps,  according  to  this  author, 
consists  in  its  thickness,  or  the  depth  of  its  files, 
and  their  connexion  and  closeness.  This  depth 
renders  the  flanks  almost  as  strong  as  the  firont 
He  adds,  that  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  maxim, 
that  every  battalion  ranged  deep,  and  with  a 
small  front,  will  beat  another  stronger  than  itself 
ranged  according  to  the  usual  method.  (Polyb. 
tom.  i.  p.  7.)  But  this  opinion  of  Folard  has 
not  been  adopted  in  modem  practice ;  and  his 
theory  has  been  vigorously  attacked  by  French 
tacticians.  They  admit  tlie  superior  sttength  of 
bis  column  to  that  of  a  modern  battalion,  if  the 
action  were  to  be  decided  with  pikes  and  swords; 
but  where  fire  arms  must  be  used,  M.  Fol«rd*s 
column  is  so  very  ill  disposed  for  this  purpose, 
that  it  must  infallibly  be  destroyed. 

BATTECOLLAH,  Batucata,  a  lu^ge  open 
town  on  the  sea  coast  of  the  British  district  of 
North  Canara.  The  name  signifies  the  round 
town.  It  stands  in  lat.  13®  56'  N.,  long.  T4* 
37'  £,  on  the  north  bank  of  a  small  river, 
which  waters  a  very  beautiful  valley,  snnonnded 
on  every  side  by  hills,  and  in  an  excellent  stale 
of  cultivation.  Eight  dams  are  yearly  made,  at 
the  public  expense,  in  order  to  water  the  rice 
grounds,  which  are  constructed  of  earth,  and 
only  intended  to  collect  the  stream.  Batteoollih 
contains  two  mosques,  one  of  which  receives  an 
allowance  of  100  pagodas  from  the  Company, 
and  the  other  half  as  much.  Many  of  the  Ma- 
hommedans  are  wealthy,  and  their  commercial 
speculations  extend  to  different  parts  of  the 
coast.  Here  are  a  great  many  guddies,  or 
temples,  belonging  to  Oie  followers  of  V^yas ;  and 
two  Jain  temples,  the  only  remains  of  sixty-eight 
that  were  ibnnerly  in  the  place. 
BATTEL,  v.,n.k  oj?'.  a  It  may  befron  the 
Battling,  f  Sax.  batan,  to  bait, 

Bat'table,  >  says  Mr.  Todd,  But 

Battler,  i  Mr.  Stevens  thinks, 

Bat'ful.  J  that  6a#  is  an  ancient 

English  word  for  increase.    Perhaps  it  is  from 


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the  Goth,  ga-baitutnf  to  adf  antage.  Batfid  is  a 
compound  of  the  two  participles,  bat  and  full. 
The  rerb  appears  to  be  founoed  upon  the  noun, 
and  to  siffnity  to  grow  fat,  to  get  flesh,  to  render 
fertile  and  fruitful.  BattabU,  is  capable  of  cul- 
tivation. To  battel  (the  verb  neuter)  is  to  stand 
indebted  in  the  college  books  at  Oxford,  for 
what  is  expended  at  the  butteiy  in  the  necessa- 
ries of  eating  and  drinking.  At  Cambridge  sixe 
is  used  in  a  similar  sense.  Hence  in  the  former 
universi^  there  is  a  student  named  a  batteler  or 
battler;  m  the  latter  a  sizer.  At  £ton,  battel  is 
used  to  describe  the  small  portion  of  food,  which, 
in  addition  to  the  college  allowance,  the  pupils 
receive  from  their  dames.  But  in  every  appli- 
cation the  word  has  reference  to  increase. 

This  is  the  gnyne  of  mustard  sede  which*  wh«n  it 
was  ao  fine  and  ao  litUe  that  the  anleamed  loit  of 
English  me  could  scarce  possibly  fele  or  see  it,  ye  of 
your  exceeding  charirie  and  acle  towaida  year  coontvy 
folkea  did  in  such  wise  helpe  to  some  in  the  field  of 
Englande,  and  did  so  cherishe  with  the  sable  bailfiing 
yevth  of  the  paraphrase,  that  where  before  it  was  in 
the  eyes  of  the  unlettered,  the  least  of  al  sides,  it  is 
now  shot  up,  and  growS  much  larger  in  bredth  the  . 
any  other  herbe  of  ye  field.         UdaU.  Luke,  Prefaee, 

The  best  advizement  was  of  bad,  to  let  her 
Sleepe  out  her  fill,  without  encumberment ; 
For  sleepe  (they  said)  would  make  her  battel  better. 
Speiuet,  Faerie  Qti»ene, 

For  in  the  churdi  of  God  sometimes  it  commeth  to 
pass,  as  in  over  battle  grounds,  the  fertile  disposition 
whereof  is  good ;  yet  because  it  exceedeth  due  propor- 
tion, it  bringeth  forth  abundantly,  through  too  much 
lanknesse,  ^ngs  lesse  profitable. 

Hooker,  Eoelet.  PU. 

M  assinissa  made  many  inward  parts  of  Barbarie 
and  Kumidia  in  Africk  (^bcfore  his  time  incult  and 
horrid)  fruitful  and  battable  by  this  means. 

Bmion't  Anatomy  of  Mdamchaly. 

Thomas  Sorrocold,  or  Sorooold,  was  bom  in  Lan- 
cashire,  became  aAoftlsr  or  student  of  Brasen-nose 
college,  in  1578,  aged  17  years  or  thersaboats. 

Wood,  AHmuB,  Oxon, 

Eat  my  commons  with  a  good  stomach,  and  battled 
with  discretion.  •  Pwitam.  MaUme't  SmpphmeiU. 

The  batftd  pastnze  fenc'd,  and  most'  with  quickset 
mound. 
The  sundry  sorts  of  soil,  diversity  of  ground. 

DrayUm,  PotyUon. 

Battel,  in  law,  or  Trial  by  wager  of  Bat- 
tel, now  disused.    See  Appeal. 

Battel  abbey.    See  Battel. 

BATTELMA,  a  town  of  Syria,  the  ancient 
Daphne;  the  scene,  according  to  classical  writers, 
of  the  transformation  of  the  nymph  of  that 
name  into  a  laurel.  At  a  short  distance  these 
trees  are  numerous.  It  is  said  that  temples 
dedicated  to  Daphne,  Apollo,  and  Diana,  stood 
on  this  spot;  and  that  Gallus  built  a  church 
at  a  later  period,  which  Dr.  Pococke  conjectures 
niay  have  been  the  remains  of  that  of  Apollo, 
lie  saw  the  remains  of  a  Christian  church,  with 
Greek  inscriptions  on  the  walls,  and  supposed 
that  it  might  nave  received  the  bones  of  mbylas, 
bishop  of  Antioch,  and  those  of  several  other 
martyrs.  There  are  fountains,  and  the  remains 
of  foundations,  walls,  and  aqueducts,  about  Bat- 
telma,  which  is  five  mtles  south-west  of  Antioch. 

BATTELY  (John),  an  English  divine,  bom  at 
Sl  Edmund's  Bury,  in  Suffolk,  in  1647,  and 


educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge.  Arch- 
bishop Sancroft  made  him  his  chaplain,  and  gave 
him  the  rectory  of  Adisham  in  Kent,  and  the 
archdeaconry  of  Canterbury.  He  wrote  Anti- 
quitates  Rutupinse,  and  Antiquitates  Edmund* 
burgi.    He  died  in  1708. 

BATTEN,  V.  a.  &  fi.  A  word,  says  Johnson, 
of  doubtful  etymology.  Probably  of  the  same 
derivation  as  battle,  as  it  seems' to  have  succeed- 
ed it,  and  to  have  the  same  meaning.  It  is, 
however,  with  its  predecessor,  growing"  fest  into 
desuetude.  It  signifies  to  fatten,  or  make  fax ; 
to  feed  plenteously;  to  fertilise;  and  to  live  in 
indulgence. 

CORio.  Follow  yourfanedon,  go  and  batten  on  cold 

bits.  Shaktpeare, 

A  man  may  battem  there  in  a  week  only,  with  hot 

loaves  and  hotter,  and 'a  lusty  cup  of  muscadine  and 

sugar  at  breakfast,  though  he  make  never  a  meal  all 

the  month  after.  Ford.  Perkm  Warbeck. 

We  drove  afield. 

Battening  our  flocks  with  the  fresh  dews  of  night. 

MUton, 
Burnish'd  and  batt'nhiy  on  their  food,  to  show 
The  diligence  of  careful  herds  below.  Drydmi. 

Twa  mice,  full  blythe  and  amicable. 
Batten  beside  erle  Robert's  Uble.  Prior, 

The  meadows  here,  with  batt'ning  ooze  enrich'd. 
Give  rpirit  to  the  grass ;  three  cubiu  high 
The  jointed  herbage  shoots.  PhSiq^. 

While  ardent  Sinus  shoots  a  thirsty  ray. 
And  autumn  yet  withholds  retreating  day. 
They  range  at  large,  and  gambol  through  the  stream^ 
Frisk  on  the  beach,  or  batten  in  the  beam.        Brooke. 
Go  thou ;  the  moan  of  woe  demands  thine  aid  ; 

Pride's  licensed  outrofce  claims  thy  slumbering  ire ; 
Pale  genius  roams  the  bleak  neglected  shade. 
And  battening  avarice  mocks  the  tuneless  lyre. 

Beattie. 
Batten  is  chiefly  used  by  joiners,  in  speak- 
ing of  doors  and  windows  of  shops,  &c.  which 
are  not  framed  of  whole  deal,  &c.  with  stiles, 
rails,  and  pannels  like  wainscoat;  but  are  made 
to  appear  <is  if  they  were,  by  means  of  these  bat- 
tens, bradded  on  the  plain  board  round  Uie  edges, 
and  sometimes  cross  them  and  up  and  down. 

Battens  of  the  Hatches,  in  sea  language, 
are  nailed  along  the  tarpaulings,  and  serve  to 
keep  their  edges  close  down  to  the  hatches,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  water  which  washes  over  the 
deck  from  penetrating  into  the  lower  apartments 
of  the  ship . 

BATTENBERG,  a  small  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  grand  dnchy  of  Hesse,  on  the  Eder,  with 
an  old  castle,  a  bailiwic,  and  720  inhabitants. 
Twent3^-five  miles  north  of  Giessen. 

BATTENHAUSEN,  an  ancient  town  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  territory  of  the  Catti. 

BATTENKIL,  asmall  river  of  North  America, 
in  the  state  of  Vermont,  which  rises  in  Benning- 
ton county,  and  running  soutli-west,  afterwards 
turns  directly  west  into  the  state  of  New  York, 
where  -it  fisUls  into  the  Hudson,  nearly  opposite  to 
Saratofra. 

BATTER,  V.  &  n.^    Fr.  battre ;  Ital.  battere  ; 
Bat'terer,  f  Germ,  batten ;  of  the  same 

Baxter  I  NO,  ^etymology  as  battailj  viz. 

B at'tery.  j  ancient  Saxon  beatan :  ap- 

.  pli«d  to  things  it  signifies  to  beat  down,  to  shatter. 
The  substantive  designates  a  mixture  of  several ' 


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r  beaten  together  with  fome  liquor;  to 
[led  ftom  its  being  so  much  beaten.  Applied 
to  persons,  it  describes  thet  urmoils  and  violence 
through  which  thev  have  passed,  and  the  worn- 
out  condition  in  which  they  are  left. 

Man  ttondeth  the  sinne  of  contomelie  or  ttrif  and 
«hMte,  and  baUenth  and  forgeth  by  yilians  reprevingei. 
Chancer,  The  Permmee  Tale. 
When  Capid  icaled  fint  the  fort 
Wherein  my  hait  lay  wounded  tore. 
The  battrp  was  of  each  a  sort. 
That  1  must  yield  or  die  therefore. 

Horace,  Unceriain  AuHhore, 
For  now  were  the  walls  beaten  with  the  rams,  and 
many  parts  thereof  shaken  and  battered:  and  at'  one 
place  above  the  rest,  by  continual  hatterie  there  was 
such  a  breach,  as  the  towne  lay  open  and  naked  to 
the  enemy.  HMtmd**  Umm,  foL  397. 

Moreover  take  but  three  sextares  or  qwuts  of  it 
being  steeped,  and  it  will  yield  a  measure  called 
modius,  of  thicke  grewel  or  hatter,  called  in  Latin 
puis.  Id.  Plime,  vol.  i.  p.  558. 

They  all  that  charge  did  fcrvendy  apply. 
With  greedy  malice  and  importune  toyle. 
And  planted  there  their  huge  artillery. 
With  which  they  daily  made  most  dreadful  battery, 

Spenear. 
Sconce  call  you  it?  so  you  would  leave  battering. 
I  had  rather  have  it  a  head.  Shaiepeare, 

Many  men  neglect  the  tumults  of  the  world,  and 
care  not  for  glory,  and  yet  they  are  afraid  of  infamy, 
repulse,  disgrace,  thdy  can  severely  contemn  plea^ 
suie,  bear  grief  indifferently  :  but  they  are  quite  bat-- 
tered  and  broken  with  reproach  and  obloquy. 

Burton,  Anat.  Md. 
Others  to  a  city  strong. 
Lay  siege  eneamp'd  ;  by  battery,  scale^  and  mine. 
Assaulting.  MUtm, 

Crowds  to  the  castle  mounted  up  the  street, 
Bat^ring  the  pavement  with  their  coursers'  feet. 

Drydan, 
One  would  have  all  things  little,  hence  has  tty'd 
Turkey  poults  fresh  from  th'  egg  in  batter  frj*d. 

King, 
If  you  have  a  silver  saucepan  for  the  kitchen  use, 
let  me  advise  you  to  batter  it  well.^  this  will  shew 
constant  good  housekeeping. 

&ot/r«  Direetiont  to  the  Cooh, 
▲s  the  same  dame,  experienc'd  in  her  trade. 
By  names  of  toasts  retails  each  Aalfsr'd  jade.  Pope, 
The  ordinary  machines  invented  to  batir  or  under- 
mine the  walls,  were  rendered  ineffectual  by  the  supe- 
rior skill  of  the  Romans.  Gibbon, 
Ba'tter,  V,  n,    A  word  used  only  by  work- 
men. 

The  side  of  a  wall,  or  any  timber,  that  bulges  from 
its  bottom  or  foundation,  is  said  to  batter.  Mason, 
^at'ter.  In  law,  a  violent  striking  of  any 
man.  In  an  action  against  a  striker,  one  may 
be  found  guilty  of  the  assault,  yet  acquitted  of 
the  battery.  There  may  therefore  be  assault 
without  6a<fery;  but  battery  dways  implies  an 
assault. 

^  Why  does  he  suffer  this  rude  knave  now  to  knock 
him  about  the  sconce  with  a  dir^  shovel,  and- will 
not  tell  him  of  his  action  of  battery?         Shaktpeare, 
Sir,  quo'  the  lawyer,  not  tp  flatter  ye. 
You  have  as  good  and  fair  a  battery 
As  heart  can  wish,  and  need  not  shame 
The  proudest  man  alive  to  claim.  Hudibra*. 

Battering,  in  the   military  art^  is  the  at^ 
tacking  a  fortiBed  place  or  worl^  .with   heavy 


artillery.  To  batter  in  breach,  is  to  play  furioosl? 
on  a  work,  as  the  angle  of  a  half  moon,  to  demo- 
lish and  make  a  gap  in  it.  In  doing  this,  they 
never  fire  a  piece  at  the  top,  but  all  at  the  bot- 
tom, firom  three  to  six  feet  from  die  groimd. 
See  Battert. 

Battering  Ram,  in  antimiity,  a  militaiy 
engine  used  to  batter  and  beat  down  the  walls  o. 
places  besieged.  It  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
oy  Artemorus  of  Clazomene,  a  Greek  architect, 
who  flourished  A.  A.  C.  441.  It » thus  described 
by  Josephus :  A  vast  beam,  tike  die  mast  of  a  dup, 
strengthened  at  the  one  end  with  a  head  of  iroo, 
resembling  that  of  a  ram,  whence  it  took  its  name, 
was  hung  by  the  middle  wiUi  ropes  to  another 
beaip,  which  lav  across  two  posts ;  and  hanging 
thus  equally  balanced,  it  was  by  a  great  number 
of  men  drawn  backwards  and  poshed  forwards, 
striking  the  wall  with  its  iron  head.  Bat  this 
engine  did  most  execution  when  it  was  moooted 
on  wheeb,  which  is  said  to  have  been  first  done 
at  the  siege  of  Byzantium  under  Philip  of 
Macedon.  ^ 

Battering  Ram,  in  military  affairs  See 
•Akies. 

Battering  Ram,  in  heraldry,  a  bearii^  or 
coat  of  arms  resembling  the  iniUtary  engine 
above  described. 

BATT£RS£A,  a  village  in  Surrey,  wfaidi  gives 
the  tide  of  baron  to  the  St.  John  family.  Popn- 
littion  about  5000.  In  the  church  is  a  raonn- 
ment  of  ♦Henry  St.  John,  viscount  Bolii^- 
broke,  who  was  bom  here,  and  his  second  w£, 
who  was  a  niece  of  Madame  de  Maintenon.  On 
another  to  die  memory  of  Sir  Edward  Winter, 
who  lived  in  the  neighbourhood,  it  is  related 
that  being  a  captain  in  die  East  India  company's 
service,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  11.,  he  was  atucked 
in  the  woods  by  a  tiger,  when,  placing  himself  on 
the  side  of  a  pond,  as  the  tiger  flew  at  him,  he 
caught  him  in  his  arms,  and  falling  back  widi  him 
into  the  water,  got  upon  him  and  kept  turndown 
till  he  was  drowned.  On  the  site  o(  Bolingbioke 
House,  which  was  pulled  down  in  1775,  has 
been  erected  a  horizontal  windmill  of  very  large 
dimensions.  The  height  of  die  main  shaft  is 
120  feet,  and  the  diameter  at  the  bottom  fifty-two. 
In  1771,  a  wooden  bridge  was  built  over  the 
Thames  at  Battersea,  under  die  direction  of  Mr. 
Holland,  at  an  exnense  of  £22,500. 

Battery,  in  electricity,  is  a  combinatioD  of 
coated  surfaces  of  glass,  commonly  jars,  so  con- 
nected together,  that  tbey  may  be  chaiml  at 
once,  and  discharged  by  a  common  conductor. 
Mr.  Gralath,  a  German  electrician,  was  the  first 
who  contrived  to  increase  the  shock,  by  charging 
several  phials  at  the  same  time.  Dr.  Franklin, 
after  he  had  analysed  the  Leyden  phial,  andibond 
that  it  lost  at  one  surface  die  electric  fire  which 
it  received  at  the  other,  constructed  a  battery  of 
panes  of  large  sash  glass,  coated  on  each  side^ 
and  connected  in  such  a  manner  that  the  whole 
might  be  charged  together,  and  with  the  same 
labor  as  one  single  pane;  and  by  bringing  all 
the  giving  sides  into  contact  widi  one  wii«,  and 
all  the  receiving  sides  with  another,  he  contrived 
to  unite  the  force  of  all  die  plates,  and  to  dis- 
charge diem  at  once.  Dr.  PnesUey  descnh6s  a 
still  more  complete  battery,  of  which  he  sajs» 


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that  after  long  uae  he  sees  no  reason  for  wishing 
the  least  alteration  in  any  part  of  it.    This  bat- 
tery consists  of  sixty-four  jars,  each  ten  inches 
long,  and  two  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
coated  within  an  inch  and  a  half  of  the  top; 
forming  in  the  whole  thir^-two  square  feet  of 
coated  sur&ce.   The  wire  of  each  jar  has  a  piece 
of  Tcry  small  wire  twisted  about  the  lower  end  of 
it,  to  touch  the  inside  coating  in  sereial  places; 
and  it  is  put  through  a  pretty  large  piece  of  cork, 
within  the  jar,  to  prevent  any  part  of  it  from 
touching  the  ^e,  which  would  tend  to  promote 
a  spontaneous  discharge.     Each  wire  is  turned 
round,  so  as  to  make  a  hole  at  the  upper  end; 
and  through  these  holes  a  pretty  thick  brass  rod 
with  nobs  passes,  each  rod  serving  for  one  row 
of  the  jars.    The  communication  between  these 
rods  is  made  by  laying  a  tluck  chain  over  them, 
or  as  many  of  them  as  may  be  wanted.    The  bot- 
tom of  the  box,  in  which  the  jars  stand,  is  covered 
with  a  plate  of  tin,  and  a  bent  wire  touching  the 
plate  passes  through  the  box,  and  appears  on  the 
outsicte.    To  thb  wire  any  conductor  designed 
to  communicate  with  the  outside  of  the  battery  is 
fastened,  and  the  discharge  is  made  by  bringing 
the  brass  knob  to  any  of  the  knobs  of  the  battery. 
M'hen  a  very  great  force  is  requhred,  the  quantity 
of  coated  surmce  may  be  increased,  or  two  or 
more  batteries  inay  be  used.    But  the  laigest  and 
most  powerful  battery,  is  that  which  was  employed 
by  Dr.  Van  Marum,  to  the  amazing  large  electri- 
cal machine  constructed  for  Teyler^s  Museum  at 
Haarlem.    This  grand  battery  consists  of  a  great 
number  of  jars^  coated  as  above,  to  the  extent  of 
about  130  square,  feet;  and  the  effects  of  it, 
■which  are  truly  astonishing,  are  related  by  Dr.  Van 
Marum,  in  his  description  of  this  machine,  and  of 
the  experiments  made  with  it, at  Haarlem,  in  1785. 
Battery  Galvanic    See  Galvanism. 
Battery,  in  law,  is  the  unlawful  beating  of 
another  in  breach  of  the  peace.    The  least  touchy 
log  of  another's  person  wilfully,  or  in  anger,  is  a 
battery ;  for  the  law  cannot  draw  the  line  between 
different  degrees  of  violence,  and  therefore  totally 
prohibits  the  first  and  lowest  stage  of  it;  every 
man's  person  being  sacred,  and  no  other  having 
a  right  to  meddle  with  it,  in  the  slightest  man- 
ner.   Upon, a  similar  principle,  the  Cornelian 
lawy  de  injuhis,  prohibited  pulsation  as  well  as 
▼«»rberation ;  distinguishing  verberation,  which 
was    accompanied  with  pain^  from  pulsation, 
which  was  attended  with  none.    But  battery  is  in 
some  cases  justifiable  or  lawful;  as,  first,  where 
one  who  hath  authority,  a  parent  or  master,  gives 
moderate  correction  to  his  child,  his  scholar,  or 
his  apprentice :  second,  in  self-defence ;  if  one 
strike  another,  or  only  assault  him,  he  may  strike 
in  his  own  defence ;  and,  if  sued  for  it,  may  plead, 
son  asault  demesne,  that  it  was  the  plaint^^s  ori- 
ginal assault  that  occasioned  it :  third,  in  defence 
of   goods  or  possessions,  if  one  endeavour  to 
deprive  another  of  them,  he  may  lay  hands  upon 
him  to  prevent  him ;  and  in  case  he  persist  with 
T'iolence,  may  beat  him  away :  fourth,  in  the  exer- 
cise of  an  office,  as  that  of  church-warden  or 
beadle,  a  man  may  lay  hands  upon  another  to  turn 
him  out  of  church,  and  prevent  his  disturbing  the 
oongiegation :  and  if  sued  for  this  or  the  like  bat- 


tery, he  may  set  forth  the  whole  case,  and  plead 
that  he  laid  hands  upon  him  gendy,  moUiter  ma- 
nus  imposuit,  for  tnis  purpose.  On  account  of 
these  causes  of  justification,  battery  is  defined  to 
be  the  unlawful  beating  of  another :  for  which  the 
remedy  is,  as  for  assault,  by  action  of  trespass  vi 
etarmis;  wherein  the  jury  will  give  adequate 
satisfaction  in  damages. 

Battery,  in  metalline  manufactures,  or  bat- 
tery works,  includes  pots,  sauce-pans,  kettles, 
and  the  like  vessels,  which,  though  cast  at  first, 
are  to  be  afterwards  hammered  or  beaten  into 
form.  Some  make  battery  for  the  kitchen,  bat- 
terie  de  cuisine,  comprehend  all  utensils  for  the 
service  of  the  kitchen,  whether  of  iron,  brass,  cop- 
per, or  other  matters.  Others  take  the  term  in  a 
narrower  sense,  and  restrain  it  to  utensils  of  brass 
or  copper.  A  society  for  the  mineral  and  battery 
work  of  England,  was  incorporated  by  queen 
Elizabeth. 

Battery,  in  the  military  art,  is  a  parapet 
thrown  up  to  cover  the  gunners,  and  men 
employed  about  the  guns,  from  the  enemy's 
shot.  This  parapet  is  cut  into  embrasiires,  for 
the  guns  to  be  fired  through.  The  height  of 
the  embrasures  on  the  inside  b  about  three 
feet;  but  they  slope  lower  to  the  outride. 
Their  width  is  two  or  three  feei,;  but  they  open  to 
six  or  seven  on  the  outside.  The  mass  of  earth 
betwixt  two  embrasures,  is  called  the  merlon. 
The  platform  of  a  battery  is  a  floor  of  planks  and 
sleepers,  to  keep  the  wheels  of  the  guns  from 
sinking  into  the  earth ;  and  is  always  made  slop- 
ing towards  the  embrasures,  both  to  hinder  tne 
recoil,  and  to  facilitate  the  bringing  back  of  the 
gun.  The  powder  magazines,  from  which  the 
.  batteries  are  to  be  served,  ought  not  to  be  far 
distant  from  them,  nor  from  each  other.  The 
genial  one  about  sixty  feet  in  the  rear  of  the  bat- 
tery, and  the  small  ones  about  half  that  distance. 
The  magazines  are  made  either  to  the  right  or 
left  of  the  battery,  as  the  officer  may  think  fit  for 
deceiving  the  enemy:  they  are  commonly  built 
five  feet  under  ground;  taking  care  to  secure  the 
•ides  and  roof  with  boards,  and  cover  them  with 
earth,  clay,  or  some  such  substance,  lest  fire 
should  get  in  to  the  powder.  The  balls  are 
generally  piled  up  besioe  the  merlons,  between 
the  embrasures,  to  be  in  readiness.  Though  in 
England  engineers  are  employed  to  construct 
batteries,  the  officers  of  artillery,  who  are  daily 
practising  the  different  branches  of  their  pro- 
raasion,  would  seem  to  be  the  fittest  persons  to 
direct  the  situation  and  to  superintend  the  con- 
struction of  their  own  batteries.  Batteries  are  of 
various  kinds,  viz. 

Batteries  Cross,  are  batteries  which  play 
athwart  one  another  upon  the  same  object,  form- 
ing there  an  angle,  and  causing  more  destniction; 
b^use  what  one  bullet  shsikes  the  other  beats 
dovm. 

Battery  a  Ricochet  is  adapted  to  the  method 
of  ricochet,  or  duck  and  drake  firing,  first  invented 
by  Vauban,  at  the  siege  of  Aeth,  in  1692:  the 
guns  are  loaded  vrith  small  charges,  and  elevated 
so  as  to  fire  over  the  parapet;  and  the  shot  is 
thus  made  to  bound  along  die  opposite  rampart, 
like  a  stone  skimmed  along  the  water.     In  a 


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tiege  they  are  genendly  placed  at  about  300  feet 
before  the  first  pamllef,  perpendicular  to  the 
faces  produced,  which  they  are  to  enfilade.  This 
method  has  since  been  applied  to  mortars  and 
howitzers  with  great  success,  which  are  of  singu- 
lar use  in  action  to  enfilade  the  enemy's  ranks; 
for  when  the  men.perceiye  the  shells  bounding 
about  with  their  ftizes  burning,  expecting  them 
to  burst  every  moment,  the  bravest  among  them 
will  hardly  have  courage  to  wait  their  approach. 

Battery  Boxes,  square  boxes  to  be  filled 
with  earth  or  dung,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
batteries,  where  gabions  a^d  earth  cannot  be  had. 

Battery,  Comrade,  or  Joint  Battery,  is 
when  several  guns  play  at  the  same  time  upon 
one  place. 

Battery,  Coffer,  is  that  where  the  sides  of 
the  wall  and  merlons  only  are  formed  of  fascines, 
and  all  the  cavities  or  included  spaces  filled  with 
earth. 

Battery,  Covered,  or  Masked,  is  when  the 
guns  and  men  are  covered  by  a  bank  made  of 
fascines  and  earth,  of  about  eighteen  or  twenty 
feet  thick,  and  seven  or  eight  feet  high.  The 
guns  are  generally  from  nine  to  eighteen 
pounden ;  sometimes  twenty-four  pounders  are 
used. 

Battery  D'Enfilade,  is  one  that  scours  or 
sweeps  the  whole  length  of  a  straight  line. 

Battery  de  Revers,  that  which  plays  upon 
the  rear  of  the  troops. 

Battery  en  EcbaRpe,  is  that  which  plays 
obliquely. 

Battery  en  Rouaob,  id  that  used  to  dis- 
mount the  enemy's  cannon. 

Battery  Nails,  pins  used  for  fastening  the 
planks  that  cover  the  platforms,  and  not  made  of 
iron  but  of  the  toughest  wood,  because  iron  might 
be  dangerous,  by  the  iron-work  of  the  wheels 
striking  against  them  in  recoiling,  &c. 

Battery  of  a  Camp  is  usuaJly  surrounded 
with  a  trench  and  pallisades,  at  the  bottom,  and 
with  a  parapet  on  the  top,  having  as  many  holes 
as  there  are  pieces  of  artillery,  and  two  redoubts 
on  the  wings,  or  places  of  arms,  capsible  of  cover- 
ing the  troops,  which  are  appomted  for  their 
defence. 

Battery  of  Mortars  differs  from  a  battery 
of  guns;  for  it  is  sunk  into  the  ground,  and  has 
no  embrasures,  it  being  designed  to  throw  its  charge 
up  into  the  air.  It  consists  in  a  parapet  of  about 
twenty  feet  thick,  seven  and  a  half  in  front,  and 
six  in  the  rear;  of  a  berme  about  three  feet  broad, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  earth ;  of  a  ditch 
twenty-four  feet  broad  at  top,  and  twenty  at  the 
bottom.  The  beds  are  not  made  sloping  like  the 
platforms  for  guns,  but  exactly  horizontal :  they 
should  be  nine  feet  long,  and  six  broad,  with 
eight  feet  betwixt  them,  and  nine  from  the  part 

Battery,  Open,  is  a  number  of  cannon,  ge- 
nerally field-pieces,  ranged  ar-breast  of  one 
another,  on  a  small  natural  elevation  of  the 
ground,  or  an  artificial  bank  of  about  a  yard  or 
two  high. 

Battery,  Sunk  or  Buried,  batterie  en  terre, 
is  that  whose  platform  is  sunk  into  the  ground, 
so  that  tliere  must  be  trenches  cut  in  the  earth, 
before  the  muzzles  of  the  guns,  for  them  to  fire 
out  at 


Battery,  Floati vg,  a  aea  battery  of  moitais. 
generally  composed  of  old  ships  oonsideTed 
unfit  for  active  service,  properly  strengthened  by 
balks  and  other  timbers.  Several  improvements 
have  been  attempted  on  floating  batteries  in  diis 
country.  Among  others,  a  mortar  battery,  for 
the  bombardment  of  the  enemy's  ports,  has  been 
invented  by  Sir  W.  Congreve,  which  is  proof 
both  against  shells  and  red-hot  balls.  It  is  so 
contrived  that  the  masis  and  sails  can  be  secarely 
diaposed  of  in  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hocr ; 
so  that  it  then  presents  upon  the  water  nothing; 
but  a  mere  hull,  with  sloping  sides,  which  is 
rowed  by  forty  men,  under  cover  of  the  bomb- 

Sroof,  and  may,  by  the  peculiar  construciiao  of 
le  masts  and  rigging,  be  brought  under  sail 
again  as  expeditiously  as  dismantled.  The 
rudder  and  moorings  are  wholly  under  wata-, 
and  protected  by  the  bomb-proof.  The  battenr 
is  armed  with  four  large  mortars,  for  bombard- 
ment, and  four  forty-two-pounder  carrooades^ibr 
self-defence;  though,  from  being  covered  widi 
plates  and  bars  of  iron,  she  can  neither  be  set 
fire  to  nor  be  carried  by  boarding.  Pour  such 
vessels,  though  not  more  than  250  tons  burden 
each,  and  drawing  less  than  twelve  feet  water, 
would  throw  upwards  of  500  shells  into  any 
place  in  one  tide,  and  with  the  greatest  precision ; 
Doth  because  from  their  constmctioa  they  have 
nothing  to  apprehend  from  approaching  tbe 
enemy's  batteries,  and  because  from  the  peculiar 
contrivance  of  the  mortar-beds,  the  devadon  of 
the  mortars  is  not  afiected  by  the  roUing  or 
pitching  of  the  vessel. 

BATTEURS  D'Estrade,  scouts,  or  hone- 
men,  sent  out  before,  and  on  the  wings  of  an 
army,  two  or  three  miles,  to  make  discoveria; 
of  which  they  are  to  give  an  acGoam  to  tke 
general. 

BATTIE  (William),  M.  D.,  was  bom  in  De 
vonshire,  in  1704.  He  received  his  educaooo 
at  Eton ;  and  in  1722  was  sent  to  King's  College, 
Cambridge.  His  own  indiimtion  prompted  him 
to  the  law ;  but  his  finances  could  not  sapport 
him  at  one  of  the  inns  of  court.  He  therefore 
turned  his  attention  to  physic,  and  first  entered 
upon  the  practice  of  it  at  Cambridge ;  where  io 
1729  he  gave  a  specimen  of  an  edition  of  Iso- 
crates,  which  in  1749  he  completed  in  2  vok. 
8vo.  He  afterwards  removed  to  London ;  and 
in  1738  or  1739  fulfilled  by  marriage  a  long  en- 
gagement to  a  daughter  of  Bamham  Goode,  the 
under  master  of  Eton,  who  is  honored  with  a 
place  in  the  Dunciad,for  leaving  abased  Pope,  in 
The  Mock  JEsoip.  A  cousin  now  left  the  doctor 
£30,000.    In  tne  dispute  which  the  coU^  of 

eysicians  had  with  Dr.  Schombeig,  about  1750, 
ttie  took  a  veiv  active  part.  In  1751  he  pub- 
lished De  Principits  Animalibus  Ezercitationes, 
in  Coll.  Reg.  Medicorum,  in  three  puts ;  whi^ 
were  followed  in  1752  by  a  fourth.  In  1757, 
being  physician  to  St.  Luke's,  he  published  A 
Treatise  on  Madness,  in  <}uarto;  aind  in  1762 
Apborismi  de  cognoscendis  et  curandis  Movbis 
nonnuUis,  ad  principia  accommodati.  In  Feb. 
1762  he  was  examined  before  a  ooramittae  of 
the  House  of  Comnoons,  on  the  state  of  the 
private  mad*houses  in  this  kingdom,  and  received 
m  their  printed  n^port  a  testimony  hononble  to 


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his  abilitiet.  In  1776  he  was  seized  with  a  pa- 
ralytic stroke,  of  which  he  died  June  13,  aged 
seventy-five. 

BATTIFOLIUM,  or  Battifollitm,  a  kind 
of  tower  or  defence,  frequently  mentioned  by 
Latin  historians  of  the  middle  age.  It  seems  to 
have  been  made  of  wood,  and  erected  on  sudden 
occasions. 
^  BATTING  Staff,  the  same  with  Batlet. 

BATTISTA  (Franco),  a  celebrated  painter, 
bom  at  Venice,  was  one  of  the  disciples  of 
Michael  Angelo,  whose  manner  he  followed  so 
closely,  that,  in  the  correctness  of  his  -outlines, 
he  surpassed  most  of  the  masters  of  his  time. 
His  paintings  are  pretty  numerous,  and  widely 
dispersed ;  but  his  coloring  being  very  dry,  they 
are  not  much  more  esteemed  than  the  prints  he 
etched.     He  died  in  1 56 1 . 

BATTITURA,  the  scales  that  fly  off  from  hot 
iron,  when  newly  taken  out  of  the  fire  and  beaten 
on  the  anvil. 

BATTLE,  V,  &  n.'\  Derivation,  Old  Saxon, 
Bat'tlement,  f  beatan.  See  Battail, 
Bat^tlemented,  &  to  fight ;  ailso  to  prepare 
Bat'tlikg.  J  for  fight.    The  substan- 

tive is  used  in  various  senses ;  it  sometimes  is 
applied  to  an  encounter  between  opposite  armies; 
and  to  a  body  of  forces,  or  division  of  an  army ; 
to  the  main  or  middle  body  of  an  army,  says 
Nares,  between  the  van  and  rear.  Crabbe  traces 
the  verb  to  the  Latin  batuo,  and  to  the  Hebrew 
4ibat,  to  beat,  signifying  a  beating.  The  wotds 
inUtle,  combat,  and  engagement,  are  frequently, 
but  incorrectly,  used  as  synonymes.  Batties 
are  fought  between  armies  only.  Combats  are 
entered  into  between  individuals,  whether  of 
the  brute  or  human  ^'species.  Engagements  are 
confined  to  no  particular  membe  only  to  such 
as  are  engaged. 

If  houses  strongly  bnilt. 

And  towers  battied  hie. 
By  force  of  blut  be  overthrown. 
When  Eol's  impes  doe  file. 

TurhervUie, 
And  he  is  bred  out  of  that  bloody  Strain 
That  haunted  ns  in  our  familiar  paths : 
Witness  our  too  much  memorable  shame. 
When  Cressy  batteU  fauUy  was  struck. 
And  all  our  princes  captiVd  by  the  hand 
Of  that  black  name ;  Edward,  black  prince  of  Wales. 

ShaUtpeare. 
The  English  army,  that  divided  was 
Into  two  parts,  is  now  coi^oined  in  one ; 
And  means  to  give  you  battU  presently.  Id, 

The  vaward,  Zerbin  hath  in  government. 
The  duke  of  Lancaster  the  baftett  guides. 
The  duke  of  Clarence  with  the  rereward  went. 

HarringUm'i  Arinto, 
The  king  divided  his  army  into  three  battlet ;  where- 
of the  vanguard  only,  with  wings,  came  to  fight. 

Bacon, 
Sidnius  Dentatns  fought  in  an'  hundred   battlet; 
eight  times  in  single  combat  he  overcame,  had  forty 
wounds  before,  was  rewarded  with  140  crowns. 

Anai.  MA, 
He  ended  frowning,  and  his  look  denounced 
Desperate  revenge,  and  bwttd  dangerous 
To  lest  than  gods.  M^Uon, 

Go  Michael,  of  celestial  annies  prinoe. 
And  thoa  in  military  prowess  next. 


Gabriel,  lead  forth  to  baUie  these  my  eons 
Invincible ;  lead  forth  my  armed  sainU  \ 
By  thousands,  and  by  millions.  Id, 

Just  so,  by  our  example,  cattle 
Learn  to  give  one  another  baitU.      Hudibrat, 
Through  this  we  pass 
Up  to  the  highest  battlement,  from  whence 
The  Trojans  threw  their  darts.  Denkam, 

Tis  ours  by  craft  and  by  surprise  to  gain : 
Tis  yours  to  meet  in  arms,  and  baUk  in  the  plain. 

Prior. 
We  receive  accounts  of  ladies  battUng  it  on  both 

Addinn, 


Should  he  go  farther,  numbers  would  be  wanting 
To  form  new  baitiei  and  support  his  crimes.  Id. 

I  cannot  find  my  hero ;  he  is  mixed 
With  the  heroic  crowd  that  now  pursue 
The  fogitives,  or  battie  with  the  desperate. 

Jtyron 
There  is  given 
Unto  the  things  of  earth,  which  time  iMth  bent, 
A  spirit's  feeling,  and  where  he  hath  lent 
His  hand,  but  broke  his  scythe,  there  is  a  power 
And  magic  in  the  ruined  battleuteni ; 
For  which  the  palace  of  the  present  hour 
Must  yield  its  pomp,  and  wait  till  ages  are  its  doom 

U 
Wave  high  your  torches  on  each  crag  and  cliff — 
Let  many  lights  blaze  on  your  battkmentt — 
Shout  to  them  in  the  pauses  of  the  storm. 

And  tell  them  there  is  hope 

And  let  our  deep-toned  bisll  its  loudest  peals 
Send  cheerly  o'er  the  deep 
Twill  be  a  comfort  to  the  wretched  souls 
In  their  extremity.     All  things  are  possible ; 
Fresh  hope  may  give  them  strength,  and  strength 
delivennee.  Jtfolwm. 

Battles,  Ancient.  The  ancients  never  joined 
battle  without  much  ceremony  and  preparation ; 
as  taking  auguries,  offering  sacrifices,  haranguing 
the  soldiers,  giving  the  word,  or  a  tessera,  &c. 
The  signals  were,  sounding  the  classicum  or  ge- 
neral charge,  and  displaying  a  peculiar  flag, 
called  by  Plutkrch  a  purple  robe.  To  which 
may  be  added,  singing  poeans,  raising  military 
shouts,  and  the  like.  A  Roman  legion,  ranged 
in  order  of  battle,  consisted  of  hastati,  placed 
in  the  front ;  of  principes,  who  were  all  old  ex- 
perienced soldiers,  placed  behind  the  former; 
and  of  triarii,  heavy  armed  with  large  bucklers, 
behind  the  principes.  The  hastati  were  ranked 
close :  the  ranks  of  the  principes  were  much 
opener,  so  that  they  could  receive  the  hastati ; 
and  those  of  the  triarii  opener  still,  insomuch 
that  they  could  receive  both  the  principes  and 
the  hastati  within  them,  without  any  disordei, 
and  still  facing  the  enemy.  When  therefore  the 
hastati  found  themselves  unable  to  stand  the 
enem/s  charge,  they  retired  gently  within  the 
principes,  where  joining  with  them,  tney  renewed 
the  combat.  If  these  found  themselves  too  weak 
to  sustain  the  enemy,  both  retired  among  the 
triarii,  where  rallying,  they  formed  a  new  corps, 
and  charged  with  more  vigor  than  ever.  If  these 
failed,  the  battle  was  lost;  the  Romans  had  no 
farther  resource.  The  modems  are  unacquainted 
with  this  method  of  inserting  or  embattling  one 
company  into  another ;  without  which  the  former 
cannot  be  well  succoured  or  defended,  and  their 
places  taken  by  others;  which  was  a  thing  the 


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Romans  practised  widi  great  exactness.  For  the 
velites^and  in  later  times  the  archers  and  slingers^ 
were  not  drawn  np  in  this  regular  manner,  but 
either  disposed  of  before  the  front  of  the  hastati 
or  scattered  up  and  down  upon  the  void  spaces 
of  the  hastati,  or  sometimes  placed  in  two  bodies 
in  the  wings.  These  alwap  began  the  combat, 
skirmishing  in  flying  parties  with  the  foremost 
troops  of  the  enemy.  If  they  were  repulsed, 
which  was  usually  the  case,  they  fell  back  to  the 
flanks  of  the  army,  or  retired  again  in  the  rear. 
When  they  retired,  the  hastati  advanced  to  the 
charge.  As  to  the  cavalry,  it  was  posted  at  the 
two  comers  of  the  army,  like  the  wings  on  a 
body ;  and  fought  sometimes  on  foot,,  sometimes 
on  horseback.  The  auxiliary  forces  composed 
the  two  points  of  the  battle,  and  covered  the 
whole  body  of  the  Romans.  Other  less  usual 
forms  of  battle  among  the  Romans  were  the 
cuneus,  or  wedge ;  globus,  or  round  form ;  forfex, 
or  pair  of  sheers ;  tarris,  or  an  oblong  square 
figure ;  serra,  or  saw.  The  Greeks  were  inferior 
to  the  Romans  in  marshalling  their  armies,  for 
the  battle,  as  they  drew  up  their  whole  army  in  a 
firont,  and  trusted  the  success  of  the  day  to  a  single 
force.  They  had  three  forms  of  battle  for  die 
horse,  viz.  tlie  square,  the  wedge,  and  the 
rhombus  or  diamond  form.  The  first  held  best 
for  the  defensive ;  the  latter  for  the  offensive ; 
the  wedge  being  preferred  as  bringing  most  hands 
to  fight  % 

The  Romans  had  their  particular  days,  called 
praeclares  dies^  wherein  alone  it  was  lawfiil  to 
join  battle ;  and  others  wherein  it  wis  unlawful, 
called  dies  atri.  The  Athenians,  by  the  ancient 
laws  of  their  country,  were  not  to  draw  out  their 
forces  for  battle  till  after  the  seventh  day  of  the 
month.  Lucian  relates  of  the  LAcedemonians, 
that,  by  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  they  were  not  to 
fight  before  full  moon.  Among  the  Germans  it 
was  reputed  an  impiety  to  fight  in  the  wane  of 
the  moon;  and  Ciesar  tells  us  that  Ariovistus 
was  beaten  by  him,  because,  contrary  to  the  laws 
of  his  country,  he  had  fought  when  the  moon 
was  in  her  wane.  The  German  soldiers  were 
intimidated  with  the  apprehension,  and  afforded 
Caesar  an  easy  victory;  acie  commissa,  impeditos 
religione  hostes  vicit.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
Pompey  in  an  attack  on  the  sabbath  day,  when, 
by  the  superstitious  notions  of  the  Jews,  they 
were  not  allowed  even  to  defend  themselves. 
The  Romans  did  not  carry  their  superstition  so 
for ;  their  atri  dies  were  only  observed  in  respect 
of  attacking ;  no  day  was.  too  holy  for  them  to 
defend  themselves  in.  Among  the  ancients,  we 
find  frequent  instances  of  battles  in  the  night ; 
it  was  by  moon-light  that  Pompey  beat  Mithii- 
dates,  and  Soipio,  Asdrubal  and  Syphax. 

The  Greeks  notified  the  places  of^  their  battles 
and  victories  by  adding  the  word  K1K9 ;  whence 
Nicomedia,  Nicopolis,  Thessalonica,  &c.  The 
ancient  Britons  did  the  like,  by  adding  the  word 
Mais;  whence  Maisseveth,  Malmaisbury,  &c. 
The  English  by  the  word  field. 

Battle,  or  Battel,  a  market  town  in  the 
hundred  of  Battle,  Hastihgs  rape,  Sussex,  twenty- 
six  miles  south-east  from  Tunbridge,  and  fifty-six 
south  from  London ;  containing  2852  inhabitants. 
The  ancient  name  was  Epiton,  but  the  famous 


l)a<'^eof  Hastings  gave  it  its  presant.vame,  ia 
lOGO ;  the  conqueror  first  lanaed  near  Peven- 
sey,  a  few  n^iles  distant  In  memory  of  tkis 
important  day,  William  founded  a  celebrated 
abbey,  at  Heathfield,  or  Ueadfield  plain, 
called  Battle-Abbey;  one  of  those  religioQs 
houses  which  had,  formerly,  the  privilege  of 
sanctuary.  From  its  remains  it  appears  to  have 
been  very  magnificent,  they  being  nesiiiy  a  mile 
in  circumference:  its  abbot  was  mitred.  The 
gate-house  is  entire,  and  is  converted  into  a 
sessions'  house.  On  one  part  of  the  site  of  the 
abbey  stands  the  fiunily  mansion  of  the  Websten. 
The  incumbent  of  the  church  is  called  the  dean 
of  Battle.  Here  is  a  charity  school  for  forty  boys. 
At  no  great  distance  is  Beacon-hill,  formeriy 
called  Standard-hill ;  where  the  standard  of  the 
conqueror  was  first  planted.  The  town  has 
long  been  &mous  for  making  the  best  gunpowder 
in  Europe.  The  market  is  on  Tbunday,  till 
1600  it  w%is  held  on  Sunday :  it  has  also  a  veiy 
large  market  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  every 
month. 

Battle-Axes  weVe  a  principal  part  of  die 
offensive  armour  of  the  Celtas.  At  the  siege  of 
the  Roman  Capitol  by  the  Gauls,  under  Brennns, 
we  find  one  ot  the  most  distinguished  of  their 
warriors  armed  with  a  battle-axe.  And  Am- 
mianus  Marcellinus,  many  centuries  aftenraids, 
describing  a  body  of  Gauls,  fumisbes  them 
all  with  battle-axes  and  swords.  Some  of 
the  weapons  have  been  found  in  the  sepulchres 
of  the  Britons,  on  the  dovrns  of  Wiltshire,  and 
in  the  north  of  Scotland.  Within  these  four  or 
five  centuries  the  Irish  went  constantly  armed 
with  an  axe.  At  the  battle  of  Bannockbun, 
king  Robert  Bruce  clave  an  English  diampion 
down  to  the  chine  at  one  blow  with  a  battle-axe. 
The  axe  of  Lochaber  remained  a  formidable  im- 

{)lement  of  destruction  in  the  hands  of  the  Higb- 
anders,  nearly  to  the  present  period ;  and  it  is 
still  used  by  the  city-guard  of  Edii^nugb,  in 
quelling  mobs,  &c. 

Battle  Dykes,  a  place  in  the  parish  of 
Oathlaw,  in  Angusshire,  where  there  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  Roman  camp,  and  a  via  miiitans 
connecting  it  with  another  in  the  parish  of  In- 
verariw.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been 
erected  by  Agricola. 

Battle-Fauld,  a  place  in  Aberdeenshire,  io 
the  parish  of  Longside,  where  there  are  a  great 
number  of  tumuli  and  other  evidences,  as  well 
as  the  name,  confirming  the  tradition  of  its 
having  been  the  scene  of  a  foreign  invasion. 

BATTLEFIELD,  a  small  place  in  Shrop- 
shire, about  five  miles  east  of  Shrewsboiy,  dis- 
tinguished as  the  scene  of  the  memorable  battle 
in  which  Henry  IV.  overthrew  Hotspur's  rebel- 
lion, in  1402,  in  memory  whereof  he  founded  a 
collegiate  church,  part  of  which  is  still  used.  A 
mound  adjoining  the  church-yard,  marks  the 
burial  place  of  the  slain ;  and  a  plot  of  ground 
called  King's  Croft  distixiguishes  the  j^toe  in 
which  the  royal  tent  was  pitched. 

BATrOLX)GIZE,^     Fr.  hattologit;    from 

Battol'ogist,         Sthe  Greek  PamiKojtm, 

Battol'ogt.  3  which   means  to  do  as 

Battus  did>  and  whidi  is  described  by  Suidas 

in  these  words  /3arroXoyia  9  noXvX9yia,  hmttolj- 


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gy,  n  (he  multiplying  of  words,  &c.  Heiychius 
explains  it  ^  empty,  idle,  unseasonable  dis- 
course;' and  the  translation  of  oar  Bible  well 
expi'eises  it  by  '  vain  repetitions/ 

After  the  eaitem  mode,  they  wagged  their  bodies, 
boving  their  heeds,  and  battologiMing  the  name  Al- 
loQgh  Whoddaw  and  Mabnmet  very  often. 

akr  7.  Herbtrt't  Tnwsb.p.  191. 

BATTON,  in  merdiandise,  a  name  gi^en  to 
certain  pieces  of  wood  or  deal  for  flooring  or 
other  purposes. 


BOTTOM,  Baitune,  or  Bas- 
TON,  Fr.  Mton,  in  heraldry,  a 
staff  truncheon,  used  as  an  abate- 
ment in  coats  of  arms  to  denote 
illegitimacy,  thus : 


BATTOR Y,  a  name  given  b^  the  Ilans  Towns 
to  their  magazines  or  fectones  abroad.  The 
chief  of  these  battories  are  those  of  Archangel, 
Novogorody  Bermen,  Lisbon,  Venice,  and  Ant- 
werp. 

BATRACHUS,  in  ichthyology,  a  species  of 
silurus,  found  in  Asia  and  Africa.  Toe  dorsal 
fin  is  single,  and  contains  sixty  rays*,  beards  of 
the  mouth  eight  Lin.  Mus.  Fr.— The  tail  is 
entire.^ 

BATTUS,  a  general  of  the  Celti,  who,  ac- 
cording to  Camden  and  Boetius,  gave  the  first 
check  to  the  Roman  conquests,  under  Augustus; 
but,  being  routed  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  part 
of  them  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine,  whera 
Irom  him  the  country  was  named  Batavia. 

Battus,  an  order  of  ci-devaot  penitents  at 
Avignon,  and  in  Provence,  whose  piety  carried 
them  to  exercise  severe  discipline  upon  them- 
selves both  in  public  and  private. 

Battus,  in  the  heathen  mythology,  a  herds- 
men, whom  Mercury  turned  into  a  touch-stone, 
for  discovering,  for  a  bribe,  what  he  had  pro- 
mised to  conceal. 

BATTUTA,  in  the  Italian  music,  the  motion 
of  the  hand  or  foot  in  keeping  or  beating  tinfe. 
Among  Italian  musicians,  a  battuta  imports,  in 
measure,  or  beating  each  time  equally.  This 
usually  occurs  after  what  they  call  recitativo, 
^vhich  is  rather  declaiming  than  singing,  and 
in  which  little  or  no  measure  is  observM. 

BATUA,  BuTUA,  BuTHOE,  or  Buthoece,  in 
ancient  geography,  a  town  of  Dalmatia  situated 
on  the  Adriatic ;  now  called  Budoa  ;  which  see. 
BATUALIA,  from  batuere,  Lat.  to  fence,  the 
exercise  of  those  who  learned  to  fence. 
BATUATORES,  ifi  antiqui^,  fencers. 
BATUDA,  a  method  of  fishing  mentioned  m 
some  middle  age  writers,  wherein  the  fish  are 
driven  by  beating  the  water  with  poles,  till 
flocking  into   one  place,  they  are  the  sooner 
caught. 

BATTUECAS,  Las,  a  territory  of  Spain,  in 
tHe  province  of  Leon,  almost  insulated  amid  the 
higr^  mountains  of  the  bishopric  of  Coria,  fifty 
mites  distant  from  Salamanca.  It  forms  .a  sort 
of  valley,  a  league  in  length,  the  inhabitants  of 
-vrhich  are  supposed  by  some  writers  to  have  re- 
r*iained  for  ages  unknown  to  the  rest  of  Spain. 
BATURIN,  n  town  of  European  Russia,  in 
Vol.  111. 


the  Ukraine,  on  the  river  Sem,  now  in  the  go« 
vemment  of  Czemigov.  The  castle  was  formerly 
the  residence  of  tlie  hetman,  or  commandeNin- 
chief  of  the  Cossacks.  On  the  desertion  of  the 
hetman  Mazeppa  to  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden, 
in  1708,  the  town  was.  taken  by  the  Russians, 
sacked  and  burned,  and  all  iu  inhabitants  put 
to  the  sword.  The  empress  Elizabeth  made 
a  perpetual  grant  of  it,  with  part  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  to  die  hetman  Rasumoski, 
under  whom  the  houses  were  rebuilt.  It  is 
eighty  miles  £.  S.  £.  of  Ciemigov,  the  capital 
of  the  province.  , 

BATURIUS.    See  Bacubixjs. 
BATUS,  ns,  Ileb.  an  Hebrew  liquid  measure, 
containing  seventy-three  sextaries. 

BATTU  (PuLO  Batu).— An  island  off  the 
western  coast  of  Sumatra,  situated  immediately 
to  the  southward  of  the  equinoctial  line.  In 
length  forty  miles,  by  ten  the  average  width. 
Their  esports  are  coooa-nuts,  oil,  and  sivallo  or 
sea  slug.  It  is  largely  wooded,  and  the  inha- 
bitants  are  subject  to  the  Rajah  of  Buluam. 

BATTY  or  Bhatti,  the  country  of  the  Batties, 
or  Bhatties,  bounded  on^  the  north  by  the  Pun- 
jab and  the  river  Sutuleje,  east  by  the  district 
of  Hurrianah,  west  by  the  desert,  and  south 
by  Bicanere.  From  north  to  south  it  extends 
about  150  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  about  100, 
comprehending  part  of  the  provinces  of  Lahore, 
Delhi,  and  Ajmeer. 

The  productive  part  of  the  country  is  along  the 
banks  of  the  river  Cuggur,  from  the  town  of  Futte- 
habadto  Batneer.  The  land  within  the  influenoeof 
the  inundations  of  this  river  produces  wheat,  rice, 
and  barley,  but  the  remamder  of  the  Bhatty 
country,  owing  to  a  scarcity  of  moisture,  is  ste- 
rile and  unproductive.  The  Cuggur  is  after- 
wards lost  in  the  sands  to  the  west  of  Batneer, 
though  it  is  said  formeriy  to  have  joined  the  Su- 
tuleje in  the  vicinity  of  Ferozepoor. 

The  capital  is  Batneer ;  the  other  towns  of  note 
are  Arroah,  Futtehabad,  Sirsah,  and  Ranyah. 
There  is  but  little  commerce  carried  on  in  this 
country,  the  inhabitants  being  more  addicted  to 
thieving  than  industrious  pursuits.  With  the 
exception  of  the  sale  of  meir  surplus  grain, 
ghee,  and  catde,  the  Batties  have  little  inter- 
course with  the  neighbouring  states.  Their  im- 
ports are  coarse  white  cloth,  sugar,  and  salt,  but 
the  trade  is  inconsiderable.  The  Bhatties  are 
properly  shepherds.  Their  morals  are  very  in- 
different, their  neighbours  describing  them  as 
cruel,  savage,  and  ferocious  thieves  from  their 
birth.  The  females  are  allowed  to  appear  in 
public  unveiled,  and  without  any  of  that  con- 
cealment so  common  over  Uindostan. 

BATZ,  Batzen,  Bat,  or  Bate,  in  commerce, 
a  small  copper  coin,  mixed  with  a  slight  portion 
of  silver,  current  in  parts  of  Germany,  and  in 
Switzerland,  and  vaiying  in  value  according  to 
its  alloy. 

BAVAR,  or  Bauer,  or  Bouwer  (John  Wil- 
liam), was  bom  at  Strasburgh  in  1610,  and  be- 
came a  disciple  of  Frederick  Brentel.  He  had 
great  genius,  but  the  liveliness  oC  bis  imagina- 
tion hindered  him  from  studying  nature,  or 
the  antique,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  divest 
himself  of  his  German  taste,  though  he  went  to 

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BAVARIA. 


Rome  to  improve  himself.  In  Itt^iy  he  applied 
liimaelf  entirely  to  architecture,  as  far  as  it  might 
contribute  to  the  enrichment  of  his  landscfipes, 
vthkh.  were  his  favorite  subjects;  and  for  bis 
scenes  and  situations,  he  studied  the  rich  pros- 
pects about  Frescati  and^TivoU.  lie  ^tm  fond 
of  introducing  battles,  marchings  of  armies,  skir- 
mishes, and  processions ;  but  never  arrived  at  a 
grandeur  of  design ;  nor  couVI  he  ever  express 
the  naked  figure.  Liis  pencil  however  was  light, 
bis  composition  good,  and  his  general  expression 
beautiful.  He  painted  in  water-colors  on  vellum ; 
his  coloring  is  glowing,  but  his  drawing  is  in- 
correct, lie  etdied  from  his  own  ideas  nume- 
rous designs  from  Ovid*8  Metamorphoees,  very 
much  in  the  style  and  spirit  of  Callot,  and  died 
at  Vienna  in  1640. 

BAVARIA,  now  one  of  the  principal  secon- 
dary states  of  Germany,  was  derived  from  a  ciccle 
of  the  same  name,  bounded  by  Fianconia  and 
Bohemia  on  the  north,  Austria  on  theeas^  Tyrol 
on  the  soutli,  and  Suabia  on  the  west  .  The  ori- 
ginal circle  included  a  territory  of  16,500  square 
miles,  covered  with  a  population  of  1,300,000 
inhabitants,  and  before  tne  dismemberment  of  the 
German  empire,  in  1806,  formed  one  of  its  great 
divisions.  The  numerous  states  which  comprised 
it  were  formed  into  two  divisions,  governed  by 
the  ecclesiastical  and  secular  benches,  the  former 
including  the  archbishop  of  Saltzburg,  the 
bishops  of  Ratisbon,  Passau,  and  Freysingen,  the 
princely  provostship  of  Berchtolsgaden,  with  the 
abbeys  of  St.  Emerau,  Niederand  Ober  Munster, 
in  the  city  of  Ratisbon.  The  latter  consisted  of 
the  elector  of  Bavaria,  the  dukes  of  Neuburg  and 
Saltzburg,  the  Landgrave  of  Leuchtenberg,  the 
prince  of  Steinstein,  the  counts  of  Haag  and  Oiv 
tenburgh,  with  the  lords  of  Ehienfels,  Salaburg, 
Pyrbaum,  Hohen-Waldeok  and  Breiteneck,  to- 
gedier  with  a  representative  from  the  imperial 
town  of  Ratisbon. 

The  greater  part  of  tliis  circle  belonged  to  the 
elector,  who  was  at  that  time  one  of  the  most 
(>owerAil  princes  of  Germanv ;  and  before  the 
French  revolution  wielded  the  imperial  autho- 
rity, not  only  over  the  countries  of  the  secular 
bench,  already  mentioned,  but  over  the  lordships 
of  VViesenstein,  Meindilheim,  and  Schwabach,  m 
Suabia;  most  of  the  country  of  Erbach,  in  Fran- 
conia ;  the  palatinate  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  in  the 
circle  of  that  name ;  the  principalities  of  Simmern, 
Lautem  and  Veldenz ;  two-thirds  of  the  country 
of  »S{^nheim ;  half  the  bfuUiage  of  Ilombuig  in  the 
circle  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  together  with  the 
duchies  of  Juliers  and  Berg,  in  the  circle  of 
\Vestphalia. 

The  ancient  duchy  of  Bavaria  formed  a  great 
part  of  the  circle,  bordering  on  Austria,  Passau, 
and  Saluburg  on  the  east,  Tyrol  on  the  south, 
Suabia  on  the  west,  Neuburg  and  the  Upper  Pa- 
latinate on  the  north.  It  was  formed  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Bavaria,  including,  in  round  numr 
bers,  h  territory  of  13,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  900,000  inhabitants. 

Bavaria  originally  made  a  part  of  the  Rhetia, 
Vindelicia,  and  Noricum,  of  the  ancients ;  and 
received  its  Latin  name  Boiaria,  or  Boioaria, 
from  the  Boii,  a  people  of  Celtic  Gaul,  who  co- 
lonised it  at  an  early  period.    These  peoph:  were 


governed  by  native  priooes,  tiU  Oioiteasignelodk 
possession  of  the  country,  and  cottmntted  fte 
government  to  some  of  his  oonnts,  aad,  on  Ae 
partition  of  his  imperial  dominions,  amongst  his 
grandsons,  Bavaria  was  assigned  to  Louis  the 
German.  It  bore  the  title  of  margrav^ue  till  the 
year  920,  when  Arnold,  Uie  reigning  prince,  was 
raised  to  the  quality  of  duke.  In  1623  Maxi- 
milian I.,  having  assisted  Ferdinand  11.  against 
his  Bohemian  insurgents,  vras  elevated  to  Ae 
electoral  dignity,  after  which  few  events  of  im- 
portance occurred  till  the  year  1777,  'wlien  the 
disputed  succession,  incident  on  the  extinction  of 
the  reigning  branch,  prodnced  a  dispositkm  in 
Austria  to  seize  the  whole  electorate,  and  annex 
it  to  her  dominions ;  a  measure  which  was  happily 
prevented  by  the  prompt  and  energetic  conduct 
of  Frederic  II.  After  tne  adjustment  of  the  Aus- 
trian pretensions,  the  electorate  enjoyed  the 
blessings  of  peace  till  the  French  terolntioD, 
which  involved  all  Germany  in  the  flames  of  dvA 
discord.  The  elector  remameion  tbs  aide  of  ^ 
imperialists  till  1796,  when  the  French  maidied 
a  powerful  army  into  his  dominions,  and  con- 
cluded a  treaty  for  the  cesation  of  hottilitics. 
The  year  following  was  signed  the  treaty  of  Cam- 
po-Formio,  and  in  1801  that  of  LipieviMe;  by 
which  all  the  German  dominions  left  of  the  BluDe, 
were  annexed  to  France,  and  the  elector  loeft  Ae 
palatinate  qf  the  Bhine^  ike  dnchies  of  Julisrs 
and  Deux  Fonts,  vrith  all  his  poasessioos  in  the 
Netherlands  and  AlsaoCy'receiving  as  indemnities 
tlie  bishoprics  of  Freysingen,  Bambers,  Augs- 
burg, and  Kempten,  with  ten  abbeys,  fiSeea  im- 
perial towns,  and  two  imperial  villages,  besides 
the  western  part  of.  the  bishopric  and  town  of 
Passau.  In  the  conflicts  between  France  and  the 
continental  powers,  Bavaria  remained  neuter  till 
1805,  when  the  elector  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Napoleon,  and  was  shortly  afterwrards  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  king,  and  had  his  dominions 
enlarged  by  the  annexation  of  several  impoitasit 
provinces. 

Shortly  after  the  campaign  of  1806,  when  Aos- 
tri&,  to  purchase  peace,  sacrificed  part  of  her 
possessions,  the  kmgdom  of  Bavaria  leoeived 
still  a  further  enlargement,  by  the  addition  of 
Tyrol,  Eichstadt,  the  eastern  part  of  Passao, 
and  other  territories,  n^en-she  began  to  assume 
a  more  important  station  amongst  the  surround- 
ing states.  Another  alteration  occurred  at  the 
dissolution  of  the  Germanic  constitution,  and  the 
formation  of  the  Rhenish  confederation,  when  the 
duchy  of  Berg  was  resigned-  br  the  maigiaviate 
of  Anspach,  together  with  the  imperial  towns  and 
territories  of  Augsburg  and  Nurembnrg.  In 
1809,  Bavaria  took  part  with  France  against 
Austria,  and  again  shared  the  spoils  of  conflict ; 
bnt  subsequently  ceded  some  of  her  territories  to 
Wirtemburg  and  Wurtzburg ;  and  by  another 
alteration,  which  shortly  followed,  exchanged  a 
great  part  of  TVrol  for  the  acquirement  of  Bay- 
reuth  and  Ratisoon. 

Before  the  political  proceedings  of  October 
1809  the  extent  of  Bavaria  was  calculated  a 
36,770  English  square  miles,  and  the  population 
at  3,231 ,570 ;  and  it  furnished  in  time  of  war  a 
contingent  of  30,000  troops.  But  by  the  treaty 
concluded  at  that  time,  she  acquired  an  additioDal 


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tenitofy  of  5&50  cquara  nilts,  and  a  popuiation 
of  1,498,000,  which  augmeziCed  the  Bttfarian 
territories  to  49»390  aquateinfles^  and  tiie  pop«- 
latioD  to  4,723^70. 

When  the  love  of  military  conqueBt,  and  the 
intoxication  of  unparalleled  success,  induced 
Napoleon  to  niarch  the  French  aimies  to  Mo8>- 
cowy  the  Bararian  troops  were  aaaongst  those 
which  were  destined  nerer  to  return.  The  king 
of  Bavaria  now  began  to  apprehend  the  conse- 
quences  of  this  expedition  upon  the  future  sue- 
cesiof  the  French  emperor,  axid  just  at  the  period 
of  that  eventful  crisis  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  joined  the  aHies  in 
breaking  that  thraldom  under  which  a  great  part 
of  Europe  labored.  These  important  services 
were  not  forgotten,  and  in  the  subsequent  nego- 
ciati<ms,  at  the  congress  of  Vienna,  the  title  of 
king  was  confirmed,  part  of  die  contribution 
money  paid  by  France  was  assigned  him,  and  the 
support  of  a  body  of  Bavarian  troops  at  the  ex- 
pense of  France  was  agreed  to.  Widi  respect  to 
territory,  the  remaining  part  of  Tyrol  was  ceded 
to  Austria.  The  grand  aucHy  of  Wurtzburg,  the 
principality  of  Ascbafienburgh,  and'  the  greater 
part  or  the  d^vant  French  department  of  Mont 
Tonnere,  were  acquired;  amounting  to  about' 
4000  square  miles,  and  more  than  half  a  million 
of  inhabitants. 

In  1810  Bavaria  was  divided  into  the  follow- 
ing circles :  " 
CirclM. 

The  Main 

The  Rezat 

The  Upper  Danube 

The  Lower  Danube 

The  Regen      . 

The  lUer 

The  Iser  . 


Chief  towns. 

Bamberg. 
.  Anspach. 
.  Eichstadt. 
.  Passau. 
.  Ratisbon. 
.    Kempten. 

Munich. 

The  names  of  these  circles  are  derived  from 
the  principal  rivers  of  the  several  districts,  and 
a  slight ,  alteration  in  some  of  them  has  since 
occurred.  The  subsequent  acquisitiooa  are  as 
follows : 

Tl«prindpdityofA«*affen-j   A^hag^u,. 

The  grand  duchy  of  Wurtzburg  .  Wurtxburg. 
The  chrcle  of  the  Rhine,  (late  )    t     j 
Mont  Tonnere)    ...       J   i-andan. 

The  population  of  Bavaria  is  by  no  means 
equally  distributed  over  its  surface.  The  sides  of 
tlie  Danube,  the  lower  districts  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  \\  urtzburg  some  districts  of  the  margi«- 
viate  of  Anspach,  with  the  recent  acquisitions  on 
the  le^  bank  of  the  Rhine,  are  much  more  thickly 
inhabited  than  the  other  parts.  Indeed,  much 
of  the  southern  portion  consists  of  rugged  moun- 
tains and  other  tracts,  which  are  scarcely  fit  for 
habiUtion,  except  in  the  valleys  formed  by  the 
several  divisions  of  the  Alps. 

Surrounded  as  it  is  by  other  countries,  from 
-which  it  is  separated  by  mere  arbitrary  divisions, 
the  outlines  ofBarariapresentnothing remarkable. 
The  surface  isgreatly  diversified,  and  the  southern 
regions  are  mountainous  and  woody.  The  ground 
near  the  Alps  lies  higher  than  the  genenl  area, 
fbrming  an  as<ienty  in  which  numerous  lakes  an 


embosomed,  togother  with  vmstes  and  manhcs, 
which  lave  not  yet  been  brought  to  any  conside- 
rable pitch  of  cultivation.  Much  of  the  ancient 
palatinate  swells  into  mountains,  which  are  dark- 
ened with  forests.  The  margiavtate  of  Anspach 
is  in  part  mountainous  and  sandy.  But  the  ex- 
tensive and  fertile  plains  that  stretch  along  the 
northern  and  central  regions,  and  the  wide  valleys 
which  lie  to  the  north  and  north-east  of  Munich, 
and  are  watered  by  the  rivers  Inn  and  Iser,  serve  to 
vary  the  general  surface,  and  relieve  the  natuml 
features  of  the  landscape. 

Mountains  and  hills  are  numerous  in  Bavaria, 
especially  in  Anspach,  and  the  neighbouring  dis- 
tricts, together  with  the  territories  on  the  left 
hajik  of  the  Rhine.  The  Alps,  branching  <^  in 
a  lofty  chain,  strike  out  the  Ime  of  division  be* 
tween  this  kingdom  and  Tyrol ;  while  the  broken 
surfoce  of-  Bohemia  is  bounded  by  an  elevated 
ranoe,  the  lateral  branches  of  which  diversify  the 
surtaoe  pf  the  adjacent  regions. 

Bavaiia,  from  the  position  of  its  included  area, 
is  intersected  by  numerous  riven,  which,  for  the 
most  part,  became  tributary  to  the  Danube:  The 
Inn  descends  from  the  lofty  regions  of  eastern 
Switzerland.  Like  its  sister  streams,  it  soon  be- 
comes a  rapid  river;  and,  having  collected  a 
great  body  of  water,  rolls  north-east  through  the 
kingdom  of  Bavaria,  and  having  formed  the  line 
of  boundary  between  that  state  and  Austria,  foils 
into  the  Danube.  The  Iser  and  the  Lech  origi- 
nate in  the  mountains  and  cascades  of  Tyrol, 
and  flow  through  the  southern  regions  of  Bavaria. 
The  former  passes  Munich,  Mosburg,  and  Lands- 
hut,  aiUr  which  it  falls  mto  the  Danube,  oppo- 
site to  Deokendorf ;  and  the  latter  proceeds 
ahnost  due  north  to  the  same  receptacle.  The 
Uler  flows  nearly  parallel  to  the  Lech,  and  joins 
the  same  parent  river  near  the  city  of  Ulm. 
The  ^ab  rises  in  the  range  lying  between  Bohe- 
mia and  Bavaria,  and  the  AHmuhl  in  the  higher 
parts  of  the  margraviate  of  Anspach :  the  former 
joins  the  Danube,  west  of  Ratisbon;  and  the 
latter  a  few  miles  higher  up  the  stream.  The 
Danube  is  the  grand  rjver  ot  Bavaria,  and  inter- 
sects the  whole  kingdom,  east  and  west,  though 
not  without  a  considerable  sweep  towards  the 
north. 

These  nvers  greatly  refresh  the  herbage  and 
torranean  productions  of  the  kingdom  generally, 
besides  answering,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the 
important  purposes  of  an  inland  navigation. 

The  largest  lake  is  that  of  Ammer,  lying  at  the 
foot  of  the  Alps.  Other  lakes  are  found  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  kingdom,  but  in  general  are 
not  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  distinct 
enumeration. 

The  climate  and  temperature  of  Bavaria  are 
various,  owing  to  its  relative  situation,  and  the 
different  degrees  of  elevation  observable  upon 
its  surfiM^e,  by  which  it  is  rendered  capable  of 
producing  all  the  necessaries  of  lifo,  together 
with  many  of  its  luxuries.  While  the  vine  flou- 
rishes in  one  part,  the  fir  attains  maturity  in 
another  ;>  but  the  native  indolence  of  the  inhabi- 
tants prevents  their  reaping  all  the  advantages  of 
their  climate ;  and  thousands  of  acres  of  good  land 
lie  completely  unoccupied.  The  valleys  are  gene- 
rally well  wa^mdy  and  possess  a  rich  soU,  while 

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the  upland  territories  are  overspread  with  rocks 
and  n>fests.  The  plains  produce  grain,  fruit, 
wine,  hops,  &c.  Flax  is  cultivated  in  the  dis- 
trict of  the  Bavarian  desert.  Vines  flourish  on 
the  banks  of  the  rivers  Danube  and  Iser ;  and 
much  excellent  fruit  is  ^wn  in  the  vicinity  of 
J^^andshut,  although  the  most  fertile  parts  are 
frequently  spotted  with  oases  and  islands  of 
sand,  which  seem  at  present  to  be  incorrigible. 

The  mineral  productions  of  Bavaria,  comprise 
copper,  iron,  marble,  coal,  gypsum,  vitriol,  and 
several  kinds  of  argillaceous  earth,  the  most 
noted  of  which  is  the  species  of  clay  of  which 
the  Passau  crucibles  are  made.  Iron  and  copper 
are  the  most  important,  and  of  the  latter  3000 
quintals  are  obtained  annually.  At  Traunsteip, 
near  the  confines  of  Saltzburg,  are  numerous  rich 
salt-springs,  which  furnish  employment  to  a  great 
number  of  the  inhabitants.  Mineral  waters  are 
also  common  in  Bavaria,  but  are  generally  con- 
sidered inferior  to  those  found  in  many  other 
parts  of  Germany. 

The  margraviate  of  Anspach  is  noted  for  its 
superior  breed  of  horses,  wnich  have  been  of  late 
much  improved  by  an  intermixture  with  those  of 
England.  The  same  degree  of  attention  has 
been  bestowed  upon  their  cattle,  by  an  intermix- 
ture with  the  Swiss  breed.  The  coarse  wool  of 
their  native  flocks  has  also  been  much  improved, 
by  the  introduction  of  Marines  amongst  the  sheep, 
especially  in  Bavaria  Proper.  The  wild  animals 
of  Bavaria  are  bears,  wolves,  lynxes,  foxes,  wild 
boars,  &c.  The  rivers  are  well  stocked  with  fish, 
and  in  some  of  them  beavers  are  common. 

The  principal  towns  are  Munich,  Augsburg, 
Bamberg,  Anspach,  Bayreuth,  Ambers,  Wurtz- 
burg,  Eichstadt,  Passau,  Ingolstadt,  and  Nurem- 
burg,  together  with  some  others  of  less  note  :  as, 
Kempten,  Freyshigen,  Landshut,  Mosburg, 
Newburg,  Nordhngen,  Memmingen,  Schweinfurt, 
Straubing,  and  others. 

Munich,  the  capital,  is  seated  on  the  river  Iser, 
and  in  the  year  1814,  contained  as  many  as 
60,000  inhabitants,  besides  18,659,  who  inhabited 
the  suburbs,  and  26,000  strangers,  who  were 
supposed  to  visit  it  annually.  It  is  the  centre  of 
the  most  valuable  national  manufactures,  and 
was  rendered,  by  the  concordat  of  1817,  the  seat 
of  an  archbishop. 

The  general  manufactures  and  commerce  of 
Bavaria,  are  under  a  restrictive  influence,  from 
the  native  indolence  of  the  inhabitants,  together 
with  the  numerous  fasts  and  saints'  days  of  the 
Roman  church.  Their  manufactures,  which  in- 
clude linen,  woollen,  and  cotton  cloths,  iron,  fire- 
arms, earthenwares,  8tc.,  are  chiefly  directed  to 
the  supply  of  their  domestic  wants.  Augsburg 
has  manufactures  of  paper,  gold,  silver,  jewelry, 
and  cotton.  It  is  engaged  in  the  transfer  of 
goods  between  Germany  and  Italy,  and  is  the 
general  focus  of  exchange  for  the  southern  coun- 
tries of  Germany.  Friedburg  is  noted  for  its 
clocks  and  watches.  Philosophical  instruments 
are  made  at  Munich ;  and  it  was  here  that  the 
art  of  lithography  was  discovered.  Near  Hohen 
Aschau  is  an  iron  mine,  the  largest  in  the  king- 
dom, together  with  foundries  and  forges,  the  pro- 
duce of  which,  with  their  grain,  wood;  wine^  salt^ 
and  vitriol,  form  the  chief  exports. 


The  govemmeot  of  Bavaria  approaches  to  aa 
unlimited  monarchy,  though  not  without  some- 
thing of  the  representative  for.«t.  »  The  senate 
meet  at  Munich,  but  seldom  exercise  the  fonc- 
tiotis  of  the  prerogative.  The  crown  is  hereditary 
in  the  male  line;  but  in  case  of  total  &ilure  of 
the  male  descent,  females  may  be  invested  with 
the  supreme  power.  The  minority  of  the  king 
terminates  with  his  eighteenth  year,  and  his  coun- 
cil includes  all  the  members  of  the  royal  hmilj 
above  a  certain  age,  the  ministers  of  state,  and  the 
great  ofiicers  of  the  household.  A  royal  com- 
missioner presides  over  each  of  the  circles  into 
which  the  nation  is  divided ;  and  commissaries 
of  police  are  distributed  in  all  the  pnncipal  towns. 
A  court  of  appeal  also,  is  established  in  each  cir- 
cle, to  whicli  causes  may  be  removed;  and  there 
is  a  supreme  court  at  Munich,  whose  sentence  is 
final.  By  the  new  constitution  of  Germany,  ac- 
cording to  the  decisions  of  the  late  congr^s, 
Bavaria  is  made  the  first  of  its  secondaiy  king- 
doms, possesses  one  vote  in  the  federative  diet  and 
four  in  the  general  assembly. 

The  Bavarian  army,  during  the  late  war, 
amounted  to  60,000  men ;  but  after  the  peace  it 
was  reduced  to  40,000.  The  annual  revenue  is 
estimated  at  two  millions ;  burdened,  however, 
with  a  considerable  debt. 

The  inferior  kingdoms  of  Germany  are  of  too 
little  importance  to  become  principals  in  any 
European  war,  but  they  are  frequently  found  veiy 
efiective  allies.  For  instance,  in  case  of  war  be- 
tween France  and  Austria,  the  alliance  of  Bavaria 
with  the  former,  would  bring  the  French  troops  into 
the  very  heart  of  Germany ;  and  with  the  latter, 
would  conduct  the  Austrian  troops  to  the  very 
borders  of  France.  It  is  in  this  light  only  that 
the  political  importance  of  this  kingdom  can  be 
duly  estimated :  a  practical  illustration  of  which 
took  place  in  1813,  when,  during  the  crisis  in 
which  Napoleon  was  endeavouring  to  establish 
himself  at  Dresden,  Bavaria  declared  in  &vor  of 
the  allies. 

The  prevailing  religion  of  Bavaria  is  ihe  Ro- 
man Catholic.  The  inhabitants  were  Ibrmeily 
considered  some  of  the  most  intolerant  in  Europe, 
and  the  Bavarian  bishops  being  independent 
princes,  the  power  of  the  church  knew  no  control ; 
but  by  the  diffusion  of  superior  light,  liberal  sen- 
timents began  to  prevail,  tne  temporal  authori^*  of 
the  ecclesiastics  was  abolishedin  1 802,  as  were  also 
many  of  the  monastic  institutions,  and  toleration 
was  regarded  as  a  civil  right  There  are  now 
two  archbishops,  and  four  bishops ;  the  former, 
according  to  a  concordat  agreed  to  by  the  Pope 
in  1817,  are  those  of  Munich  and  Bamberg  and 
the  latter  those  of  Augsburg,  Wurtzbuig,  Ratis- 
bon,  and  Eichstadt.  iSe  influence  of  the  chnrch 
is  still  greater  in  Bavaria  than  in  any  other  part 
of  Germany. 

Bavaria  has  Qever  risen  to  any  remarkable 
distinction.  Indeed  the  bigotry,  ignorance,  and 
intolerance,  which  formed  the  national  cbancter 
of  the  people,  presented  almost  insurmountable 
obstacles  to  all  liberal  and  enterprising  views  vrith 
respect  to  education,  agriculture,  and  commeiee. 
The  almost  ceaseless  train  of  saints*  days,  and 
holv  days,  seemed  to  breed  nofliing  but  indolence 
ana  superstition.    Bavaria  now  b^ns  to  emei^ge 


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from  her  long-^^erished  barbarism.  Education 
is  attended  to ;  academies,  lyceums,  and  univer- 
sitieSybave  been  multiplied ;  productions  of  foreign 
literature  have  been  imported,  to  excite  the  emu- 
lation of  native  genius,  and  the  effects  of  these 
penerous  efforts  have  already  shone  forth,  in  the 
improved  condition  of  society,  and  the  gradual 
advance    of   moral    and  pnysical    renovation. 


first  is  about  twenty-five  feet  long  and  wide,  and 
varies  in  height  from  nine  to  eighteen  feet ;  the 
roof  being  formed  into  irregular  arches.  Beyond 
this  is  the  second  cave,  about  twenty-eight  feet 
long,  and  of  nearly  the  same  width  and  height 
with  the  former.  In  this  cave  the  stalactitic 
crust  begins  to  appear,  and  in  considerable 
quantity;   but  not  m  such  quantity  as  in  the 


Much,  however,  yet  remains  to  be  done,  especially  tliird  cave,  which  is  beautifully  hung,  as  it  were, 

in  those  regions  which  were  most  darkened  by  with  this  sparry  tapestry.    The  roof  now  begins 

religious  superstition.     But,  calculating  upon  the  to  slope  downwards,  so  that  in  the  next,  the  last 

measures  ot  the  present  government,  the  eye  of  of  these  caves,  it  is  not  above  four  or  five  feet  in 

anticipation  looks  through  a  train  of  consequences  height.    In  the  caves  forming  this  first  grotto 


fragments  of  bones  are  found,  and  it  is  said  that 
they  were  as  plentiful  here  as  they  now  are  in  the 
interior  grottoes. 

*  The  passage  into  the  second  grotto  is  about 


to  the^ distant  period  when  the  mists  shall  disperse, 
the  clouds  clear  up,  and  Bavaria  aspire  to  an 
equality  with  the  other  kingdoms  of  Europe. 

The  language  of  the  Bavarians  is  a  dialect  of  ^ 

the  German,  which,  however,  they  have  neglected  six  feet  high,  and  fourteen  feet  wide.  This 
to  cultivate;  travellers  agree  in  describing  them  grotto,  which  extends  straight  fbrward  sixty  feet 
as  the  most  sensual  and  phlegmatic  of  the  German  from  the  opening,  and  is  about  forty  feet  wide, 
natioa^i.  and  at  its  commencement  about  eighteen  feet 

The  Bavarians  are  in  appearance  a  stout  and  high,  would  commodiously  hold  200  men.  Its 
vigorous  race  of  men,  well  adapted  to  bear  the  appearance  is  rendered  remarkably  interesting, 
fatigues  of  war.  They  resemble  the  Irish  pea-  from  the  darkness  of  its  recesses,  and  from  the 
santry  in  their  propensity  to  drink  and  quarrel;  various  brilliant  reflections  of  the  light  from  the 
and  weir  manner^  at  the  close  of  the  last  century  stalactites  with  which  its  roofs  and  sides  are 
were  coarse  in  the  extreme.  Amidst  all  the  dirt,  covered.  The  constant  drip  of  water  from  the 
indolence,  and  laxity  of  morals,  which  are  here  roof,  and  the  stalagmatic  pillars  on  the  floor,  as- 
carried  to  excess,  the  Bavarian  is,  in  general,  sist  in  perfecting  the  wonders  of  the  scene.  In 
feithfiil  to  his  word;  which  is  almost  the  only  this  grotto  no  search  was  made  for  bones,  on  ac- 
good  feature  that  is  at  all  prominent.  Many  of  count  of  the  thickness  of  the  sparry  crust, 
the  females  are  lively,  handsome,  and  graceful ;  *  A  low  and  very  rugged  passage,  the  roof  of 
but  their  charms  are  altogether  personal,  since  which  is  formed  of  projecting  pieces  of  rock, 
intellectual  cultivation  is  scarcely  a  subject  of  leads  to  the  third  grotto;  the  opening  to  which  is 
attention.  a  hole,  three  feet  high,  and  four  feet  wide.    This 

The  antiquities  and  curiosities  are  few  in  num-  grotto  is  more  regular  in  its  form,  and  is  about 
ber,  but  are  calculated  to  awaken  no  ordinary  thirty  feet  in  diameter,  and  nearly  round.  Its 
feefings  of  interest  and  astonishment.  In  the  height  is  from  five  to  six  feet.  This  grotto  is 
capitad,  Munich,  the  objects  most  worthy  of  at-  very  richly  and  fantastically  adorned  by  the 
tentton  are  the  Cabinet  of  Natural  Curiosities,  varying  forms  of  its  stalactitic  hangings.  The 
the  Library,  the  Arsenal,  and  the  Ducal  Gardens,  floor  is  also  covered  with  a  wei  and  slippery 
The  Museum  contains  a  complete  series  of  glazing,  in  which  several  teeth  and  jaws  appear 
busts  of  the   Roman  emperors,  together  with    to  have  been  fixed. 

many  other  remarkable  antiquities.  Roman  *  From  this  gTX)tto  commences  tlie  descent  to 
stations,  roads,  and  coins,  are  frequent,  and  form,  the  interior  caverns ;  within  only  about  five  or  six 
with  the  churches  and  castles,  a  charming  colli-  feet  an  opening  in  the  floor  is  seen,  which  is  partly 
sion  of  objects,  highly  interesting  to  the  architect,  vaulted  over  by  a  projecting  piece  of  rock.  The 
the  statuaxy,  and  the  antiquarian.  But  all  the  descent  is  about  twenty  feet,  and  occasioned  to 
works  of  art  are  more  than  eclipsed  by  the  more  M.  Esper  and  his  companions  some  little  fear^ 
magnificent  wonders  of  nature.  The  scenes  in  lest  they  should  never  return,  but  remain  to  aug- 
the  interior  of  the  mountains  have  oflen  awakened  ment  the  zoolithes  contained  in  these  terrific 
theastonishmentofthetraveller,and  left  him  over-  mansions.  This  cavern  was  found  to  be  about 
whelmed  by  thcterrorofthe  sublime;  and  no  doubt  thirty  feet  in  height,  about  fifteen  in  width,  and 
many  unexplored  caverns  yet  remain  which  no  nearly  circular;  the  sides,  roof,  and  floor,  dis- 
human  foot  has  ever  trod.  We  shall  select  the  playing  the  remwns  of  animals.  The  rock  itself 
following  instance  of  these  amazing  recesses,  as  is  thickly  beset  with  teeth  and  bones ;  and  tlie 
described  by  Mr.  Parkinson,  for  the  entertain-  floor  is  covered  wiA  a  loose  earth,  formed  by 
ment  of  the  reader.  It  is  to  be  found  in  his  animal  decomposition,  and  in  which  numerous 
curious  and  valuable  work  Tlie  Organic  Remains   bones  are  imbedded. 

of  a  former  World.  *A  gradual  descent  leads  to  atiolher .  grotto, 

*  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  these  caverns  which,  with  its  passage,  is  forty  feet  in  length, 
are  those  of  Qaylenreuth,  on  the  confines  of  and  twenty  feet  in  height  Its  sides  and  top  are 
Bayreuih.  The  opening  to  these,  which  is  about  beautifully  adorned  with  stalactites.  Nearly 
seven  feet  and  a  half  high,  is  at  the  foot  of  a  rock  twenty  feet  further  is  a  frightful  gulph,  the  open- 
of  lime-stone,  of  considierable  magnitude,  and  in  ing  of  which  is  abput  fifteen  feet  in  diameter;  and, 
its  eastern  side.  Immediately  beyond  the  open-  upon  descending  about  twenty  feet,  another 
ing  is  a  magnificent  grotto,  of  about  300  feet  in  grotto,  about  the  same  diameter  with  the  former, 
circumference,  which  has  been  naturally  divided  but  forty  feet  in  heiglit,  is  seen.  Here  the  bones 
by  the  fonii  of  the  roof  into  four  caves.    Tlie  are  dispersed  about,  and  the  floor,  which  is 


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formed  of  animal  aaxtb,  has  great  numl^eTS  of 

lliera  imbedded  in  it.  The  bones  which  are  here 
found  seem  to  be  of  different  animals ;  but  in 
this,  as  well  as  in  the  former  caverns,  perfect  and 
unbroken  bones  are  very  seldom  found.  Some- 
times a  tootli  is  seen  projecting  from  the  solid 
rock,  through  the  stalactitic  covering;  showing 
tliat  many  of  these  wonderful  remains  may  here  . 
be  concealed.  A  specimen  of  this  kind,  which 
I  possess,  from  Gaylenreuth,  is  rendered  par- 
ticularly interestii^  by  the  first  molar  tootn  of 
the  lower  jaw,  with  its  enamel  quite  perfect, 
rising  through  the  stalactitic  mass  which  invests 
the  lx)ne.  hi  this  cavern  the  stalactites  begin  to 
be  of  a  larger  size,  and  of  a  more  columnar  form. 
*'  Passing  on  through  a  narrow  opening  in  the 
rock,  a  small  cave,  seven  feet  long  and  nve  feet 
high,  is  discovered.  Another  small  opening  out 
of  this  leads  to  another  small  eave,  from  which 
a  sloping  descent  leads  to  a  cave  twenty-five  feet 
in  height,  and  about  half  as  much  in  its  diameter, 
in  which  is  a  truncated  columnar  stalactite,  eight 
feet  in  circumference. 

'  A  narrow  and  difficult  passage,  twenW  feet 
in  length,  leads  from  this  cavern  to  another  of 
twenty-five  feet,  which  is  everywhere  beset  with 
teeth,  bones,  and  stalactitic  projections.  This 
cavern  is  suddenly  contracted  so  as  to  form  a 
vestibule  of  six  feet  wide,  ten  long,  and  nine 
high,  terminating  in  an  opening  close  to  the 
floor,  only  three  feet  wide,  and  two  high;  through 
which  it  is  necessary  to  writhe  with  3ie  body  on 
the  ground.  This  leads  into  a  small  cave,  eight 
feet  high  and  wide,  which  is  the  passage  into  a 
grotto  twenty-eight  feet  high,  and  about  forty- 
three  feet  long  and  wide.  Here  the  pxodigious 
quantity  of  animal  earth,  the  vast  number  of 
teeth,  jaws,  and  other  bones,  and  the  heavy 
grouping  of  the  stalactites,  produced  so  dismal 
an  appearance  as  to  lead  M.  £sper  to  sneak  of 
it  as  a  perfect  model  for  a  temple  tor  a  cod  of  the 
dead.  Here  hundreds  of  cartrloads  of  bony  re- 
mains might  be  removed,  pockets  might  be  filled 
with  fossil  teeth,  and  animal  ear.th  was  found  to 
reach  to  the  utmost  depth  to  which  they  dug. 
A  piece  of  stalactite  bemg  here  broken  down, 
was  found  to  contain  pieces  of  bones  within  it, 
the  remnants  of  which  were  lefl  imbedded  in  the 
rock. 

*'  From  this  principal  cave  is  a  very  narrow 
passage,  terminating  in  the  last  cave,  which  is 
almost  six  feet  in  width,  fifteen  in  height,  and  the 
same  in  length.  In  this  cave  were  no  animal  w- 
mains,  and  the  floor  was  the  naked  rock. 

'  Thus  far  only  could  these  natural  sepulchres 
be  traced ;  but  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that 
these  remains  were  disposed  through  a  greater 
part  of  this  rock/  By  what  means  such  im- 
mense quantities  of  animal  materials  were  accu- 
mulated in  these  subterraneous  abodes  remains 
totally  inexplicable,  and  no  reasonable  conjectures 
have  yet  been  offered  on  the  subject. 

BAV^ATA  Terrje,  i.  e.  a  bavoch  of  land,  an 
ancient  division  of  land,  in  tlie  highlands  of 
Scotland,  mentioned  by  the  Reg^am  Majestatem, 
as  contiiining  thirteen  acres,  and  distinguished 
from  a  smaller  portion  called  davata  terns,  a 
davoch  oi  land,  which  contained  only  four 
arali'a,  or  the  eighth  part  of  a  ba^-ata  i.  e.  1  j 
acres. 


BAVAY,  a  small  town  of  Fiance,  hi  the  de- 
partment  of  the  north  (late  province  of  Haimndt), 
to  which  the*  French  retired  after  Hie  Inttle  oF 
Malplaquct,  in  1709.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Austrians  in  1793,  but  recovered  the  same  year. 
This  was  anciently  the  capital  of  the  Nervii ;  and 
a  variety  of  Roman  medals  have  been  found  in 
the  neighbourhood.  It  has  roanu&ctoties  of 
woollen  stuffs,  stockings,  and  iron  plate ;  and 
was  ceded  to  France  by  the  peace  of  Kimegaen, 
in  1678.  It  stands  on  the  road  from  Maaben^  to 
Valenciennes,  about  eight  miles  north-east  of 
Quesnoy,  and  nearly  thirty  east  of  Dooty. 

6AUfi££'.  A  Scottish  woid  fbrahalfpemiT. 
This  coin,  bearing  the  head  of  James  the  Vlili 
king  of  Scotland,  when  young,  has  been  supposed 
by  some  to  have  been  therefore  called  haathee,  as 
exhibiting  the  figure  of  a  baby.  But  Dr.  Jamie- 
son  says  this  is  a  great  mistake ;  the'  name,  as 
well  as  the  coin,  being  known  before  that  prince's 
reigB.  Mr.  Pinkerton  derives  it  from  the  Frendi 
boM-biUcn,  or  the  worst  kind  of  billon. 

Tkovgli  in  th«  drawen  of  my  Japan  bureat, 

To  Lady  Gripeall  I  the  Ccsan  show, 

Tis  equal  to  her  Ijadyahlp  or  me 

A  copper  Otko,  or  a  Scoteh  hmtbee. 

Bnmabm'B  Mim  «/  Tate. 

And  as  to  her  fake  aecosation  of  ipoil.  ve  did 
remit  us  to  the  conscience  of  Mr.  Rol»eit  Rkbe- 
son,  master  of  the  coiaing^hovse^  who  from  oar 
hands  received  silver,  (old,  and  metal,  as  veil 
coined  as  uncoined,  so  that  with  oa  there  did  sot  le- 
main  the  value  of  a  baubee,  or  farthing. 

Knox,  HistoryofUu  ReformatitmofScaila^. 

BAUCHERVILLE,  a  port  in  lowerCanada, 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  St.  Lawfence,  opposite 
Montreal .  It  is  beautifiilly  situated,  and  remark- 
able as  the  retreat  of  several  of  the  okl  Frendi 
nobles,  who  spend  their  small  incomes  in  a  little 
society  of  their  own. 

BAUCIS,  in  fiibulous  history,  a  woman  wlio 
lived  with  Philemon  her  husband,  inacott^in 
Phrygia.  Jupiter  and  Mercury,  travelling  in  die 
country,  were  well  received  by  them,  after  baTioc 
been  refused  entertainment  by  every-body  ebe. 
To  punish  the  people  for  their  inhumanity,  diese 
gods  laid  the  country  waste  with  water;  buttock 
Baucis  and  Philemon  with  them  to  the  top  of  a 
mountain,  where  they  saw  the  deluge,  and  their 
own  little  hut  above  the  waters,  turned  into  a 
temple.  They  desired  to  ofiiciate  in  this  temple 
as  priest  and^estess,  and  that  they  might  die 
bom  together,  i»hich  were  granted  them. 

BAUCONICA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  the  Vangiones  in  Gallia  Belgica,  supposed  to 
be  the  present  Oppemheim,  which  see. 

BAUD,  a  town  of  France  in  Brittany,  the 
head  of  a  canton  in  the  department  of  Mortulian, 
arrondissement  o^  Pontivy.  Popuktioa  6300. 
18  miles  north-west  of  Vannea* 

BAUDEKIN,  BALDfCDM,and  BALDAKrxrM, 
in  our  old  writers,  a  cloth  of  gold,  or  tiswr^  vp<* 
which  figures  in  silk,  &c.  were  cmbroidefBd- 
Some  writers  regard  it  as  only  a  cloth  of  sUk. 

BAUDELOT  (Charies  Cttsar),  a  learned  adw- 
cate  of  Paris,was  d  istinguished  by  his  skill  inancient 
monuments ;  he  was  received  into  the  Academe 
of  Belles  Uttres  in  1705.  He  wrote  a  Treati* 
on  the  Advantages  of  Travelling ;  Letters  and 


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DiflKrUttiOBS  oh  Medals,  &b ;  ^ntd  died  ia  172?, 
aged  senrenty-^feur. 

JBAUDIKR  (Michael),  of  Langnedoc,  lited  in 
the  rci^n  of  Louis  XII.^  and  wrote  1.  An  Inven- 
tory of  the  General  History  of  the  T^rks ;  2. 
'Hie  Uifltory  of  the  Seraglio;  3.  Of  the  religion 
of  the  Turks;  4.  Of  the  Court  of  the  King  of. 
China;  and  5.  The  life  of  Cardinal  Ximenes, 
kc. 

BAUDISSERITE,  in  mineralogy,  acoitapodnd 
mineral,  found  at  Baudissero  in  Piedmont,  com- 
posed principally  of  silver  and  magnesia.  It 
passes  ihto  Meerachanm,  or  sea  froth,  of  which 
howls  of  pipes  for  smoking  are  frequently  made. 

BAUDIUS  (Dominic),  a  professor  of  history 
in  the  university  of  Leyden,  bom  at  Lisle,  in 
1561.  He  studied  at  Aix-ia-Chapelle,  Leyden, 
and  Geneva,  and  was  admitted  L.  L.  D.  in  1585. 
Soon  after,  he  accompanied  the  ambassadors  from 
the  states  to  England,  where  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  He  was  admitted 
advocate  at  the  Hague  in  1587 ;  but  being  soon 
tired  of  the  bar,  went  to  travel  in  France,  where 
he  remained  ten  years,  and  was  much  esteemed. 
Through  the  influence  of  Achilles  de  Harlai,  first 
president  of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  he  wa^  ad- 
initled  advocate  of  the  parliament  of  Paris  in 
159^  In  1602  he  went  to  £ngI«Uid  with  Christo- 
pher de  Harlai,  the  president's  son,  who  was  sent 
ambassador  to  Lohdon  from  Henry  IV.,  but  being 
soon  after  appointed  professmr  of  eloquence  at 
Leyden,  he  settled  in  that  ttnitenrity.  Here  he 
read  lectures  on  history,  and  on  the  civil  law. 
In  1611  the  states  conferred  oti  him,  in  conjunc- 
tion ilnth  Meursius,  the  office  of  historiographer, 
and  in  consequence  he  wrote  The  History  of  the 
Truce.  He  was  Bh  elegant  prose  writer,  as  ap- 
pears from  bis  letters,  many  of  which  were  pub- 
lished afler  his  death,  and  ilso  an  excellent  Latih 
poet.  His  poems  were  first  printed  in  1587,  and 
he  published  separately  a  book  of  Iambics  in 
1591,  dedicated  to  Cardinal  Bourbon.  He  died 
at  Leyden  in  1613. 

BAUDOBRIGA,  in  ancient  geography,  a  town 
of  the  Treveri  in  Germany,  now  Bopiptai,  in  the 
electorate  of  Triers.    See  Boppabt. 

BAUDKAND  (Michael  Antony),  a  celebrated 
geographer,  bom  at  Paris  in  1633.  He  travelled 
into  several  countries,  and  tben  applied  himself 
to  the  revisal  of  Fermriua'  Geographical  Diction- 
ary, which  he  enlarged  by  one  half.  He  wrote, 
1 .  Notes  to  Papirius  Masson's  description  of  the 
Rivers  of  France ;  2.  A  Geographical  vad  His- 
torical Dictionary ;  3.  Christian  Geography,  or 
an  account  of  the  Archbi8hopric9  and  Bishoprics 
of  the  whole  world;  and  made  several  maps. 
He  died  at  Paris,  May  29, 1700. 

BAUERA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants,  elass 
polyandria,  order  digynia.  Its  generic  chaorac- 
'  iers  are :  gal.  inferior  eight-fid :  coa.  eight  petids, 
capsule  bilocular,  manly  seeded.  The  species  are, 
1.  ,  B..  ivbiefbiia  maddeMeaved  fi^era  B. 
mbioidesrAudr*  Eepos.  t.  198,  Curt.  Mag.  t. 
715.VeDten.Ma]mais.t.96.  Nativeof  New  South 
Wales,  first  discovered  iadiat  country  by  Sir  Joseph 
Banks.  It  requires  the  shelter  of  a  greeik-hmise, 
or  conservatory,  and  flowers  during  most  part  of 
the  summer  and  autunm.  Another  species  is 
mentioned  by  the  name  of  B.  bumilis,  in  Ait. 


Epir.  364,  as  introduced  at  K'ew;  from  New  Hoi" 
land  in  1805,  and  flowering  in  June  and  July. 

BAUGE,  a  drugget  manufactured  in  Bur- 
gundy, with  thread  spun  thick,  and  coarse  wool. 

BAUca*,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Mayenne  and  Loire^  and  late  province 
of  Anjou,  famous  for  the  victory  gained  by 
Charles  VII.  over  the  English  in  14121.  It  is 
seated  on  the  Coesnoii,  twenty-two  miles  east 
by  north  of  Angers,  and  has  about  3000  inhabi- 
tants. 

BAUHIN  (Casper,  or  Gaspar),  an  eminent 
anatomist  and  botanist,  bom  at  Basil  in  1550. 
In  1580,  he  was  chosen  first  professor  of  these 
sciences  at  Basil,  and  in  1614  was  first  professor 
of  physic,  and  first  pbysician  <^  that  city,  a 
distmction  which  he  held  till  his  death,  in  1623. 
He  wrote,  1.  Anatomical  Institutions ;  2.  Prod- 
Tomus  Theatri  Botanici,  and  other  works. 

BAt7BiK  (John),  elder  brother  to  Caspar,  a 
gretft  botanist,  was  borti  abotit  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  took  his  doctor's  degree 
in  physic  in  1562,  and  afterwards  became  princi- 
pal physician  to  Frederick  duke  of  Wirtemburg. 
The  most  cotisiderable  of  his  works  is  his  Uni- 
tersal  History  of  Plants. 

BAUHINIA,  MotJNTAiR  Ebony,,  in  botany, 
a  geifus  of  the  monogynia  order,  and  decandria 
elass  of  plants^  ranking  in  the  natural  method 
under  the  thirtjr-thtrd  order,  lomentacese:  cal. 
quinquefld,  and  dedduons ;  the  petals,  oblong  ex- 
panded, and  clawed,  the  superior  one  more  distant, 
all  inserted  on  the  calyx ;  me  capsule,  a  legumen. 
There  are  10species,which  are  propagated  by  seeds, 
and  must  be  sown  in  hot-beds,  and  are  reared  in 
a  bark  stove.  The  most  remarkable  are  :  1.  B. 
aculeata,  with  a  prickly  stalk,  common  in  Ja- 
maica and  other  American  sugar  islands,  where  it 
rises  to  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet ^  with  a  crooked  stem. 
2.  B.  acuminata,  with  oval  leaves,  a  native  of  both 
the  Indies,  rising  with  several  pretty  strong,  up- 
right, smooth  stems,  sending  out  slender  branches, 
garnished  with  oval  leaves  divided  into  two 
lobes.  8.  B.  divaricata,  with  oval  leaves,  whose 
lobes  spread  different  ways.  This  grows  na^ 
torally  in  great  plenty  on  tho  north  side  of  the 
island  of  Jamaica.  4.  B.  tomeotosa,  with  heart- 
shaped  leaves,  a  native  of  Campeachy ;  and  rises 
to  twelve  or  fourteen  feet,  with  a  smooth  stem 
dividing  into  many  branches.  5.  B.  variegata, 
with  heart-shaped  leaves,  and  lobes  joining  to- 
gether, is  a  native  of  both  the  Indies.  It  rises 
with  a  strong  stem  upwards  of  twenty  feet,  divid- 
ing into  many  strong  branches. 

BAVIAN.  The  same  as  babUm,  A  baboon 
or  monkey;  an  occasional  but  not  a  fegular 
character  m  the  old  morris  dance.  From  Dut. 
baukumf  Germ,  oerrian,  a  great  monkey.  He 
appears  in  act  in.  scene  5,  of  The  Two  Noble 
Ivinsmen,  where  his  office  is  to  bark,  to  tumble, 
to  play  antics,  and  exhibit  a  long  tail  with  what 
decency  he  could.  So  babotun  in  French,  and 
our  balfoon. 

Where's  the  hamani 
My  friend,  carry  your  tail  ix^thout  offence 
Of  seandal  to  the  ladies,  and  be  sore 
Yon  tumble  with  audacity  and  manhood ; 
And  when  you  bark,  do  it  wttb  judgment. 

Beamtont  and  Fleicker. 


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BAVIN.  Brushwood)  or  small  fiiggots,  nmde 
of  sacb  light  and  combustible  matter,  used  for 
lighUng  fires.    Still  in  use  in  some  counties. 

The  skipping  Ujuc*  he  ambled  up  and  down. 
With  shallow  jetten  and  rath  batin  wiU, 
Soon  kindled  and  loon  burnt. 

Shahpean.  B$m$  IV. 

Bantu  will  have  their  flashes,  and  youth  their 
fancies,  the  one  as  soon  quench 'd  as  the  others  are 
burnt.  Mother  Bombie,  1594. 

BAVIUS  and  Mavius,  two  wretched  poets  of 
ancient  Rome,  who  have  been 

'  BamnM  to  everlasting  £sme/ 
In  that  severe  line  of  Virgil : 

Qui  Baviun  non  odit  amet  tua  cannina  Maevi. 

BAULEAH,  a  considerable  town  of  Bengal, 
in  a  very  fertile  country,  to  the  north->east  of  the 
Ganges.  The  East  India  Company  have  here  a 
very  extensive  ^tory  for  -silk,  which  supplies  a 
third  part  of  that  material  exported  from  Bengal. 

BAULOT,  or  Beaulieu,  famous  for  his  ope- 
rations in  lithotomy.  He  was  born  in  1651,  of 
parents  in  low  circumstances,  and  he  entered 
early  mto  the  army ;  but  after  he  had  been  some 
time  a  soldier,  he  got  acquainted  with  an  empi- 
rical surgeon,  who  pretended  to  cure  the  stone ; 
and  having  received  some  lessons  from  this  man, 
he  assumed  the  monastic  habit,  though  he  be- 
longed to  no  religious  order,  calling  himself 
brother  James.  Thus  he  travelled  through  vari- 
ous provinces^  and  performed  various  operations ; 
and  at  last  went  to  Paris.  Here  his  practice  was 
disapproved  of  at  first;  but  having  been  success- 
ful in  curing  a  boy,  his  patients  soon  after  be- 
came numerous.  After  extracting  the  stone  he 
left  the  wound  to  heal  of  itself.  The  famous 
Cheselden  adopted  and  improved  upon  brother 
James's  method.    He  died  in  1720. 

BAUM,  in  botany.    See  Melissa. 

Bauu,  Bastard.    See  Melittis. 
,  Baum,  Shrubby.    See  Molucca. 

BAUM  AN  Isles,  a  cluster  of  islands  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean,  discovered  in  1722,  by  the 
person  whose  name  they  bear,  in  his  voyage 
round  the  world  with  M.  &oggewein.  They  lie 
in  12®  of  south  latitude,  and  173°  of  west  longi- 
tude. The  largest  is  about  twenty  miles  in  cir- 
cumference ;  and  the  inhabttants  were  found  to 
manifest  a  gentle  and  friendly  disposition. 

BAUMANNIANA,  in  entomology,  a  species 
of  pbalsna  (tortrix)  that  inhabits  Austria.  The 
anterior  wii^  are  yellow,  with  two  ferruginous 
anastomising  bands  bordered  with  silver;  poste- 
rior one  interrupted. 

BAUMANSHOPLE,  a  remarkable  cavern  in 
the  Brunswick  states,  principality  of  Blanken- 
burg,  Germany ,  situated  in  a  steep  rock  near 
Rubeland.  It  consists  of  six  or  seven  vaults, 
communicating  by  narrow  apertures,  and  filled 
with  stajactitic  petrifactions,  arranged  in  a  thou- 
sand fimtastic  forms.  No  one  has  ever  penetrat- 
(sd  to  the  bottom,  on  account  of  the  damptness  and 
ioQpurity    of   the    air,  which    extinguishes  all 

BAUME  (Antony),  an  eminent  Frendi  che- 
mist towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  who 
distinguished  himself  by  his  opposition  to  the 
theory  of  Lavoisier,  and  his  coll^agijes.  He  prac- 
tised as  an  apothecary  at  Paris,  ^nd  was,  in  1775, 


BAU 

chosen  a  member  of  the  Royri  Acatoiy  of 
Sciences.  On  the  establiriunent  of  the  NatJonal 
Institute,  he  was  also  one  of  its  members.  His 
principal  works  are  a  Treatise  on  Theoretical 
and  Experimental  Chemistry,  and  a  Manual  of 
PharmaiOT.  He  also  wrote  a  Memoir  on  Argil- 
laceous Earths;  a  Dissertation  on  iEther,  &c 
He  died  in  1805.  He  also  wrote  a  great  many 
articles  in  the  Dictionnaire  des  Arts  et  Mfttieis. 

Baume-les-vones,  a  town  of  France,  the  head 
of  an  arrondissement,  in  the  department  of  the 
Doubs,  seated  on  tlie  river  of  that  name,  and  having 
2500  inhabitants.  Five  miles  from  this  town  is  a 
remarkable  cavern,  containing  a  small  brook,  said 
to  be  frozen  in  summer,  but  not  in  winter.  When 
the  peasants  perceive  a  mist  rising  out  of  this 
cave,  they  know  that  it  will  rain  the  next  day. 
Before  the  revolution  there  were  here  two  &- 
mous  abbeys,  one  for  males,  the  other  for  fe- 
males. Sixteen  miles  north-east  of  Besanpn. 
Long.  6°  25'  E.,  lat  47^  21'  N. 

BAUNACH,  or  Paunach,  a  market  town  of 
Bavaria,  capital  of  the  district  of  Gleusdorf,  circle 
of  the  Maine.  It  is  situated  at  the  influx  of  a  small 
river  of  the  same  name  into  the  Maine,  and  lay 
formerly  in  the  principality  of  Bamberg,  in  Fran- 
conia.  Here  is  a  bridge  across  the  latter  river, 
and  the  surrounding  country  is  rich  in  corn  and 
wine.    Seven  miles  north  of  Bamberg.^ 

BAVOSAy  in  ichthyology,  a  name  given  by 
Italians  to  a  species  of  the  ray  fish,  now  called 
leviraia,  and  raia  oxyrynchus,  and  by  earlier 
authors,  raja  bos,  bos  marinus,  and  leioraia.  It 
is  distinguished  by  Artedi  as  the  vari^ated  ray, 
with  ten  prickly  tubercles  on  the  middle  of  the 
back.    See  Pholis. 

BAUR  (Frederidt  WiUiam  Von),  a  Rnssiin 

Sneral,  bom  in  the  county  of  Hessian  Hanan. 
e  very  early  entered  on  a  military  life^  and,  in 
1755,  was  in  the  British  service  as  an  officer  of 
Hessian  artillery.  In  1757  he  was  advanoed  to 
the  rank  of  general  and  engineer ;  and  was  aAer- 
wards  ennobled  by  Frederick  II.  of  Pnnsta.  He 
entered  into  the  service  of  Catharine  II.  empoi 
of  Russia,  in  1769,  and  was  by  her  appomted 
director  of  the  salt  works  in  NovogoRxL  He 
also  superintended  two  great  works,  the  supply- 
ing of  Moscow  with  water,  and  deepening  tbe 
canal  near  Petersburg,  at  the  end  of  wbidi  he 
constructed  a  commodious  harbour.  He  died  in 
1783.  He  wrote  Memoires  Historiques  et  Geo- 
graphiques  sur  la  Valachie,  &c.  8to.  ;  and  ooo- 
structed  die  Carte  de  Moldavie,  poor  servir  de 
la  Guerre  p*  tre  les  Russes  et  le  xuxcs,  in  sewen 
sheets. 

BAURAC,  an  ancient  name  for  nitre,  ami 
some  other  salts,  confusedly  called  nitre.  Tbe 
Arabians  give  the  name  to  tincar  or  tincal,  which, 
when  refined,  is  called  borax,  but  when  rough, 
in  little  crystalline  masses,  like  the  small  crsrstads 
of  sal  gem,  mixed  with  earth  or  other  impuri- 
ties, it  is  called  tincal. 

BAUTRU,  a  celebrated  wit,  and  one  of  the 
first  members  of  the  French  academy,  was  bom 
at  Paris  in  1588,  and  died  there  in  1665.  He 
was  the  delight  of  the  whole  court,  but  while  be 
piayed  the  bufibon,  took  the  usual  privilege  of 
saying  what  he  pleased.  Many  of  his  bon  nwts 
are  preserved.    Once,  when  m  Spain,  baying 


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been  to  see  the  famotis  libniy  of  the  Caculf al, 
where  he  ibund  a  very*  ignonnt  librarian,  the 
king  of  Spain  asked  him  what  he  had  remarked  ? 
Bautru  replied,  that  *  ^e  Kbrary  is  a  very  fine 
one ;  but  your  majesty  should  make  your  libra- 
rian treasurer  of  your  finances/  *  Why  soT 
*  Because/  said  Bautru,  <  he  never  touches  what 
he  is  entrusted  with.* 

BAUTZEN,  or  Budissen,  a  considerable 
town  of  Germany,  the  capital  of  Upper  Lusatia, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  with  a  strong  ci- 
tadel. It  is  seated  on  the  river  Spree,  Siirty 
miles  east  by  north  of  Dresden.  Including 
the  suburb  of  Seidau,  it  contains  a  population  &t 
11,000  or  12,000,  most  of  whom  are  employed 
in  manufactures,  of  which  the  principal  are 
paper,  cloth,  linen,  leather,  and  stockings.  The 
provincial  diet  assembles  at  Bautzen,  which  is 
also  the  seat  of  the  central  post  office.  One  half 
of  the  parish  church  is  given  to  the  Catholics, 
and  tlie  other  to 'the  Lutherans,  the  latter  of  whom 
are  about  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants.  Here 
is  also  a  collegiate  establishment,  called  the 
provostship  of  St.  Peter,  all  the  members  of 
which  are  Catholics,  except  the  head,  who  is 
a  Lutheran.  The  funds  of  this  institution  are 
extensive ;  and  it  possesses  large  tracts  of  land, 
both  in  Saxony  ana  Bohemia. .-  The  town-hall, 
academy,  orphan-house,  ingenious  water  ma- 
chines, as  well  as  the  public  walks,  are  worthy  of 
attention.  Bautzen  has  suffered  much  by  fire, 
particularly  in  the  years  1709,  1760,  and  1767. 
it  was  also  the  scene  of  a  bloody  conflict  between 
the  French  and  allies  m  1813,  in  which  the  fcA^- 
mer  were  victorious.  The  language  of  the  Wen- 
dens,  or  descendants  of  the  ancient  Vandab,  is 
spoken  at  Bautzen  nearly  as  much  as  the  modem 
German. 

BAW'BLE, )      Bauble,  or  bable,  i.  Low  Lat. 

BaWblivo.  $  baubella;  but  that  word  being 
fonnd  only  in  Hoveden,  it  is  probable  that  the 
Bnglish  may  be  the  original,  and  the  con- 
trary; perhaps  both  are  Irom  the  Fr.  babiole, 
Baeibalim  is  found  in  Petronius  Arbiter  in  a 
sindlar  sense;  and  /3«/3aXca  in  Julius  Pollux, 
Tol.  16,  for  bracelets.— ^(iref.  Skinner  suggests 
that  it  may  be  from  babe,  Ital.  habolo,  an  infant ; 
q.  d.  an  infant's  plaything.  Any  pretty,  showy, 
trifling  toy.  It  was  anciently  used  to  signify 
the  badge  of  a  fool.  In  its  general  signification 
the  word  is  still  current,  but  the  office  of  a  fool 
being  obsolete,  it  requires,  in  the  latter  sense, 
some  explanation.  A  fooVs  biawble  was  a  short 
stick,  with  a  head  ornamented  with  asses'  ears, 
&ntastically  carved  upon  it. 

An  idiot  holds  his  bauble  for  a  god. 
And  keeps  the  oath  vhich  by  that  god  he  awean. 

Shakspeare.  Titui  Andrmtieui. 

It  had  been  fitter  for  you  have  found  a  fool's  coat, 
and  a  haubls.  Lingua,  0.  PI.  r.  129. 

If  every  fool  should  wear  a  bable,  fewel  would  be 
dear.  J^!f'»  Prov,  p.  108. 

It  was  also  the  subject  of  another  proverb, 
which,  as  well  as  several  allusions  maae  to  it, 
was  of  a  licentious  nature.  It  appears  by  the 
French  proverb,  subjoined  by  Ray,  that  the 
equivalent  word  in  that  language  was  marotte, 
which  is  now  used  for  a  person's  particular 
foible,  or  hobby-horse,  Cest-id  ta  murotte;  it  is 


hi^  hobby-horse.    It  is  in  gentfral  whedier  ap- 
plied to  persons  or  things,  a  term  of  contempt. 
And  hapneth  that  the  kynges  flbole> 
Sat  by  the  fire  npoa  a  stole, 

ts  he  that  with  bis  bable  plaide, 
nd  yet  he  heard  all  that  thei  saide> 
And  thereof  toke  thei  no  hede. 

Gower,  Qmf.  Aim, 
In  the  reproof  of  chance 
Lies  the  tme  proof  of  men  :  the  sea  being  smooth. 
How  many  shallow  hauUe  boats  dare  sail 
Upon  her  patient  breast,  making  their  way 
With  those  of  nobler  bulk  ? 
But  let  the  ruffian  Boreas  oiice  enrage 
The  gentle  Thetis,  and  anon  behold 
The  strong-ribb'd  bark  through  liquid  mountains  cut. 
Bounding  between  the  two  moist  elements. 
Like  Peneus'  horse :  Where's  then  the  saucy  boat. 
Whose  weak  untimber'd  sides  but  even  now 
Co-rival'd  greatness  ?  either  to  harbour  fled. 
Or  made  a  toast  for  Xeptune.     Bven  so 
Doth  valour's  show,  and  valour's  worth  divide 
In  storms  of  fortune.  Shakgpeare. 

A  banohUng  vessel  was  he  captain  of. 
For  shallow  draught,  and  bulk,  unprizable ; 
With  which  such  scathful  grapple  did  he  make. 
With  the  most  noble  bottom  of  oar  fleet.  Id, 

Paper ! 
Black  as  the  ink  that's  on  thee ;  senseless  hoMe, 
Art  thou  a  feodaiy,  for  this  act,  and  look'st 
So  virgin-like  without.  lA, 

When  a  man  begins  truly  to  fear  God,  and  is  in  the 
agonies  of  mortification,  all  these  new-nothings  and 
cariosities  will  lye  neglected  by  as  ftonUet  do  by  chil- 
dren when  they  are  deadly  sick.        Tayloi^t  Serwumt* 
For  who  without  a  cap  and  bauble. 
Having  subdued  a  bear  and  rabble. 
And  might  with  honour  have  come  off. 
Would  put  it  to  a  second  proof.         Hudtbras, 
He  (Cromwell)  commanded  a  soldier  to  seixe  the 
mace  :  '  What  shall  we  do  with  this  bmUtlet    Here, 
take  it  away.     It  is  you,'  said  he,  addressing  himself 
to  the  house,  *  that  have  forced  me  to  this,  I  have 
sought  the  Lord,  night  and  day,  dxat  he  would  rather 
slay  mo  than  put  me  upon  this  work/ 

Eume'e  Hittary  of  Ei^knd, 
If,  In  oar  contest,  we  do  not  iaterehioifB  usalnl 
notions,  we  shaU  trafiSek  toys  and  baublet, 

GovenmmU  ef  the  Tai^gue* 
This  shall  be  writ  to  fright  the  fry  away. 
Who  draw  their  little  bmabUt,  when  they  play. 

Dryden, 
A  lady's  watch  needs  neither  figures  nor  wheels  ; 
Tis  enough  that  'tis  loaded  with  b»whlet  and  seaU. 

Prior, 
Our  author  then,  to  please  you,  in  your  way. 
Presents  you  now  a  bawble  of  a  play. 
In  gingling  rhyme.  Gratmille, 

A  prince,  the  moment  he  is  crown *d. 
Inherits  every  virtue  round. 
As  emblems  of  the  sovereign  pow'r. 
Like  other  hawhle*  of  the  tow'r.  Swift, 

Whate'er  was  light,  impertinent,  and  vain, 
Whate'er  was  loose,  indecent,  and  profane, 
(So  ripe  was  folly,  ifolly  to  acquit), 
Stood  all  absolv'd  in  that  poor  bwMe,  wit. 

ChurchUL  Gotham,  bk.  iii. 
BAW'COCK.    A  burlesque  word  of  endear- 
ment, supposed  to  be  derived  from  beau  cog ; 
but  rather  perhaps  from  boy  and  cock.    It  seems 
to  mean  young  cock^  or  fine  fellow. 

Why  that's  my  baweoeh.    What  has  smutch'd  thy 
no«e?  Shah^eare. 


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Icftity,  *weet 

Id.  Hewy  /F. 

Either  from  ^otofey 

which  mgnifies  joy- 

ousy    frdm     haudu^ 

"dirty,  or  from   the 

Goth,     bfatuan,     to 

scrape  togetner,  thus 


BAWD',  «.,«.#.  &Aj^.-^ 

Bawd'ily, 

Bawd'iness, 

Bawd'ry, 

Bawd'ship, 

Bawd'y.  ^  «^..|,~  ^Qw« — 

6ato(^  is  a  collector  of  filth,  or  obscenity.  The 
French  have  bauderief  batuHe,  that  is  pimping, 
keeping  a  bawdy-house.  It  refers  to  obscenity 
of  language,  and  of  intercourse.  A  bawd  is 
either  a  raAle  or  female  pander.  It  is  more  fre- 
quently applied,  however,  to  the  depraved 
mother  ii|  the  trade  of  debauchery,  who  either 
facilitate  the  illicit  intercourse  of  the  sexes,  as 
procuresses,  or  as  furnishing  them  with  a  place 
of  meeting.  Johnson  says,  sotnewhat  coarsely, 
that  bawdry  is  a  wicked  practice  of  procuring 
and  bringing  whores  and  rogues  together. 

This  false  the«f,  this  tompnoar  qnod  the  frere. 

Had  alway  boMdet  redy  to  his  hond, 

Aa  any  havke  to  liae  in  Englelond. 

Chaucer,     The  Freret  Tale. 

This  thing  is  wonder  mervaillooa  to  me,. 

(Sin  that  thy  lord  is  of  so  high  prudence. 

Because  of  which  men  shulde  him  reverence^) 

That  of  his  worship  rekketh  he  so  lite 

His  overest  sloppe  it  is  not  worth  a  mite, 

Ai  in  effect  to  him  so  mote  I  go ; 

It  is  all  ftoudy  and  to  sore  also.  Id, 

But  here,  with  al  mine  herte,  I  thee  heseche 

That  never  in  me  thou  dcme  soche  folie. 

As  I  shall  saine — Methought  by  thy  speche. 

That  this  whiche  thou  me  doest  for  companie, 

I  should  wenen  it  were  a  bauderie : 

I  am  not  wode,  all  if  I  leud  ybe : 

It  is  not  so,  that  wote  I  well  parde.  Id. 

H'yll  hang  handsome  young  men  for  the  soote  ainne 

of  love. 
When  so  his  knavery  himselfo  a  ha^  Jack  doth 
t»ove.  Wheteieme.     Old  Play. 

Besides,  hamdry  is  become  an  art,  or  a  liberal 
science,  as  Ludan  calls  it;  and  there  be  such  tricks 
and  subtleties,  so  many  noises,  old  women,  panders, 
letter-carriers,  beggars,  physicians,  friars,  confessors, 
employed  about  it;  such  occult  notes,  stenography, 
polygraphy,  nuntius  animatus,  or  magnetical  telling  of 
their  minds,  which  Cabeus>  the  Jesuit,  by  the  way, 
counts  fabulous  and  false;  cunning  conveyances  in 
this  kind,  that  neither  Juno's  jealousie,  nor  Danae's 
custody,  nor  Argo's  vigilancy  can  keep  them  safe. 

Button.  Anat,  of  Md. 
The  eye  is  a  secret  orator,  the  first  bawde,  amoris 
porta,  and  with  private  looks,  winking,  glances,  and 
smiles,  as  so  many  dialogues  they  make  up  the  match 
many  times  and  understand  one  another's  meanings 
before  they  come  to  speak  a  word.  Id. 

Thy  sin's  not  accidental,  but  a  trade : 
Mercy  to  thee  would  prove  itself  a  hatod : 
Tis  best  that  thou  diest  quickly.         Shahpeare. 
She  says  enough ;— yet  she's  a  simple  bau>d. 
That  cannot  say  as  much«  Id. 

Come,  sing  me  a  batedgf  song ;  make 
me  merry ;  T  was  as  virtuously  given  as  a  gentleman 
need  to  be ;  virtuous  enough :  swore  little ;  diced  not 
above  seven  times  a  week ;  went  to  a  bawdy-hoast, 
not  above  once  in  a  quarter---of  an  hour ;  paid  money 
that  I  borrowed,  three  or  four  timet;  lived  well,  and 
in  good  compass :  and  now  I  live  out  of  all  order, 
out  of  all  compass.  Id. 


HCART.  For  my  |wn  I  have  once  ; 
when  I  wed  sgain,  may  she  be — uglyaa  an  M.heted. 
YAinu  lU-natored,  as  an  old  nudd-r- 
BeLMOUR.  Wanton  as  a  young  widows- 
Sharp.  And  jealous  as  a  barren  wife. 

Coi^reee,  (Hd  Bmehdat. 
Now  nothing  left»  but  vither'd,  pale,  and  shrunk. 
To  haimd  lot  others,  and  go  shves  in  punk.  PId|». 
You  may  generally  observe,  that  the  appcdtM  are 
sooner  moved  tiian  die  passions.  A  sly  cxptesiioa, 
which  alhides  to  haiadry,  p«ts  a  whole  torm  iue  t 
pleasing  imirk ;  when  a  good  senti^oe  that  describes 
an  inward  sentiment  of  ^e  soul,  b  lec^iwed  widi  the 
greatest  coldness  and  indUfersaee.  apetuier. 

Has  the  pope  lately  ah«t  up  the  lawrfjMuMses,  or 
does  he  Aontinue  to  lay  a  tax  upon  ain  t  Bemu. 

Bawdy-House.  The  keeping  of  a  house  of 
iU-&me  ii  cognizable  by  *  le  temporal  law,  as  a 
common  Dnisance,  not  only  because  it  endsncen 
the  public  peace  by  drawing  together  dissolate 
9xA  debauoied  penons,and  promoting  quan^ 
but  because  it  tefids  to  corrupt  the  maoneft  of 
the  people  by  an  open  profession  of  lewdoes 
(3  Inst.  205. 1  Hawk.  F.  C.  c.  74).  Those  who 
keep  bawdy-houses  are  punished  with  fine  and 
imprisonment,  and  also  such  infiunoos  ponish- 
roent  as  the  court  shall  in6ict ;  and  so  is  a  lod- 
ger, who  keeps  only  a  single  room  for  sodi  pur- 
poses. Also  person  resorting  to  a  bawdy-bonse 
are  punishable^  and  may  be  bound  to  then  good 
behaviour.  If  i  constable  receives  information 
that  a  man  end  woman  are  gone  to  a  lewd  house, 
he  ixiay  carry  them  before  a  justice  of  peace  wiUi- 
out  any  warrant,  and  the  justice  may  bind  them 
over  to  the  sessions.  In  London,  they  may  carty 
them  to  prison ;  and  by  the  custom  of  the  dty, 
whores  and  bawds  may  be  carted.  By  stat  2^ 
Geo.  II.  c.  36,  made  psv^tual  by  stat.  28  Geo. 
II.  c.  19,  if  two  inhabitants,  paying  scot  and  lot, 
shall  give  notice  to  a  Nonstable  of  any  person 
keeping  a  bawdy-bouse,  the  constable  shall  go 
witn  them  before  a  justice  of  peace,  and  shall, 
upon  the  oath  of  such  inhabitants,  that  they  be- 
lieve the  contents  of  such  notice  to  be  tnie,  and 
their  entering  into  a  recognizance  of  £20  each, 
to  give  material  evidence  of  the  offence,  enter 
into  a  recognilance  of  £30  to  pcosecole  with 
effect  such  person  for  such  offenoe  at  the  neu 
sessions.  The  constable  shall  be  paid  his  reason- 
able expenses  by  the  oveiseers  of  the  poor,  ascer- 
tainable by  two  justices;  and  upon  coovidioa  of 
the  offender,  the  overseen  shall  pay  the  two  in- 
habitants £lO  each.  A  constable,  neglecting  hi> 
duty,  ibr&its  £20*  Any  person  appearing  as 
master  or  mistress,  or  as  havmg  'he  -are  or  man- 
agement of  an^  bawdy-house,  shall  be  deemed 
the  keeper  of  it,  and  liable  to  be  punished  -.  s 
such.  And  a  wife  may  be  itidicted  and  set  in  tlie 
pillory  with  her  husband  for  keeping  a  brothel ; 
for  this  is  an  offence  respecting  tfa«  domestic  eco- 
nomy and  government  of  the  boose,  in  which  the 
wife  has  a  principal  share. 

Bawd-Moket,  a  name  given  *o  the  aleom 
athamaottcum. 

BAW'DRICKS,  ».  See  Baldrick.  Bt^ 
beltf  according  to  Du  Can^,  is  the  ring,  bek*  or 
girdle  of  a  bold  man,  that  is  of  a  warrior.  The 
word  ts  used  by  Sir  Thomas  More,  hy  IlaU,  and 
by  Fabian,  and  is  spelt  by  diem  varioosly,  bamd- 
rick,  bmtdrytky  and  bawderyke. 


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r  AwAin hfr Itand  a  thvp %ob6 speuf  i^  held. 
Ami  $t  ber  backe  a  boir  and  qairer  gay, 
Stoft  witk  steel>fa«aded  darts,  ivfcenwi di  Aa  ^oeld 
The  salTtge  beatts  in  her  victurioas  play. 
Knit  with  a  golden  bauldrick,  which  foh>lay 
Athwart  her  snowy  breast.     Spetuer.    Faerie  Queene. 

Fresh  gariands  too  the  virgins*  teitaples  erownM ; 
The  youths  gilt  swoHs  wore  at  their  thighs,  Irfdi  silver 
hawdrie^  boand.  CAapman^$  lUsd. 

BAWLy  v.  a.  &  n.*^     Vossius     and    l^estus 
Bawling,  >  concur  in  thinking  that 

Bawler,  n.  3  this  word   is   formed,  a 

sooo  vocis,  from  the  sound  of  die  voice ;  Min- 
sbew  and  Skinner  conjecture  that  it  is  from  the 
noise  which  dogs  make  in  barking ;  and  Johnson 
derives  it  from  the  Latin  balo,  to  hoot,  to  cry 
with  great  Tehemence,  whether  for  joy  or  pain ; 
tp  ciy  as  in  the  market  place,  eitlier  wares  or 
news ;  a  word  always  used  in  contempt. 

Thay  bawl  for  frtedom  in  their  wnselets  mood. 
And  still  rSTok  when  ttulh  would  set  them  free. 

diwUtm. 
To  cry  the  cauBo  vp  heretofore. 
And  baiH  the  bishops  out  of  door.         Huiibraa. 

Through  the  thick  shades  th'  eternal  scribkr  bowk. 
And  shakes  the  sUiues  on  their  pedestals.      Drjfdvn, 

.  From  his  lov'd  home  no  lucre  him  can  dcaw  \ 
The  senate's  mad  decrees  ha  never  saw, 
Xor  heard  at  bawlmg  bars  corrupted  law.  Id, 

Loud  menaces  were  heard,  and  foul  disgrace. 
And  bawling  infamy,  in  language  base. 
Till  seoso  was  lost  in  sound,  and   silence  Qca  the 
place.  fd.     Fables. 

So  on  the  tuneful  Maigarita's  tongue 
The  listening  nymphs  and  ravish'd  heroes  hung  ; 
But  cits  and  fops  the  hcav'n-bom  musick  blame. 
And  battl,  and  hiss,  and  damn  her  into  fame.  StaitH. 

I  have  a  race  of  orderly  elderly  people,  who  can 
bawl  when  I  am  deaf,  and  tread  softly  when  I  am 
only  giddy  and  would  sleep.  Sunft. 

It  grieved  me  when  I  saw  labours  which  had  cost 
so  much,  bawled  about  by  common  hawkers.  Id, 

Fie ;  fie*  miss,  how  you  bawl! — Besides,  I  have  told 
you,  you  Inust  not  call  mo  mother.  Congreoe. 

A  little  child  was  bawling,  and  a  woman  chiding  it. 

L'Egtrange. 

If  they  were  never  suffered  to  have  what  they  crird 
f©r,  they  would  never,  with  bawltHg  and  peevishness, 
contend  for  mastery.  Locke. 

•  My  hnsband  Ssok  him  in,  a  dirty  boy ;  it  Was  the 
hnsiaess  of  the  servants  to  attend  him,  the  rogue  did 
bawi'vad  make  such  a  noise. 

Arbiahnot't  Bistory  of  John  Butt, 

When  rosemaiy  and  bays,  the  poet*j  crown. 

Are  bau^*d  in  frequent  cries  through  all  the  town. 

Then  judge  the  festival  of  Christmas  near 

Christmas !  the  joyous  period  of  the  year.         Gay. 

BAWLING,  among  sportsmen,  is  spoke  of 
the  dogs  when  they  are  too  busy  before  they  find 
the  scent  good. 

BAWM.  See  Balm.  Bawmed,  used  hy  R. 
Brtinne. 

BAWN,  n.  an  the  Gothic  laumh  Germ,  iatien, 
a  place  to  reside  in;  a  dwelling;  any  edifice, 
whether  a  fortification  or  a  common  habitation, 
and  with  w^iatever  materials  constructed;  it  is 
used  by  Spenser  for  an  eminence.  In  Ireland, 
says  Todd,  a  hawn  is  said  to  be  a  place  near 
the  house,  inclosed  with  mud  or  stone  walls,  to 
iteep  the  cattle  from  being  stolen  in  the  niglu. 


But  these  sound  hills  and  tqunn-  hemma,  which 
yon  see  so  strongly  trenched  and  thrown  i;qp,  wero 
(theyaay)  at  first  ordained  for  th$  same  pufpMe,  that 
people  might  assemble  themselves  therein,  and,  there« 
fore,  aunciently,  they  were  called  folkmotes,  that  is,  • 
place  of  people,  to  maete  or  talk«  of  any  thing  that 
concerned  any  difference  between  parties  and  town- 
ships, which  secmeth  yet  to  me  very  requisite. 

Bpemer,     View  of  the  State  of  IreUmd. 
Thus  spoke  to  my  lady  the  knight  full  of  care, — 
Let  me  have  your  adviee  in  a  weighty  affair ; 
Thia  Hamilton's  hawn,  whilst  it  sticks  on  my  hand, 
I  lose  by  the  house  what  I  get  by  the  land  ; 
But  how  to  dispose  of  it  to  the  best  bidder. 
For  a  barra^  or  malt-hoose,  we  now  must  consider. 
Swift.     The  Grand  Question  Debated. 

BAWTREY,  or  Bawtky,  a  market  town  and 
chapelry,  in  the  parish  of  Blythe,  West  Hiding: 
of  York.  It  stands  near  the  river  Idle,  eight  or 
ten  miles  from  its  fall  into  the  Trent :  is  nine 
miles  south-east  from  Doncaster,  and  153  from 
London,  and  contains  from  900  to  1000  inhabi- 
tants. This  place  has  much*  trade  from  its  river 
navigation,  having  mill  and  grindstones  from 
Derbyshire,  and  lead,  and  all  kinds  of  iron  manu- 
factures, from  Sheffield.  It  is  a  great  thorough- 
fare to  Scotland,  and  has  a  good  market  on 
Thursday,  formerly  on  Wednesday, 

BAXTER  (Andrew),  an  ingenious  metaphy- 
sical writer,  was  bom  in  1686  or  1687,  at  Old 
Aberdeen,  and'  educated  at  King's  College. 
About  1724  he  married  the  daughter  of  a  clergy- 
man in  Berwickshire.  A  few  years  after,  he 
published  in  4to^  An  Iaquir}r  into  the  Nature  of 
the  liuman  Soul,  wherein  its  immateriality  is 
is  evinced  from  the  principles  of  reason  and  phi- 
losophy. In  1741  he  went  abroad  with  Mr. 
Hay,  and  resided  some  years  at  Utrecht ;  having 
there  Lord  Blantyre  also  under  his  care.  lie 
made  excursions  from  thence  into  Flanders, 
Prance,  and  Germany ;  his  wife  and  family  re- 
siding, in  die  mean  time,  chiefly  at  Berwick.  In 
-J  737  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  resided  till  his 
.death  at  Whittingham,  in  the  shire  of  £ast  Lo- 
thian. He  drew  up,  for  the  use  of  his  pupils  and 
his  son,  a  piece  entitled  Matho :  sive,  Cosmothe- 
oria  puerihs,  dialogus.  In  quo  prima  elementa 
de  mundi  ordine  et  omatu  proponuntur,  •&c. 
This  was  afterwards  greatly  enlarged,  and  pub- 
lished in  English,  in  two  volumes,  8vb.  In 
1750,  he  published  an  Appendix  to  his  Inquiry. 
He  died  April  23, 1750,  after  suffering  for  some 
months  unoier  a  complication  of  disorders. 

Baxter,  (Richard),  an  eminent  nonconformist 
divine,  was  bom  at  Rowton  in  Shropshire, 
in  1615.  He  was.  somewhat  unfortunate  iu  his 
tutors,  who  were  either  men  of  little  ability,  or 
veiy  inattentive  to  their  charge;  but  his  own 
genius  and  perseverance  surmounted  this  ob- 
stacle ;  and  he  was  distinguished  in  early  life  for 
his  learning,  as  well  as  his  piety.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1638,  and  upon  the  opening  of  the 
long  parliament,  was  chosen  vicar  of  Kidder- 
minster. In  the  heat  of  the  civil  wars  he  wtUi- 
drew  to  Coventry,  and  preached  to  the  garrison 
and  inhabitants.  When  Oliver  Cromwell  was 
made  protector,  he  would  not  comply  with  his 
measures,  though  he  preached  once  before  him. 
He  came  to  London  just  prior  to  the  deposing 
of  Richard  Cromwell,  and  preached  before  the 


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parliafnent  the  day  before  they  voted  the  return 
of  King  Charles  Ili.  Upon  the  Restoration  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  king's  chaplains  in  or- 
dinary, lie  assisted  at  the  conference  in  the 
Savoy,  as  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  set- 
tlement of  religion,  and  drew  up  a  reformed 
liturgy.  About  tliis  time  he  was  offered  the 
bishopric  of  Hereford,  which  he  refused ;  and  de- 
sired only  to  resume  his  charge  at  Kidderminster. 
He  was  not,  however,  permitted  to  preach  there 
above  twice  or  thrice  after  the  Restoration.  On 
this  he  returned  to  London,  and  preached  oc- 
casionally about  the  city,  till  the  act  of  unifor- 
mity took  place.  In  1662  he  married  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Francis  Charleton,  Esq.  of  Salop,  a 
justice  of  the  peace.  She  was  a  woman  of  great 
piety,  and  entered  fully  into  her  husband's  views 
concerning  religion.  During  the  plague  in  1 665, 
he  retired  into  Buckinghamshire;  but  afterward 
returned  to  Acton,  where  he  staid  till  the  act 
against  conventicles  expired;  and  then  his  au- 
dience was  so  large  that  he  wanted  room.  Soon 
after  we  find  him  imprisoned,  but  procuring 
sm  habeas  corpus,  he  was  discharged.  After  the 
indulgence  in  1672  he  returned  to  London ;  and 
in  1682  he  was  once  more  incarcerated  and  put 
to  great  expense.  In  1684  he  was  again  appre- 
hended, and  at  the  commencement  of  the  reign 
of  James  II.  was  tried  before  justice  Jefferiet, 
for  his  Paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament; 
which  was  called  a  scandalous  and  seditious 
book  against  the  government.  He  continued  in 
prison  two  years;  from  whence  he  was  dis- 
charged, and  had  his  fine  remitted  by  the  king. 
He  died  in  1691 ;  and  was  buried  in  Christ 
Church.  One  of  his  biographers  says,  rather 
boldly,  of  Richard  Baxter,  '  he  could  say  what 
he  would,  and  he  could  prove  what  he  said.' 
He  was  honored,  however,  with  the  friendship  of 
the  earl  of  Lauderdale,  the  earl  of  Balcarras,  L. 
Chief  Justice  Hales,  Drs.  Tillotson,  Barrow,  &c 
and  held  correspondence  with  the  mo$t  eminent  fo- 
reign divines.  He  himself  wrote  above  120  books, 
and  had  above  sixty  written  against  him.  Bar- 
row says,  that  *  his  practical  writings  were  never 
mended,  and  his  controversial  seldom  confuted.' 
Granger  declares  that  he  was  a  man  famous  for 
weakness  of  body  and  strength  of  mind;  for 
liaviug  the  strongest  sense  of  religipn  himself, 
and  exciting  a  sense  of  it  in  the  thoughtless  and 
profligate ;  for  preaching  more  sermons,  engaging 
in  more  controversies,  and  writing  more  books, 
than  any  other  nonconformist  of  his  age^  He 
spoke,  disputed,  and  wrote  with  ease  ;  ami  dis- 
covered the  same  intrepidity  when  he  reproved 
Cromwell  and  expostulated  with  Charles  II.  as 
when  he  preached  to  a  congregation  of  mechanics. 
His  portrait,  in  full  proportion,  is  drawn  in  his 
Narrative  of  his  own  Life  and  Times;  which 
though  a  rhapsody,  composed  in  the  man- 
ner of  a  diary,  contains  a  great  variety  of 
memorable  things,  and  is  itself,  as  far  as  it  goes, 
a  History  of  Nonconformity.  His  most  famous 
works  were,  1.  The  Saint's  £verlasting  Rest. 
2.  Call  to  the  Unconverted,  of  which  20,000  have 
been  sold  in  one  year ;  and  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  all  the  £uropean  languages.  3.  Poor 
Man's  Family  Book.  4.  Dying  Thoughts ;  and 
'.  the  above-mentioned  Paraphrase.    His  prac- 


tical works  have  been  printed  in  l&nr  toIiiims 
folio.    See  Baxterians. 

BAXTERIANS,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  Aose 
who  adopt  the  doctrinal  sentiments  of  Richard 
Baxter.  The  opinions  maintained  by  this  excel- 
lent man  were  conciliatory,  and  have,  since  his 
time  been  embraced  by  many  moderate  and  cukr 
did  men,  of  difierent  sects  and  parties.  Baxtei's 
system  was  formed  not  to  inflame  the  pas^oni 
and  widen  the  breaches,  but  to  heal  those  wounds 
of  the  church  under  which  she  had  long  lan- 
guished. Some  controversialists,  however,  were 
much  displeased  with  Baxter's  attempt;  and  we 
have  heara  of  a  piece  in  which  supposed  incoo- 
sistencies  in  his  doctrines  are  set  m  a  kind  of 
battle-array  against  each  other; — ^it  is  entitled 
Richard  against  Baxter. 

The  Baxterian  strikes  into  a  middle  path,  be- 
tween Arminianism  and  Calvinism,  and  thus 
endeavours  to  unite  both  sdiemes.  With  the 
Calvinist,  he  professes  to  believe  that  a  certain 
number,  determined  upon  in  the  divine  councils, 
will  be  infallibly  saved ;  and  with  the  Arminian, 
he  joins  in  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  reprobation 
as  absurd  and  impious ;  admits  that  Christ,  in  a 
certain  sense,  died  for  all,  and  supposes  that  su(^ 
a  portion  of  grace  is  allotted  to  every  man  as 
renden  it  his  own  fault  if  he  doth  not  attain  to 
eternal  life. 

Bay,  I  The  name  of  the  tree  which  is 
Bays.  S  translated  laurel,  and  of  which  hono- 
rary gariands  were  anciently  made.  Fr.  605^  a 
berry,  Lat  bacca.  To  wear  the  6«y(,  is,  in  poet- 
ical language,  to  be  pre-eminent  in  excellence. 
The  honorary  crown  or  garland,  which  was  he- 
stowed  as  a  prize  for  liteiaiy  or  military^  or  in- 
deed any  otner  species  of  merit,  bearing  this 
name. 

1  have  seen  the  wielded  in  great  power,  and  ^vead- 
ing  himself  like  a  green  ftay-tree.  Bdk. 

See  where  she  sits  upon  the  grassie  greeae, 

(0  seemely  sight!) 
Yclad  in  scarlet,  like  a  mayden  queene. 

And  ermines  white : 
Upon  her  head  a  cremosin  coronet. 
With  damaake  roeee,  and  daffadillies  set ; 

Boy-loaves  betweene. 

And  primroses  greene. 
Embellish  the  sweete  violet. 

So  him  they  led  through  all  their  streetes  akos* 
Crowned  with  garlands  of  immortal  hain. 
And  all  the  vuQar  did  about  them  throng. 
To  see  the  man,  whose  evexlastiAg  praise. 
They  all  wers  bound  to  all  posteritie  to  raise 


I-  can  but  laugh  at  both. 
That  strive  and  storrae  with  stirre  omtrageotts* 
For  her,  that  each  of  you  alike  doth  loth. 
And  loves  another,  with  whoownow  the  goth. 
In  lovely  wise,  and  sleepea,  and  spoits,  and  playes  \ 
Whilcst  both  you  here,  with  many  a  cursed  olh» 
Sweare  she  is  yours,  and  stirre  up  hloodie  frayes. 
To  win  a  willow  bough,  whilett  other  weans  the  *^^ 

See  how  the  stubborn  damsell  dolh  deprave 
My  simple  meaning  with  disdaynfnll  soom; 
And  by  the  toy  which  I  unto  her  gave  ; 
Aocompu  myself  her  captive  quite  fofkinie. 
Tho  ha^  quoth  she,  is  of  the  vieton  bek»» 


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TMdcd  lfa«m  bj  the  Tanqoiiht  as  theyr  atoeds, 
Aad  they,  therewith,  -doe  poetes  heads  adome,' 
To  ting  the  gloiy  of  their  famona  deeds. 
But  siUi  she  will  the  coaquest  challenge  needs. 
Let  her  accept  me  as  her  faithful  thnUl, 
That  her  great  triumph,  which  mj  skill  exceeds, 
I  may  in  tramp  of  fame  blase  oyer  all. 
Then  would  I  decke  her  head  with  glorious  tqys, 
And  SU  the  world  with  her  victorioas  prayse.         Id. 
To  take  a  boat  in  a  pleasant  evening,  and  with 
musick  to  row  upon  the  waters,  which  Plutarch  so 
much  applaudes,    iElian   admires,  upon   the   river 
Penpus,  in  those  Thessalian  fields  beset  with  green 
baget,  where  birds  so  sweetly  sing,  that  passengeis, 
enchanted  as  it  were  with  their  heavenly  musick,  for- 
get forthwith  all  labours,  care  and  grief;  or  in  a 
fpmdilo,  through  the  grand  canale  in  Venice,  to  see 
those  goodly  palaces,  must  needs  refresh  and  give 
content  to  a  melancholy  dull  spirit. 

Burton,  Anat,  Mel, 

So  up  they  rose,  while  all  the  shepherd-throng 
With  their  loud  pipes  a  country  triumph  blew. 
And  led  their  Thirsil  home  with  joyful  song  : 
Mean  time  the  lovely  nymph,  with  garlands  new. 
His  locks  in  bay  and  honour'd  pafatt-tree  bound, 
With  lilies  set,  and  hyacinths  around ; 
Ahd  lord  of  all  the  year,  and  their  may-sportings, 
crownM.  Fletcher't  Pwjie  UUmd, 

Like  thunder  'gainst  the  htty, 
Whose  lightning  may  enclose  but  never  stay. 
Upon  his  charmed  branches.     Id,  Faith,  ^lepherdat. 

That  name  I  say  in  whom  the  muses  meete. 
And  with  such  heate  his  noble  spirits  raise. 
That  kings  admire  his  verse,  whil'st  at  his  feele, 
Orpheus  bis  harpe,  and  Phceboa  casts  his  (ay*. 

F. 


Till  critics  blame,  and  judges  praise. 
The  poet  cannot  claim  his  bagi.  .  Swift, 

Say,  Britain !  could  yon  ever  boast 
Three  poets  in  an  age  at  most  ? 
Our  chilling  climate  hardly  bears 
A  sprig  of  hajfs  in  fifty  years. 
While  ev'ry  fool  his  claim  alleges. 
As  if  it  grew  in  common  hedges.  Id, 

Bid  the  warbling  nine  retire ; 

Venus  string  thy  servant's  lyre ; 

Love  shall  be  my  endless  tlieme. 

Pleasure  shall  triumph  over  Fame : 

And  when  these  maxims  I  decline, 

Apollo !  may  tby  fate  be  mine  ; 

May  I  grasp  at  empty  praise. 

And  lose  the  nymph  to  gain  the  bapa.     Prior, 

The  polish'd  pillar  fUfiT'rent  sculptures  grace, 
A  work  outlasting  monumental  brass. 
Here  smiling  loves  and  bacohanals  appear. 
The  Julian  star,  and  great  Augustas  here. 
The  doves*  that  round  the  infant  poet  spread. 
Myrtle  and  bays,  hang  hov'ring  o'er  his  head.     Pope, 

Yet  sufifer  me,  thou  bard  of  wondrous  meed. 
Amid  thy  bt^  to  weaye  tbis  rural  weed.  Gag, 

Bay',  adj,  "^  Lat.  badiuSf  old  Fr.  baye,  bat, 
Bat'a&d,  y  rouge  brun,  Ital.  baiOf  Gr.  /3atc, 
Bay'abdly.  )  or  paunff  the  branch  of  the  palm. 
Does  it  refer  to  the  color  of  the  bark  ?  or  the 
tenacity  with  which  the  branch  adheres  to  the 
tmnk;  to  intimate  boldness,  determination,  or 
dogged  firmness  ?  It  is  applied  both  to  signify 
the  color  and  spirit  of  a  horse ;  and  also  to  men 
who  are  bold^  blind,  and  self-willed.  A  6ay 
hone  is  one  Whose  color  inclines  to  a  chestnut ; 
aad  this  color  is  variousp  either  a  light  bay^  or 


a  dark  6ay,  according  as  it  is  less  or  more  deep. 
Ail  beof  horses  are  commonly  called  brown  by 
the  common  people.  Bayard  is  another  name 
for  a  horse  of  this  complexion.  It  was  likewise 
the  appellation  of  a  noted  blind  horse  in  the  old 
romances ;  whence,  perhaps,  the  proverbial  ex- 
pression '  as  bold  as  blina  Bavard/  Rinaldo's 
none,  in  Ariosto,  is  called  Baiardo.  Tliere  is 
an  allusion  to  the  proverb  just  cited,  in  the  old 

glay  entitled  Match  at  Midnight,  <  Do  you  hear, 
ir  Bartholomew  Bayard?  But  l6ap  before  yon 
look/  Perhaps,  says  Nares,  the  whole  proverb 
might  be  *  as  bold  as  blind  Bcyard,  that  leaps 
before  he  looks,'  in  allusion  to  ;<riother  proverb, 
*  look  before  you  leap.'  Biyaid  occurs  in 
R.  Brunne,  and  bay  in  Chaucer. 

Upon  a  stede  bay,  trapped  in  Steele. 

Ye  ben  as  bold  as  is  Bayar .  the  blind. 
That  blondereth  forth,  and  peril  careth  non. 
He  is  as  bold  to  run  against  a  ston. 
As  for  to  go  besides  in  the  way.  CHaueer. 

But  PS  bttiarde  the  blind  stede 
Till  he  fall  in  the  ditche  a  midde 
He  gothe' there  no  man  will  hym  bidde. 
He  stant  so  fer  forthe  out  of  rewle. 
There  is  no  witte  that  maie  hym  reule. 

Gower.  Conf,  Arm, 

I  marvri  not  so  much  at  blind  Bayards,  which 
neuer  take  God's  book  in  hand. 

Bernard  Gilpin't  Sermont. 
Who  is  moie  bold  than  the  ht^ford  blind  ? 

Mirror  for  Magittrates. 

Bay,  v.  &n.  From  the  Fr.  altbai,  which  sig- 
nifies the  last  extremity.  Its  primary  sense  is 
the  barking  of  a  dog  at  hand,  and  relates  to  the 
condition  of  a  stag,  when  the  hounds  are  almoiit 
upon  him.  It  does  not  refer  to  the  assailant, 
but  to  his  selected  victim,  and  in  the  moment  of 
his  utmost  peril.  It  is  figuratively  employed  to 
describe  the  state  of  any  thing  surrounded  by 
enemies.  It  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  simple 
barkint;  of  a  dog  at  any  object.  In  Spenser  it 
is  used  in  the  sense  of  parley,  before  surrender- 
ing. 

So  well  he  woo'd  her,  and  so  well  he  wrought  her. 
With  faire  entreatie  and  sweet  blandishment. 
That  at  the  last  unto  a  bay  he  brought  her. 
So  as  she  to  his  speeches  was  content 
To  lend  an  eare,  and  softly  to  relent,  Spenter 

'  Like  dastard  currcs  that,  havii^  at  a  bay 
The  salvage  beast  cmbost  in  wearie  chace. 
Dare  not  adventure  on  the  stubbome  pray, 
Ne  byte  before,  but  move  from  place  to  place. 
To  get  a  snateh  when  turned  is  his  face.  Jd, 

Here  wast  thou  bay*d  brave  hart. 
Here  didst  thou  fall,  and  here  thy  hunters  stand, 
SignM  in  thy  spoil  and  crimson'd  in  thy  Lethe  ; 

0  world,  thou  wast  the  forest  to  this  bart. 
And  this,  indeed,  O  world,  the  heart  of  thee 
How  like  a  deer,  stricken  by  many  princes, 

Host  thou  here  lie.  Shaktpeare, 

What,  shall  one  of  us. 
That  struck  the  foi  amost  man  of  all  tliis  world. 
But  for  supporting  rubbers ;  shall  we  now 
Contaminate  our  fingers  with  base  bribes  ? 
And  sell  the  mighty  space  of  our  large  honours, 
For  so  much  trash  as  may  be  grasped  thus  ? 

1  had  rather  be  a  dog,  and  bay  the  moon. 

Than  such  a  Roman.  Id 


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Aq4  liy'^  «^«^  ^>^  ^n*>^y  <^9f^i^ 

I  m»  with  BwreiAe*  ai4  Cadii0i«  oiuM« 
Wlitii  ia  the  wood  of  Gr^ua  U^  &otf '4  (h»  bovr 
With  howuls  of  Spait».  ti. 

If  hA  shovld  4o  aoj 
He  le»wf  Wi  biflk  »aann'4i  *e.  FieiKh  f*d  VoUh 
i^o.yu«  bim  at  tif  hee)i.  /4^ 

TbU  ship,  for  ifbee&hoiin^uxeliko  •tta^vnoaf 
homklft  lit  the  Uy,  sod  wm  negeil  wd  leiwbt  «it^ 
in  tii«n«  by  iifU«ii  great  thiye. 


Feir  liberty,  pnraed  md  meent »  prey 
To  lawloM  power,  hen  tuni'4^  and  stood  st  6(V- 

Vor  flight  was  left»  nor  hopes  t»  fiMoe  his -way  ; 
Embolden'd  by  despair,  ho  stood  at  bag; 
Resolr'd  on,  deajth  he  di98i|MLtes  his  feaz^ 
And  bounds  aloft  against  the  pointed  apeart. 

Xhrgden. 

The  hounds  at  neavsr  diatamse  hoarsely  bt^'^k 
The  hunter  close  pursued  the  visionary  maid ; 
She  rent  the  hear'n  with  loud  lanenU,  imploring  aid. 

Id.  FabUi. 

Joyful  he  know  the  lamp's  domestic  fliuae 
Thot  trembled  thro*  the  window  j  cross  the  wi|y 
Darts  forth  the  barlung  cur  and  stands  at  bag.     Oag. 
Sweet  was  the  sound,  when  oft,  at  evening's  clos^. 
Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose ; 
There  ^»  I  pass'd  with  careless  steps  and  slow. 
The  mingling  notes  came  soften'd  from  below  ; 
The  swain  responsive  as  the  milkmaid  sung. 
The  sober  herd  that  low'd  to  meet  their  young ; 
The  noisy  geese  that  gabbled  o'er  the  pool. 
The  playful  children  just  let  loose  from  school ; 
The  watch-d<^s  voice  that  ba^'dthe  whisp'ring  wind. 
And  the  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind  ; 
These  all  in  sweet  confasion  sought  the  shade. 
And  fiil'd  each  pause  the  nightingale  had  made. 

CMdmtUh't  Deterttd  ViUage. 
But  the  hound  bageth  loudly. 

The  boar's  in  the  wood. 
And  the  falcon  longs  proudly 

To  spring  from  her  hood.  Bgran. 

Bay.    To  bathe. 

He  feedes  upon  the  cooling  shade,  and  baget 
Hissweatie  forehead  in  the  breathing  wind. 

Faerit  Quegne. 


in  praCtioe,  wd  imptififl  a  senu-circiilaHr  cweep^ 
like  a  bow.  Mr.  Tyiwbkt,  in  his  GUmbut  to 
Chaucer,  thus  ezaltmia  k:— ^  a  laige  window, 
probably  so  calm  becwue  it  oeenpied  a  whole 
hm/f  i.e.  I^e  space  between  two  ctQ394)eaii)9.' 
\Ve  hare  the  aaihority  of  an  old  dictkmaiy  for 
asserting  that  a  hc^-window  ineant  also  a  bal- 
cony. 

And  tliere,  beside,  within  a  bag-vmdow. 
Stood  one  in  green,  ful  large  of  head  and  Icqglh, 
And  board  as  black  as  festhers  of  .the  orow. 

There  stsads  in  sight  an  isle,  hight  Teaedan* 

Rich,  and  of  ftoie,  while  Priasn's  kingdom  sl^; 

Now  bat  a  bag,  and  rode  unahnae  foe  sUpL  Biwij. 
Like  as  a  ship  that  through  the  ocean  wyde 

Directs  her  course  unto  one  certaine  ooaat 
Is  met  of  many  a  countes-winde  and  tyde, 

Unth  which  her  winged  speed  is  let  and  croit. 
And  she  hetself  in  stonsie  surges  tost; 

Yet  making  many  a  borda  and  SBanj  a  btg^t^ 
Still  wianeth  way,  mm:  haih  her  coapasse  logi^  . 

Right  so  it  fares  with  me  in  this  long  way. 
Whose  couse  is  often  iMf 'd,  yet  novar  Is  astray. 


I'd  have  some  pleasant  lodging  i'  the  high  street,  siri 
Or  if  'twere  near  the  court,  sir,  that  were  ssnch  better ; 
Tis  a  sweet  recreation  for  a  gentlewoman 
To  stand  in  a  bag^mndow  and  see  gallants.  JI«UEs(oa. 
We  have  also  some  works  in  the  midst  of  the  sea, 
and  some  bagt  upon  the  shore  for  tome  woiks,  wherein 
is  required  the  air  and  vspour  of  the  ae  "* 

A  reverend  Syracnsan  merehan^ 

Who  put  unluddly  into  this  &(^ 

If  this  law  hold  in  Vienna  ten  years.  111  rent  the 

ftdrest  house  in  it  after  threepence  a  baif.  U> 

Why  it  hath  bag-wiadiMt  transparent  as  banica- 

does,  and  the  clear  stones  towards  the  sonth-nocih 

are  as  lustrous  as  ebony.  ^ 

Such  murmur  filPd 
The  assembly,  as  when  hollow  rocks  retain 
The  sound  of  blust'ring  winds,  which  all  ni^  kog 
Had  rous'd  the  sea,  now  with  hoarse  cadence  loll 
Seafaring  men  o'er-watch'd,  whose  bark  by  chance 
Or  pinnace  anchors  in  a  craggy  bag 
After  the  tempest.  Xltm 

„^,^., ^__ The  bag  of  St.  Nicholas,  where  they  tot  pat  in, 

BAY,  from  the  old  Saxon  Iwgan,  bygan,  to  lieth  in  sixty-four  degrees,  called  so  from  the  abbey 
bow  or  bend ;  it  is  appUed  to  the  curvings  of  a  there,  built  of  wood,  ^}^J^  ^I^^^^^IL^ 
sho.;torec^esin/^,^^^^^^^^  T^^e^  ^^^h^^ ^'f^^^^ 

so  say  Skinner  and  Mmsliew;  Nwes  thus  de-  ^^^  .^  besides  bat  six  houses,  wheraof  oi.  baih 
fines  It :  a  principal  division  in  a  building ;  pro-  ^^  ^^  in  the  fcv»  •w  •tP^^  ^  •"-y* 
bably,  as  Dr.  Johnson  conjectured,  a  great  ./u^,^  i^md,  fall  of  damask  and  red  rosea.  • 
square,  in  the  framework  of  tlie  roof,  whence,    ^^  wild  roses.  Jfitew's  Utosty  •/ J 

bam  of  three  bays,  is  a  barn  twice  crossed  by 
beams;  in  large  buildings  having  the  Gothic 


Hail,  sacred  aolitade !  firom  this  calm  bag, 
I  view  the  world's  tempestuous  sea. 


fhime^ork  to  support  tlie  roof,  like  Westminster 
Hall,  the  bagi  are  the  spaces  between  the  sup- 
porters ;  houses  were  estimated  by  the  number 
of  bays ;  as  a  terra  among  builders,  it  also  signi- 
fied every  space  left  in  the  wall,  whether  for 
door,  window,  or  chimney.  See  Chamben*s  Dic- 
tionary and  JKcrw. 

Coles,  in  his  Latin  Dictionary,  makes  a  %  a 
space  of  a  definite  siie ;  *  a  6ay  of  building,  men- 
sura  viginiiquatuor  pedum,'  i.  e.  the  measure  of 
twenty-four  feet. 

B  A  Y-W I  snow,  from,  fcay,  nipra;  not  accord-    ___  _  ^ ^ 

ing  to  Minshew,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  ^y    of  qommunication,  '°*°^^^..!^"^>°°S!y^,u,i.,^ 
oa  a  coast,  or  round,  for  it  was  usually  square :  ««»  •  "•**y  ^  -w— 


Here  in  a  royal  bed  the  waters  sleep. 
When  tir'd  at  aea,  within  this  bag  ihey  i 

Some  of  you  have  bag. 
Blake  having  beard  that  a  Spanish  fltet  eCa 
ships,  nmchTiciher  than  the  fimner,  had  tske«  aheker 
in  the  Canaries,  immediately  made  sail  towards  them. 
He  fpnnd  them  in  the  i^  of  Santa  Cms,  dispoaed  a 
a  furmi^able  posture.  The  bag  was  secured  with  a 
strong  casde,  well  provided  with  cannon,  besides 
seven  forts  in  aeveral  parts  of  it,  all  united  by  a  has 


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They  gftin  l^y  twU)(;ht*t  hoar  theb  Icm^jr  itl«> 
T»  them  tho  v«iy  to^ks  appeat  to  tmi^ 
The  haven  hums  with  many  a  cheering  sooad. 
The  beacons  blase  their  wanted  stationa  rounds 
The  boats  are  darting  o'er  the  curly  kagf. 
And  BportiTe  dolphins  bend  them  threngh  the  spray. 
Even  the  hoaxte  ^a-bird's  shrill  discordant  shriek, 
GreeU  like  the  welcome  of  his  toneless  beak  ! 
Beneath  each  lamp  that  through  iu  Inttice  gleams. 
Their  fancy  paints  the  Iricnds  that  trim  the  beams. 

Bay,  in  "botany.    See  Lat7sus. 

Bay,  in  hunting,  is  when  the  dogs  have  earthed 
a  vermin,  or  brought  a  deer,  boar,  or  the  like,  to 
turn  head  against  them.  In  this  case,  not  only 
the  deer,  but  the  dogs  are  said  to  bay.  It  is  dan- 
gerous going  in  to  a  hart  at  bay,  especially  at 
rutting  time ;  for  then  they  are  fiercest 

Bay  of  Islands,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast  of 
New  Zealand,  so  called  from  the  number  of 
islands  off  the  shore.  11  Ae  is  good  anchorage ; 
high  water  takes  place  about  ei^t  o'clock  at  the 
full  and  change  of  the  moon,  when  the  peipendi- 
cular  rise  of  die  tide  is  from  six  to  eieht  feet. 
Abundance  of  fish  frequent  the  bay,  which  the 
natives  take  with  enormous  nets  made  of  a  kind 
of  grass,  five  fathoms  deep,  and  300  or  400  fa- 
thoms long.  Bround  their  villages  nets  lie  in  heaps, 
like  hay-cocks  covered  with  tnatch,  to  resist  the 
weather.  All  kinds  of  refreshment  may  be  had 
here.    Long.  US'  38'  W.,  lat.  35°  18'  S. 

Bay  of  Isles,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
island  of  Georgia,  so  called  from  a  great  number 
of  small  islands  in  and  before  it.  Long.  37°  30 
W.,  lat.  54°  3' S. 

Bay  Color,  a  sort  of  red  inclining  to  chest- 
nut, is  formed  from  the  Latin  baius,  and  that  from 
the  Greek  PaioQ,  a  palm  branch ;  so  that  badius 
or  bay  properly  denotes  color  phoeniceus.  Hence, 
among  the  ancients,  the  horses  now  called  bays, 
were  denominated  equi  palmati. 

Bay,  Plum.    See  Guaiava. 

Bay,  Rose.    See  Oleander. 

Bay  Salt,  a  variety  of  common  salt,  (muriate 
of  soda),  obtained  from  sea- water,  and  which  is 
thought  to  possess  peculiar  advantages  for  curing 
provisions.  In  the  bay  of  Biscay,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Meditermnean,  and  in  the  Bahama  islands, 
the  process  for  procuring  it  is  thus  simply  car- 
ried on : — ^An  artificial  pond  is  formed,  of  ten 
inches  or  a  foot  deep,  and  carefully  lined  with 
clay,  at  some  convenient  distance  from  the  sea, 
so  that  one  end  may  have  a  ready  communication 
by  means  of  a  sluice,  for  the  purpose  of  filling 
when  necessary,  while  at  the  opposite  end  the 
brine  pit  communicates  with  smaller  and  'shal- 
lower receptacles.  In  the  large  reservoir  the 
sea-water  is  concentrated  by  evaporation,  from 
the  action  of  the  sun  and  air ;  and  in  the  smaller 
ones  the  process  is  completed  by  removing  the 
crust  of  salt  as  fast  as  it  may  be  formed.  Thus 
the  salt  obtained  is  deposited  in  large  flattened 
octohedral  crystals  which  do  not  deliquesce,  in 
consequence  of  being  free  from  the  muriate  of 
magnesia,  with  which  the  common  salt  is  contami- 
nated. The  process  may  be  considered  as  one  of 
iie  most  ancient  applications  of  chemical  princi- 
ples, fbr  in  hot  climates,  and  especially  in  Egypt^  it 
was  taught  by  nature  herself.    See  Pliny   lib. 


xxxi.  cap.  7.  Fiance  is  dms  (bmioMd  wHt^  « 
very  profitable  article  for  exportation  into  oUier 
countries.  The  salt  made  is  of  different  colony 
according  to  the  color  of  the  clay  employed  in 
making  the  pits.  That  of  the  French  is  brown* 
whence  it  is  said  comes  the  denomination  of  bay 
salt,  and  it  19  usually  sold  wiAbout  further  pre- 
paration ;  though  in  some  places  they  make  il 
white  by  refining  it  in  lai^e  nat  cauldrons.  The 
great  difiiculty  which  attends  the  making  '\t  in 
Great  Britain  arises  from  the  heat  of  our  lummec 
not  beitrg  sufficiently  stroqg  to  evaporate  a  great 
quantity  of  sea-water  in  a  small  portion  of  tin^ 

BAYA,  in  ornithology,  Indian  gnMibeaJk,  or 
Loxica  Indica,  rather  larger  than  a  sparrow,  with 
yellow  brown  plumage,  yellowish  head  and  feet, 
a  light-colorea  breast,  and  a  conic  beaky  very 
thick  in  proportion  to  his  body.  This  bird  is 
very  common  in  Hindostan ;  and  described  at 
surprisingly  sensible,  feithfui,  and  docile.  In  a 
sute  of  nature,  it  builds  on  the  highest  tree  which 
it  can  find ;  generally  on^  the  palmyra  or  Indian 
fig-tree,  preferring  that  which  overhangs  a  well 
or  rivulet.  There  it  suspends  its  bottle-shaped 
nest,  so  as  for  it  to  rode  with  the  wind,  and 
places  it  with  its  entrance  downwards,  to  secure 
It  from  birds  of  prey.  It  is  taught  with  ease  to 
fetch  a  piece  of  paper,  or  any  small  thing  which 
his  master  wants.  Almost  mcredible  tales  are 
told  of  its  docility ;  and  it  is  confidently  asserted, 
that  if  a  house  or  any  other  place  be  shown  to 
him  once  or  twice,  he  will  carry  a  note  thither 
immediately,  on  observing  a  proper  signal.  They 
are  also  trained  by  the  youths  of  Bewares  to 
pluck  off  the  pieces  pf  gold  called  ticas,  placed 
by  way  of  ornament  between  the  eye-brows  of 
their  mistresses,  which  they  brin^  in  triumph  to 
the  lover.  The  flavor  of  the  eggs  is  said  to  be  ex- 
quisite. 

BAYAMO,  a  town  on  the  east  part  of  Cuba, 
on  the  river  Estreo,  which  forms  a  bay  on  the 
coast,  twenty  miles  below  the  town.  It  gives 
name  to  a  channel  between  the  small  islands  and 
rocks  called  Jardin  de  la  Reyna,  on  the  north- 
west, and  the  shoals  and  rocks  which  line  the 
coast  on  the  south-east,  simated  eighty  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  St.  Jago  Long.  70°  50'  W.,  laj. 
20°  45'  N. 

BAYANO,  a  considerable  river  of  South  Ame- 
rica, in  the  kingdom  of  Terra  Firma,  and  pro- 
vince of  Panama,  which  rises  in  the  province  of 
Darien,  and  falls  into  the  sea  twenty-four  miles 
from  the  bay  of  Panama.  Its  mouth  is  in  long« 
78°  55' W.  lat  9°  3'  N. 

BAYARD  (Peter  duTerrail  de),  esteemed  by 
his  contemporaries  the  model  of  soldiers  and  men 
of  honor,  and  denooinated  *  the  knight  withqut 
fear  and  without  reproach,'  was  descended  from 
an  ancient  and  noble  fiimily  in  Dauphin^.  He 
was  with  Charles  VIII.  at  the  conquest  of  the 
kingdom  of  Naples;  where  he  gave  remarkable 
proofs  of  his  valor,  especially  at  the  battle  of 
Fomova.  He  was  dangerously  wounded  at 
the  taking  of  Brescia ;  and  there  restored  to  the 
daughters  of  his  host  3000  pistoles,  which  their 
mother  had  directed  them  to  give  him  in  order  to 
prevent  the  house  from  being  plundered.  At  his 
return  to  France  he  was  made  lieutenant-general 
of  Dauphin^.    He  fought  by  the  side  o(  Francis 


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BAY 


I.  !d-(Ke  battle  of  Mtripan ;  and  that  mnce  af- 
terwards msiMed'on  being  knighted  by  nis  hand, 
after  the  manner  of  the  ancient  1c nights.  The 
che?alier  Bayard  defended  Mezieres  during  six 
weeks  against  Charles  V/s  array.  In  1524,  at 
the  retreat  of  Rebec  (the  general  Bonnivet  having 
been  wounded  and  obliged  to  qnit  the  field),  the 
conduot  of  the  rear  was  committed  to  Bayard, 
who,  though  so  much  a  stranger  to  the  arts  of  a 
court  that  he  never  rose  to  the  chief  command, 
Was  aiwayfi  called,  in  time  of  real  danger,  to  the 
posts  of  greatest  difficulty  and  importance.  Ue 
put  himself  at  the  head  or  the  men  at  arms  :  and 
animating  them  by  his  presence  and  example  to 
sustain  the  whole  shock  of  the  enemy,  he  gained 
time  for  his  countrymen  to  make  good  their  re- 
treat. But  in  this  service  he  received  a  wound 
which  he  immediately  perceived  to  be  mortal ; 
and  being  unable  to  continue  on  horseback, 
ordered  an  attendant  to  place  him  under  a  tree, 
with  his  fece  towards  the  enerdy  ;  then  fixing  his 
eyes  on  his  sword,  which  he  held  up  instead  of 
a  cross,  he  addressed  his  prayers  to  dod ;  and  in 
this  posture  calmly  waited  the  approach  of  death. 
Bourbon,  who  led  the  foremost  of  the  enemy's 
troops,  found  him  in  this  situation,  and  express- 
ing his  regret  and  pity  at  the  sight,  ^  Pity  not 
me,'  cried  the  high  spirited  chevalier, '  £  die  as  a 
^^1  of  honor  ought,  m  the  discharge  of  my  duty ; 


they  indeed  are  objects  of  pity,  who  fight  against 
their  king,  their  country,  and  their  oath.*  The 
marquis  of  Pescara,  passing  soon  after,  manifested 
his  admiration  of  Bayard^  virtue,  as  well  as  his 
sorrow  for  his  fiite,  with  the  generosity  of  a  gal- 
lant enemy ;  and  finding  tlot  he  could  not  be 
removed  with  safety  from  that  spot,  ordered  a 
tent  to  be  pitched,  and  appointed  proper  persons 
to  attend  him.  He  died,  notwithstanding  their 
care,  as  his  ancestors  for  several  generations  had 
done,  in  the  field  of  battle.  Pescara  ordered  his 
body  to  be  embalmed,  and  sent  to  his  relations ; 
and  such  was  the  respect  paid  to  military  merit 
in  that  age,  that  the  duke  of  Savoy  commanded 
it  to  be  received  with  royal  honors  in  all  the  cities 
of  his  dominions. 

BAY  AS,  a  town  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Amanus, 
on  the  gulf  of  Issus  (now  of  Scanderikn),  the  key 
to  the  celebrated  defile  (the  Py  W  Amanica  of 
the  ancients),  between  it  and  Alexandretta 
(Scanderiin).  The  neighboring  country  is  fertile, 
and  the  mountains,  in  summer  time,  a  delightful 
retreat.  It  is  exactly  opposite  the  Ayhs,  the  an- 
aifent  iEg»,  where  the  survey  of  the  southern 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  by  captain  Beaufort,  in 
1812,  was  unfortunately  terminated.  The  Aghlis, 
in  this  and  the  neighbouring  places,  have  long  bid 
defiance  to  the  authority  of  the  Porte.  See 
Beaufort*s  Karamania. 

BAYAZID,  or  Bajazid,  a  city  of  Turkish 
Armenia,  in  the  pachalic  of  Erzerum,  on  the  de- 
clivity of  a  mountain,  the  summit  of  which,  as 
well  as  the  whole  of  this  place,  is  strongly  forti- 
fied. It  contains  two  churches,  three  mosques, 
and  an  ancient  monastery  called  Kam  Rilleesea, 
celebrated  for  its  beautiful  architecture.  The  in- 
habiunts,  who  amount  to  about  30,000,  are  es- 
teemed  the  most  handsome  and  warlike  people  in 
Armenia.  The  majority  are  Turks.  Distant  fifty 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Erivan,  and  140  east  of  Er- 
aerum. 


BAYEN  (Peter),'a  celebrated  French  i 
was  bom  in  1725,  at  Chalons  sur  Maine.  Hav- 
ing received  a  classical  education,  he  studiitd 
pharmacy ;  and,  during  the  seven  years'  war,  was 
chief  apothecary  to  the  French  army  in  Germany. 
He  was  afterwards  employed  in  analysing  the 
mineral  waters  of  France,  on  completing  which, 
he  settled  at  Paris,  where  he  pursued  his  chemi- 
.  cal  experiments  with  great  reputation,  till  his 
death  in  1801.  He  pursued  a  tedious  but  certain 
mode  of  analysing  minerals,  by  exposing  then, 
without  being  reduced  to  powder,  to  the  action 
of  sulphuric  acid  at  the  temperatiue  of  the  atmo*- 

{)here;  after  this  action  nad  continued  for  a 
ength  of  time,  he  got  by  lixiviation  the  sulphates 
formed  by  the  combination  of  the  acid  with  the 
different  component  elements  of  the  stone.  Ue 
did  not  make  use  of  the  trituration  of  the  stone 
to  an  impalpable  powder,  nor  its  fusion  with 
caustic  potash,  which  facilitate  the  actieo  of 
acids,  and  which  are  used  with  so  much  advan- 
tage at  present.  The  account  he  has  publisiud 
of  his  analysis  will,  nevertheless^  be  instructive 
to  the  chemical  student.  His  chemical  tiacu 
have  been  collected  in  2  vols.  &vo. 

BAYER  (John),  a  German  lawyer  and  astzo- 
nomer  of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  and  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  but  in  what 
particular  year  or  place  he  was  bom,  is  not  cer- 
tainly known :  however,  bis  name  will  be  ever 
memorable  in  the  annals  of  astronomy ,  on  account 
of  his  excelleut  work,  published  in  1603,  under 
the  title  of  Uranoroetria,  being  a  complete  celestial 
atlas,  or  large  folio  charts  of  ^  the  constellatiotts, 
with  a  nomenclature  collected  from  all  the  tables 
of  astronomy,  ancient  and  modem.  By  means 
of  the  Greek  letters,  which  he  used  as  marks  of 
their  relative  magnitudes,  the  stars  of  the  heavens 
may,  with  as  great  facili^,  be  distinguished  and 
referred  to,  as  the  several  places  of  £e  earth  are 
by  means  of  geographical  tables ;  and  our  celes- 
tial globes  and  aUasses  have  ever  since  retained 
this  method.  Astronomers,  in  speaking  of  any 
star  in  the  constellation,  denote  it  bj  saying  it 
is  marked  by  Bayer,  a,  or  ^,  or  y,  &c.  He  greatly 
improved  and  augmented  this  work  by  jubse^ 
<^uent  study.  At  length,  in  1627,  it  was  le-pub- 
lished  under  a  new  title,  viz.  Coelum  Stelialum 
Christianum,  1.  e.  the  Christian  Stellated  Heaven ; 
or  the  Starry  Heavens  Christianised ;  in  this 
edition  the  Heathen  names  and  charactera,  or 
figures  of  the  constellations,  were  rejected^  and 
others  taken  from  the  scriptures,  were  inserted 
in  their  stead,  an  innovation,  however,  too  great 
for  general  reception.  In  later  editions  of  bis 
work  (in  those  of  1654  and  1661),  tke  ancieot 
figures  and  names  were  restored. 

Bayer  (Theophilus  Sigfred),  a  learned  philo> 
loger  and  antiquarian,  bora  at  Kooigsberg  in 
1694,  applied  himself  successfully  to  the  stody 
of  the  eastem  langua^,  particularly  the  Chi- 
nese, of  which  he  acquired  a  great  knowledge. — 
When  about  tw^ity-three  years. of  age^  he  was 
appointed  librarian  at  Komgsbeig.  In  1726  he 
accepted  of  an  invitation  to  Petei^urgh,  and  was 
there  made  professor  of  Greek  and  Roman  anti- 
quities. In  1730,  he  published  a  very  curious 
and  learned  work,  entitled  Museum  Sinicum,  in 
2  vols.  8vo.     He  died  at  Peterabuigfa  in  1733. 


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BAYEUX,  A  considerable  town  of  France 
(the  Beducusnm  and  Bajoce,  of  ancient  geograr- 
phy),  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  and  lale 
province  of  Normandy.  It  was  formerly  the  ca- 
pital of  Bessin,  and  is  still  a  bishop's  see,  whose 
jurisdiction  extends  over  ail  the  department.  The 
cathedral  chureh  if  accounted  one  of  the  finest  in 
France^  and  contains  a  celebrated  piece  of  tapes- 
try, representing  the  conquest  ot  England  by 
William  I.,  supposed  to  have  been  the  work  6f 
his  queen  Matilaa.  It  consists  of  a  web  of  linen, 
442  feet  in  length,  and  about  two  feet  in  breadth. 
It  is  situated  on  the  river  Aure,  four  miles  from 
the  English  Channel;  and  carries  on  a  good 
trade  in  com,  cattle,  hemp,  and  butter,  as  well 
as  in  its  own  manufactures  of  lace,  camblets, 
dockings,  and  leather.  Inhabitants  about  10,000. 

Bateux  (George),  an  advdcate  at  Caen,  who 
obtained  theprize  from  the  academy  at  Rouen  for 
a  poem  on  Filial  Piety.  He  translated  the  Fasti 
ofOvid,  on  which  he  added  valuable  notes, 
printed  in  4  vols.  8vo.  He  wrote  also  Reflec- 
tions on  the  Reign  of  Traian,  4to.  He  was, 
however,  unfortunate,  and  having  been  impri- 
soned at  Orleans,  fell  in  the  massacre  which  took 
place  there  in  1792. 

BAYLA,  or  Bela,  a  town  of  Persia,  capital 
of  Ae  district  of  Lus,  in  the  province  of  Mekran. 
It  is  sititated  on  the  north-east  banks  of  the  river 
Pooralie,  and  about  a  third  of  it  is  surrounded 
by  a  good  mud  wall.  It  consists  of  above  2000 
mad  and  wood  houses,  of  which  250  or  300  are 
inhabited  by  Hindoos,  who  are  well  treated 
here.  Bayla  is,  on  the  whole,  a  neat  town,  the 
residence  of  the  jam,  or  chief  of  Lus,  who  seems 
dependent  on  the  khan  of  Relat.  His  durbar, 
or  ball  of  audience,  is  a  very  ordinary  apartment. 
l^e  cemetery  of  the  jam  and  his  family  contains 
several  curious  tombs,  ornamented  with  black 
and  white  pebbles,  arranged  in  short  quotations 
from  the  koran,  and  encircled  with  wreaths  of 
the  same  substance,  which  produce  a  pleasing 
efiect.    Distant  293  miles  north  of  Kelat. 

BAYLE  (Peter),  author  of  the  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionary,  was  bom  November  18, 
•1657,  at  Carlat,  in  France,  where  his  &ther  John 
Bayle  was  a  protestant  minister.  lu  1666  he 
went  to  the  protestant  universilv  at  Puylaurens, 
and  in  1669  removed  to  that  ot  Toulouse,  whi- 
ther protestants  at  that  time  frequently  sent  their 
children  to  avail  themselves  of  the  learning  of 
the  Jesuits ;  but  heic,  to  the  great  grief  of  his 
father,  he  embraced  the  Romish  religion;  being, 
however,  soon  sepsible  of  his  error,  he  left  that 
university,  and  went  to  study  at  Geneva.  After 
this  he  was  chosen  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Sedan ;  but  that  protestant  university  beine  sup- 
pressed by  Louis  j^IV.  in  1687,  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  city,  and  was  soon  after  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  and  history  at  Rotteraam, 
vrith  a  salary  of  about  £45  a  year.  In  1682  ap- 
peared his  Letter  concerning  Comets.  And 
Father  Maimbourg  having  published  his  History 
of  Calvinism,  wherein  he  endeavours  to  draw 
upon  the  protestants  the  contempt  and  resent- 
ment of  the  catholics,  Mr.  Bayle  wrote  a  piece 
to.  confute  it.  The  reputation  which  he  had  now 
acquired,  induced  the  States  of  Friezland,  in 
1684,  to  offer  him  a  professorship  in  their  ut^^ver- 
Vol,  hi. 


sity  ;  but  he  wrote  them  a  letter  of  thanks^  and 
declined  the  offer.    This  same  yea?  he  began  to 
publish  his  Nouvelles  de  la  republique  des  Le't- 
tres.    In  1686  he  was  drawn  into  a  dispute  with 
the  &mous  Christina  queen  of  Sweden.    His 
Journal  for  April  had  noticed  a  printed  letter, 
supposed  to  have  been  written  by  her  Swedish 
majesty  to  Chevalier  deTerlon,  wherein  she  con- 
demns   the  persecution    of  the  protestants  in 
France ;  and  had  observed,  that  her  tolerant  spirit 
was  '  a  remainder  of  protestantism/    This  pro- 
duced a  letter  to  the  philosopher,  from  that  sin- 
gular woman,  in  which  she  says,  '  You  express 
so  much  respect  and  aiSection  for  me,  that  I  par- 
don you  sincerely ;  and  I  would  have  you  know, 
that  notliing  gave  me  offence  but  that  remainder 
of  protestantism,,  of  which  you  accused  me.    I 
am  very  delicate  upon  that  head,  because  nobody 
can  suspect  me  of  it,  without  lessening  my  glory, 
and  injuring  me  in  the  most  sensible  manner. 
My  fortune,  my  blood,  and  even  my  life,  are  en- 
tirely devoted  to  the  service  of  the  church  ;  but 
I  flatter  nobody,  and  will  never  speak  any  thing 
but  the  truth.'  Mr.  Bayle  replied  in  a  subsequent 
number  of  his  work,  to  that  princess's  entire  satis- 
fact  ion.    The  persecution  which  the  protestants  at 
thistimesuffered  in  France  affected  Mr.  Bayle  ex- 
tremely. He  made  occasionally  some  reflections 
on  their  sufferings  in  his  journal;  and  sometime 
afterwards  he  published  hb  Commentaire  Philo- 
8ophi(|ue  upon  these  words,  'Compel  them  to 
come  m;'  and  in  the  year  1690  appeared  his  fa- 
mous Avis  aux  Refugiez,  &c.  which  so  excited 
the  anger  of  M .  Jurieu,  that  he  charged  the  auAor 
with  being  a  traitor  against  the  state.    Bayle 
retorted  with  the  utmost  severity,  and  Jurieu  re- 
plied with   equal  bitterness;   till   at  last  the 
magistracy  of  Amsterdam  enjoined  the  contro- 
versialists not  to  publish  any  thing  against  each 
other  before  it  had  been  examined  by  Mr.  Boyer, 
the  pensionary  of  Rotterdam.     In  Nov.  1690, 
Bayle  advertised  a  Scheme  for  a  Critical  Dic- 
tionary. Thepublic  not  approving  his  fir^tplan>  he 
threw  it  into  a  different  lorm;  and  the  first  v(v- 
lumevras  published  in  August,  1695,  the  second 
in  October  following.    The  work  at  last  was  ex- 
tremely well  received  by  the  public;  but  it  en«- 
gaged  him  in  fresh  disputes,  particularly  with 
M.  Jurieu  and  the  AbM  Renaudot.     Jurieu 
endeavoured  to  engage  the  ecclesiastical  assem- 
blies to  condemn  £e  dictionary;  and  presented 
it  to  the  senate  sitting  at  Delft,  but  they  took  no 
notice  of  the  afihir.    The  consistory  of  Rotter- 
dam granted  Mr.  Bayle  a  hearing;  and  after 
having  heard  his  answers    to  their   remarks, 
declared    themselves    satisfied.     Jurieu   made 
another  attempt  witii  the  consistory  in  1698;  and 
so  far  prevailed  with  them,  that  they  exhorted 
Mr.  Bayle  to  be  more  canttouf  with  regard  to 
his  principles  in  the  second  enlarged  edition  of 
his  dictionary,  which  was  p^blia^ed  in  }702. 
Bayle  was  a  most  inde&tigable  writer.    In  one 
of  his  letters  to  Maizeaux,  he  says,  that  since  his 
twentieth  year,  he  hardly  ren^embers  to  have  had 
any  leisure.    His  intense  application  contributed 
to  impair  his  constitution,  and  to  increase  a  pul- 
monary disorder  which  had  cut  off  several  ot  his 
family.    Judging  it  to  be  mortal  he  would  take 
no  reipedies,    He  died  tl^  twenty-eighth  of  De^ 

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cember,  1706,  after  he  had  been  writing  the 
greatest  part  of  the  day.  Voltaire  says  of  the 
Critical  Dictionary  *  it  is  tlie  first  work  of  the 
kind  in  which  a  man  may  learn  to  think  ;*  and 
remarks,  that  '  the  decree  of  the  parliament  of 
Toulouse,  when  it  declared  his  will  >'alid  in 
France,  notwithstanding  the  rigor  of  the  laws,' 
added,  <  that  such  a  man  could  not  be  considered 
as  a  foreigner/  Bayle,  however,  has  been  more 
correctly  characterised  as  a  sophist  rather  than  a 
philosopher.  With  great  powers  of  distinguish- 
mg  truth  from  falsehood,  he  pushed  enquiry  into 
universal  doubt,  and  remained  in  doubt  because 
he  thought  indifferentism  to  tnith  a  virtue,  and 
therefore  cultivated  it.  In  private  life  he  is  said 
to  have  been  an  unassuming  and  temperate  man; 
but  his  vmtings  abound  with  the  bigotry  of 
scepticism,  and  contain  not  a  few  uncharitable  in- 
sinuatioris  against  that  religious  zeal  which  he 
never  felt:  moreover,  he  is  notoriously  indeli- 
cate, and  seems  as  if  laboring  to  atone  for  dis- 
tracting by  debauching  the  tyro's  mind.  Lord 
Lyttleton  finely  expostulates  with  him  under 
Uie  assumed  character  of  Mr.  Locke,  in  his  Dia- 
logues of  ^je  Dead,  vol.  ii.  Dialogue  24.  p.  315. 
*  You  have  endeavoured,'  says  this  excellent 
writer,  'and  with  some  degree  of  success,  to 
shake  tliose  foundations,  on  which  the  whole 
moral  world,  and  the  great  fabric  of  social  hap- 
piness, entirely  rest;  how  could  you,  as  a  philo- 
sopher, in  the  sober  hours  of  reflection,  answer 
for  this  to  your  conscience,  even  supposing  you 
had  doubts  of  the  truth  of  a  system,  which  gives 
to  virtue  its  sweetest  hope,  to  impenitent  vice 
its  greatest  fears,  and  to  true  penitence  its  best 
consolations ;  which  restrains  even  the  least  ap- 
proaches to  guilt,  and  yet  makes  those  allowances 
tor  the  infirmities  of  our  nature,  which  the  stoic 
pride  denied  to  it,  but  which  its  real  imperfec- 
tion, and  the  goodness  of  its  infinitely  benevo- 
lent Creator,  so  evidently  require  V 

BAYLY  (Lewis),  author  of  the  Practice  of 
Piety.  lie  was  bom  at  Caermarthen  in  Wales, 
educated  at  Oxford,  made  minister  of  Evesham 
in  Worcestershire,  about  1611,  became  chaplain 
to  king  James,  and  was  promoted  to  the  see  of 
Bangor  in  1616.  His  celebrated  book  was  de- 
dicated to  Charles,  prince  of  Wales;  in  1734  it 
had  reached  the  fifty-ninth  edition.  He  died  in 
1632. 

BAYMES  (John),  an  English  lawyer,  bom 
at  Middleham,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1758.  He  re- 
ceived the  first  part  of  his  education  at  Rich- 
mond school,  and  afterwards  went  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  from  whence  he  removed 
to  Gray's  Inn.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Constitutional  Society,  and  wrote  a  number  of 
anonymous  pieces,  chiefly  political,  in  prose  and 
verse.  There  las  also  been  attributed  to  him  an 
Archaiological  Letter  on  the  subject  of  the  poems 
printed  by  Chatterton  under  tlie  name  of  Row- 
Icy,  addressed  to  dean  Milles.  He  proposed  the 
rcpubAcation  of  lord  Coke's  tracts,  a  design 
prevented  by  his  death  in  1787. 

Bayn£s  ^Sir  Thomas),  an  English  physician, 
bom  about  1622,  was  educated  at  Christ's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  where  he  applied  to  the  study  of 
physic.  He  afterwards  became  professor  of 
music  at  Gresham  College;  and  travelled  with 


Sir  John  Finch  to  Italy  and  Constantinople.  He 
died  at  Constantinople  in  1681,  mudi  lamented 
by  his  companion,  who  survived  him  but  a  short 
time.  They  left  between  them  £4000  to  Christ's 
College. 

BAY'ONET,t;.&n.  ¥t,  hn^fonette.  A  short 
sword  or  dagger  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  musket,  by 
which  the  foot  hold  ofi*  the  horse,  so  called  be- 
cause the  first  bayonets  were  made  at  Bayonne, 
in  France. 

One  of  the  black  spots  is  long  and  slender,  and  re- 
•emblcs  a  dagger  or  bayonet.  Wcviumrd. 

Yon  send  troops  to  aabre  and  bagfomtt  us  into  tub- 
mission.  Bidke. 

Not  a  single  head 
Was  spared — three  thousand  Moslem*  periah'd  hei^. 
And  sixteen  haifomeU  pierced  die  i«nukier.       i^/nm. 

Yoa  shonld  but  give  few  cartridges  to  tnch 
Troops  as  are  meant  to  march  with  greatest  glory  ml 
When  matters  most  be  carried  by  the  touch 
Of  the  bright  boffonst,  and  they  all  should  hurry  <ni. 
They  sometimes,  with  a  hankering  for  esusteaee, 
I^cp  merely  firing  at  a  foolish  distance.  Id, 

The  town  was  entered :  first  one  *^""»t^  made 
Its  sanguinary  way  good — ^then  another. 
The  reeking  bayonet  and  the  flashing  blade 
Clashed  'gainst  the  scimitar. 

Bayonets  were  formerly  made  widi  a  roond 
handle  fitted  to  the  bore  of  a  firelock,  and 
to  be  fixed  there  after  the  soldier  had  fixed ;  bat 
they  are  now  made  with  iron  handles  and  rings, 
that  go  over  the  muzzle,  and  are  screwed  £sst,  so 
that  the  soldier  fires  with  his  bayonet  on  the 
muzzle  of  his  piece,  and  is  ready  at  onoe  to  act. 
This  use  of  the  bayonet  festened  on  the  mozzle 
was  a  great  improvement,  first  introduced  by  the 
French ;  to  which,  according  to  M.  Folaxd,  they 
owed  a  great  part  of  their  victories  for  some  time 
afterwards ;  and  to  the  neglect  of  this,  in  sue- 
ceeding  wars,  and  trusting  to  their  fire,  the  sane 
author  attributes  most  of  the  losses  they  sus- 
tained. Of  late  the  bayonet  has  come  into  very 
general  use ;  and  some  battles  have  been  won  l^ 
it  without'  firing  a  shot.  It  was  modi  encou- 
raged by  Frederick  the  Greet,  who  caused  an 
inch  and  a  half  to  be  added  to  the  length  of  the 
Prussian  bayonet. 

A  French  writer,  in  a  work  entitled  L*£ssu 
g^n^ral  de  la  Tactique,  has  proposed  a  method 
of  exercising  soldiers  in  a  species  of  fencing  or 
tilting  with  this  weapon.  But,  as  another  very 
sensible  author,  Mauvillon,  in  his  £ssai  sor  I'lft- 
fluence  de  la  Poudre  i  Canon  dans  I'Axt  de  la 
Guerre  Moderne,  justly  asks,  ho'w  can  any  man 
tilt  or  fence  with  so  cumbrous  an  instniment  and 
so  difiicult  to  be  handled,  as  the  firelodc?  It 
seems  probable  that  great  advantage  may  be  ob- 
tained by  a  person  who  has  been  tanght  to  use 
such  a  weapon  scientifically,  when  coDtmding 
with  an  individual;  but  the  niceties  of  pairyin? 
are  not  applicable  to  the  charge  in  line ;  a  fim 
grasp  ana  a  quick  and  steady  thrust  are  iriiat  is 
required. 

BAYONNA,  a  well-built  town  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Galida,  in  Spain,  sitaated  on  a  small 
bay  of  the  Atlantic.  It  contams  a  coUe^ate 
church,  a  Franciscan  convent,  and  a  hospital » 
and  is  defended  by  a  castle,  with  a  governor, 
and  a  small  garrison.    The  inhabitants  obtain 


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their  livelihood  by  fishing.  The  Hay  of  Dayonna 
forms  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Vigo,  nine  miles  south- 
west of  Vigo,  and  twelve  north-west  of  Tuy . 

Bayokna  Isles,  or  Islas  de  Set  as  de  Bay- 
on  a  Ef  D'EsTEUis,  two  small  islands,  with  a 
number  of  insular  rocks,  situated  in  the  Atlantic, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Bayonna,  o£f  the 
coast  of  Galicia,  in  Spain.  They  wete  <»lled  by 
the  ancients  Insuls  Deorum,  or  the  Isles  of  the 
Gods,  and  lie  six  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Bayonna. 

BAY'GNNE,  a  rich,  populous,  and  flourishing 
commercial  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  the  Lower  Pyrenees.    It  is  seated  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Adour,  which  forms  a  good  har^ 
hour,  and  is  divided  into  three  parts :  the  great 
town  on  this  side  the  Nive ;  the  little  town  be- 
tween the  Nive  and  the  Adoor ;  and  the  suburbs 
of  St  Esprit,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Jews,  beyond 
this  last  nver.   A  citadel,  constructed  by  Vauban, 
on  the  top  of  an  eminence  in  the  suburb,  com- 
mands both  the  harbour  and  the  town,  which 
are  iurther  defended  by  small  redoubts.     A 
wooden  drawbridge,  whidi  allows  vessels  to  pass, 
and  where  a  smul  toll  is  levied,  connects  the 
suburbs  with  the  town.    The  ancient  cathedral 
is  remarkable  for  the  height  of  4he  nave,  and  the 
delicacy  of  the  pillars  which  support  it.    The 
quay  is  an  elegant  and  frequented  promenade ; 
but  the  most  b^utiful  part  of  the  city  is  the  Place 
de  Grammont    The  bishop  was  formerly  suf^ 
fragran  of  the  archbishop  of  Auch;  he  is  now 
under  the  archbishop  of  Toulouse,  and  exercises 
jurisdiction  over  three  departments,  those  of  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Pyrenees  and  of  the  Landes. 
Bayonne,  before  the  revolution,  was  the  seat  of  a 
provincial  tax-office,  and  court  of  justice.  At  pre- 
sent it  is  the  largest  though  not  the  chief  town  of 
the  Lower  Pyrenees,  and  £e  head  of  the  most  west- 
em  arrondissement,  which  consists  of  seven  can- 
tons, and  contains  70,000  inhabitantSr^An  extensive 
commerce  is  carried  on  here  with  Spain,  in  which 
French  and  foreign  goods  are  given  in  exchange 
for  wood,  iron,  fruit,  and  the  precious  metals.  The 
principal  of  die  roarititae  trade  is  the  cod  and 
iwhale  fishery ;  in  these  branches  from  thirty  to 
forty  ships  of  260  tons  average,  were  lately  emr 
ployed.    Masts  and  cdier  wood  for  ship-build- 
ing, brought  from  the  Pyrenees,  are  exported  to 
Brest  and  other  ports  of  France.    Hams,  wines, 
and  chocolate,  are  exported  in  great  quanuties  to 
Various  parts.    The  military  weapon  called  the 
bayonet  was  invented  here  in  tne  seventeenth 
century.    The  language  of  the  people  is  the  an- 
cient Biscayan  or    Basque,    lorty-four  miles 
W.N.W.  of  Pau,  and  518S.S.W.  of  Paris. 
Long.  1«  24'  W.,  lat.  43**  29'  N.    Inhabitants 
about  13,000. 

Bayonve  Bay,  or  La  Mer  des  Basques,  a 
part  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  washing  the  shores  of 
the  district  of  Labour  in  the  south  of  France. 

BAYREUTH,  or  Babeith,  a  principality  of 
Oerroany,  formerly  included  in  the  Circle  of 
franconia ;  now  forminff  a  part  of  the  kinedom 
of  Bavaria.  It  is  bounded  by  the  Upper  Pala- 
tinate and  Bohemia  on  the  east,  and  by  the  ter- 
ritories of  Nuremberg  and  Anspach  south.  Its 
extent  is  estimated  at  1760  square  miles,  and  its 
population  at  200,000  souls.  Qberland  is  a 
nUiy  region  *  the  climate  is  cold,  and  much  of 


the  soil  barren,  but  it  still  afibrds  good  pasturage, 
and  black  cattle  of  a  superior  breed  and  sheep 
are  reared  here.  The  lower  division,  Unter- 
land,  is  flat,  and  in  some  parts  sandy;  but 
affords  much  fertile  soil,  and  good  crops  of  grain 
and  tobacco.  The  last  is  sent  in  great  quantities 
to  Hamburgh  and  Bremen.  Bayreutn  is  not 
destitute  of  minerals ;  iron  and  marble  are  found 
in  Gberland ;  flax  also  constitutes  a  considerable 
production  here,  in  spinning  and  working  which 
into  linen  as  well  as  into  lace,  a  large  portion  of  tlie 
population  is  employed.  At  the  peace  of  Tilsit, 
Buonaparte  appropriated  this  principality  and  an- 
nexed it  to  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria  in  1810. 
The  tipper  division  is  included  in  the  Circle  of 
the  Maine,  the  lower  in  that  of  the  Rezat. 

Bayreuth,  or  Bareith,  the  capital,  is  si- 
tuated near  the  Maine,  and  is  a  handsome  town 
with  broad  and  regular  streets,  entered  by  six 
gates.  Among  the  public  buildings  which  de- 
serve notice,  are  the  old  and  new  castles,  the 
convents  and  churches,  the  barracks,  the  mint, 
and  the  gymnasium.  Its  chief  manufactures  are 
cloth,  c^ulhenware,  and  tobacco-pipes.  It  is 
about  fifty  miles  north  of  Augsburg,  in  N.  lat. 
49°  54',  and  E.  long.  11°  17' 

BAYS,  in  antiquity.    See  Bay. 

BAYZE,  Bays,  or  Baize,  was  first  intro- 
duced into  England,  with  says,  serges,  &c.  by 
the  Flemings;  who,  being  persecuted  by  the 
duke  of  Alva  for  their  religion,  fled  hither  about 
the  fifth  of  queen  Elizabeth's  reign ;  and  had 
afterwards  peculiar  privileges  granted  them  by 
act  of  parliament  12  Charles  II.  1660.  The  ex- 
portation of  bayze  was  formerly  much  more  con- 
siderable than  now,  the  French  having  learnt  to 
imitate  it.  The  English  bayze,  however,  is  still 
in  request  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  even  in 
Italy. 

BAY^ZE.    See  Baize. 

BA2^,  or  Ba9a,  a  town  of  Spain.  See 
Ba.9a. 

Baza,  IIoya  de,    See  BA9A. 

BAZ'AAR,  n.  t,  Persian  buzzard  the  market, 
now  written  bazaar,  in  the  commercial  language 
of  the  East  Indies.  A  constant  market ;  a  kind 
of  covered  market. 

This  noble  city  (Caahan)  is  in  conpasv  not  less 
than  York  or  Norwich,  about  four  thousand  families 
being  accounted  in  her.  The  houses  are  fairly  l^uilt. 
The  buMwar  is  spacious  and  uniform,  fnmxslied  with 
silks,  damasks,  and  carpets  of  silk. 

Sir  T.  Herberfi  TraoOi,  (edit.  1677  p.)  223. 

Bazar,  Bazaar,  or  Basar,  a  denomination  ori- 
ginally given  by  the*Turks  and  Persians  to  a  kind 
of  exchange,  or  places  where  their  finest  stufis  and 
miscellaneous  wares  are  sold.  These  are  also  called 
bezesteins.  The  word  is  of  Arabic  origin,  where 
it  denotes  sale,  orexphfloige  of  goods.  Some  of  the 
eastern  bazars  are  open,  like  the  market-places  in 
Europe,  and  serve  for  the  same  uses,  particu- 
larly for  the  sale  of  the  bulky  commmodities. 
Others  are  covered  with  lofty  ceilings,  or  domes, 
pierced  to  give  light ;  and  in  these  the  jewellers 
and  other  dealers  in  rich  wares,  have  their  shops. 
The  bazar  of  Ispahan  is  one  of  the  finest  places 
in  Persia ;  yet,  notwithstanding  its  magnificence, 
it  is  excelled  by  the  bazar  of  Tauris,  which  is  the 
largest  that  is  known,  having  several  times  held 

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30,000  men  ranged  in  order  of  battle.  At  Con- 
stantinople there  are  an  old  and  new  bazar, 
which  are  large  square  buildings,  covered  with 
domes,  and  sustained  by  arches  and  pilasters ; 
the  former  chiefly  for  arms,  harness,  and  the  like; 
the  latter  for  goldsmiths,  jewellers,  furriers,  and 
all  sorts  of  manufactures.    See  Aleppo. 

BAZAS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  the  Gironde,  and  late  province  of  Guienne. 
It  is  built  on  a  rock,  and  lies  thirty  miles  south- 
east of  Bourdeaux.  Inhabitants  about  5000.  It 
was  formerly  the  bishop's  see  of  a  very  extensive 
diocese. 

BAZAT,  or  Baza,  in  commerce,  a  long  fine- 
spun cotton,  whicl)  comes  from  Jerusalem,  whence 
it  is  also  called  Jerusalem  cotton. 

BAZEEGURS,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  inhabiting 
different  parts  of  Hindoostan,  and  recognised  by 
several  appellations,  as  Bazeegnrs,  Panchperees, 
Kunjura,  or  Nuts ;  they  follow  a  mode  of  life  dis- 
tinguishing them  from  the  Hindoos,  and  abstain 
from  intermixing  their  &milies  with  them.  The 
name  Bazeegur  is  said  to  signify  a  juggler,  and 
some  etymologists  find  a  derivation  of  conjuror 
from  kunjura.  They  are  found  partly  in  wander- 
ing tribes,  and  partly  adhering  to  fixed  resi- 
dences. 

The  Bazeegurs  are  divided  into  seven  castes, 
Charee,  Athbhyeea,  Bynsa,  Purbutteei  Kalkoor, 
Dorkinee,  and  Gurgwar ;  but  all  the  castes  inter- 
marry. Their  own  historical  traditions  trace 
their  descent  from  four  brothers,  who,  finding  it 
difficult  to  provide  for  their  followers,  resolved 
to  separate,  and  direct  their  course  respectively 
to  each  quarter  of  the  woiild;  in  consequence  of 
which,  one  of  them,  named  Sa,  arrived  in  Bengal, 
from  Gazeepour  or  Allahabad.  His  first  abode 
was  at  Hoogly,  and  having  governed  his  tribe 
peaceably  during  many  years,  he  died  at  (Jncour- 
poor.  Sa  left  three  sons  who  succeeded  each 
other,  and  the  succession  regularly  passed  through 
several  generations,  and  to  Munbhungee,  about 
fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago.  At  t^at  time,  some 
of  the  castes  considered  a  woman  called  Toota  as 
tlieir  chief;  but  the  power  ascribed  to  her  seems 
merely  nominal.  >  Munbhungee,  however,  would 
not  suffer  any  of  Toota*s  people  to  remain  in  the 
territory  occupied  by  his  sect;  and  the  latter 
were  equally  jealous  of  the  former. 

The  features  of  the  Bazeegurs  do  not  decidedly 
differ  from  those  of  other  tribes  around  them. 
Some  of  their  women  are  reputed  beautiful,  and 
are  by  no  means  scrupulous  in  forming  tempo- 
rary alliances.  They  are  Mahommedans  in  food 
and  apparel;  some  traversing  the  country  as 
Maliommedan  Fakeers:  a  particular  association 
among  them  has  been  accused  of  sacrificing 
human  victims.  Those  called  Panchperees  seem 
to  venerate  a  female  deity.  Kali,  probably  the 
sanguinary  goddess  of  the  Hindoos.  The  Bazee- 
gurs, properly  so  called,  are  circumcised,  and 
have  priests  to  officiate  at  their  marriages  and 
funerals,  but  their  knowledge  of  the  system  of 
Mahomet  is  very  imperfect.  They  seem  to 
acknowledge  an  omnipotent  being,  and  believe 
that  all  nature  is  animated  by  one  universal 
spirit,  to  which  the  soul,  as  a  portion  of  it,  will 
after  death  be  united. 

The  marriage  ceremony  among  them  begins 


by  the  bridegroom  repairing  to  Ae  but  of  hit 
elect,  and  calling  alowi  for  her  Id  be  delivered  to 
him.  A  near  relatipn,  guarding  the  door«  resists 
his  entrance,  and  pushes  him  away,  whfle  he  is 
the  object  of  taunts  and  jocularity;  at  last  the 
bride  is  brought  forward.  Both  now  receive  the 
exhortation  of  a  priest  to  practise  mutual  kind- 
ness, and  che  bridegroom,  marking  the  bride's 
face  witli  ochre,  dedares  her  his  wedded  wife, 
and  she,  on  her  part,  does  the  same  in  return. 
The  little  fingers  of  their  hands  are  .now  joined, 
and  a  scene  of  merriment  commences  from  which 
the  bride  alone  is  spared.  This  conaistB  chiefly 
in  the  progress  to  intoxication,  for  these  people 
are  addicted  to  the  most  immoderate  use  of 
spirits ;  and  after  copious  libatiooiiy  a  cavalcade 
is  formed  of  the  whole  party,  which  moves  on  to 
the  hut  of  the  bridegroom.  Several  euigmaiical 
ceremonies  are  performed  before  tiie  door ;  the 
mother  of  the  bridegroom  advances  with  a  :aeve 
contaiiiing  rice,  paint,  and  grass,  with  which  the 
foreheads  of  the  couple  are  touched,  afler  being 
vraved  around  them;  and  the  bride  is  led  into  the 
house,  before  which  there  stands  a  small  fresh 
branch  of  the  mangoe  tree  in  an  earthen  pot  of 
water.  In  the  evening  tlie  bride  is  conducted  to 
her  own  hut^  when  the  sober  friends  of  the  parties 
retire ;  but  the  majority,  and  generally  with  ifae 
bridegroom  among  them,  pass  the  night  in  a 
state  of  insensibility  on  some  neighbouriog  plain. 

The  chief  occupation  of  both  the  male  and 
female  Bazeegurs  consists  in  feats  of  address  and 
agility  to  amuse  the  public.  The  former  are 
very  athletic,  and  the  women  are  taught  a  species 
of  lascivious  dancing.  The  men  are  also  jugglei8» 
tumblers,  &c.  The  people  of  each  set,  or  drsr 
matis  persooe,  go  out  under  a  sirdar,  or  manager 
of  a  company,  for  a  definite  period,  generally  a 
year ;  but  no  person  can  establish  a  set  of  actors 
without  permission  from  the  Nardar  Boatsh,  or 
chief  of  tne  Bazeegurs,  who  receives  a  proportion 
of  the  profits.  Each  of  five  seu  at  Calcutta  has  a 
subordinate  sirdar  or  ruler.  These  sirdars  and  the 
chief,  apparently  constitute  a  court  for  the  trial  of 
infrin|rements  of  these  regulations ;  and  if,  on  ap- 
plication of  the  tongue  to  a  piece  of  red-hot  iran, 
a  suspected  person  be  burnt,  be  is  declared 
guilty  of  a  fraud,  which  is  expiated  ^  a  fiae,  or 
by  the  additional  punishment  of  having  hk  nose 
rubbed  on  the  ground.  The  fine  being  paid,  it 
affords  a  new  opportunity  for  gratifying  the 
strong  propensity  implanted  in  these  people  lor 
ardent  liquors.  Sometimes  differences  are  the 
subject  of  reference  to  a  larger  assembly;  wbeie* 
before  commencing  the  businef%  both  platBtiir 
and  defendant  must  provide  a  quantity  of  spirits 
proportioned  to  the  importance  of  die  taae;  the 
party  non-suited  bears  the  whole  expense^  and 
the  assembly  is  regaled  with  the  beverage  pro- 
duced. 

Some  of  the  females  practise  physic,  aad  cup- 
ping, and  perform  a  kind  of  tattooing  on  the 
skin  of  the  Hindoos  of  their  own  sex.  The  men, 
besides  their  usual  occupations,  collect  medidDal 
herbs,  and  a  certain  bua,  ^e  latter  is  dried,  and 
the  former  prepared  by  their  wives  as  curatives, 
especially  of  female  complaints :  thus  they  find 
employment  in  the  towns,  in  such  vocations,  or 
by  the  sale  of 'trinkets,  though  bodi  aflford  bat  a 


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precarious  subsistence.  Some  tribes  also  exhibit 
wild  beasts  to  the  vulgar,  or  offer  mats  fabricated 
by  themselves  for  sale. 

A  striking  coincidence  has  been  remarked  in 
the  mode  ci  life,  the  Tocations,  manners,  and 
lan^age  of  the  different  sects,  of  these  people 
and  those  of  the  gipsies  scattered  over  Europe 
and  Asia.  Both  the  Bazeegurs  and  gipsies  have 
a  chief  or  king;  each  has  a  peculiar  language, 
bearing  some  reciprocal  analogy,  and  different 
from  that  of  the  people  among  whom  they  reside. 
Ill  India,  and  m  Europe,  they  are  equally  an 
itinerant  race;  their  pursuits,  in  so 'far  as  modi- 
fied by  the  manners  of  countries  distant  from  eacli 
*  other,  are  alike;  for  the  discrepancies  they  exhi- 
bit may  reasonably  be  ascribeci  to  an  insensible 
acquisition  of  the  habits  of.  those  near  whom  the 
vafioas  tribes  of  mankind  dwell.  They  are 
equally  indifferent  as  to  the  quality  of  the  food 
serving  for  their  subsistence;  and  equally  igno- 
latit  of  systematic  religious  principles.  All  pre- 
serre  the  strictest  adherence  to  their  own  sect, 
and  sedulously  abstain  from  intermixtures  or 
intermarriages  with  those  of  every  nation :  and 
-wbere  infringements  of  these  rules  are  seen, 
they  ai«  to  be  ascribed  more  to  necessity  than 
hielination.  Another  resemblance,  which  has 
ptobably  been  lost  in  the  lapse  of  time,  is  sup* 
posed  to-  consist  in  the  three-stringed  viol,  intro- 
duced into  Europe  by  the  jugglers  of  the  t3th 
oentnry,  which  is  exactly  similar  to  the  instru- 
ment now  used  in  Hindostan.  On  uniting  and 
combining  the  whole  features  of  resemblance,  it 
does  not  seem  unlikely,  that  if  Asia  is  their  ori- 
ginal country,  or  if  they  have  found  their  way 
mm  Egypt  to  India,  they  may  also  have  emi- 
gfated  farther  at  a  period  of  remote  antiquity, 
and  reached  the  boundaries  of  Europe. 

BAZGENDGES,  in  natural  history,  a  sub- 
stance used  by  the  Turks  and  other  eastern  na^- 
tions  in  dyeing  scarlet.  They  mix  it  for  this 
pnrpose  with  cochineal  and  tartar,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  ounces  of  hazgendges  to  one  of 
cochineal.  It  seems  to  be  no  other  than  the 
koms  of  the  turpentine  tree.  They  are  found 
also  in  China.  Many  things  of  this  kind  were 
aent  over  to  Mr.  Gcoffroy  at  Paris  from  China, 
as  the  substances  used  in  the  scarlet  dyeing  of 
that  country,  and  they  all  proved  to  be  the  same 
with  the  Syrian  and  Turkish  bazgendges,  and  with 
the  common  turpentine  horns.  The  lentbk,  or 
mastic  tree,  also  produces  horns  of  a  similar 
kind;  alt  being  occasioned  by  the  pucerons, 
which  make  their  way  into  the  leaves,  to  breed 
tb«ir  young.  See  Reaumur^s  History  of  Insects, 
▼ol.  vi. 

BDELLA,  in  zoology,  a  genus  of  the  class 
anchnides,  order  acem,  family  Rtcinie.  Generic 
character:  palpi  very  slender,  filiform  bent, 
having  a  seta  at  the  extremity ;  eyes  four ;  hind 
feet  the  longest. 

BDELLIUM,  n.  s.  Gr.  ^aeXXiov,  Heb. 
nVtS.  An  aromatick  gum  brought  from  Hie 
Levant,  used  as  a  medicine  and  a  perfume. 
Bdellium  is  mentioned  both  by  the  ancient  na- 
turalistSy  and  in  Scripture;  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  any  of  these  be  the  same  with  the  modem 
kind. 


This  bdellium  is  a  tree  of  the  bigness  of  an  olive » 
whereof  Arabia  hath  great  plenty>  which  yieldeth  a 
certain  gum,  sweot  to  smell  to,  but  bitter  in  taste, 
called  also  bdellium.  The  Hebrews  take  the  loadstone 
for  Mtf/Ztum.  Raleigh. 

Bdellium  is  a  gummy  resinous  juice,  pro- 
duced by  a  tree  in  the  East  Indies,  of  which  we 
have  no  satis&ctory  account.  It  is  brought  into 
Europe,  in  pieces  of  different  sizes  and  figures, 
externally  ot  a  dark  reddish  brown,  somewhat 
like  myrrh ;  internally  it  is  clear,  and  not  unlike 
glue.  If  held  in  the  mouth,  it  soon  becomes 
soft  and  tenacious,  sticking  to  the  teetli.  Laid 
on  a  red-hot  iron,  it  readily  catches  flame,  and 
bums  with  a  crackling  noise,  and  in  proportion 
to  its  goodness  it  is  more  or  less  fmgrant.  Near 
half  of  its  substance  dissolves  either  in  water  or 
in  spirit  of  wine ;  but  the  tincture  made  with 
spirit  is  somewhat  stronger  and  much  more  agree-* 
aole.  Vinegar,  or  verjuice,  dissolves  it  entirely. 
The  simple  gum  is  a  better  medicine  than  any 
preparation  from  it.  Though  one  of  the  weakest 
of  tne  deobstruent  gums,  it  is  sometimes  used  as 
a  pectoral  and  an  emmenagogue  with  advantage. 
Some  authors  suppose  the  word  translated  bdel- 
lium (Gen.  ii.  13)  signifies  a  precious  stone; 
others  fine  crystal  or  steel ;  and  Bochart  insists 
tliat  it  denotes  pearls,  numbers  of  which  are 
fished  near  the  mouth  of  tlie  river  Pison,  in  the 
gulf  of  Persia. 

BE,  17.       )     This  verb  is  so  remarkably  irre- 

Be'ing,  n.  i  gular,  that  it  is  necessary  to  set 
down  many  of  its  terminations : 

Present.  I  aw,  thou  art,  he  is,  we  are,  &c. 
eom,  eajit,  ip,  ajion,  Sax. 
I  was,  thou  wast  or  wert, 

Preter   \J^^'  ^^» 

^hewas,wevtere,iijc^ 

paji         psjrum,  Sax. 

The  conjunctive  mood, 

J  be,  thou  heest,  he  he,  we  he,  &c. 

beo,  bip:,  beo,  beon.  Sax. 
Its  etymology  is  as  uncertain  as  its  forms  are 
irregular.  Ihe  simple  words  to  which  be  is 
prefixed,  are  used  also  in  their  simple  form  as 
verbs.  When  employed  as  an  auxiliary,  it  ren- 
ders the  verb  passive.  As  a  prefix,  it  appears  in 
many  instances  to  give  emphasis  to  the  applica- 
tion of  the  simple  term.  As  to  bedaub,  to  bepraise, 
to  besmear,  ana  particularly,  say  tlie  compilers  of 
the  Encyclopedia  Metropolitana,  when  derision 
or  contempt  is  intended,  as  becvrl,  in  Search ; 
hemuffle,%LQ.  in  Sterne;  beprose,  in  Mallet;  be- 
scutcheon,  betagged,  in  Churchill;  betailed,  in 
Goldsmith.  To  exist,  to  have  existence.  It  is 
also  used  in  our  old  language,  for  the  preposition 
by,  and  also  for  the  participle  been. 

And  who  so  saith,  and  weneth  it  he 
A  jape,  or  els  a  nicete. 
To  wene  that  dremes  after  fal. 
Let  who  so  liste  a  fole  me  call ; 
For  this  trowe  I  and  say  for  me^ 
That  dreames  signifiauncp  be 
Of  gude  and  harme  to  many  wightcs. 
That  dremen  in  hir  sleep  a  nightes. 
Full  many  thlnges  covertly. 
That  jSalltn  titer  opeply. 

Chaucer.  RomamU  of  the  Rote. 


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BEA 


Before  xhh  world's  great  frame,  in  which  all  things 
Are  now  contain'd  found  any  beemg  place, 
lliat  high  eternal  pow'r  which  now  doth  move 
in  all  these  thin^,  movM  in  itself  by  love. 

Spemer,   Hymn  on  Heaoetdy  Lev0. 
Sel.  Aye  hopeless 

Ta  have  the  conrtesy  your  cradle  promis'd. 
But  to  be  still  hot  summer's  tanlings  and 
The  shrinking  slaves  of  winter. 

GUI.  Than  he  to, 

BeUer  to  oease  to  he.  ShaHupettte, 

Awake !  arise !  or  he  for  evet  fall'ki.      Milkm, 
The  mind  is  its  own  place,  and  in  itself 
Can  make  a  heaven  of  hell,  a  hell  of  heav'n. 
What  matter  where,  if  I  6s  still  the  same. 
And  what  I  should  be,  all  but  less  than  he. 
Whom  thunder  had  made  greater '.  Here  at  least 
We  shall  he  free.  Id, 

Neither  did  thy  wisdom  herein  proceed  in  time 
only ;  but  in  degrees  \  at  first  thou  madest  nothing 
absolute  \  first  thou  madest  things  which  should  have 
being  without  life ;  then  those  which  should  have  life 
and  bein^ ;  lastly,  those  which  have  being,  life,  and 
reason :  so  we  ourselves  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
generation,  first  live  the  life  of  vegetation,  then  of 
sense,  and  reason  afterwards.  HaU.  Con, 

O  Happiness !  our  heing*9  end  and  aim ! 
Good,  Pleasure,  Ease,  Content,  whate'cr  thy  name ; 
That  something  still  which  prompts  the  eternal  sigh. 
For  which  we  bear  to  live,  or  dare  to  die ; 
'^'hich  still  so  near  us,  yet  beyond  us  lies ; 
O'erlook'd,  seen  double  by  the  fool  and  wise. 

Pepe,  Euay  on  Man, 
Men  would  he  angels,  ahgels  would  Be  gods  \ 
Aspiring  to  be  gods  if  angels  fell. 
Aspiring  to  be  angels,  men  rebel. 
And  who  but  wishes  to  invert  the  laws 
Of  order,  sins  against  th'  Eternal  cause.  Id, 

Tot  who,  to  dumb  fbrgetfulness  a  prey. 
This  pleasing,  anxious,  bemg  e'er  resign'd, 
Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerfiol  day. 
Nor  cast  one  longing,  ling*ring  look  behind. 

Gray's  EUyg  m  a  Country  Churchyead, 
From  courts  and  thrones  return,  apostate  praise  \ 
Thou  prostitute  !  to  thy  first  love  return. 
Thy  first,  thy  greatest,  once  unrivalled  theme. 
Back  to  thy  fountain  ^  to  that  parent  power, 
WliO  gives  the  tongue  to  seuud>  the  thought  to  soat , 
The  soul  to  be.  Young, 

This  is  the  bud  of  b»mg,  the  dim  dawn  \ 
Life's  theatre  as  yet  is  shut>  snd  death. 
Strong  death,  alone  can  heave  the  massy  bar. 
This  gross  impediment  of  clay  remove. 
And  make  us  embryos  of  eaistenoe  free.  Id, 

Count  o'er  the  joys  thine  hours  have  seen. 
Count  o'er  thy  days  firom  anguish  free 
And  know  whatever  thou  hast  been 
Tis  something  better  not  to  he,  Byron. 

BEACH,  n.     "j     It  is  not  to  be  found  in 

Be'ached,  adj,  >  any  of  our  early  lexicons. 

Beachy.  j  Dr.  Johnson  offer*  no  ety- 

mology. Serenius  givea  the  Goth,  hackar,  sig- 
nifying the  same  as  beach.  The  £ncy.  Metro, 
ventures  to  conjecture  that  it  is  derived  from 
beag  (from  higan  vel  hugatij  to  bend,  to  wreathe) 
^vhatever  girds  or  surrounds.  The  shore,  parti- 
cularly that  part  that  is  dashed  by  the  waves. 
The  loose  stones  that  lie  between  the  waters* 
edge  and  the  main  land. 

The  fishermen,  that  walk  upon  the  6eacA, 

Appear  like  mice.  Shaktpeare,  King  Lear, 


Timon.hath  made  his  everlaatiog  maasioii 
Upon  the  beached  verge  of  the  salt  fl«Hxl  ; 
Which,  once  a  day,  with  his  embossed  froth 
The  turbulent  surge  shall  cover. 

The  beachy  girdle  of  the  ocear 
Too  wide  for  Neptune's  hips.  Id, 

What !  are  men  mad  ?  Hath  nature  given  them  eyes 
To  see  this  vaulted  arch,  and  the  rich  crop 
Of  sea  and  land,  which  can  distinguish  'twi&t 
The  fiery  orbe  above,  and  the  twinn'd  stones 
Upon  the  number'd  beach  ?  And  can  we  not 
Partition  make  with  spectacles  so  precious 
^wixt  fair  and  foul?  M 

Deep  to  the  rocks  of  hell  the  gathered  beaek 
They  fasten'd,  and  the  mole  immense  wrought  on 
Over  the  foaming  deep.  JUiUem. 

They  find  the  washed  amber  further  out  upon  the 
beachei  and  shores,  where  it  has  been  longer  exposed. 


Nor  far  remote 
A  broken  tofch->-i-an  oarless  boat — 
And  tangled  on  the  weeds  that  heap 
The  beach  where  shelvinf^  to  the  deep- 
There  lies  a  white  capote  ! 
'Tis  rent  in  tvain — one  dark-red  stain 
The  wave  yet  ripples  o'er  in  vain. 

Byron,  Bfide  of  Ahydae 

6each  Hill,  an  ancient  artificial  moontv 
north  of  Coupar  in  Angus,  on  which  justice  is 
said  to  have  been  fonnerly  administered  in  thtf 
open  air.  From  the  top  of  it  there  is  a  delight- 
ful prospect  of  the  meandering  of  the  Isla,  through 
a  fertile  and  extensive  champaign  country,  varie- 
gated with  fruitful  fields  and  thriving  Tillages. 
Some  Roman  urns  have  have  been  found  on  ihii 
mount. 

BEACHLEY,  or  Old  Passage,  a  point  of 
land  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wye  and  Sems, 
Gloucestershire ;  which  from  its  insulated  positioo 
has  always  been  considered  an  important  militaty 
post.  Earth  works  of  ancient  British  origin  are 
still  remaining ;  and  it  is  the  terminating  point  of 
Offals  dyke.  Here  the  Royalists,  whom  prince 
Rupen  had  sent  forth  to  fortify  Uie  point  in  the 
wars  of  the  commonwealth,  were  dislodged  with 
great  loss^  and  afterwards  defeated  in  a  pitched 
battle.  Tlie  rovalbt  commander.  Sir  John  Wyn^ 
tour,  is  said  to  have  escaped  by  a  hazardous  leap 
from  a  cliff,  still  called  WyntouT*s  Leap. 

BEACH  Y'-IIEAD,  on  the  coast  of  Sussex.  It 
js  known  to  sailors  by  the  name  of  the  Seven 
Cliffs.  The  summit  of  the  higliest  cliff,  which 
is  also  the  highest  in  the  south  of  England,  is 
575  feet  from  the  base.  From  this  promontory 
to  Arundel  the  hills  are  called  South  Downs, 
and  are  oelebnted  as  sheep  walks.  On  the 
west  side  of  Beachy*Head  is  an  artificial  ca^ 
vem,  named  Parson  Darby*s  Hole ;  consisting  of 
two  apartments,  just  above  high  water  mark, 
dug  out  of  die  soUd  chalk.  Tradition  asserts  it 
to  have  been  the  residence  of  a  recluse,  who  was 
minister  of  East  Dean. 

BE'ACON,  i;.  &n.^      Sax.    beacon,    fiora 
BE'ACONEn,  >  been,  a  signal,  and  bee- 

Be'aconage.  3  nan,  whence  beckon,  to 

make  a  signal.  Skinner  thinks  it  is  derived 
from  the  Ang.-Sax  be,  and  cennan,  to  ken,  to 
see.  Any  thing  so  placed,  says  the  Ency.  Mel., 
that  it  may  be  kenn'd,  seen,  or  distincuisbtd ; 
intended  as  a  sign,  notice,  or  warning,  is  a  Ufa- 


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con.  Its  specific  description  connects  ^ith  it 
instantaneous  firing,  in  the  moment  of  alarm  from 
an  enemy ;  or  of  a  constant  light  in  tlie  darkness, 
to  direct  navigators  in  their  course,  and  warn  them 
from  rocks,  shallows,  and  sandbanks. 

Hii  blazing  eyes,  like  r«ro  bright  shining  shields. 
Did  bum  with  wrath,  and  sparkled  living  firo  j 
Ail  two  broad  beoeoiu  set  in  open  fields 
Send  forth  their  flames.  Spetuer.  Faerie  Queene, 

Modest  dottbt  is  call'd 
The  heaeoH  of  the  wise.  Shaktpeare. 

The  king  seemed  to  account  of  Perkin  as  a  May- 
game;  yet  had  given  order  for  the  watching  of 
beacvru  apon  the  coasts,  and  erecting  more  where 
they  stood  too  thm.  Bacon. 

No  flaming  beacont  cast  their  blaze  afar. 
The  dreadful  signal  of  invasive  war.  Gajf^ 

On  the  top  of  the  steeple  there  remains  an  iron 
pitchpot,  designed  as  a  beacon,  to  be  fired  occasionally, 
to  alarm  the  country  in  case  of  invasion.  It  takes 
its  name  from  the  Saxon  becnian,  to  call  by  signs. 
PentuMt'i  Tour  from  Chetter,  Hoadley  Clatrch, 
Wherefore,  among  other  reasons,  a  suit  for  beacon- 
age of  a  beacon  standing  on  a  rock  in  the  sea,  may  bo 
brought  into  the  court  of  Admiralty,  the  admiral 
having  an  original  jurisdiction  over  beaeong. 

Blackstone,  Comment,  III. 
The  haven  hums  with;  many  a  cheering  sound. 
The  heaeont  blase  their  wonted  stations  round. 

Byron* 
Tbe  bat  builds  in  his  haram  bower ; 
And  in  the  fortress  of  his  power 
The  owl  usurps  the  beacon  tower. 

Id.  Cfiuowr. 

Beacons  anciently  were  intended  as  signals 
for  the  better  securing  the  kingdom  fit>m  foreign 
invasions.— See  Signal.  On  certain  eminent 
places  of  the  country  were  erected  long  poles, 
whereon  were  fastened  pitch  barrels  to  be  fired 
by  night,  and  to  smoke  by  day,  to  give  notice  in 
a  few  hours  to  the  whole  kingdom  of  an  ap- 
proadnng  invasion.  These  served  to  communi- 
cate intelligence  as  rapidly  as  the  modem  inven- 
tion of  the  telegraph.  We  find  beacons  frequently 
used  amon^  the  pri^mitive  Britons  and  Western 
Highlanders.  The  besieged  x^pital  of  one  of  our 
northern  isles  in  the  third  century  lighted  up  a 
fire  upon  a  tower,  and  Fingal  knew  *  the  green 
flame  edged  with  smoke '  to  be  a  token  of  attack 
aiid  distress,  (Ossian,  vol.  i.  p.  195).  There 
are  to  this  day  several  cairns  or  heaps  of  stones 
upon  the  heights  along  the  coasts  of  the  Harries, 
on  which  the  inhabitants  used  to  burn  heath  as  a 
signal  of  an  approaching  enemy. 

Beaqons  on  the  sea  coasts,  for  guiding  and 
preserving  vessels  at  sea,  by  night  as  well  as  by 
day,  are  erected  by  the  king's  authority,  being  a 
branch  of  the  royal  prerogativG.  The  king  lias 
the  exclusive  power,  by  commission  under  his 
great  sea),  to  cause  beacons,  light-houses  and  sea 
marks  to  be  erected  in  fit  and  convenient  places, 
as  well  upon  the  lands  of  the  snbiect,  as  upon 
the  demesnes  of  the  crown:  which  power  is 
usually  vested  by  letters  patent  in  the  office  of 
lord  high  admiral.  And  W  statute  8  Eliz.  c.  13. 
the  corporation  of  the  Trinity-bouse  are  em- 
powerea  to  set  up  any  beacons  or  sea-marks 
wherever  .they  shall  think'  them  necessary ;  and 
if  the  owner  of  the  land  or  any  other  person 


BEA 

shall  destroy  them,  or  shall  take  down  any 
steeple,  tree,  oj  other  known  sea-mark,  he  shall 
forfeit  £100,  or,  in  case  of  inability  to  pay  it, 
shall  be  ipso  facto  outlawed. 

Beaconage,  a  tax  paid  towards  the  main- 
tenance of  a  beacon. 

Beacon-Hill,  a  high  rock  in  the  parish  of 
MuthO,  in  Perthshire,  irom  whence  a  nre  in  the 
night  might  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  fifty  miles 
east.  The  top  of  it  is  fiat,  and  covered  with 
ashes  to  a  considerable  depth.  It  is  within  two 
miles  of  Strageath,  and  may  be  seen  from  Camp's 
Castle,  and  from  almost  every  part  of  a  Roman 
road,  which  runs  from  Strageath  for  several  miles 
eastward,  in  a  straight  line,  to  the  parks  of  Gask, 
where  there  are  still  tlic  remains  of  a  Roman 
station.  From  all  which  it  is  evident  that  it  has 
been  a  place  of  signals,  and  hence  derived  its 
name.    It  is  also  called  Eagle's  Craig. 

Beacon-Hill,  1.  a  hill  in  Essex,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  mouth  of  the  port  of  Harwich,  with  a 
light-house  on  it :  2.  another  in  Wiltshire,  be- 
tween Mariborough  and  Sandy-Lane. 

BEACONSFIELD,  a  town  of  Buckingham- 
shire, seated  on  a  hill  in  the  road  between  Lon- 
don and  Oxford ;  eight  miles  from  Marlow  and 
Uxbridge,  and  twenty-five  W.N.W.  of  London. 
It  has  a  market  on  Thursdav,  and  two  fairs, 
February  13th,  and  Holy  Thursday.  In  its 
vicinity  was  the  residence  of  the  poet  Waller,  at 
Hall  Bam,  and  of  Edmund  Burke,  at  Butler's 
Court.  The  duke  of  Portland's  seat,  Bulstrode, 
is  also  within  a  short  distance.  Population 
about  1736. 

BEACUL,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Hindostan, 
in  South  Canara,  on  a  point  of  land  projecting 
into  the  sea.  It  consisu  of  about  100  houses. 
Long.  75°  9'  E.,  lat.  12°  22'  N. 

BEAD,  -N     From  bedcy  Ang.    Sax. 

Bead'roll,         fa  prayer;  the  past  parti- 

Beai/s'man,     '   Vciple  of  biddan,  ontrcy  to 

BeadsVoman,    i  bid ;  to  invite ;  to  solicit ; 

Beads'bidding,  J  to  request ;  to  pray :  head 

is  likewise  a  small  globe,  or  ball  of  glass,  or 

pearl,  or  other  substance;  a  number  of  these, 

strung  upon  a  thread,  are  used  by  Papists  to 

count  their  prapers.     BeadroU  is  a  catalogue  of 

prayers,  or^  perhaps,  originally  a  list  of  those  to 

DC  prayed  for  in   church,  afterwards  any  list. 

Beademany  a  prayer  man,  commonly  one  who 

prays  for  another.    From  this  use  beaiU  obtained 

their  name,  which  are  now  any  small  globular 

body,  and  most  frequently  used  to  denominate 

the  little  balls  which  are  threaded  and  worn 

about  the  neck  for  ornament. 

A  paire  of  Mm  eke  she  here 

Upon  a  Isee,  all  of  white  threde. 

On  which  that  she  her  bedee  bede : 

Bat  she  ne  booght  hem  nevre  a  dele. 

For  they  were  given  hire,  I  wot  wele 

God  wote  of  a  fall  holie  frere. 

That  said  he  was  her  father  deve. 

To  whom  she  hod  oftener  went 

Than  any  frere  of  his  covent.  ChMoet, 

Where  that  old  woman  day  and  night  did  piay 

Upon  her  beades  dovoady  penitent ; 

Nine  hundred  Patcr-nosters  every  day. 

And  thrice  nine  hundred  Aves  the  was  wont  to  say  ^ 


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bEA 

^iid  ttt  avgnflttl  her  painAd  [ 

Thrice  cveiy  diy  in  uhet  •))«  did  sil^ 

And  next  her  ^vrinUed  skin  rough  aaokdoth  w< 

And  thrice  three  times  did  fast  fzom  any  bit. 


696 


BEA 


An  holy  hoe|Mt«], 
In  which  seven  beadtmen,  that  had  Yowtd  all 
Their  life  to  service  of  high  heaven's  king. 

Faane  QtieeM, 

It  vas  a  friar  of  ohlers  gimy 
Walk'd  forth  to  tell  his  head*^ 
And  lie  met  with  a  lady  fair. 
Clad  in  a  pilgrim's  weeds.  Old  BaUad. 

With  scarfs,  ilnd  fans^  knd  double  chjUge  of  brav'iy. 
With  amber  bracelets,  btads,  and  ail  such  knavery. 

iSKoJbpears. 
Thy  spirit  witLhi  thee  hath  been  so  at  war» 
That  beads  (tf  sweat  have  stood  upon  thy  brow.        Id, 
In  thy  danger 
Commend  thy  grievance  to  my  holy  pfayer  ; 
For  I  will  be  thy  beadsman,  Valentfne.  Id. 

The  king,  for  the  better  credit  of  his  espials  abroad, 
did  use  to  hdve  th£>m  cursed  by  name  amongst  the 
beadfoU  of  the  king's  enemies.       Baeoa's  Hemy  T//,* 

'Twal  sach  a  hountie 
And  hontmi'  done  to  yout*  poore  bedes  toofiMM, 
I  know  not  how  to  owe  it,  but  to  thanke  you. 

Bern  Jmmm.     The  Sad  Shepherd, 
Several  yellow  lamps  of  amber,  almost  like  beads, 
with  one  side  flat,  had  fastened  themselves  to  the 
bottom.  Boyle, 

Bring  the  holy  watef  hither. 
Let  us  wash  and  pray  together  : 
When  our  beads  are  thus  united, 
then  the  foe  will  fly  a&igbtrd.  Herrich, 

For  who  would  fob  a  hermit  of  his  weeds. 
His  few  books,  or  his  6eadf,  or  maple  dish. 
Or  do  his  gray  hairs  any  violence.   MUtotk,  Cemas, 

Then  might  ye  see 
Cowls,  hoods,  and  habits,  with  their  wearers  tost 
And  fluttered  into  rags ;  then  reliques,  beads. 
Indulgences,  di8penses>  pardons,  bulls. 
The  sport  of  winds.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 

While  the  disjointed  abbess  threads 
The  giogling  chain-shot  of  her  beads*  UanaB, 

Tell   your   beads,  says  the  priest,  and  be  latrly 
truss'd  up. 
For  you  surely  to*night  shall  iis  paradise  "sup. 

Prior,   Timrf  and  Cordelier. 
He  taketh  candle,  beades,  and  holy  watere. 
And  legends  eke  of  saintes,  and  bookes  of  prayere ; 
He  entereth  the  room,  and  looketh  round  about> 
And  haspen  the  door  to  haspen  the  goblin  outk 

Qay,  Iwaiaiim  of  Chmue$r, 
Thy  voice  I  seem  an  every  hymn  to  hear. 
With  ev'ry  bead  I  drop  too  eoft  a  tear.  Po^w. 

Much  is  the  Virgin  teas*d,  to  shrive  them  free 
From  crimes  as  numerous  as  her  headsmea  be. 

.  Bt^om. 
Bead,  in  architecture^  a  round  moulding, 
commonly  made  upon  the  edgie  of  a  piece  of 
stuff)  in  the  Corinthian  and  Roman  orders,  cut 
or  carved  in  short  embossments,  like  bead^y  in 
necklaces.  A  plain  bead  is  sometimes  set  on  the 
edge  of  each  iaocia  of  an  architrave,  and  some- 
times also  an  astragal  is  thus  cut.  It  is  not 
uncommon  to  place  a  bead  on  the  Limng'  board 
of  a  door-case,  or  on  the  upper  edges  of  skirting 
boards. 

Bead,  in  assaying,  the  small  lump  or  mass 
of  pMre  metal  separated  from  the  scoriae,  and  seen 


disliiiet  «iid.pttm  in  llie  middle  Itf  Ike  cupd 
while  in  the  iKre.  Tlta%  in  «ep«rftiii|^flaTcr  from 
its  ore  by  neaas  ef  lead,  fhesiNer  fettain^llie 
ibrm  of  a  bead,  when  the  lead,  tethadbdbie 
assisted  in  the  operation,  is  redcMced  to  scoria. 
In  this  process,  the  bead  of  silver  must  be  takn 
out  of  the  cupel  as  soon  as  it  is  observed  to  be 
pure,  lest,  gowing  eold,  it  tifaoald  be  oonghti- 
nated  to  ^  cupel  or  lithaige.  This  bead,  when 
the  assay  is  properly  made,  is  aiwayy  porous  on 
the  under  tfide.    See  AdsaTiire. 

BtADS,  in  commerce,  those  glass  glomes 
tended  to  tbe  satages  on  tiie  coast  of  A&ia; 
thus  dcisomitwted,  beosuse  they  an  stnmg  to- 
gether for  the  convenietice  of  traffic. 

Beads,  in  devotiond  exercises,  are  much  used 
by  Romail  Catholics,  as  in  rehearsing  and  num- 
bering their  Ave-Marias  and  Patfrr-oosters ;  and 
a  similat  practice  prevails  aiaong  Ae  derrises 
and  other  religious  thronghout  fte  East^  as  well 
Mahomm^aii  as  Heathen.  The  ancient  Draids 
appear  also  to  have  had  their  beads,  many  of 
vrhich  are  still  found ;  at  least,  if  the  conjectures 
of  an  ingenious  author  may  be  ddmitted,  who 
takes  tliose  antique  glass  globules,  having  a  snake 
painted  toaiid  them,  and  called  adder-beads,  or 
snake-buttonsy  to  have  been  the  beads  of  cor 
ancient  Druida. 

Beads,  Biddivo  op  the,  a  diarge  giva  by 
the  Romish  priests  to  their  parishioners,  at  cer- 
tain times,  fo  say  so  many  Palef-nosten  upoo 
their  beads  for  a  soul  departed. 

Beads,  used  in  necklaces,  are  niade  of  taiioos 
materials,  such  as  steel,  garnet,  coral,  diamoid, 
amber,  crystelj  pastes,  &c.  The  eommoD  bbck 
glass  of  which  beads  are  made  for  necklaces,  fcc 
is. colored  with  manganese  only:  one  pan  of 
manganese  is  sufficient  to  give  a  Uadc  color  to 
near  twenty  of  glass. 

BEA'DLE,     \     Sax.  b^rt^ell,  a  messenger; 

Beadle'ship.  )  Fr.  ledtau^  Span.  Mf/,  l>nt 
bedelie.  Junius  derives  it  from  Mdem,  beadaM^ 
to  bid,  to  tell,  to  order;  because  be  prodaims 
and  executes  the  will  of  his  superiors,  Beadk- 
shw  is  the  office  of  a  beadle,  it  occurs  in  Wood*! 
Athens  Oxon.  vol.  ii.  fol.  388. 

A  dog'B  obey'd  in  office. 
Thou  rascal  beadle,  hold  thy  bloody  hand : 
Why  dost  thou  lash  that  whore  t  Shak^esrt, 

And  I,  fonooth,  in  love ! 
I  that  have  been  love's  whip : 
A  very  beadU  to  a  hnmonrous  sigh, 
A  critick ;  nay,  a  night^waU^  constable.  J^- 

They  ought  to  he  taken  care  of  in  this  eoudiiioOf 
either  by  the  heaHe  or  ^  magiittatcu  I^mMW. 

Their  common  loves  alevrd  abandoned  pack. 
The  beadU^s  lash  still  flagrant  on  their  back. 

Pnsr, 

Beadle  is  also  used  for  an  officer  in  universi- 
ties,-whose  place  is  to  vralk  before  the  masters 
at  all  public  processions,  &c.  with  a  msoe. 
Spelman,  Vossius,  and  Sumpc^i^  dehva  bndle 
from  the  Saxon  i  in  which  senae  biahona,  in  aome 
ancient  Saxon  manuscripts,  are  callea  beadles  of 
God,  Dei  bedelli.  The  translator  of  the  Saxon 
New  Testament  renders  exactor  by  bidele;  and 
the  word  is  used  in  the  same  sense  in  the  lavs  ol 
Scotland. 


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697 


BEA 


Bbadli  is  obiefly  appUed  in  Scotland  to  those 
dnudi  officais  wbo  keep  the  keys  of  the  cfaiiidifis 
and  seatS)  and  occasionally  attend  the  ministeis 
and  kirk  sessions,  in  the  exercise  of  their  paiochiai 
duties.  The  office  is  somewhat  similar,  tfaougii 
not  in  ereiy  lespwif  to  that  of  Churdi  Warden 
in  England. 

Bead-Makebs,  called  by  the  Freodi  patei^ 
nostriersy  are  those  «mployed  in  the  making, 
stringing,  and  selline  of  beads,  for  devotbinl 
purposes.  At  Paris,  before  the  rcTolation,  there 
Drere  three  companies  of  bead'-mAkers;  one  ^o 
made  them  of  glass  or  crystal;  anodierof  wood 
and  horn;  aUd  the  thiod  of  amber,  coral»  jet, 
&c. 

Dlun-PaoOF,  a  term  used  by  distilleifs  to  ex« 
press  that  Sort  of  proof  of  the  standard  strength  of 
spirituous  lit^uors,  which  consists  in  their  having, 
when  shaken  in  a  phial»  or  poured  from  on  high 
into  a  glass,  a  ci^own  of  buboles,  which  stand  on 
the  surface  some  time  after.  This  is  esteemed  a 
proof  that  the  spirit  consists  of  equal  parts  of 
Rectified  spirits  ahd  phlegm.  It  however  is  a 
fallacious  rule  as  to  the  degree  of  strength  in  the 
goods ;  because  aby  thing  that  will  increase  the 
tenaci^  i>f  the  spirit,  will  give  it  this  nroof, 
though  it  be  under  the  due  strengtlu 

Beao-Proof.  a  method  of  ascertaining  the 
strength  of  spirituous  liquors,  invented  by  Mr. 
<Brown  of  Glasgow.  It  consists  of  a  number 
of  soiall  glass  globules,  or  beads,  marked  so  as 
to  correspond  with  the  degrees  of  a  hydrometer. 
These  beads  have  a  small  glass  cylinder  appended 
to  them,  which,  being  ground  with  emery,  tbey  are 
brought  to  the  degree  of  lightness  required.  They 
are  put  up  in  a  box,  and  being  thrown  into  any 
spirituous  liquor,  at  a  medium  temperattirei  say 
sixty  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  the  bead  which  re- 
mains suspended  in  any  part  of  it  denolea  the 
specific  navity  or  the  proportion  of  spirit  it  con- 
tains. Thus  No.  1.  remams  suspenaed  in  any 
part  of  distilled  water^  of  the  required  tempera- 
ture,, whidi  is  the  standard  from  which  the  pro- 
portion of  spirit  is  computed.  No.  32.  remains 
suspended  in  any  part  of  pure  alkohol  i  and  all 
the  intermediate  beads  indicate  various  propON 
tions  of  water  and  spirit  in  the  mixmre.  When 
these  beads  are  maae  with  accuracy,  they  seem 
to  afford  a  more  eas^  method  of  ascertaining  tiie 
strength  of  spirits  than  any  yet  invented.  See 
Hydrometer. 

BEA'GLE.  Fr.  biglts,  perhaps  from  the  Itel. 
piccolo^  q.  d.  rani  piccoti^  smaller  dogs.  A  small 
hound  with  which  hares  are  hunted. 

Shm'a  •  ftM^  fcra»4M«d,  and  one  that  adores  rat. 


The  rest  were  variotu  hantingt. 
The  graccfal  goddeti  was  array'd  in  green  ^ 
About  her  feet  were  little  beti^  §een. 
That  watch'd  wilh  upward  eyes  the  motions  of  their 
queen.  Drjfdm't  Ftblet. 

Tb  plains  with  well-bred  heagtci  we  repair. 
And  tcace  the  mans  of  the  circling  hare.  Pcpe, 

Already  see  the  deep-moirth'd  beagUt  catch 
The  tainted  mazes ;  and,  on  eager  sport 
iLteat,  with  emulous  impatience  try 
Bach  doabtfol  trace.  Arnutrvng^ 


Bbagle,  in  zoology,  a  valuable  dog^  kept  etv- 
tirely  for  hunting  hares ;  they  are  of  small  size, 
inferior  to  the  hare  in  swiftness,  but  possess  a 
very  delioate  stent ;  and  when  thev  have  found 
her,  seldom  (ail  of  running  a  hareiiown. 

Bfjlgles  are  of  various  kinds,  as  the  sontnem 
beagle,  somediing  less  and  shorter,  but  thicker, 
than  the  deep  mouthed  hound ;  the  fleet  northern 
or  cat  beagle,  smaller,  and  of  a  finer  shape  than 
the  southern,  and  a  harder  runner.  From  these 
two,  by  crossing,  is  bred  a  third  sort,  held  pre^ 
ferable  to  either.  To  these  may  be  added  a  still 
smaller  sort  of  beagles,  scarce  bigger  than  lap- 
dogs,  which  make  pretty  diversion  in  hunting 
the  coney,  or  eveii  the  small  hare  in  diy  weather ; 
but  are  otherwise  unserviceable  by  reason  of  their 
size. 

BFAK',       •%     Ang.-Sax.;)yc<7n,Ger./7icA»fi, 

Beak'ed,      f  to  pick  or  peck,  lite  heak^  says 

Beak'er,      rthejSncyclopediaMetropolitana, 

B^AK-HEAD.  J  is  that  whicn  picketh  or  peok- 
eth.  It  is  applied  generally  to  whatever  is 
pointed  or  sharp.  Thus  the  bill  of  a  bird  is 
called  its  beak ;  the  cup  called  a  beaker,  derives 
its  name  from  the  shape  of  its  spout.  But  the 
Dutch  beker  Vossius  derives  from  the  Lat.  bucan, 
and  thus  bacar  or  baccar^  says  the  just  mentioned 
authority,  is  perhaps  from  Baccha,  It  means  a 
vessel  or  cup  for  wine.  This  is  a  little  forced. 
The  term  beak  is  now  used  to  signify  the  fore- 
part of  a  ship.  In  the  ancient  galleys  it  was  a 
piece  of  brass  like  a  beak,  fixed  at  their  end,  with 
which  they  pierced  their  enemies.  It  is  also 
applied  to  a  snoe  peculiarly  constructed,  and  to  a 
prominence  of  land. 

Father^  I  tweave  by  Ibis*  golden  heake. 
Mere  fair  aad  radiant  is  my  bonny  Hate, 
Then  silver  Xaathns,  when  he  doth  embrace 
The  raddy  Simois  at  Ida's  feet  fF%«MoM. 

A  little  wren  in  btahe  with  lanrell  greene  that  flew, 
Foreshew'd  my  doleful  death,  as  after  all  men  knew. 
Mimr^  Mag'mtraittB, 
His  rojal  bird 

Pfunes  the  immortal  wing,  and  cloys  his  heak. 

As  when  hk  god  is  pleaa'd. 

Shahpeare,  CywMim. 

I  hoarded  the  king's  ship,  now  on  the  beak. 

Now  in  the  waist,  the  deck,  in  eveiy  cabin.        Id. 
The  floating  yessel  swam 
Uplifted,  and  secure  with  betthed  prow. 
Rode  tilting  o'er  the  waver. 

MUilum,  Pmradite  Loii. 

Be  asked  the  waves,  and  ask'd  the  felon  winds. 
What  hard  mishap  hath  doom'd  this  gentle  swaiu  ? 
And  question'd  every  gust  of  ragged  wings 
That  blows  from  eflf  each  hetJxd  promontory  : 
They  knew  not  of  his  story ; 

And  sage  Hippotades  their  answer  brings,  .7 

That  not  a  blast  was  from  his  dungeon  stray'd  : 
The  air  was  calm,  and  on  the  level  brine 
Sleek  Panope  with  all  her  sisters  play'd. 

/d.     Lycidat 

Him  thought,  he  by  the  brook  of  Cherith  stood  i 
And  saw  the  ravens  with  their  homy  beaku. 
Food  to  Blijah  bringing  ev'n  and  mom. 

/d.  PmraUm  KegainBi» 

With  boiling  pitch,  another  near  at  hand, 
Frnrn  friendly  Sweden  brought,  tho  seams  instops  \ 
Which  well  laid  o'er,  the  salt  sea  waves  withstand, 
A-ud  shako  them  from  the  rising  beak  in  drops. 

Drgdtm. 


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The  magpi«>  ItgKting  on  tho  ttock, 
Stood  chatt'ring  with  inoeMant  din* 
And  ^th  her  h$ak  gave  many  a  knock. 

And  into  pikea  and  motqaeteers 
Stampt  beaJien,  cups,  and  poxringeit. 

Budiknu. 
With  dnleet  b(»v'iage  thii  the  beaker  crown'd. 
Fair  in  the  midft,  with  gilded  copt  aronnd. 

Pope»  Od§fieeg* 
The  hooked  beak  of  the  hawk-tribe,  neparatet  the 
flesh  from  the  bones  of  the  animal  which  it  feeds  upon, 
almost  with  the  cleanness  and  precision  of  a  dissect- 
or's knife.  Pale^$  Natwral  TJMogg. 
It  is  as  if  the  desart  bird. 
Whose  beak  unlocks  her  bosom's  stream^ 
To  still  her  famish'd  nestlings*  scream, 
Nor  mourns  a  life  to  them  transferr'd  ; 
Should  rend  her  rash  devoted  breast. 
And  find  them  flown  her  empty  nest 

Byron*     Giaom, 

Beak,  id  ancient  military  a£fairs,  was  used  for 
one  of  the  battalia,  or  forms  of  ranging  an  army 
for  battle,  particularly  by  the  Mac^onians. 

Deak,  in  architecture,  a  little  fillet  left  on  the 
edge  of  a  larmier,  which  forms  a  canal^  and  makes 
a  kind  of  pendent  chiny  answering  to  what 
Vitruyius  calls  the  mentum. 

Beak,  in  farriery,  denotes  a  little  horse-shoe, 
turned  up,  and  listened  in  upon  the  fore  part  of 
the  hoof.  It  is  used  to  keep  the  shoes  fast,  and 
to  prevent  them  from  being  sticuck  off  by  the 
horse,  when  by  reason  of  any  itch,  or  being  much 
^disturbed  by  the  flies  in  hot  weadier,  he  stamps 
his  feet  violently  on  the  ground. 

Beak,  in  ornithology :  from  the  form  and  struc- 
ture of  tlie  beaks  of  birds,  linneus  divides  this 
whole  family,  or  general  class  of  animals,  into  six 
■orders.    See  OaKiTHOLOCY. 

Beak,  or  Beak-head,  of  a  ship,  that  part 
without  the  ship,  before  the  forecastle,  whicn  is 
•fastened  to  the  stem,  and  is  supported  by  the 
main  knee.  It  b  usually  carved  and  painted, 
which  adds  beauty  to  utility.  The  beak,  called 
by  the  Greeks  cfi/SoXov,  by  the  Latins  rostrum,  was 
an  important  part  in  the  ancient  ships  of  war, 
which  were  hence  denominated  naves  rostrats. 
The  beak  was  made  of  wood,  but  fortified  with 
brass  and  fastened  to  the  prow,  serving  to  annoy 
the  enemy*s  vessels.  Its  invention  is  attributed 
.to  Pisaeiu,  an  Italian.  The  first  beaks  were  made 
long  and  high;  but  afterwards  a  Corinthian, 
named  Aristo,  contrived  to  make  them  short  and 
strong,  and  placed  so  low  as  to  pierce  the  hostile 
vessels  under  water.  By  the  help  of  these,  great 
havoc  was  made  by  the  Syracusans  in  the  Athe- 
nian fleet. 

Beaked,  in  heraldry,  a  term  used  to  express 
the  beak  or  bill  of  a  bird.  When  the  beak  and 
legs  of  a  fowl  are  of  a  different  tincture  from  the 
body,  we  say  beaked  and  membered  of  such  a 
tincture. 

BEALE,  a  river  of  England,  which  runs 
through  part  of  the  counties  of  Sussex  and  Kent, 
and  falls  into  the  Medway. 

Be  ALE  (Mary),  particularly  distinguished  by 
her  skill  in  painting,  was  the  daughter  of  Mr. 
Craddock,  minister  of  Walton-upon-Thames, 
and  learned  the  rudiments  of  her  art  from  Sir 


Peter  Lely .  She  painted  in  oil,  water-oolots,  aod 
crayons,  and  had  much  business ;  her  poitraits 
were  in  &e  Italian  style,  which  she  acquired  by 
copying  pictures  from  Sir  Peter  Lely's  and  the 
royal  collections.  Her  master,  says  Mr.  Walpole, 
was  supposed  to  have  had  a  tender  attachmeot  to 
her ;  but  as  he  was  reserved  in  commumcating  to 
her  all  the  resources  of  his  pencil,  it  probably 
^his  a  gallant  rather  than  a  successful  one.  Dr. 
Wood£dl  wrote  several  pieces  to  her  honor,  niider 
the  name  of  Belisia.  Mrs.  Beale  died  in  Pall- 
mall  in  1697,  aged  65.  Her  paintings  have  much 
nature,  but  the  coloring  is  stiff  and  heavy. 

BEALSBURG,  a  town  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  in  Kentucky,  seated  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Rolling-fork.  It  is  fifteen  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Bairdstown,  fifty  south-west  of  Frankfort,  aod 
890firom  Philadelphia. 

BEALT,  Bealtu,  or  Bcilth,  a  town  of 

Brecknockshire    in    South    Wales,    pleasantly 

seated  on  the  river  Wye.    It  is  ninety-two  miles 

from  Chester,  sixteen  north  of  Bredmock,  and 

171  from  London. 

BEAM,  n.         ")     BagiM^  Goth,  hem,  Ang.- 

Beamuke,  adj,  >Sax.  a  tree;  the  etymology 

Bea'my.  3 uncertain;  the  applications 

are  varions.    See  our  scientific  articles  under 

this  tenn. 

Als  ttraught  as  ony  lyne 
Within  a  beme  that  fro  the  contree  dyvme, 
Scho  pcrcyng  throw  the  firmameut  extcndit. 
To  ground  agayne  my  spirit  is  deacendit. 

Jamee  L     Kvgi  ^Aaiir. 
With  that  at  him  his  beamAUte  speare  he  ayioed, 
And  thereto  all  his  powre  and  might  applyde.  Sfom. 
The  staff  of  his  spear  was  like  a  weaver's  beam. 

lOna 

Poise  the  cause  injustice'  eqaal  aeales. 

Whose  beam  stands  tore,  whose  rightful  caaie  pc- 

vails.  SMapMff 

The  building  of  living  ci«atares  is  like  the  boiUiig 

of  a  timber  house ;  the  walls  and  other  psita  have 

colanuis  and  beame,  but  the  roof  is  tOe,  or  ksd,  or 


So  much  they  could  with  their  chariots  by  sm  ud 
exercise,  as  riding  on  the  speed  down  a  steep  hiU,  tt> 
stop  suddenly,  and  with  short  rein  torn  swifUy»  bov 
running  on  the  beam,  now  on  the  yoke,  then  is  the 
seat.  JfittMw    BiA,l£^' 

He  beav'd,  with  more  than  human  foice,  to  bo** 
A  weighty  stone,  the  labour  of  a  team. 
And  rais'd  from  thence  he  reach'd  the  aeighb^ 


Jutuma  heard,  and,  seis'd  with  mortal  fear, 
Forc'd  from  the  beam  her  brother's  charioteer.      ^ 

His  double-biting  axe,  and  beamg  spear ; 
Each  asking  a  gigantic  force  to  rear.         A*    ^'^' 

Rouse  ficom  their  desert  dens  the  bristled  isjie 
Of  boars,  and  beam^f  stags  in  toils  engage.  U*  ^^ 

And  Uught  the  woods  to  echo  to  the  stream 
His  dreadful  challenge,  and  his  clashing  bsm. 

Jkekm. 

Upon  a  beam  aloft  he  sits. 
And  nolds  and  seems  to  think  by  fits.  Gag.  Faii^ 
The  pilot's  fair  machinery  strews  the  deck; 
And  cards  and  needles  swim  in  floating  vicck; 
The  balanced  mizeo,  rending  to  the  head, 
In  streaming  ruins  from  the  mar};in  fled. 
The  sides  oonvulsive  shook  on  groaning  1 
And  rent  with  labour,  yawn'd  the  pithy  i 
•  Fateener. 


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BEAM,  V.  n. 

Bea'mlem, 

Kea'my. 


StO( 

J  an  J 


Ang.-Sax.  beamum,  to  thiae, 
>  emit  rays,  as  from  tlie  sun ; 
i  any  thing  radiant. 

Is  augbt  on  earth  so  pretious  or  deare 

As  praise  and  honour?  or  is  ought  so  bright 
iind  beautiftile  as  glories  htamet  appeare. 

Whose  goodly  light  than   Phosbns  lampe  doth 
shine  more  clear  t    •  ■  Spemer, 

Kow  shaU  e  wonn,  on  dost  that  aawlt  and  feeds, 
riinb  to  th'  empyreal  cout,  where  these  sUtes  reign. 
And  there  take  view  of  what  heavVs  self  exceeds  ? 
The  eonlese  stars,  these  lights  the  son  distain  s 
Their  bmmt  divine,  and  beauties  do  excel 
Whet  here  on  earth,  in  air;  or  neav'n  do  dwell : 
Such  never  eye  yet  saw,  such  never  tongue  ran  tell. 
Fletcher't  Purple  Jiiand, 
Pile  ten  hiUs  on  the  Taxpf'ian  rock> 
That  the  precipitation  might  down  stretch 
Below  the  beam  *of  sight. 

Skahtpecare.  Cariolamm, 
Sank  though  he  be  beneath  the  wat'ry  floor  ; 
So  sinks  the  day-star  in  the  ocean  bed. 
And  yet  anon  repairs  his  drooping  head. 
And  tricks  his  beamt,  and  with  new  spangled  orc^ 
Flames  in  the  forehead  of  the  morning  sky  ; 
So  Lycidas  sunk  low>  but  mounted  high. 

MiUm,  Lpeidoi. 
Vo  sun  to  cheer  us  but  a  bloody  globe. 
That  rolls  above,  a  bald  and  beamleu  fire. 

Drydenand  Lee, 
What  modes  of  sight  betwixt  each  wide  extreme. 
The  mole's  dim  curtain,  and  the  lynx's  beam.  Pope, 

Truth  bids  me  look  on  men,  as  autumn's  leaves. 
And  all  they  bleed  for,  as  the  summer's  diist. 
Driven  by  the  whirlwind  :  lighted  by  her  beamt, 
I  widen  my  horiion,  gain  new  powers. 
See  things  invisible,  feel  things  remote. 
Am  present  with  futurities ;  think  nought 
To  man  so  foreign  as  the  joys  possest, 
Nought  so  much  bis  as  those  beyond  the  grave. 

Yomg, 
Attempered  suns  arira, 
8weet-&Mia'd  and  shedding  oft  thro'  lucid  clouds 
A  pleasing  calm,  while  broad  and  brown  below, 
Extensiye  harvcals  hang  the  heavy  head. 

ThomtmU  Scaeont, 
The  ghastly  form. 
The  lip  pale  qniv'ring  and  the  beamiest  eye. 

Id, 


But  lo!  from  high  Hymettus  to  the  plain. 
The  queen  of  night  asserts  her  silent  reign. 
Ko  murky  vapour,  herald  of  the  storm. 
Hides  her  fair  face,  nor  gilds  her  glowing  form  \ 
With  cornice  glimmering  as  the  moon-dcvniM  play. 
There  the  white  column  greeU  her  grateful  ray. 
And  bright  around  with  quivering  beatnt  beset 
Her  emblem  sparkles  o'er  the  minaret. 

Bjfreti,  Ceftabr. 
O  Peace,  thy  injured  robes  upbind  ! 
O  rise,  and  leave  not  one  behind 
Of  all  thy  btam^  train. 

CUItm'«  Ode  to  Peace, 
One  cultivated  spot  Uiere  was,  that  fipread 
Ita  flowery  bosom  to  the  noon-day  beam. 
Where  many  a  rose-bud  rears  its  blushing  head. 
And  herbs  for  food  with  future  plenty  team. 

Beattie't  Miiutr^, 

Ream,  in  architecture.  Some  of  the  best  au- 
thors have  considered  the  force  or  strength  of 
beams,  and  brought  their  resistance  to  a  precise 
cakulatiou:  particularly  M.  Vari«;non  and  M.* 


Parent.  The  system  of  the  latter  is  as  follows 
When^  in  a  beam  breaking  parallel  to  its  base 
which  is  supposed  to  be  a  parallelogram,  two 
planes  of  fibres,  which  were  before  contiguous^ 
are  separated,  there  is  nothing  to  be  considered 
in  th<Me  fibres,  but  their  number,  bigness,  ten* 
sioQ  before  Uiey  broke,  and  the  lever  by  which 
the^  act :  all  these  together  make  the  strength  or 
resistance  of  the  beam  to  be  broke.  Suppose 
then  another  beam  of  the  same  wood,  where  the 
base  is  likewise  a  paralleloGtram,  and  of  any  big- 
ness, with  regard  to  ti)e  other,  the  height  or 
thickness  of  each  of  these  wheu  laid  horiiontal, 
being  divided  into  an  indefinite  number  of  eqiuil 
parts,  and  their  breadth  into  the  same  number, 
^n  each  of  tbeifr  bases  will  be  found  an  equal 
number  of  little  quadrangular  cells,  proportion- 
ate to  the  base  whereof  they  are  parts.  These 
then  will  represent  little  bases,  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  the  thicknesses  of  the  fibres  to  be 
separated  by  the  fracture  of  each  beam :  and, 
since  the  number  of  cells  is  equal  in  each,  the 
ratio  of  the  bases  of  both  beams  will  be  that  of 
the  resistance  of  their  fibres,  both  with  regard  to 
number  and  thickness.  Now  the  two  beams  be- 
ing supposed  to  be  of  the  same  wood,  the  fibres 
most  remote  from  the  points  of  stipport,  which  are 
those  which  break  first,  must  be  equally  stretched, 
when  they  break.  Thus  the  fibres,  e.  g.  of  the 
tenth  division,  are  equally  stretched  in  each  caee, 
when  the  first  breaks ;  and  in  whatever  proportion 
tlie  tension  be  supposed,  it  will  still  be  tlie  same 
in  both  cases ;  so  that  the  doctrine  is  entirely  free 
and  unembarrassed  with  any  physical  system. — 
Lastly,  the  levers  whereby  the  fibres  of  the  two 
beams  act,  are  represented  by  the  height  or  depth 
of  their  bases ;  and  of  consequence  the  whole  re- 
sistance of  each  beam  is  the  product  of  its  base  by 
its  height;  or,  it  is  the  square  of  the  height  mul- 
tiplied by  its  breadth :  which  holds  not  only  in  case 
ot  paralfelograinmatic,  but  also  of  elliptic  bases. 
Hence,  if  the  base  of  two  beams  be  equal,  though 
both  their  heiglits  and  breadths  be  unequal,  their 
resistance  will  be  as  their  heights  alone ;  and,  by 
consequence,  the  same  beam  laid  on  the  smallest 
r  de  of  its  base  will  resist  more  than  when  laid  flat, 
in  proportion  as  the  first  situation  gives  it  a  greater 
height  than  the  second  t  and  thus  an  elliptic  base 
will  resist  more  when  laid  on  its  greatest  axis, 
than  when  on  its  smallest.  Since  in  beams  equally 
long  the  bases  determine  the  proportion  ot  their 
weights  or  solidities,  and  since  their  bases  being 
eaual,  their  heights  may  be  different,  two  beams 
ot  the  same  weiffht  may  have  resistances  differ- 
ing to  infinity :  Uius,  if  in  one  the  height  of  the 
base  be  supposed  infinitely  great,  and  the  breadth 
infinitely  small,  while  in  the  other  the  dimensions 
of  the  base  are  infinite ;  the  resistance  of  the  first 
will  be  infinitely  greater  than  that  of  the  second, 
though  their  solidity  and  weight  be  the  same.  If, 
therefore,  all  that  was  required  in  architecture 
were  to  have  beams  capable  of  supporting  vast 
loads,  and  at  the  same  time  to  be  of  the  least 
weights  possible,  it  is  plain'they  must  be  cut  thin 
as  laths  and  laid  edgeways.  If  the  bases  of  two 
beams  be  supposed  unequal,  but  the  sum  of  the 
sides  of  the  two  bases  equal,  e.  g.  if  they  be  eitlier 
12  and  12,  or  11  and  13,  or  10  and  14,  &c.  so 
that  they  always  make  24 ;  and  hirtner ,  if  ib^ 


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be  supposed  to  be  laid  edgeways ;  pursuing  the  se- 
ries, It  will  appear,  that  in  the  beam  of  12  and  12, 
the  resistance  will  be  1728,  and  the  solidity  or 
weight  144:  and  that  in  the  last,  or  1  and  23, 
the  resistance  will  be  529,  and  the  weight  23 : 
the  first^  therefore,  which  is  square,  will  have  less 
than  half  the  strength  of  the  last,  with  reeard  U> 
its  weight.  Hence  M.  Parent  remarks,  that  the 
common  practice  of  cutting  the  beams  out  of  trees 
as  square  as  possible  is  reprehensible :  he  hence 
takes  occasion  to  determine  geometrically)  what 
dimensions  the  base  of  a  beam  to  be  cut  out  of 
any  tree  proposed  shall  have,  in  order  to  its  be* 
ing  of  the  greatest  possible  strength ;  or,  which  is 
the  same  thing,  a  circular  base  being  given,  he 
determines  the  rectangle  of  the  greatest  resistance 
that  can  be  inscribed ;  and  finds  that  the  sides 
must  be  nearly  as  7  to  5,  which  agrees  with  oI>- 
servation.  Hitherto  the  length  of  the  beams  has 
been  supposed  equal;  if  it  be  uneqttal,  the  bases 
will  resist  so  much  the  les!>,  as  the  beams  are  longer. 
To  this  it  may  be  added,  that  a  beam  sustained  at 
each  end,  breaking  by  a  weight  suspended  from  its 
middle  does  not  only  break  at  the  middle,  but 
also  at  eadi  extreme;  or,  if  it  does  not  actually 
break  there,  at  least  immediately  before  the  mo- 
ment of  the  fracture,  which  is  that  of  the  equili- 
brium between  the  resistance  and  the  weight,  its 
fibres  are  sis  much  stretched  at  the  extremes  as  in 
the  middle.  So  that  of  the  weight  sustained  by 
the  middle  there  is  but  one-third  part  which  acts 
at  the  middle  to  make  the  fracture ;  the  other  two 
only  acting  to  induce  a  fracture  in  the  two  ex* 
tremes.  A  beam  may  either  be  supposed  only 
loaden  with  its  own  weight,'or  with  other  foreign 
weights  applied  at  any  distance,  or  else  only  with 
those  foreign  weights.  Since,  according  to  M. 
Parent,  the  weight  of  a  beam  is  not  onlinarily 
above  one-seventieth  part  of  the  load  given  it  to 
sustain,  it  is  evident  that  in  considering  several 
weights,  they  must  all  be  reduced  by  the  com- 
mon rules  to  one  common  centre  of  gravity. 
M.  Parent  has  calculated  tables  of  the  weights 
that  will  be  sustained  by  the  middle  in  beams  of 
various  bases  and  (eng^hs,  fitted  at  each  end  into 
walls,  on  a  supposition  that  a  piece  of  oak  of  an 
inch  square  and  a  foot  long,  retained  horizon- 
tally by  the  two  extremes^  will  sustain  3151b.  in 
its  middle  before  it  breaks,  which  it  is  found  by 
experience  it  will. 

Beam,  in  heraldry,  is  used  to  express  the  main 
horn  of  a  hart  or  buck. 

Beam,  in  hunting,  the  main  stem  of  a  deer^s 
head,  or  that  part  which  bears  the  antlers,  royals, 
and  tops ;  the  little  streaks  whereof  are  called 
circles. 

Beam,  or  Roller,  in  weaving,  is  a  long  and 
thick  wooden  cylinder  placed  lengtliways  on  the 
back  part  of  the  loom  of  those  who  use  the  shut- 
tle. The  threads  of  the  warp  of  linen  or  woollen 
cloth,  serges,  or  other  woollen  stuffs,  are  rolled 
upon  the  beam,  and  unrolled  as  the  work  goes 
on.  That  cylinder  on  which  the  stuff  is  rolled, 
as  it  is  weaved,  is  also  called  the  beam  or  roller, 
and  is  placed  on  the  fore  part  of  the  loom. 

Beam  of  a  Balance,  is  that  piece  of  iron  or 
wood,  somewhat  bigger  towards  the  middle  than 
at  the  ends,  where  there  are  boles,  throush 
which  run  the  ropes  or  strings  which  hold  tne 


scales;  the  beam  is  dirided  into  tiro«qiiaX  puts 
by  a  needle  placed  over  it  perpendiettiKly,  and 
the  centre  of  jsotioa  must  be  frfaced  a  little  ^ve 
the  centre  of  gravity,  that  the  beam  may  rest 
exactly  in  an  horizontal  position.  See  Balavcs. 

Beam  of  an  Anchoe.  The  straight  part  or 
shank  of  an  anchor,  to  wh4ch  the  hxMrics  are 
fastened. 

Beam  of  a  Plough,  a  name  given  by  our 
fanners  to  the  great  timber  of  the  plough,  hito 
which  all  the  other  parts  of  the  plottglMaii  are 
fixed.  This  is  usually  made  of  am,  and  s 
straight,  and  eight  feet  long  in  the  conmioii 
plough :  but  in  the  four-^ouUered  plough  it  is 
ten  feet  long,  and  its  upper  part  is  arched.  Ihe 
head  of  this  beam  lies  on  the  pillow  of  the 
plough,  and  is  raised  higher,  or  sunk  lower,  as 
that  pillow  is  elevated  or  depressed  by  being 
slipped  along  the  crow-staves.  Near  tiie  middk 
it  nas  an  iron  collar,  which  recetres  the  tow 
chain  from  the  box,  and  the  bridle  chain  from 
the  stake  or  gallows  of  the  plough  is  fixed  in  it 
a  little  below  the  collar.  Some  inches  balow  tins 
there  is  a  hole,  which  lets'' throuo;h  ihe'  coulter; 
and  below  that  there  are  two  ouer  smadl  ones, 
through  which  the  heads  of  the  retches  pass 
These  are  the  irons  which  support  the  sheet,  and 
with  it  the  sliare.  Farther  backward  stiU  is  a 
larger  perforation,  through  which  the  body  of  the 
sheet  pasoes;  and  behind  that,  Teiy  near  the  ex- 
tremi^,  is  another  hole  through  which  the  pieo» 
called  the  hinder-sheet  passes.  See  Husbasdrt. 

Beams  of  a  Ship  are  the  large  main  crass 
timbers,  stretching  from  side  to  sidle,  which  bold 
the  sides  of  a  ship  from  felling  together,  and 
which  also  support  the  decks  and  orlops  of  the 
ship.  The  main  beam  is  that  next  the  main  masi; 
ana  irom  it  they  are  reckoned  by  first,  second, 
and  third  beam.  The  great  beam  is  also  oaBed 
the  midship  beam.  There  are  usually  twentr- 
four  beams  on  the  lower  deck  of  a  ship  «if  seventy- 
four  guns,  and  to  the  other  decks  adoitioDal  ooes 
in  propevtion  as  the  ship  lengtfiens  above. 
Hence  the  following  phrases  in  sea  language  :- 

B£am,  Before  the,  signifies  an  arch  of  the 
horizon  comprehended  between  the  line  of  the 
beam,  and  that  point  of  the  compass  which  she 
stems. 

Beam,  on  the,  in  sea  language,  denotes  any 
distance  from  the  ship  on  a  line  with  the  beams, 
or  at  right  angles  wiln  the  keel.  Any  object  thai 
lies  east  or  west  when  the  ship  steers  nofthward, 
is  said  to  be  on  the  starboard  or  larboard  beam. 

Beam,  on  the  Weatbxr,  signifies  on  the 
weather  side  of  the  ship. 

Beam-amtles,  the  oranch  of  a  dfier's  hom 
next  the  head. 

Beam-bird.    See  Motacilla. 

Beam,  Camber.    See  Cambra  Beam. 

Beam  Feathers,  in  frdconiy,  the  longest 
feathers  of  a  hawk's  wing. 

Beam-fillino,  in  arehitecfeure,  the  filiing  up 
the  vacant  space  between  the  aising  plate  and 
roof  with  stones  or  bricks,  laid  between  the  raft- 
ers on  the  aising  phOe,  and  plastered  oo  with 
loam;  this  is  frequtsit  where  the  garrets  are  not 
pargeted  or  pla^itered. 

BEAMINSTER,  a  market  town  of  Dois^ 
shire,  in  England,  seated  on  the  river  Birton,  six 


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BEAN. 


701 


*Ueft  horn  Bridport,  ukI  141  west  of  London. 

A  considerable  mviufactory  of  sail  cloth,  and 

also  of  iron  and  copper  floods,  is  carried  on  here. 

It  yns  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1645  and  1686, 

and  suffered  severely  from  the  same  cause  in 

1781.    Population  2290. 

BEAN,  \     Saxon  bean,  bien,  a  well 

Bean'fed,        >  known  vegetable.  Etymology 

Bean'shaped.  y  unknown.    Junius  derives  it 

from  the  Greek  wvavw  vel  irvavoc;  but  assigns 

in  our  opinion  a  veiy  unsatisfeetoty  reason — ^so 

catted  because  they  produce  blood.     And  what 

food  does  not? 

E«t  God  wot  that  May  thought  in  hire  hette, 
WhoB  aho  him  mw  up  sittittg  in  his  thirt, 
la  his  night  cap,  and  with  his  necke  lene : 
She  praiseth  not  hii  playing  worth  a  6sns. 

Chmeer. 
And  worso  than  that  bajco  meat  there  did  remain 
To  comfort  her  when  ihe  her  house  had  dtght. 
Sometime  a  barley-corn,  sometime  a  bean. 
For  which  she  laboured  bard  both  day  and  night. 

I  jest  to  Oberon  and  make  him  smilc^ 
When  I  a  fat  and  ftsone-fed  horse  beguile, 
Keighhig  in  likenesse  of  a  silly  foale. 

Shaktpears, 
L6ng  let  us  walk. 
Where  the  breeze  blows  fimm  yon  extended  field 
Of  bloesom'd  Uant,  TMem$m,  "Spru^, 

On  tuniitM  feast  whene'er  yen  please. 
And  riot  in  my  hemm  and  pease.      (7«^«  Faikt, 
Why  does  the  pea  put  forth  tendrils,  the  bean  not ; 
but  because  the  stalk  of  the  pea  cannot  support  itself, 
the  stalk  of  the  bean  cani  PiUej^ 

Bean.  The  old  method  of  choosing  king  and 
queen  on  Twelfth-day^  was  by  having  a  bean 
aod  a  pea  mixed  up  in  the  composition  of  a 
cake.  They  who  found  these  in  their  portion  of 
cake,  were  constituted  king  and  queen  for  the 
evening. 

Now,  now  the  mirth  comes. 
With  the  eake  full  of  plums. 
Where  beane't  the  king  of  the  spoit  here  ^ 
Besides  we  must  know« 
The  pea  also. 
Must  rerell  as  queene  in  the  court  here. 

Heniek'M  Hetper, 
Cut  the  cake",  who  hath  the  fteone  shall  be  kinge  \ 
and  where  the  <pease  is  she  shall  be  queene. 

NiehaVi  Pngreuee, 
You  Okay  imagine  it  to  be  twelfth  day  at  night, 
and  the  bean  found  in  the  comer  of  your  eake,  but  it 
is  not  worth  a  vetch,  I  assure  you. 

Man.  New  Wend.  Am,  Dr,  272. 

Beans.    *  Three  blue  beam  in  a  Uue  bladder.' 

What  is  the  origin  of  this  whimsical  combination 

of  words,  it  may  not  now  be  easy  to  dbcovefi 

but  at  least  \i  is  of  long  standing. 

F.  Hark,  doesH  ratde  t 

S.  Tes,  like  three  blue  beam  in  a  blue  bladder, 
rattle  bladder,  tattle. 

on  Fortmaiut.  Ane,  Dr,  III,  p.  128. 
Prior  has  it  in  his  Alma : — 

They  say 
That  putthkg  all  his  words  together 
Tis  three  bine  beam  ia  one  Uae  bladder. 

Oami.  I.  V.  36. 
Bean,  in  botany.    See  Vicia. 
Beaks,  in  antiquity,  were  applied  to  various 
uses.  The  ancients  made  use  or  beans  hi  gathar- 


ing  the  votes  of  the  people,  and  for  the  election 
of  magistrates.  A  white  Ijean  signified  absolu- 
tion, and  a  black  one  condemnation.  Bean»  had 
a  mysterious  use  in  the  lemnialia  and  parentali;»; 
where  the  master  of  the  family,  after  washing, 
was  to  throw  a  sort  of  black  beaus  over  his  head^ 
still  repeating  the  words,  'I  redeem  myself  and 
Ihmil^  by  these  beans.'  Ovid  gives  a  lively 
descnption  of  the  whole  ceremony  in  verse.  Abh- 
stinence  from  beans  was  enjoined  ny  Pythagoras, 
one  of  whose  symbols  is,  jcva/ioy  avixi^Oai,  ab- 
stine  a  &bis.  The  Egyptian  priests  held  it  a 
crime  to  look  at  beans,  judging  the  very  sight 
nnclean  I  The  flamen  dialis  vras  not  permitted 
even  to  mention  the  name.  The  precept  of  Py- 
thagoras has  been  variously  interpreted:  some 
understand  it  of  forbearing  to  meddle  in  trials 
and  verdicts,  which  were  then  by  throwing  beans 
into  an  urn ;  others  build  on  the  equivoque  of 
the  word  jtva/ioct  and  explain  it  by  abstinence 
from  sexual  pleasures.    Clemens  Alexandrinus 

Sounds  the  abstinence  from  beans  on  this,  that 
ey  render  women  barren:  which  is  repeated 
by  TheophrastuSf  who  extends  the  effect  even  to 
plants.  Cicero  suggests  that  beans  are  great  ene- 
mies to  tranquillity  of  mind.  For  a  reason  of 
this  kind  it  is,  that  Amphiarus  is  said  to  have 
abstained  from  beans,  even  before  Pythagoras, 
&at  he  might  enjoy  a  clearer  divination  by 
dreams. 

Beans,  in  dietetics,  are  said  to  be  nutritive, 
but  flatulent.  The .  horse-bean  has  been  often 
urged  as  a  succedaneum  for  coffee,  which  in 
principles  it  much  resembles ;  only  that  it  con- 
tains out  half  the  quantity  of  oil.  Mr.  Boyle 
describes  several  experiments  of  beans  treated 
pnenmatically  to  show  the  great  plenty  of  air  tiiey 
afford,  on  which  their  flatulency  is  supposed  to 
depend.  The  expansion  of  beans  in  growing, 
the  same  author  found  so  considerable,  that  it 
would  raise  a  plug  clogged  with  above  an  hun- 
dred pounds  weight. 

Beans,  in  fiuriery.    See  Farriery,  Index. 

Beans,  in  fishing,  with  proper  management, 
make  the  finest  of  all  baits.  The  method  of  pre- 
paring them  for  that  purpose  is  this:  take  a  new 
earthen  pot  glazed  on  the  inside,  boil  some  beans 
in  it,  suppose  a  quarter  of  a  peck :  they  must  be 
boiled  in  river  water,  and  should  be  previously 
steeped  in  some  warm  water  for  six  or  seven 
hours.  When  they  are  about  half  boiled,  put  in 
three  or  four  ounces  of  honey,  and  two  or  three 
grains  of  musk ;  let  them  boil  a  little  on,  then 
take  them  off  the  fire.  They  are  to  be  used  in 
this  manner:  seek  out  a  clean  place  where  there 
are  no  weeds,  that  the  fish  may  see  and  take  the 
beans  at  the  bottom  of  the  water.  Throw  some 
in  at  five  or  six  in  the  morning,  and  in  the  even- 
ing for  some  days.  This  will  draw  them  to- 
getlier,  and  they  may  be  taken  in  a  casting  net  in 
great  numbers. 

Bean,  Boo,  or  Bean,  Buck.     See  Memtak- 

THES. 

Bean,  Caper.    Fabago.    A  plant.    See  Zt- 

GOPBYLLUM. 

BsAN-€0^,  a  small  fishing-vessel  or  pilot-boat^ 
common  on  the  sea  coasts  and  in  the  rivers  of 
Portugal.  It  is  extremely  sharp  forward,  having 
its  stem  bent  inward  above  into  a  great  curve; 


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BEAR 


the  stem  is  alio  pbled  on  the  fore  side  with  iroo, 
into  which  a  number  of  bolts  are  driven,  to  for-^ 
tify  it,  and  rasist  the  stroke  of  another  vessel, 
which  may  iall  atbwait-hause.  It  is  commonly 
navigated  with  a  large  lateen  ^ail,  which  extends 
over  the  whole  length  of  the  deck,  and  is  accord- 
ingly well  fitted  to  ply  to  windward. 

Beak-flour,  called  by  the  Romans  lomen- 
torn,  was  of  some  repute  among  the  ancient 
,  ladies  as  a  cosmetic,  wherewith  to  smooth  the 
skin,  and  take  away  wrinkles. 

Bean-fly,  in  natural  history,  the  name  given 
by  authors  to  a  rery  beautiful  fly,  of  a  pale  pur- 
ple color,  frequently  found  on  bean-flowers.  It 
IS  produced  from  the  worm  or  maggot  called  by 
authors  Mida. 

Bean  Goose,  in  ornithology.    See  Akas. 

Bean,  Kidney,  in  botany.   .  See  Phasboivs. 

Bean  Kidney,  Tree.    See  Glycine. 

Bean,  Molucca,  or  Anacardioin,  the  fruit  of 
a  tree  growing  in  Malabar  and  other  parts  of  the 
East  Indies^  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Avicen- 
nia  tomentosa;  oy  others,  the  bontia  eerminans. 
Hie  fruit  is  of  a  shining  black  color,  of  the  shape 
.of  a  heart  flattened,  about  an  inch  long,  termi- 
nating at  one  end  in  an  obtu&e  point,  and  ad- 
hering by  the  other  to  a  wrinkled  stalk.  It 
contains  within  two  shells  a  kernel  of  a  sweetish 
taste;  betwixt  the  shells  is  lodged  a  thick  and 
acrid  juice  or  oil.  The  medicinaJ  virtues  of  anar 
cardia  have  been  greatly  disputed.  Many  have 
attributed  to  them  the  faculty  of  strengthening 
the  nerves,  fortifying  the  memory,  and  quicken- 
ing the  intellect.  Hence  a  confection  made 
from  them  was  once  dignified  with  the  title  of 
confectio  sapientium;  but  which  others  have 
thought  better  deserving  the  name  of  confectio 
stultorum,  as  instances  are  said  to  have  occurred 
of  its  having  rendered  people  maniacal.  But  the 
kernel  of  anacardium  is  not  different  in  quality 
from  that  of  almonds.  The  ill  effects  attributed 
to  this  fruit  belong  only  to  the  oil  contained  be^ 
twixt  the  kernels,  whose  acrimony  is  so  great, 
that  it  is  said  to  be  employed  hy  the  Indians  as 
a  caustic.  This  oil  is  of  service  externally  for 
tetters,  freckles,  and  other  cutaneous  deformities ; 
which  it  removes  only  by  exulcerating  or  excori- 
ating the  part,  so  that  a  new  skin  comes  under- 
neath.   S«e  Anacardium. 

Bean  Tree.    See  Corallodendron. 

Bean  Tree,  Binding.  'See  Mimosa. 


BEAR,  V, 
Bear'j 
Bear'] 
Bear'] 
hara^  to  create. 


R'ER,n.f  I 

r'ing,    (t 
r'n.       )  h 


«.a.  pret.  I  bore,  or  Bare; 
[part.  pass.  Bore  or  bom;  Sax. 
^Deojian,  bcjian,  beoran ;  Gothic 
*bairan;  Lat.  pario;  and  Heb. 
Dr.  Johnson  remarks,  that  this 
word  is  used  with  such  latitude  that  it  is  not 
easily  explained.  The  general  divisions  of  its 
meaning  are  to  yield,  to  bring  forth;  to  carry, 
to  convey,  and  to  transport ;  to  endure,  to  suffer, 
to  support,  and  to  undergo.  Yet  is  it  in  all 
these  various  significations  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  words  employed  to.  explain  it.  Bear 
conveys  the  idea  of  creating  within  itself;  yield 
that  of  giving  fix)m  itself.  Animals  bear  their 
young;  inanimate  objects  yield  their  produce, 
an  apple  tree  bears  apples ;  the  earth  yiekU  fruits. 
Bear  marks  properly  the  natural  power  of  bring- 
ing forth  something  of  its  own  kind ;  yield  is  saH 


of  the  results  or  quantum  brought  fbrdi.  Shnbs 
hear  leaves,  flowers,  or  berries,  according  to  their 
natural  properties;  flowers  yield  seeds  plenti- 
fully, or  otherwise,  as  they  are  influenoed  by 
circumstances.  The  second  class  of  meanings 
attaching  to  this  word,  the  sense  of  retaining 
as  well  as  generating,  is  expressed  by  the  words 
carry,  conoey,  and  trannort ;  but  these  are  not  sy- 
nonymous to  bear.  To  bear  is  simplj  to  take 
the  weight  of  any  substance  upon  one^  self;  to 
carry  is  to  remove  that  weight  fh>m  the  spot 
where  it  was ;  we  always  bear  in  carrymg^  bat  we 
do  not  always  carry  when  we  bear.  Bom  may  be 
applied  to  things  as  well  as  persons;  whatever 
receives  the  weight  of  any  thing  bears  it;  what- 
ever is  caused  to  move  vrith  any  thing  carries 
It.  Convey  and  transport  are  employed  fcr  such 
actions  as  are  performed  not  by  immediate  per- 
sonal intervention  or  exertion  :  a  porter  ctrries 
goods  on  his  knot;  goods  are  conveyed  in  a 
waggon  or  a  cart;  they  are  transported  in  a  ves- 
sel. It  is  customary  at  funerals  for  some  to  Bear 
(he  pall,  and  others  to  carry  wands  or  staves ; 
the  body  itself  is  conve^  in  a  hearse,  unless  it 
has  to  cross  the  ocean,  in  which  case  it  is  Inst- 
ported  in  a  vessel.  In  the  sense  of  suffering  and 
endurance,  which  it  the  third  cla.<is  of  meanings  in 
which  this  word  is  to  be  understood,  it  is  likewise 
to  be  distinguished  from  its  exegetical  representa- 
tives. To  suffer  is  a  passive  and  involuntary  act ; 
it  denotes  simply  the  being  a  receiver  of  evU ;  itis 
therefore  the  condition  of  our  beiuff ;  to  bear  is 
positive  and  voluntary,  it  denotes  the  manner  in 
which  we  receive  the  evil.  To  bear  is  a  single 
act  of  the  resolution,  and  relates  only  to  common 
ills ;  we  bear  disappointments  and  crosses ;  to 
endure  is  a  continued  and  powerful  act  of  the 
mind.  The  first  object  of  education  should  be 
to  accustom  children  to  beer  contradictions  and 
crosses,  that  they  may  afterwards  be  enabled  to 
endure  every  trial  and  misery.  To  bear  and  en- 
dure signi^  to  receive  becomingly  the  weight 
of  what  bendls  ourselves :  to  supnort  signifies  jto 
bear  either  our  own  or  another  s  evils ;  for  we 
may  either  support  ourselves,  or  be  supported 
by  others ;  but  in  this  latter  case  we  bear  from 
(he  capacity  which  is  within  ourselves ;  hot  we 
support  ourselves  by  foreign  aid,  dial  is,  hy  the 
consolations  of  religion,  the  partidpation  2n^ 
condolenoeof  friends, and  the  lxxe.--CnsA>.  ab 
almost  infinite  variety  of  shades  of  meaning,  ap- 
proaching to  and  receding  from  these  genenl 
divisions,  must  be  observed  by  every  one  at  all 
familiar  with  our  best  English  writers. 

For  in  tvaiuiyi  of  hy«  btrymg  fap  moder  was  fni 
dcd.  IL  ( 


For  shiin  neaer  brere  here  beriet  at  a  vyae. 

Piert  PlmkmatL. 

Lo!  a  virgyn  schal  hane  in  wombo  and  tche  cbal 
here  a  sono,  and  they  schvlen  clepe  hit  natw  £m»- 
nuel.  WieHf,  Mmtt,  chap.  i. 

*'  I  wd  not  fro  the  door  waad 
Tyll  1  have  my  ttaff."      TLou  brihowr  thea  hart 

the  todir  end 
Quod  hi  that  wat  within ;  and  ley'd  it  oa  hit  bak. 
Right  in  the  tame  plate  at  chapmen  hertA  their  pak. 
Chamer,  CoHttrbmy  Tmkt^ 


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703 


But  he  was  mounted  in  hit  Beat  lo  high. 
And  hi«  wing-footed  coursers  him  did  beare 
So  fast  away,  that  ere  his  ready  speare 
He  conld  advance,  he  farre  waa  gone  and  paat. 
Yet  still  he  him  did  follow  everywhere.  SpenMT, 
Pan  may  be  proud  that  ever  he  begot 

Such  a  bellibone ; 
And  Syrihx  rejoice  that  ever  was  her  lot 

To  beam  such  an  one.  W.  Shephear^t  Calendar. 
But  fayrest  ahe,  when  so  the  doth  display 
The  gate  with  pearles  and  rabies  richly  dight  \  ^ 
Through  which  her  words  so  wise  do  make  their  way. 
To  beare  the  message  of  her  gentle  qtright. 

Td.    SomteU. 

Withhold  thine  indignation,  mighty  heaven. 
And  tempt  us  not  to  bear  above  our  power ! 

Shakipeare* 

For  my  part,  I  had  rather  bear  wtth  you,  than  bear 
ymi ;  yet  1  should  bear  no  cross,  if  I  did  fteor  you ; 
for  I  Uiink  you  have  no  money  in  your  parse.        Id, 
The  queen,  that  bore  thee 
Oftner  upon  her  knees  than  on  her  feet. 
Pied  every  day  she  liv'd.  W. 

There  be  some  plants  that  bear  no  flqwer,  and  yet 
bear  fruit;  there  be  some  that  bear  flowers  and  no 
frnit;  there  be  some  that  bear  neither  flowers  nor 
Irnit.  BacvHn 

When  with  his  hands  did  help  his  feet  to  bear. 
Else  could  they  ill  so  huge  a  burthen  steer. 

Fletcher'i  Purple  Iiiamd. 
M^estic  though  in  ruin :  sago  he  stood 
With  Atlantean  shoulders  fit  to  bear 
The  weight  of  mightiest  monarchiea.  MiUon* 

Vo  keel  shall  cut  the  waves  for  foreign  ware 
For  every  soil  Aall  ev'ry  product  bear.       Dryden, 
My  message  to  the  ghost  of  Priam  bear  \ 
Tell  him  a  new  Achilles  sent  thee  there. 

Id.    Mmd. 
A  guest  like  him,  a  Trojan  guest  before. 
In  shew  of  friendship,  sought  the  Spartan  shore. 
And  ravish'd  Helen  fkpm  her  husband  bore.      Garth. 

Ye  good  distrest! 
Ye  noble  few !  who  here  unbending  stand 
l^cneath  life's  pressure,  yet  bear  up  a  while. 
And  what  your  bounded  view,  which  only  saw 
A  little  part,  decm'd  evil,  is  no  more ; 
The  storms  of  wintry  time  will  quickly  pass. 
And  one  onboanded  spring  encircle  all.         Tkomton. 
You'll  see  a  draggled  damsel  here  and  there 
From  Billingiigate  her  fishy  traffic  bear.  Oay. 

I  fancy  the  proper  means  of  increasing  the  love  we 
hear  our  native  country,  is  to  reside  some  time  in 
a  foreign  one.  Shemtone. 

Jjet  a  man  be  brought  into  some  such  severe  and 
trying  situation  as  fixes  the  attention  of  the  public  on 
his  behavioar<~the  first  question  which  we  put  con- 
cerning him  is  not  what  does  he  suffer  ?  but  how  does 
he  bear  it  7  If  we  judge  him  to  be  composed  and  firm, 
resigned  to  providence,  aud  supported  by  conscious 
'niegrity,  his  character  rises,  and  his  miseries  lessen 
'a  our  view  Bkur. 

Each  bean  a  prize  of  imregarded  charms.      Byron. 
To  hear  tip;  to  stand  i\rm  ivithout  falling; 
not  to  sink ;  not  to  faint  or  fail. 
So  long  as  nature 
Will  bear  up  with  his  exercise,  so  long 
I  daily  vow  to  vuAe  it.  Shdkapeare. 

Persons  in  distress  may  speak  of  themselves  with 
di{tuily ;  it  shews  a  greatness  af  soul^  that  they  bear 
up  b^ainat  the  scurms  of  fortune.  Broome. 


The  conscioQsness  of  kitegri^,  the  sense  of  »  life 
spent  in  doing  good,  will  enable  a  man  to  bear  op 
under  any  change  of  circumstances.  AUerbvry. 

When  our  commanders  and  sohfien  wei«  raw  and 
unexperienced  we  lost  battles  and  towns  :  yet  we  bore 
up  then,  as  the  French  do  now ;  nor  was  thsve  any 
thing  decisive  in  their  successes.  Stmft* 

To  bear  with.  To  endure  an  nnpleasitig  thing. 
They  are  content  to  bear  with  my  absence  and  folly. 

Sidney. 
Though  I  must  be  content  to  hear  with  those  that 
say  you  are  reverend  grave  men  ;  yet  they  lie  deadly,  / 
that  tell  you,  you  have  good  faces.  Shakqteare* 

Look  you  lay  home  to  him. 
Tell  him  his  pranks  have  been  too  broad  ta  &«iar  vekk. 

Id. 
Bear  with  me,  then,  if  lawful  what  I  ask. 

To  bear  in  hand.  To  amuse  with  false  pie- 
tences ;  to  deceive. 

Your  daughter,  whom  she  bore  m  hand  to  love 
With  such  integrity,  she  did  confess. 
Was  as  a  scorpion  to  her  sighL  Shabtpeare. 

His  sickness,  age,  and  impoteaee. 
Was  falsely  bore  m  hand.  Id, 

He  repaired  to  Bruges,  desiring  of  the  states  of 
Bruges  to  enter  peaeei^&y  into  their  town,  with  a  re- 
tinae fit  for  his  estate ;  and  bearing  them  in  hand,  that 
he  was  to  communicate  with  them  of  matters  of  great 
importance,  for  their  good.  Bacon. 

All  which  I  sofier,  playing  ^nth.  their  hopes. 
And  am  content  to  win  them  into  profit. 
And  look  upon  their  kindness,  and  take  more. 
And  look  on  tl:at,  still  bearing  them  m  band. 

Ben  Jonson. 
It  is  no  wonder,  that  some  would  bear  the  world  m 
hand,  that  the  apostle's  design  and  meaning  is  for 
presbytety,  thcmgh  his  words  are  for  episcopacy. 

South. 
To  bear  off.  To  carry  awa)* 
I  will  respect  thee  as  a  father,  if 
Thou  bear*9t  my  life  off  hence.  Shahtpeare. 

The  sun  views  half  the  earth  on  either  way. 
And  here  brings  on,  snd  there  bean  offxha  day. 

Creech. 
Give  but  the  word,  well  snatch  this  damsel  up. 
And  bear  her  off^  Addieon.  Cato. 

My  soul  grows  desperate. 
I'll  bear  her  off.  A.  PhOipt. 

To  bear  out.  To  support ;  to  maintain ;  to  de- 
fend. 

I  hope  your  warrant  will  bear  out  the  deed. 

Shahepeare. 

I  can  once  or  twice  a   quarter  bear  oai  a  knave 

against  an  honest  man.  Id. 

Changes    are   never  without   danger,  unless   tho 

prince  be  able  to  bear  out  his  actions  by  power. 

Sir  J.  Heyward. 

Quoth  Sidrophel,  I  do  not  doubt. 
To  find  friends  that  will  bear  me  out. 

Hudibroi. 
Company  only  can  bear  a  man  oitf  in  an  ill  thing. 

^    ^       '^  8outh. 

I  doubted  whether  that  occasion  could  bear  me  out 
in  the  confidence  of  giving  your  ladyship  any  farther 
trouble.  Tempie. 

To  bear  a  brain.  To  exert  attention.  Inge- 
nuity or  memory. 

My  lord  and  you  were  then  at  Mantua  : 
Jf  ay,  I  do  bear  a  brain. 

Sftahspeard    Romeo  and  Jtdict. 


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Bat,  stiUj  take  yoa  httA,  have  ft  YigiUnt 
Well,  sir,  let  me  iJone,  III  bear  a  ftram. 

AU  Fooh,  Old  Play,  iv.  177. 

To  bear  six  and  six.  An  obscurephrase,  occur- 
ring in  the  Spanish  Curate  of  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher. 

He's  the  mott  anant  beast. 

Mell.  He  may  be  more  beast. 

Jam.  Let  him  bear  nx  and  mx  that  all  may  blaae 
him.  £^Mii.  Cvr,  ii.  3. 

That  the  object  is  to  maike  him  a  homed  beast  is 
plain' from  the  context,  bat  by  what  allusion  is  not  so 
deai^  He  b  to  bear  nx  and  tix,  as  his  arms.  After 
one  or  two  unsatisfactory  conjectures,  it  was  suggested 
to  me  that  the  expression  most  probably  alluded  tp 
the  horns  of  a  ram,  which  by  the  aid  of  a  little  fancy 
may  be  considered  as  two  figures  of  six,  placed  back 
to  back  9  6.  That  this  is  the  true  interpretation  there 
seems  no  reason  to  doubt.  Nam.  GUmairy 

Beabing-Clotb.  The  mantle  or  cloth  with 
which  a  child  is  usually  covered  when  carried  to 
church  to  be  baptised,  or  produced  among  the 
gossips  by  the  nurse. 

Here's  a  sight  for  thee  ;  look  there,  a  bearing-doth 
tor  a  squire's  child  ;  look  thee  here,  take  up,  take  up 


boy ;  open'x. 
Bear', 
Bear'baiting, 
Bear'garden, 
Bear'uerd, 
BeaR'ish, 
Bear'sleek, 
Bear'like, 
BeaK'skiv, 
Bear'ward, 
Bear'whelp. 


Shakipeare, 
Sax.  bepa.  Germ,  baer, 
LaI.  urnu.  Others  derive 
it  from  the  Greek  ptipoQ, 
which  they  interpret  pilo- 
nan  vUlottan  (urtus,  qttati 
"hamu,  hirtutus,  fnUt  hor- 
rem.)  A  hairy  shagey  ani- 
mal, a  she  bear,  shaggy, 
and  of  horrid  aspect. 


His  sueoat  was  a  bearakm  on  his  back.       Drpiem, 

In  our  own  language  we  seem  to  allude  tp  this  de- 
generacy of  human  nature,  when  we  call  men,  by 
way  of  reproach,  sheepish,  beariah,  &c.  Harrm, 

I  must  propose  some  methods  for  the  imprqrcment 
of  the  bear-garden,  by  dismissing  »U  the  bodily  acroi* 
to  that  quarter.  Sjpeeimitr. 

Our  nobility  also  kept  their  bear-mard.       Pemmtmt, 

Bear,  the  name  of  two  constellatioiis,  called 
the. greater  and  lesser  bear;  in  the  tail  of  the 
lesser  bear  is  the  pole  star. 
The  chiding  billow  seems  to  pelt  the  clouds. 
The   wind-shakM  surge   with   high  and   moostrooa 


Seems  to  cast  waters  on  the  burning  bear. 
And  quench  the  guards  of  the  ever  fixed  pole, 
I  never  did  like  molertatioa  view 
Oh  the  enchafed  flood. 

Others  derive  it  from  the  bear 

That's  fixed  in  northern  hemisphere. 

And  round  about  his  pole  does  make 

A  circle  like  a  bear  at  stake. 

That  at  the  chain's  and  wheels  about 

And  overturns  the' rabble  rout.     Buttar^e  Haiibrmu 
E'en  then  when  Txpy  was  by  the  Greeks  o'erthrown 
The  bear  oppos'd  to  bright  Orion  shone.  Creaek, 

Bear,  in  astronomy.    See  Ursa. 

Bear,  in  loology.    See  Ursus. 

Bear,  in  heraldry ;  this  animal  occurs  as  a 
charge  in  coats  of  arms,  as,  'lie  beareth,  or^  a 
bear  passant,  sable ;  by  the  name  of  Fitioiine :' 
and  rampant,  as  in  fig.  1. 

Fig.  1.  Fig.  %. 


Some  have  falsely  reported,  that  bean  bring  their 
young  into  the  worid  shapeless,  and  that  their  dams 
lick  them  into  form.  Caknei, 

A  cruel  beare,  the  which  an  infant  bore 
Betwixt  his  bloodie  Jawes  besprinkled  all  with  gore. 


I  would  I  had  bestowed  that  time  on  the  tongues, 
that  I  have  in  fencing,  dancing,  and  bear-baitirtg.  O, 
had  I  but  foUo:wed  the  arts. 

Shahpeare.  Twelfth  Nighi. 
They  have  tied  me  to  a  stake  I  cannot  fly. 

But  bearAike  I  must  fight  the  course.    Id.  Maebeih. 

Virtue  is  of  so  little  regard  in  these  costermonger 
times,  that  true  valour  is  tumed  bear-herd. 

Id.  Henry  fV, 

Like  to  a  chaos,  or  an  unlick'd  bear-^help. 
That  carries  no  impression  like  the  dam.  Id.  Hen.  VI. 

Call  hither  to  the  stake  my  two  brave  beare. 

Bid  Salisbury  and  Warwi^  come  to  me. 

— Are  these  thy  bean ;  well  bait  thy  bears  to  death. 
And  manacle  the  beanBord  in  their  chains.  Id, 

Thou'dst  shun  a  bear; 
But  if  thy  flight  lay  tow'rd  the  raging  sea, 
Thou'dst  meet  the  bear  i*  th'  mouth.  Id. 

COR.  O,  by  your  leave,  sir, 
I  must  be  bold  to  raise  you ',  else  your  physio 
Will  turn  to  futher  sickness.  , 

Mel. Physic,  bear-Jseehf 

CoR.  Yes  •,  physic !  You  are  mad.  Ford. 

The  worsted  bear  came  off  with  store 

Of  bloody  wounds,  but  all  before : 

For  as  Achilles  dipt  in  pond,    . 

Was  anabaptiz'd,  free  from  wound. 

Made  proof  against  doad-doing  steel 

AU  over  but  the  pagan  heel — 

So  did  our  champion's  arms  defend 

All  of  him  but  the  latter  end.        Butler'i  Hudibrae. 


Bears'  heads  are  also  borne  in  coat 
mostly  erased,  as  in  fig.  2.  *  Argent^  a  dierroo 
between  three  bears'  heads  erased,  sable^  muzzled, 
or ;  by  the  name  of  Pennarth.' 

Bear,  Order  of  tbe,  was  a  military  order  in 
Switzerland,  erected  by  the  emperor  Frederic  II. 
in  1213,  by  way  of  acknowledgment  for  the  ser- 
vice the  Swiss  had  done  him,  and  in  favor  of  the 
abbey  of  St.  Ga}l.  To  the  collar  of  the  order 
bung  a  medal,  on  which  was  represented  a  bear, 
raised  on  an  eminence  of  earth. 

Bear,  Sea.    See  Phoca. 

Bear  Island,  an  island  in  Bantry  bay,  Irdaad, 
six  miles  in  length,  and  one  and  a  bialf  broad, 
billy  and  rugged,  where  batteries  have  been 
erected  for  &e  defence  of  the  bay.  Diatant 
twelve  miles  from  Bantry.  Long.  9^  45'  W.,  lat. 
51''  35'  N. 

Bear  Island,  a  small  island  in  tbe  Atlantic^ 
on  the  coast  of  Main,  Long.  68^  20*  W.,  lat. 
44**  6'  N. 

Bear  Lake,  Black,  a  lake  of  North  America, 
in  long.  1074  W^,  lat.  53|  N.  Tbe  navigation  is 
full  of  impediments  from  islands  and  ranida. 

Bear  liARR,  Great^  a  considerable  lake  in  tbe 
north-west  of  America,  near  the  arctic  circle. 
The  North-west  Expedition  reached  it  hn  the 
suBuner  of  1820^  ana  lieutenant  Franklin  and  his 


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party,  wintered  here.  In  the  eosuing  vpm^  tbey 
attempted  to  reach  the  ocean  by  the  Copper- 
mine river ;  but,  unable  to  accomplish  their  ob- 
ject, they  returned  to  this  lake  the  name  year  in 
great  distress,  and  passed  a  second  winter  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

Sear  Town,  in  Carolina  county,  Maiylftncl, 
lies  about  seven  miles  north  from  Greensbuigfa, 
and  about  fifteen  miles  south-east  from  Chester- 
town. 

BfiAR*s  Breech,  in  botany.    See  Acaktbus. 

Bear's  College,  a  jocular  expression  for 
the  bear-garden,  commonly  called  Paris  garden^ 

From  the  di«t  aad  the  knowledge 
Of  the  stndeatt  in  ieoie'  Mikg: 

BmJ^mtm.    MadkofOipt, 

Bear's  Ear,  in  botany,  a  name  sometimes 
iriveD  to  the  primula  villosa,  or  auricula ;  also  to 
the  saxifraga  sarmentosa,  or  Chinese  saxifrage. 

Bear's  Foot,  a  name  given  to  the  helleborus 
fcetidus. 

Bear's  Flesb  was  much  esteemed  by  the 
ancients:  even  at  this  day  the  paw  of  a  bear, 
salted  and  smoked,  is  served  up  at  the  table  of 
princes. 

Bear's  Grease  was  formerly  esteemed  a 
sovereign  remedy  against  cold  disorders,  es- 
pecially rheumatisms.  It  is  now  much  used  in 
dressing  ladies  and  gentlemen's  hair. 

Bear's  Skik  affords  a  fur  in  great  esteem,  and 
on  which  depends  a  considerable  article  of  com- 
merce, being  used  in  housings,  on  coach-boxes, 
fcc.  In  some  countries  clothes  are  made  of  it, 
more  especially  bags  wherein  to  keep  the  feet 
warm  in  severe  colds.  Of  the  skins  of  bears' 
cubs  BJtB  made  gloves,  muffs,  and  the  like. 

To  Bear  a  Body.  A  color  b  said  to  bear  a 
body  in  paintii^,  when  it  is  capable  of  being 
^und  so  fine,  and  mixing  with  the  oil  so  en- 
tirely, aa  to  aeem  only  a  very  ^Hck  oil  of  the  same 
<»lor. 

BEARD,  V.  &  n:^     The  applications  of  this 
Be'arded,  Sword  are    better    under- 

Beard'less.  j  stood  than  its  etymolosy ; 
the  full  obvious  meaning  of  it  is  the  hair  £at 
grows  on  the  lips  and  chin.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  derived  from  tlie  German  baren,  to  show  or 
manifest,  because  the  beard  is  an  indication  of 
manhood :  but  this  is  not  to  my  mind  satis&e- 
tory ;  its  metaphorical  application  is  to  the  sharp 
prickles  growing  on  the  ears  of  com ;  to  the 
barb  of  an  arrow ;  it  also  describes  die  hairy 
tufl  that  grows  from  the  chin  of  some  animals ; 
the  beard  of  a  horse  is  that  part  which  bears  the 
curb  of  the  bridle ;  the  leugtn  of  the  beard  marks 
age ;  to  beard  also  is  to  take  or  pluck  by  the 
beard  in  contempt  or  anger ;  to  oppose  to  the 
face ;  to  «et  at  open  defiance ;  adopted,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Stevens,  from  romance ;  in  the  old 
language  of  which  it  signified,  to  cut  off  Ike  beard; 
beardku,  yriihoui^  beard ;  ^hoy. 

A  BMichaat  wae  there  with  a  forked  ierd, 

Chaucer,    Prologue  to  the  Canterbury  Tulee, 

A  FnmUein  wm  in  this  coropagnie 

White  WM  hit  herd  as  is  the  dayesie.  Id, 

His  berd  as  any  sowe  or  fox  xras  rede. 
And  thereto  brode  as  though  it  were  a  spade. 
Vol.  III. 


Upoa  the  cop  right  el  his  aoee  he  hade 
▲  wert,  and  thnmm  itode  a  tuft  of  heres. 
Rede  as  ih4  brisdes  of  a  sowes  eres.  Id. 

'  Art  thoQ  the  caytive  that  defyest  me. 
And  for  this  mayd,  whose  paVty  thou  dbst  ta^  ? 
Wilt  give  thy  beard,  though  it  bat  little  bef 
Yet  shall  it  not  her  leckes  for  raoosome  fro  me 
free.  Speneer. 

He  that  hath  a  heard  is  more  than  a  youth ;  and 
he  that  hath  no  heard  is  less  than  a  man.    ShtUupeare, 


shall  a  heardlem  boy, 
A  cockor'd  silken  wanton,  brave  •vx  fields* 
And  flesh  his  spirit  in  a  warlike  soil* 
Mocking  the  air  with  coloozs  idly  spread* 
And  find  no  check.  Id, 

No  man  so  potent  breathes  upon  the  ground* 
But  I  will  heard  him.  Id, 


•  and  began  to  hem  him  round 


With  ported  spears,  as  thick  as  when  a  field 
Of  Ceres  ripe  for  harvest  waving  bends 
Her  bearded  grove  of  ears*  which  way  the  wind 
Sways  them.  MUtan. 

Ere  on  thy  chin  the  springing  beard  began. 
To  spread  a  doubtful  duwn,  and  promise  man. 

Prior, 
3ome  thin  remains  of  chastity  appeared* 
Sv'n  under  Jove*  but  Icrre  without  a  heard, 

Drydem. 

Would  it  not  be  insufferable  for  a  professor  to  have 

his  authority,  of  forty  yean  standing,  confirmed  by 

general  tradition  and  a  reverend  heard,  overturned  by 

aa  upstart  novelist?  Zocfte. 

Paints*  d'ye  say  T 
Why  she  lays  it  on  with  a  trowel — ^Tbcn  she  has  a 
great  heard,  that  bristles  through  it,  and  makes  her 
look  aa  if  she  were  plastered  with  lime  and  hair. 

dmgreve.  Double  Dealer, 

The  heard,  conformable  to  the  notion  of  my  friend 
Sir  Roger,  was  for  many  ages  looked  upon  as  the  type 
of  wisdom.  .  Ludan  mere  than  once  rallies  the  phi- 
losophers of  his  time*  who  endeavoured  to  rival  one 
another  in  hearda;  and  represents  a  learned  man  who 
stood  ftfr  a  professorship  in  philosophy*  as  unqualified 
for  it  by  the  shortness  of  his  beard.  Speeiaior, 

Girt  with  many  a. baron  bold* 
Sublime  their  starry  fronts  they  rear  \ 
And  gorgeotts  dames*  and  statesmen  old 
In  bearded  mi^eaty*  appear.  Oray, 

The  artilldal  part  ef  a  feather  is  the  beard,  or  as 
it  is  sometimes.  I  believe  caHed,  the  vane*  By  the 
fteordi  are  meant,  what  are  fastened  on  each  side  of 
the  stem*  and  what  constitute  the  breadth  of  the 
feather ;  what  we  usually  strip  off  from  one  side  or 
both  when  we  mako  a  pen« 

Paleye  Natural  Theology, 
But  if  thy  fteortf  had  manlier  length* 
And  if  thy  hand  had  skill  afid  streu^* 
I'd  joy  to  see  thee  break  a  lance* 
Albeit  against  my  own  perchance. 

Byron,  Bride  of  Ahydoe. 

I  should  have  bearded  him  in  halls  of  pride* 
I  should  have  mated  him  in  fields  of  death ; 
Not  stolen  upon  his  secret  bowor  of  peace* 
And  breathed  a  serpent's  venom  on  his  flower. 

Mahrrin'e  Bertram^ 

Beards.  '  Neither  errors  nor  beards,'  as  arch- 
bishop Tillotson  says,  '  are  inconveniences  lately 
sprung  up  in  the  world.'  As  the  distinguishing 
sign  of  mature  manhood,  the  beard  hu  in  all 
ages  conmianded  attention,  and  received  particu- 
lar veneration  from  the  less  civilised  part  of  man- 

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kind.  But  Moses  is  the  earliest  legblator  aa  the 
subject.  The  command  which  God  gave  by  him 
to  the  Israelites,  *Thou  shalt  not  mat  the  comers 
of  thy  beard'  (Lev.  19,  27.),  seems  cleariy  to  al- 
lude to  some  previous  -well-known  custom, 
probably  of  the  Egyptians.  Maimonides,  as 
quoted  by  Whitby,  describes  the  '  five  comers'  of 
the  beard,  'none  of  which,'  says  he,  *  much  less 
all,  they  might  shave  off,  as  the  manner  of  the 
idolatrous  priests  was.'  More  Nevoch,  c.  xxxvii. 
Herodotus  confirms  this  with  regard  to  the  Egyp- 
tian priests,  who,  as  he  tells  us,  shaved  the  head, 
chin,  and  whole  body.  Accordingly,  most  of  the 
Egyptian  figures  are  without  beard.  He  further 
informs  us,  that  in  time  of  calamity,  they  suffered 
their  beard  and  hair  to  grow.  The  Jews  also, 
in  time  of  mourning,  neglected  to  trim  their 
beards,  that  is,  to  cut  off  what  grew  superfluous 
on  the  upper  lips  and  cheeks.  iJut  occasionally 
manifested  their  grief  in  great  afflictions  by 
plucking  off  the  hair  of  their  beard.  The  vene- 
ration of  the  Jews  for  this  appendage  of  man- 
hood, in  the  brightest  period  of  their  history,  is 
strongly  exemplified  in  the  indignation  which 
was  felt  by  the  ambassadors  of  David,  whepthey 
were  outraged  in  this  respect  by  Hanun  the  Am- 
monite, 2  Sam.  X.  *  The  men,'  it  is  said,  *  were 
greatly  ashamed,'  and  '  the  children  of  Ammon 
stank  before  David.'  We  were  lately  much 
amused  with  the  argument  of  a  learned  modem 
Jew  for  the  obligation  of  wearing  his  beard : 
*  two  of  the  strongest  implications,*  he  said,  *  of 
the  laws  of  his  people  required  it ;  the  above  com- 
mand, Lev.  xix.  27^  not  to  mar  its  comers,  which 
he  contended  could  only  apply  when  the  beard 
was  worn ;  and  the  general  precept,  Deut.  xxii.  5, 
forbidding  either  sex  to  wear  tnat  which  *  per- 
taineth'  to  the  other — a  beardless  face  being,  ac- 
cording to  nature,  he  insisted,  a  woman's  face.' 

The  Assyrians,  says  Strabo,  xvi.,  like  the 
Egyptians,  permitted  their  beards  to  grow  in 
seasons  of  grief.  The  Persians,  on  the  contrary, 
shaved  not  only  themselves  in  honor  of  the  dead, 
but  docked  the  tails,  and  cropped  the  manes,  of 
their  horses  and  mules.  Compare  Her.  ix.  24, 
II.  c.  45. 

According  to  the  fables  of  the  Greeks,  when 
Thetis  wished  to  revenge  the  wrongs  of  her  son, 
she  approached  the  knees  of  Jupiter  with  a  kiss, 
and  touched  his  beard  in  supplication.  In  the 
same  manner  Dolon  would  have  besought  pity 
from  Diomede ;  and  if  he  could  have  touched  the 
warrior's  beard,  his  life,  perhaps,  would  have 
been  secure.     //.  c.  454. 

Athensus  observes  that  the  Greeks  always  wore 
their  beards  till  the  time  of  Alexander ;  and  that 
the  first  who  cut  it  at  Athens  ever  after  bore  the 
addition  of  Kop<rric$  shaven,  on  medals.  He  re- 
cords a  sarcasm  of  Diogenes,  who  asked  a  smooth 
chined  voluptuary  *  whether  he  quarrelled  with 
nature  for  making  him  a  man  mstead  of  a 
woman?*  xiii.  2.  Plutarch  states  that  Alexander 
commanded  the  Macedonians  to  be  shaven,  lest 
the  length  of  their  beards  should  give  a  handle 
to  their  enemies.  But  his  father,  as  well  as 
Amyntas  and  Archelaus,  his  predecessors,  are 
represented  on  medals  without  beards.  The 
Greek  philosophers  distine:uishe(l  themselves 
from  the  vulgar  by  their  long  beards  :  t!ie  custom, 


however,  was  net  invariable ;  for  the  sdoliast  of 
Aristophanes,  Nub.  120,  asserts  that  the  ancient 
philosophers  shaved  their  beards.  The  Greeb 
continued  to  shave  till  the  time  of  Justinian, 
under  whose  empire  long  beards  came  again  into 
fashion,  and  so  continued  till  Constantinople 
was  taken  by  the  Turks.  The  Roman  philoso- 
phers affected  to  preserve  the  distinctive  charac- 
ter of  the  mantle  and  long  beard.  Honce 
describes  them : 


'TonpoK  quo  nu 


Solatun  jusait  sapientem  pasoere  bazbtm.' 

Sermon,  1.  ii.  uL  iiL  r.  34^ 

and  Aulus  GelUus  and  Lucian  express  thenaselves 
in  a  similar  manner.  Pereios  seems  to  have  been 
so  convinced  of  the  beard's  being  the  symbol  of 
vrisdom,  that  be  thought  he  could  not  bestow  a 
greater  encomium  on  Socrates  than  calling  him 
*  Magistram  barbatum.' 

From  the  building  of  the  city,  till  the  year  of 
its  foundation  454,  barbers  arc  said  to  have  been 
unknown  at  Rome.  They  were  first  impoited 
from  Sicily  by  Publius  Licinius.  There  is  some 
contradiction  however  on  this  point  among  the 
ancient  writers.  Pliny,  vii.  59,  Aulus  Gellios, 
iii.  4.,  and  Varro,  de  Re  Rust.  iL  2.,  concur  in 
the  foregoing  statement.  livy,  on  the  contrary, 
among  tlic  other  signs  of  popular  moiiraing. 
after  the  execution  of  Manlius  Capitolina.s 
which  took  place  in  the  year  U.C.  369,  enume- 
rates the  letting  the  beard  grow,  which,  unles 
shaving  had  been  customary,  could  not  bar-' 
been  noticed.  Scipio  Africanus  is  said  to  ban 
been  the  first  daily  shaver  at  Rome.  SUie^ 
wore  their  beards  and  hair  long;  but,  vben 
manumitted,  shaved  their  heads  in  the  temple  ot 
Feronia,  and  put  on  a  cap,  or  '  pileas,'  as  & 
badge  of  liberty.  Those  who  escaped  from  ship- 
wreck, shaved  tlieir  heads;  and  persons  acquitted 
of  a  capital  crime,  cut  their  hair  and  shaved,  and 
went  to  the  capitol  to  return  thanks  to  Jupiter. 
The  Roman  emperors  shaved  till  the  time  of 
Adrian,  who  retained  the  mode  of  wearing  tbe 
beard,  as  Plutarch  tells  us,  to  hide  the  scan  in 
his  face. 

According  to  Suetonius,  Calig.  10.,  the  young 
Romans  were  first  J>haved  when  the  toga  ririlis 
was  assumed.  Macrobius,  Somn.  Scip.  i.  6., 
says  it  was  about  the  age  of  twenty-one.  Au- 
gustus did  not  shave  before  the  age  o(  twenty- 
five.  Young  men  with  a  long  dovni,  or  *  lanugo,' 
upon  the  chin,  were  called  *  juvenes  barbatuli/ 
or  *  benfe  barbati.'  The  day  on  which  they  first 
shaved,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  was  -a 
festival ;  visits  of  ceremony  were  paid  them ;  and 
they  received  presents  from  their  fiiends,  as 
Juvenal,  Sat.  iii.  186, 

'  nie  metit  barbam,  crinem  hie  depooit  anati  : 
Pleua  domus  libis  genialibas.' 

The  first  growth  of  the  beard  being  consecrated 
to  some  god,  usually  to  the  Lares.  Nero  conse- 
crated his  in  a  golden  box,  set  with  pearb,  to 
Jupiter  Capitolinus. 

Persons  of  respectability  had  their  children 
shaved  the  first  time  by  others  of  the  same,  or 
greater  quality,  who  by  this  means  became  ^♦Hi- 
fathers,  or  adoptive  fathers,  of  the  children :  a 
custom  which  was  handed  dovtn  to  Rome  Cbr:5- 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BEARDS- 


707 


tian,  in  wliich  a  person  became  godfather  of  a  child 
by  barely  toycning  his  beard:  thus  historians 
relate,  that  one  of  the  articles  of  &e  treaty  be- 
tween Alaiic  and  Clovis  was,  that  Alaric  should 
touch  the  beard  of  Clovis,  and  become  his  god- 
&ther.  This  was  also  an  ancient  form  of  tokens 
on  oath,  Aumoin,  lib.  ir. 

Ecclesiastical  discipline  has  varied  much  on 
the  article  of  beards :  sometimes  they  have  been 
enjoined  on  the  clergy  from  a  notion  of  too 
Biuch  effeminacy  in  shaving,  and  that  a  long 
beaid  was  more  suitable  to  the  ecclesiastic  gra- 
vity ;  at  other  ^mes  they  are  forbidden,  from  the 
supposed  danger  of  pride  lurking  beneath  a 
venerable  beard.  The  Greek  and  Romish  churches 
long  disputed  on  this  important  matter.  Since 
the  time  of  their  separation,  the  Romanists  seem 
to  have  given  more  into  the  practice  of  shaving, 
by  way  of  opposition  to  the  Greeks ;  and  have 
even  made  some  express  constitutions  'de  ra- 
<lendis  barbis.'  The  Greeks,  on  the  contrary, 
espouse  very  zealously  the  cause  of  long  beards, 
and  are  extremely  scandalised  at  the  beardless 
jjnages  of  saints  in  the  Roman  churches :  There 
are  still  extant  prayers  used  in  the  latter  on  the 
solemnity  of  consecrating  the  beard  to  God,  when 
an  ecclesiastic  was  shaven. 

The  barbarous  catioiis  of  Europe  appear  very 
generally  to  have  shaved,  some  of  them  reserving 
the  roustachios.  When  the  Franks  made  them- 
selves masters  of  Gaul,  and  assumed  the  au- 
thority of  the  Romans ;  the  bondsmen  were  ex- 
pressly ordered  to  shave  their  chins ;  a  law  which 
continued  in  force  until  the  entire  abolishment 
of  servitude  in  France.  So  likewise,  in  the 
time  of  the  first  race  of  their  kings,  a  long  beard 
vras  a  sign  of  nobility  and  freedom.  Princes 
-wei'e  emulous  of  having  the  largest  beard ;  Kgin- 


young  king  with  a  smooth  chin,  wo'dd  look  upon 
their  own  as  too  rough.  i.^e  conjecture  proved 
right ;  for  they  presently  reduced  their  beards  to 
simple  whiskers,  and  a  small  tuft  of  hair  under 
the  nether  lip.  The  people  at  first  would  not 
follow  this  dangerous  example,  and  the  duke  of 
Sully  nevei-  would  adopt  it.  lie  kept  his  long 
beard,  and  appeared  with  it  at  court,  and  ob- 
serving himseif  ridiculed  by  the  young,  said 
to  the  king,  *  Sir,  when  your  father,  of  glorious 
memory,  did  me  the  honor  to  consult  me  on  his 
great  and  important  affairs,  the  first  thing  he  did 
was  to  send  away  all  the  buffoons  and  stage- 
dancers  of  his  court.'  Whiskers  now  attained  their 
highest  degree  of  favor,  at  tlie  expense  of  expiring 
beards.  A  fine  black  whisker,  elegantly  turned 
up,  was  a  very  powerful  mark  of  dignity  with  the 
fair  sex,  and  it  was  no  uncommon  filing  for  a  fa- 
vorite lover  to  have  his  whiskers  turned  up, 
combed,  and  pomatumed,  by  his  mistress ;  for  this 
purpose,  a  man  of  fashion  took  care  to  be  always 
provided  with  every  little  necessary  article,  espe- 
cially whisker  wax.  Whiskers  were  still  in 
fashion  in  the  beginning  of  Louis  XIV's  reign. 
That  prince,  and  all  the  great  men  of  his  reign, 
took  a  pride  in  wearing  them.  They  were  the , 
ornament  of  Turenne,  Cond^,  Colbert,  Corneille, 
Moliere,  &c.  But  they  now  underwent  several 
changes  both  in  form  and  name:  there  were 
Spanish,  Turkish,  guard  dagger,  royal  whiskers, 
&c.,  until  their  smallness  proclaimed  their  ap- 
proaching departure.  In  English  history  we 
nave  no  such  copious  detaib  on  this  mighty 
subject.  Although  the  ancient  Britons  are  sup- 
posed to  have  shaved  all  but  thfe  upper  lip, 
Edward  the  confessor  is  represented,  on  nis  great 
seal,  with  a  large  beard  and  mustachios.  When 
spies,  according  to  William  of  Malraesbury,  were 


bard,  secretary  to  Charlemagne,  speaking  of  the    sent  by  Harold  into  the  camp  of  William  I.  they 


last  kings  of  the  first  race,  says,  they  came  to 
the  assemblies  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  in  a  car- 
riage drawn  bv  oxen,  and  sat  on  the  throne  with 
their  hair  dishevelled,  and  a  very  long  beard, 
crine  profuso,  barba  submissa,  solio  residerent, 
et  speciem  doipinantts  efiSngerent.  To  touch 
any  one's  beard,  or  cut  off-  a  bit  of  it,  was, 
among  the  first  French,  the  most  sacred  pledge 


returned  with  an  assurance  of  victory,  since  their 
enemies  were  priests,  they  said,  and  not  soldiers, 
being  all  shaven.  William  the  cbnqueror,  on 
his  seal,  appears  with  a  short  beard  and  musta- 
dhios.  Among  the  edicts  which  he  imposed  upon 
the  English,  few  were  considered  more  op- 
pressive than  that  which  enjoined  the  practice  o 
shaving.    Like  a  similar  edict  of  Peter  I.  o 


of  protection  and  confidence.    For  a  long  time    Russia,  it  was  perpetually  disobeyed,  and.  the 


all  letters  that  came  from  the  sovereign  had,  for 
greater  sanction,  three  hairs  of  his  beard  in  the 
seal.  .  There  was  long  in  being  a  charter  of  1 21 1 , 
which  concludes  with  the  following  words : 
Quod  ut  ratum  et  stabile  perseveret  in  posterum, 
prsesentis  scripto^sigiUi  mei  roburApposui  cum 
tribus  pilis  barbs  meae.  In  the  tenth  century 
Robert  of  France,  the  famous  rival  of  Charles 
tlie  Simple,  that  it  might  be  the  more  con- 
spicuous to  his  soldiers  when  he  was  in  the 
field,  used  to  let  his  long  white  beard  hang  down 
on  the  outside  of  his  cuirass.  French  historians 
describe  the  beard  of  Henry  IV.,  deservedly 
styled  the  Great,  as  diffu^tting  over  the  counte- 
nance of  that  prince  a  high  degree  of  amiable 


hatred  of  it  led  in  many  cases  to  open  insurrec- 
tion. The  Romish  clergy,  it  seems,  assumed  the 
right  to  lep;islate  for  princes  on  this  topic  among 
o&ers.  The  beard  of  Henry  I.  was  loudly  con- 
demned by  them ;  Orderic  Vitalis  and  Serlo  both 
denounced  it  from  the  pulpit.  The  king,  to  avoid 
these  fulminations,  shaved  the  offending  part; 
yet  within  twenty  years  we  again  find  it  on  tlje 
effigy  of  Henry  II.  on  his  seal.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  it  is  well  known.  Sir  Thomas  More 
exhibited  on  the  block  this  menoorablc  orna- 
ment :  and  perceiving  it  was  likely  to  bo  cut  by 
the  axe  of  the  executioner ;  took  it  away,  saying, 
my  beard  has  not  been  guilty  of  treason :  it 
would  be  an  injustice  to  punish  it.    In  Shaks- 


opennessi  and  majestic  sweetness.    By  the  pre-    pearewereadof 'your  straw-colored  beard,  your 

orange-tawny  beard,  your  purple  in-grain  beard, 
and  your  perfect  yellow.'  Bottom's  Histrionic 
Company  are  instructed  to  have  'good  strings 
to  their  beards ;'  an  advice  which  has  escaped 
explanation.    <  A  beard  of  the  General's  cut'  is 

2Z2 


mature  death  of  that  prince,  the  beard,  hitherto 
so  highly  respected,  experienced  a  sudden  and 
fatal  revolution.  .Louis  AlII.  mounted  the  throne 
of  his  father  without  one-  Kv^ry  one  concluded 
immediately,    that  the    courtiers,  seeing  their 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


708 


BEARDS. 


noticed  in  Henry  V.  *  A  great  round  beard'  is 
disapproved  of  in  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 
and  compared  to  <  a  glover's  paring  knife.'  Charles 
I.  wore  mustachios  and  a  short  peaked  beard  : 
Charles  II.  mustachios  alone :  since  the  Revolu- 
tion, except  among  our  modem  soldiery,  the  face 
has  been  entirely  smooth  ; — ^The  Spaniards  have 
a  proverb,  which  perhaps  suggested  the  new 
iashion  in  the  Hussar  regiment.  Desde  que  no 
hay  barba,  no  hay  mas  alma.  *  Since  we  have 
lost  our  beards,  we  have  lost  our  souls.'  Among 
the  European  nations  that  have  been  most 
curious  in  beards  and  whiskers,  none  have  been 
more  distinguished  than  Spain. 

We  cannot  pursue  the  aetails  of  this  subject 
much  ^rther.  The  Portuguese,  whose  nationsQ 
character  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Spaniards,  have 
imitated  them  in  this  respect.  We  read,  that  in 
the  reign  of  Catherine  queen  of  Portugal,  when 
John  de  Castro  had  taken  the  castle  of  Diu,  in 
India,  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  borrowing 
from  the  inhabitants  of  Goa  a  thousand  pistoles 
for  the  maintenance  of  his  fleet ;  and  that,  as  a 
security  for  the  loan,  he  sent  them  one  of  his 
whiskers,  telling  them  *  all  the  gold  in  the  world 
cannot  equal  the  value  of  this  national  ornament 
of  my  valor ;  and  I  deposit  it  in  your  hands  as 
a  security  for  the  money.'  The  inhabitants  of 
Goa,  it  is  said,  generously  returned  botli  the 
money  and  his  whisker.  Le  Comte  observes, 
that  the  Chinese  affect  long  beards  extravagantly ; 
but  .nature  has  baulked  them,  and  only  given 
them  very  little  ones,  which,  however,  they  cul- 
tivate with  infinite  care;  the  Europeans  are 
strangely  envied  by  them  on  this  account.  Among 
the  Turks  it  is  more  infamous  for  any  one  to 
have  his  beard  cut  off,  than  among  us  to  be  pub- 
licly whipt  or  branded  with  a  hot  iron.  There 
are  many  p^ple  in  that  country,  who  would 
prefer  death  to  this  kind  of  punishment.  The 
Arabs  make  the  preservation  of  their  beards  a 
capital  point  of  religion,  because  Mahomet  never 
cut  his.  Hence  the  razor  b  never  drawn  over 
tlie  Grand  Seignior's  face.  The  Persians,  who 
clip  them,  and  shave  above  the  jaw,  are  reputed 
heretics.  It  is  likewise  a  mark  of  authoriw  and 
liberty  among  them,  as  well  as  among  the  Turks. 
They  who  serve  in  the  seraglio,  have  their  beards 
shaven  as  a  sign  of  their  servitude.  They  do 
not  suffer  it  to  grow  till  the  sultan  as  a  reward 
has  set  them  at  liberty. 

Of  that  singular  variety  of  our  race,  bearded 
women,  many  marvellous  stories  are  told.  He- 
rodotus speaks  of  a  people  above  Halicamassus, 
the  Pedasenes,  amongst  whom  the  chin  of  the 
priestess  of  Minerva  regularly  budded  with  a  * 
large  beard^  when  any  great  public  calamity  im- 
pended. Her.  i.  175.  Hippocrates  tells  us  of 
two  bearded  women  of  respectability,  Phactusa 
of  Abdera,  the  wife  of  Pythias,  and  Hamysia  of 
Thasos,  the  wife  of  Gorgippus.  Generally,  where 
this  peculiarity  has  occurred,  the  menses  have 
totally  ceased.  Eusebius  Nieurembergius  men- 
tions a  woman*  who  had  a  beard  reaching  to  her 
navel ;  and  Bartholin  speaks  of  a  bearded  woman 
well  known  at  Copenhagen.  Whether  it  cou- 
yinced  his  imperial  majesty  that  beards  no  longer 
distinguished  men,  and  therefore  produced  his 
decne  against  them,  we  are  not  told ;  but  a  woman 


is  said  to  have  been  taken  in  1724,  by  tbe  Pnmian 
army  in  the  battle  of  Pultowa,  and  carried  to 
Petersburg,  where  she  was  presented  to  the  Czar, 
Peter  I.  whose  beard  measured  a  yard  and  a  halC 
We  read  in  the  Trevoux  Dictionary,  that  there  was 
a  woman  seen  at  Paris,  who  had  not  only  a  bushy 
beard  on  her  face,  but  her  body  likewise  covered 
all  over  with  hair.  The  great  Margaret,  the 
governess  of  the  Netherlands,  is  said  also  to 
have  had  a  very  long  stiff  beaid,  on  which  she 
pnded  herself;  and  preserved  it  with  the 
greatest  care.  In  the  nursery  of  Albert,  Duke 
of  Bavaria,  in  the  time  of  Wolfius,  there  was 
reported  to  be  a  virgin  with  a  large  black  beaxd; 
but  these  good  ladies,  young  or  old,  have  been 
singularly  rare  in  modem  times,  and  in  all  well- 
authenticated  history. 

Beards,  in  entomology,  are  two  sonU,  ob- 
long, fleshy  bodies,  plac^  just  above  the  tmnk, 
as  in  the  gnats,  and  m  the  moths  and  butteiflks. 
Beards  of  Comets.  See  Comet. 
Beards  of  Horses.  The  part  UBdemea& 
the  lower  mandible,  on  the  outside  and  above 
the  chin,  which  bears  the  curb,  is  called  the 
beard  or  chuck.  It  should  have  but  little  flesh 
upon  it,  without  any  chops,  hardness,  or  swell- 
ing ;  and  be  neither  too  high  raised  nor  too  ftat, 
but  such  as  the  curb  may  rest  in  its  right  place. 
Beards  op  Muscles,  Oysters,  &c.  denote 
assemblaffes  of  threads  or  hairs,  by  which  those 
animals  rasten  tliemselves  to  stones.  The  haiis 
of  this  beard  terminate  in  a  flat  spongy  mb- 
stance,  whidi  being  applied  to  the  surface  ol  a 
stone,  sticks  diereto,  like  the  wet  leather  used  by 
boys  in  what  they  call  a  sucker. 

Beard  (John),  an  English  actor  and  aingcfy 
was  brought  up  a  sizer  in  the  king  s  chapel.  In 
1737  he  made  nis  first  appearance  on  the  stage, 
at  Drury-lane,  in  the  character  of  Sir  John  Love- 
rule,  in  the  Devil  to  Pay.  About  two  yeazs 
after  he  married  lady  Henrietta  Heibert,  daugh- 
ter of  the  earl  of  Waldegrave,  and  widow  of  lord 
Edward  Herbert;  but  this  connexion  brought 
him  little  fortune,  and  though  he  gave  up  the 
stage,  for  some  time,  he  returned  again  to  it,  until 
1758,  when  he  joined  with  Mr.  Rich,  wliose 
daughter  he  had  married  on  the  death  of  his  far- 
mer vrife.  He  died  in  1763,  aged  seveoty-lbur. 
Bearded  Brothers,  fratres  barbati,  are  par- 
ticularly used  in  ecclesiastical  writers  for  those 
otherwise  called  fratres  conveni  in  the  order  of 
Grammont  and  of  the  Cistercians.  They  took 
this  denomination  because  they  were  allowed  to 
wear  their  beards,  contraiy  to  the  rules  of  the 
professed  monks. 

Bearded  Husk,  among  florists,  a  husk  which 
is  haiiy  on  the  edges,  as  Uiat  of  the  rose,  ficc 

Bearded  Venus.  The  Romans  paid  thdr 
devotions  to  a  bearded  Venus,  Venen  baibaUp, 
supposed  to  have  been  of  both  sexes.  A  statue 
of  ner  was  found  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus. 

Bearers,  at  funerals,  is  applied  lo  the  sup- 
porters of  the  pall.  The  ancients  had  pecnlttr 
orders  or  officers  of  bearers,  called  by  the  Gieela 
Koiriaroi ;  by  the  Romans,  lecticarii.  TTie  ves- 
pillones,  or  bajuli,  were  a  lower  sort  of  beareis, 
appointed  Xor  persons  of  inferior  rank. 

Bearers,  gestantes,  in  writers  of  the  middle 
age,  are  sometimes  used  for  a  child's  gosnps. 


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because  they  hold  the  infant  in  their  anns,  and 

£  resent  him  to  the  priest  in  the  ceremony  of 
eiptism. 

Bearers,  in  heraldry,  or  supporters,  are  cer- 
tain figures,  3tanding  on  the  scroll,  and  placed 
by  the  side  of  an  escutcheon,  which  th^  seem 
to  bear  up.    They  are,  chiefly,  flfnircs  of  beasts : 
figures  of  human  creatures,  used  for  the  like  pur- 
pose, are  more  properly  called  tenants.    Some 
make  another  aifference   between   tenant  and 
bearer,  or  supporter :  when  the  shield  is  borne 
by  a  single  animal,  it  is  called  tenant ;  when  by 
two,  they  are  called  bearers,  or  supporters.    The 
figures  of  things  inanimate,  sometimes  placed 
aside  of  escutcheons,  but  not  touching,  or  seeming 
to  bear  them,  though  sometimes  called  bearers, 
are  more  properly  caTled  cotises.    Bearers  have 
formerly  been  taken  from  such  animals  as  were 
borne  in  the  shields;  and  sometimes  they  ha?e 
been  chosen  as  baring  some  allusion  to  the 
names  of  those  whose  arms  they  arc  made  to 
support.    F.  Menestrier  traces  their  origin  to  the 
ancient  tournaments,  in  which  the  knightis  caused 
theii  shields  to  be  carried  by  servants  or  pages 
under  the  disguise  of  lions,,  bears,,  griffins,  black- 
amoors, &c.  who  also  held  and  guarded   the 
escutcheons,  which  the  knights  were  obliged  to 
expose  to  public  view  some  time  before  the  lists 
were  opened.    But  Sir  G.  Mackenzie  says,  that 
the  first  origin  and  use  of  them  are  derived  from 
the  custom  of  leading  such  a.«  are  invested  with 
any  great  honor  to  the  prince  who  confers  it,  and 
of  his  being  supported  by  two  of  the  quality 
ipvhen  he  receives  the  symbols  of  such  honor: 
and,  in  remembrance  of  that  solemnity,  his  arms 
were  afterwards  supported  by  any  two  creatures 
which  he  might  choose.    See  Suppobters. 

Bearers,  in  horticulture,  denote  the  fruit 
branches,  or  such  as  bear  fruit.  The  bearers,  or 
bearing  branches  of  an  apple-tree,  and  the  like, 
are  found  to  be  rougher,  and  fiiUer  of  asperities 
in  their  bark,  than  the  other  branches. 

Bearers  of  a  Bill  of  Exchange,  denote 
the  persons  in  whose  hands  it  is,  and  in  favor  of 
whom  the  last  order  or  indorsement  was  made. 
When  a  bill,  or  order  for  money,  is  said  to  be 
payable  to  bearer,  it  is  understood  to  be  payable 
;o  him  who  first  offers  himself  after  it  becomes 
juc.  To  be  paid  a  bill  or  order  of  this  kind, 
here  needs  neither  indorsement  nor  transfer;  yet 
t  is  proper  to  know  to  whom  it  is  paid. 

Bearing,  in  heraldry,  a  term  used  to  express 
L  coat  of  arms,  oi  the  figures  of  armories,  by 
vhich  the  nobility  and  gentry  are  distinguished 
rom  the  other  ranks  of  the  people,  and  from  one 
.nother.  These  signs  of  nobility  with  us  are 
vidently  a  copy  of  the  statues  and  images  among 
fie  ancient  Romans,  which  they  used  to  expose 
efore  their  houses  on  public  days,  and  earned 
efore  the  body  at  the  funeral  of  a  great  person. 
'he»e  statues  among  them  bore  the  resemblances 
f  their  noble  ancestors.  And  as  our  coats  of 
rms  evidently  were  brought  in  the  place  of  them, 
e  may  date  the  origin  of  heraldry  in  England, 
i  now  practised,  from  the  time  of  the  subversion 
r  the  Roman  empire  by  the  Goths  and  Vandals; 
hOy  as  they  destroyed  many  liberal  arts,  so  they 
•em,  in  return,  to  have  given  birth  to  the  science 
'  henddry;  for  which  their  posterity^  it  must 


be  confessed,  are  under  few  obligations.  These 
warlike  nations,  having  subdued  the  Roman  em- 
pire and  raised  their  glory  by  military  service, 
oecame  fond  of  the  achievements  of  their  ances- 
tors and  great  men,  and  derived  their  ensigns 
and  titles  of  honor  from  what  concerned  a  sol- 
dier. They  first  distinguished  the  whole  com- 
munity into  three  ranks,  which  they  named 
according  to  the  different  orders  of  military, 
miles,  eques,  and  scutifer;  and  their  posterity, 
willing  to  commemorate  their  honors,  reserved 
to  themselves  their  military  ensigns,  and  these 
became  what  we  call  bearings,  or  arms,  the 
marks  of  gentility  or  of  families,  some  one  of 
which  had  once  deserved  an  elevation  above  the 
common  rank  of  men.  While  the  direct  de- 
scendant of  this  honorable  person  carried  his 
ensigns  of  honor  for  his  distinction,  the  collateral 
branches  also  were  ambitious  of  preserving  the 
memory  of  their  having  belongexl  to  such  an 
honorable  house;  and  therefore  assumed  the 
same  figure,  but  with  some  difference,  to  dis- 
tinguish the  distance  from  the  original  claim. 
In  process  of  time,  other  families,  who  had  de- 
served as  well  of  their  prince  and  country, 
whether  in  civil  or  military  affairs,  became  de-  ■ 
sirous  of  the  same  sort  of  distinction,  by  way  of 
perpetual  memorial  of  their  services ;  and  upon 
this  occasion  many  other  devices  were  formed 
into  arms,  and  continued  down  to  posterity  in 
their  several  families.  Armorial  bearings,  in  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries^  were  single  and 

Slain,  consisting  only  of  few  figures.    Charges, 
ifierences,  quarterings,  &c.  are  the  inventions  of 
later  times.    See  Heraldry. 

Bearing,  in  navigation,  an  arch  of  the  horizon 
intercepted  between  the  nearest  meridian  and 
any  distant  object,  either  discovered  by  the  eye, 
or  resulting  from  the  sinical  proposition ;  as  in 
the  first  case,  at  four  P.  M.  Cape  Spado,  in  the 
iste  of  Candia,  bore  south  by  west  by  the  com- 
pass. In  the  second,  the  longitudes  and  latitudes 
of  any  two  places  being  given,  and  consequently 
the  diflference  of  latitude  and  longitude  between 
tliem,  the  bearing  from  one  to  the  other  is  disco- 
vered by  the  following  analogy  : — ^As  the  meridi- 
onal difference  of  latitude  is  to  the  difference  of 
longitude,  so  is  radius  to  the  tangent  bearing. 
Bearing  is  also  the  situation  of  any  distant  object, 
estimated  from  some  part  of  the  ship  according 
to  her  position.  In  this  sense,  an  object  so  dis- 
covered must  be  either  a-head,  a-stem,  a-breast, 
on  the  bow,  or  on  the  quarter.  These  bearings, 
therefore,  which  may  be  called  mechanical,  are 
on  tlie  beam,  before  the  beam,  abaft  the  beam, 
on  the  bow,  on  the  quarter,  a-head,  or  a-stern. 
If  the  ship  sails  with  a  side  wind  it  alters  the 
names  of  such  bearings  in  some  measure,  since 
a  distant  object  on  the  beam  is  then  said  to  be 
to  leeward  or  to  windward ;  on  the  lee-quarter 
or  bow,  and  on  the  weather-quarter  or  bow. 

Bearing,  in  sea  language.  When  a  ship  sails 
towards  the  shore,  before  the  wind,  she  is  said  to 
bear  in  with  the  land  or  harbour.  To  let  the  ship 
sail  more  before  the  wind,  is  to  bear  up.  To  put 
her  right  before  the  wind,  is  to  bear  round.  A 
ship  that  keeps  off  from  die  land  is  said  to  bear 
off.  When  a  ship  that  was  to  windward  comes 
under  a  ship's  stem,  and  so  gives  her  the  wind». 


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she  is  said  to  bear  under  her  loe,  &c.  There  is 
another  sense  of  this  word,  in  reference  to  the 
burden  of  a  ship ;  for  they  say  a  ship  bears, 
when,  having  too  slender  or  lean  a  quarter,  she 
will  sink  too  deep  into  the  water  with  an  over- 
light  freight,  and  thereby  can  carry  but  a  small 
quantity  of  goods. 

Bearing  awav  (as  well  as  Bearing  up)  is 
improperly  used  to  denote  the  act  of  changing  the 
course  of  a  ship,  in  order  to  make  her  sail  before 
the  wind,  after  she  had' sailed  some  time  with  a 
side-wind,  or  close-hauled. 

Bearikg  of  an  Arch,  or  Vault,  denotes 
the  effort  which  the  stones  make  to  separate  by 
their  gravity  the  piers  or  piedroi  ts.  This  amounts 
to  the  same  with  what  the  French  call  pouss^e. 
See  PoussEE. 

Bearing  op  an  Organ  Pipe  denotes  an  error 
or  variation  from  the  just  sound  it  ought 'to 
yield. 

Bearing  op  a  Stag,  in  hunting,  is  used  in 
respect  of  the  state  of  his  head,  or  the  croches 
which  he  bears  on  his  horns.  If  one  is  asked 
what  a  stag  bears,  he  has  only  to  reckon  the 
croches,  but  never  to  express  an  odd  number ; 
as,  if  he  had  four  croches  on  his  near  horn,  and 
five  on  his  far,  a  huntsman  will  say  he  bears  ten, 
a  false  right  on  his  near  horn ;  if  but  four  on  the 
near  honi,  and  six  on  the  far  horn,  he  will  say  he 
bears  twelve,  a  double  false  right  on  the  near 
horn. 

Bearing  ofp  is  used  by  seaman,  generally  in 
business  belonging  to  shipping,  for  thrusting  off. 
Thus  in  hoisting  any  thing  into  the  ship,  if  it 
has  caught  hold  of  any  part  of  the  ship,  or  be- 
come any  way  entangled,  they  say,  bear  it  off 
from  the  ship's  side.  So  if  they  would  have  the 
breech  or  mouth  of  a  piece  of  ordnance,  &c.  put 
from  them,  they  say,  bear  off,  or  bear  about  the 
breech. 

Bearing  sail  well  is  said  of  a  ship,  when 
she  is  a  stiff-guided  ship,  and  will  not  couch 
down  on  a  side  with  a  great  deal  of  sail.  When 
a  ship  is  said  to  bear  out  her  ordnance,  it  is  meant, 
that  her  ordnance  lies  so  high,  and  she  will  go  so 
upright,  that  in  reasonable  fighting  weather,  she 
will  be  able  to  keep  out  her  lower  tier,  and  not 
be  forced  to  shut  in  her  ports.  The  ship  is  said 
to  overbear  another,  when  it  is  able,  in  a  grekt 
gale  of  wind,  to  carry  out  more  sails,  viz.  a  top 
sail  more  or  the  like. 

BEARN,  a  ci-devant  province  of  France 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Bigorre,  on  the  south  by 
the  mountains  of  Arragon,  on  the  west  by  Soule 
and  part  of  Navarre,  and  on  the  north  by  Gascony, 
and  Armagnac.  It  had  the  title  of  Vicomte  as 
early  as  the  ninth  century.  It  was  afterwards 
raised  to  a  principality,  and  belonged,  with  Na- 
varre, to  Henry  IV.  when  he  came  to  the  crown. 
His  son,  Louis  XIII,  united  it,  with  that  part  of 
Navarre  which  was  possessed  by  the  house  of 
Albret,  t6  France,  in  1620.  It  how  forms  with 
Basques,  the  department  of  the  lower  Pyrenees, 
and  is  about  sixteen  leagues  in  length,  and  twelve 
in  breadth.  In  general  it  is  barren,  yet  the  plains 
yield  considerable  quantities  of  fiax,  and  Indian 
corn.  It  is  also  rich  in  mines  of  iron,  copper,  and 
lead,  and  has  220,000  inhabitants.  The  capital 
is  Pau.    See  Pyranees. 


Bearn,  a  city   and  canton  of  Switzefland. 
See  Bern. 


BEAST, 

Be' astlike, 

Be'astlinem, 

Be'astly, 

Be'astlihood, 

Be'astings. 


Bette,  Fr.  beslioj  Latin* 
an  animal  distingoished  from 
birds,  insects,  fishes,  and 
man ;  an  irrational  creatare ; 
or  a  brutal  savage  man,  who 
practises  any  thing  contiaiy 


to  the  decencies  of  life  and  the  dictates  of  hu- 
manity. 

If  that  the  good  man,  that  the  batet  oweth, 
Wol  every  weke,  er  that  the  cock  him  croweth 
Fasting  ydrinien  of  this  well  a  draught, 
As  thilke  holy  Jew  our  eldre  taught. 
His  betta  and  his  store  shall  moltiplie. 

Chaucer,     Pardotmnt  Tnk, 
A  heetiU  man  parse^ueth  not  tho  thingis  that  bea 
of  the  spyrit  of  God,  for  it  is  foli  to  Lim. 

Wickliff.     1  Cor.  chap.  iiL 
They  held  this  land,  and  with  their  filthiness 
Foliated  this  same  gentle  soil  long  time  ; 
That  their  own  mother  loath 'd  their  heaatUneu, 
And  'gan  abhor  her  brood's  unkindly  crime. 

Spemer,  Faerie  Qaeem, 
And  all  wylde  beagtt,  made  vassals  of  his  pleasures. 
And  with  their  spoyles  enlarged  his  private  treasures. 
Id.  Mother  Hubbard'*  Tak, 
Not  that  I  being  a  beoMt,  she  would  have  me  ^ 
but  that  she,  being  a  very  beattl^f  creatare,  lays  daim 
tome.  ShaJofean. 

With  lewd,  profane,  and  beastlp  phrase. 
To  catch  the  world's  loose  laughter  or  vain  gaze. 

BenJoMM. 
So  may  we  see  a  little  lionet. 
When  newly  whclpt,  a  weak  and  tender  thing, 
Despis'd  by  ev'ry  bout ;  but  waxen  great, 
li^lirn  fuller  times  full  strength  and  courage  bring. 
The  beastt  all  crouchen  low,  their  king  adore. 
And  dare  not  see  what  they  contenm'd  before ; 
The  trembling  forest  quakes  «t  his  alTrighied  roaz. 

Fletcher.     Ptmpte  UlmaL 
The  sixth,  and  of  creation  last,  arose 
With  evening  harps  and  matin,  when  God  said. 
Let  th'  earth  bring  forth  soul  living  in  her  kind. 
Cattle  and  creeping  things,  and  b&uti  of  th'^'aith. 
Each  in  their  kind.  Mihm^ 

Here  sat  she  by  these  musked  eglantines  ; 
The  happy  flowers  seem  yet  the  print  to  bear : 
Her  voice  did  sweeten  here  thy  sugar'd  Unes 
To  which  winds,  trees,  beatU,  birds,  did  lend  an  ear. 


Heaven's  king 
Keeps  register  of  every  thing : 
And  nothing  may  we  use  in  vain,  * 

Ev'n  beatt*  must  be  with  justice  slain 

MareM.     Wmmde^  Foam, 
Beat*  of  a  bird !  supinely  when  he  might 
Lie  snug  and  sleep,  to  rise  before  the  light  I 
Wh^r,  if  his  dull  forefathers  us'd  that  ay. 
Could  he  not  let  a  bad  example  die.  Drjfien. 

Medea's  charms  were  there,  Circean  feasts 
With  bowls  that  tum'd  enamour'd  youths  to  &aaift. 

li. 

It  is  charged  upon   the   gentlemen  of  the  array, 

that  the  beastly  vice  of  drinking  to  excess  hath  been 

lately,  from  their  example,  restored  among  us.    Smip 

Man  cares  for  all !  to  birds  he  gives  his  woods. 
To  beoMta  his  pastures,  and  to  fish  his  floods.        Fspf . 

0  ye  woods,  spread  your  branches  apace; 
To  your  deepest  recesses  I  fly ; 

1  would  hide  with  the  beaett  of  the  chase, 
I  would  vanish  from  eveiy  eye. 

ShenOeme.     FeamaU, 


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Inspiring  dumb 
And  helpless  victims  with  n  sense  so  keen 
Of  injury,  with  sudi  loiowledge  of  their  strength. 
And  such  sagacity  to  take  revenge. 
That  oft  the  beatt  has  seem'd  to  judge  the  man. 

Cowper,  Task.  b.  vi. 
Beast,  among  gamesters,  a  game  at  cards, 
played  in  this  manner:  the  best  cards  are  the 
kin^,  queen,  &c.  whereof  they  make  three  heaps, 
ihe  king,  the  play,  t)ie  troilet.  Three,  four,  or 
five  may  play,  and  to  every  one  is  dealt  five 
cards.  But  before  the  play  begins,  every  one 
stakes  to  the  three  heaps.  He  that  wins  most 
tricks,  takes  up  the  heap  called  the  play :  he  that 
has  the  king,  takes  up  the  heap  so  called  :  and 
he  that  has  three  of  any  sort,  that  is  three  fours, 
three  fives,  three  sixes,  &c.  takes  up  the  troilet 
heap. 

Beast,  at  ombre,  is  when  the  player,  or  person 
that  undertakes  the  game,  loses  it  to  the  other 


Beyond  this  flood  a  frozen  continent 
Lies  dark  and  wild,  beat  with  perpetual  storms 
Of  whirlwind  and  dire  hail.  Miltom. 

They  lay  in  that  quiet  posture,  without  making  the 
least  impression  upon  the  enemy  by  beatinff  vp  his 
quarters,  which  might  easily  have  been  done. 

Clarendon, 
Tho'  oft  bound  to  peace 
Yet  he  never  would  cease 
To  vex  hia  poor  neighbours  with  quarrels. 
And  when  he  was  beat 
He  still  made  his  retreat 
To  his  Clevelands,  his  hells,  and  his  Carwells. 

MarvM. 
Some  have  been  beaten  till  they  know 
What  wood  a  cudgel's  of  by  the  blow ; 
Some  kick'd  until  they  can  feel  whether 
A  shoe  be  Spanish  or  neat's  leather. 

BuOer'i  Hudibnu. 
He,  with  a  careless  beat 


Struck  out  the  mute  creation  at  a  heat.  Dfyden. 
two,  the  penalty  of  which  13  a  forfeiture  equid    ft!^'Zirhi'„°'''"**''f.r*'^,'™^Ti.Tl 
.0  the  .taSe  placed  for.  "^        ^Xtl^'XT.^^X^] 

Feel  and  be  satisfied. 


!  played 
BEAT,  t>.  n.^     Sax.   beatan,  beotatiy  Germ. 
Be'ater,        >  batten,  French,  baitre,  to  strike, 
B'eating.     Neither  with  gentleness  or  vio- 
lence^ with  or  without  an  instrumental  medium ; 
mechanical  or  animal  motion,  rising  and  falling. 


Id, 


When  from  the  cave  thou  risest  with  the  day 
To  beat  the  woods,  add  rotise  the  bounding  prey. 


Id. 


Prior, 

^         I  am  always  beating  about  in  my  thoughts  forsome- 

or  terminating  on  an  object,  it  is  used  metapho-  thing  that  may  turn  to  the  benefit  of  my  dear  coun- 

rically,  and  applied  to  almost  every  kind  of  re-  *^™«'»-  Ad^^ion, 

gular  or  repeated  motion.  ^^®  persuaded  him  to  trust  the  renegade  with  the 

To  Beat  down,   is  to  lessen,  to  depress,  to  ^""""^y  ^.*  ^  ^T^^^  '*''"  ^'  their  ransom;  as  not 

repel,  or  to  conquer.  '  P       '  quesuomng  but  he  would  6«rf  ctotw.  the  terms  of  it. 

To  Beat  up,  is  to  attack  suddenly ;  to  alarm.        Our  warriours  propagatmg  the  French  Ungua^i 

To  Beat  in,  is  to  impress  or  to  mculcate  by  .t  the  same  time  xl^^bJiting  doicn  dieir  pTe^ 


frequent  repetition, 

To  Beat-adout.     To  try  diffei'ent  ways;  to 
search ;  to  hunt  for  any  thing. 

And  oftentimis  I  finde  that  thei  mette 
With  blody  strokis,  and  with  wordis  grete 
Assaying  how  ther  speris  weren  whette. 
And  God  it  wote  with  many  a  cruel  hete 
Gan  Troilus  upon  his  helme  to  bete : 
But  nathelesse  Fortune  it  naught  ne  would 
Of  eithers  honde  that  either  dyen  should. 

Chaucer.  froiUu  and  Creaeide, 
And  now  the  westeme  wipde  bloweth  sore. 
That  now  is  in  his  chief  soveraingntee 
Beating  the  withered  leafe  from  the  tree.    Spenser, 
They've  chose  a  consul  that  will  from  them  take 
Their  liberties ;  makn  them  of  no  more  voice 
Than  dogs,  that  are  often  beat  for  barking. 

Skahpeare, 
Mistress  Ford,  good  heart,  is  beaten  black  and  blue, 
that  you  cannot  see  a  white  spot  about  her.  /i. 

Bid  them  come  forth  and  hear 
Or  at  their  chamber  door  I'll  beat  the  drum. 
Till  it  cry,  sleep  to  death. 

A  turn  or  two  111  iralk. 
To  still  my  beating  mind. 

Tlie  tempest  in  my  mind 
Doth  from  my  senses  take  all  feeling  else. 
Save  what  bwti  there, 


Id. 


Id. 


Id, 


Id, 

Such  an  unlook'd-for  storm  of  ills  falls  on  me. 
It  beats  down  all  my  strength.  Id, 

Will  fancies  he  should  never  have  been  the  man 
he  is,  had  not  he  knocked  down  constables,  and  beai 
up  a  lewd  woman's  quarters,  when  he  he  was  a  young 
fellow.  ,     Id, 

One  sees  many  hollow  spaces  worn  in  the  bottoms 
of  the  rocks,  as  they  are  more  or  less  able  to  resist  the 
impression  of  the  water  that  beats  against  them.     Id. 
To  find  an  honest  man,  I  beat  about. 

And  love  him,  court  him,  praise  him,  in  or  out. 

Pope. 

A  man's  heart  beats,  and  the  blood  circulates, 
which  it  is  not  in  his  power,  by  any  thought  or  voli- 
tion, to  stop.  Locke. 

I  would  gladly  understand  the  formation  of  a  soul, 
and  see  it  beat  the  first  conscious  pulse.  Collier. 

I  remember,  that  once  lying  a  bed,  and  having 
been  put  into  a  fright,  I  heard  my  own  heart  beat, 
but  I  took  it  to  be  one  knocking  at  the  door  oftener 
than  once,  before  I  discovered  that  the  sound  was  in 
my  own  heart.   Reid.  Ewquirg  nUo  the  Human  Mind. 

Beat,  in  fencing,  denotes  a  blow  or  stroke 
given  with  the  sword.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
beats;  the  first  performed  by  the  foible  of  a 
man's  sword,  on  the  foible  of  his  adversary's, 
which  in  the  6ch()bls  is  commonly  called  batterie, 
from  the  French  battre,  and  is  chiefly  used  in  a 


It  is  strange  how  long  some  men  will  lie  in  wait  to  . 

speak,  and  how  many  other  matters  they  will  beat  P'^™^^**  ^  make  an  open  Upon  the  adversary. 

over  to  come  near  it.  Bacon.  ^^^  second,  and  best  kind  of  beat,  is  performed 

Wc  are  drawn  on  into  a  larger  speech,  by  reason  ^^  *^*  ^^^  ^^  ^  man's  sword  upon  the  foible  of 

of  their  so  great  earnestness,  who  beai  more  and  more  ^  adversary's,  not  with  a  spring,  as  in  binding, 

u;)on  these  last  alleged  words.  Hooker,  but  with  a  jerk  or  dry  beat,  and  is  therefore  most 

How  frequenUy  and  fervendy  doth  the  scripture  proper  for  the  parades  without  or  within  the 

w/«i«ith,.«««.  HaMewea.  sword,  because  of  the  rebound  a  man's  swoid 


beat  upon  this  caose! 


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kas  thereby  from  his  adversary's,  whereby  he  pro- 
eures  to  himself  the  better  and  surer  opportunity 
•C  risposting. 

Beat  of  Drum^  in  the  military  art,  is  diffe- 
lently  performed,  according  to  the  different  pur- 
poses mtended.  Notice  is  given  by  it  of  any 
sudden  danger ;  or,  that  scattered  soldiers  may 
repair  to  their  arms  and  quarters :  these  are  called 
beating  an  alarm,  or  to  arms.  It  is  also  intended 
to  signify,  according  to  the  different  manners  of 
sounding  the  drum,  that  the  soldiers  are  to  fall  on 
the  enemy  :  to  retreat  before,  during,  or  afier  an 
attack';  to  move  or  march  from  one  place  to 
another  :  to  come  out  of  their  quarters,  to  repair 
to  their  colors,  &c. 

Beats  of  a  watch  or  clodc,  are  the  strokes 
made  by  tlie  fangs  or  pallets  of  the  spindle  of  the 
balance,  or  of  tlie  pads  in  a  royal  pendulum.  To 
find  the  beats  of  the  balance  in  any  watch,  or  in 
one  turn  of  any  wheel : — Having  found  the  num- 
ber of  turns,  which  the  crown  wheel  makes  in 
one  turn  of  the  wheel  you  seek  for ;  those  turns 
of  the  crown-wheel,  multiplied  by  its  notches, 
give  half  the  number  of  beats  in  that  one  turn  of 
the  wheel :  for  the  balance  or  swing  has  two 
strokes  to  every  tooth  of  the  crown  wheel,  inas- 
much as  each  of  the  two  pallets  has  its  blow 
against  each  tooth  of  the  crown  wheel ;  whence 
it  is,  that  a  pendulum  which  beats  seconds,  has 
in  its  crown-wheel  only  thirty  teeth.  To  explain 
this,  8uppo!<e  the  numbers  of  a  sixteen  hour  watch, 
wherein  the  pinion  of  report  is  4,  the 
dial-wheel  32,  the  great  wheel  55,  the    4)32(  8 

pinion  of  the  second  wheel  5,  &c.  The     

number  of  the  notches  in  the  crown-  5)55(11 
wheel  17,  being  multiplied  into  6336,  5)45(  9 
(the  product  arising  from  the  continual    5)  40  (  8 

multiplication  of  the  quotients  8,1 1,9,8,)    

*  gives  107,712,  for  half  the  numberof  17 

beats  in  one  turn  of  the  dial-wheel ;  for 

8  times  17  is  136,  which  is  half  the  number  of 
beats  in  one  turn  of  the  contrate-wheel  40 ;  and 

9  times  136  is  1224,  the  half  beats  in  one  turn 
of  the  second  wheel ;  and  11  times  1224  is  13,464, 
the  half-beats  in  one  turn  of  the  great  wheel  55 ; 
and  8  times  13,464,  makes  107,712.  Multiply 
this  by  the  two  pallets,  L  e.  double  it,  it  gives 
215,424,  which  is  the  number  of  beats  in  one  turn 
of  the  dial  wheel,  in  12  hours.  To  know  how 
many  beats  this  watch  has  in  an  hour,  divide  the 
beats  in  12  hours  into  12  parts,  and  it  gives  17,952, 
which  ib  called  the  train  of  the  watch,  or  the 
beats  in  an  hour.  If  this  be  divided  into  60  parts, 
it  gives  299  and  a  little  more  for  the  beats  in  a 
minute,  and  so  you*  may  proceed  to  seconds  or 
thirds.  By  the  beats  and  turns  of  the  fusee,  the 
hours  that  any  watch  will  go  may  be  found,  thus : 
As  the  beats  of  the  balance  in  one  hour  axe  to 
the  beats  in  one  turn  of  the  fitsee,  so  is  the  num- 
ber of  the  turns  of  the  fusee  1 ,  to  the  continuance  of 
the  watch's  going.  Thus  20196 :  26028  : :  12  :  16. 
To  find  the  beats  of  the  balance  in  one  turn  of  the 
fusee,  say,  as  the  number  of  turns  of  the  fusee, 
to  the  continuance  of  the  watch's  going  in  hours, 
so  are  the  beats  in  one  hour,  to  the  beats  of  one 
turn  of  tlie  fusee ;  i.  e.  12 :  16  : ;  20196  :  26928. 
To  find  the  beats  of  the  balance  in  an  hour,  say, 
as  the  hours  of  the  watch's  going  to  the  number 
pi  turns  of  the  iiisee,  so  are  the  beats  in  one  turn 


of  the  fiisee,  to  the  beats  of  an  hoar ;  tftus, 
16  :  12  :  :  26928  :  20196.  Derham's  Jri^iaai 
Clack  Maker,  p.  14,  &c.  and  22.   See  also  Cijocs- 

MAKING. 

To  Beat  an  Alarm,  in  military  affain,  is  td 
give  notice  by  beat  of  drum  of  some  sudden 
danger. 

To  Beat  a  Charge,  is  to  give  the  signal  to&U 
upon  the  enemy. 

To  Beat  the  General,  is  to  give  notice  to 
the  forces  that  they  are  to  march. 

To  Beat  the  Reveille,  is  to  give  leave,  by 
beat  of  drum  at  day-break,  to  come  out  A 
quarters. 

To  Beat  the  Tattoo  is  to  give  notice  to  all 
to  retire  to  their  quarten. 

To  Beat  the  Troop  is  to  give  notice  to  all  to 
repair  to  their  colors. 

To  Beat  upon  the  Hand,  or  to  Chack,  in 
the  menage,  is  spoken  of  a  horse,  when  his  bead 
is  not  steady,  out  he  tosses  up  his  nose  and 
shakes  it  all  of  a  sudden,  to  avoid  the  subjectioo 
of  the  bridle.  Turkish  horses  are  very  subject  to 
this  fault.  When  they  beat  upon  the  hand  nei- 
ther the  best  bits,  nor  the  best  nand,  can  fix  their 
heads.  Croatian  horses-are  also  very  apt  to  beat 
upon  the  hand ;  their  bars  being  too  ^arp  and 
ridged,  so  that  they  cannot  bear  the  pressure  of 
the  most  gentle  bit.  It  is  from  this  excess  of  sen- 
sibility of  the  mouth  that  a  horse  is  apt  to  chack; 
but  in  order  to  secure  bis  head  it  is  only  necessary 
to  put  a  small  flat  band  of  iron,  beat  ardi-ways, 
under  his  noseband,  which  answers  as  a  martin- 
gale. This  will  hinder  him  to  beat  upon  the  hand, 
but  will  not  break  him  of  the  habit ;  for,  as  soon 
as  the  martingale  is  taken  off,  he  will  hll  into  the 
same  vice  again. 

'  BEATA,  Lat.  i.  e.  the  blessed,  one  of  the  many 
titles  given  to  the  Virgin  Mary  by  the  Roman 
Catholics. 

Beater,  in  manufacturing,  is  applied  todivei* 
sorts  of  workmen,  whose  business  is  to  hammer 
or  flatten  certain  matters,  particularly  metals. 
Thus,  1.  Gold-beaters  are  artisans  who,  by 
beating  gold  and  silver  with  a  hammer  on  a  mar- 
ble, in  moulds  of  vellum  and  bullocks*  guts, 
reduce  them  to  thin  leaves,  fit  for  gilding,  or 
silvering  of  copper,  iron,  steel,  wood  &c.  Gold- 
beaters  differ  from  flatters  of  gold  or  silver;  as 
the  former  bring  their  metal  into  leaves  hj  the 
haminer,  whereas  the  latter  only  flatten  it  by 
pressing  it  through  a  mill  preparatory  to  beating. 
2.  Tin- beaters  are  employed  in  the  looking- 
glass  trade,  whose  business  is  to  beat  tin  on  laige 
blocks  of  marble,  till  it  be  reduced  to  thin  leaves, 
fit  to  be  applied  with  quicksilver  behind  look- 
ing-glasses. See  Foliating  and  Gold-beat- 
ing. 

BEATH,  Ang.-Saz.  bethian,  bathian,  to 
steep,  dip,  or  bathe.  In  Suffolk  and  Norfolk, 
beathing  or  bathing  wood  by  the  fire,  means 
straitening  unseasoned  wood  by  heat ;  and  this 
is  much  the  same  as  Spenser's  meaning  in  the- 
example.  To  bathe  or  warm  in  fire  so  as  to- 
harden.— T(M2(fs  J^Aiison. 

And  in  hit  hand  a  tall  young  cake  he  bore 
Whose  knottie  snagt  were  shaipen'd  all  aforr. 
And  betUh*d  in  fire  for  Steele  to  be  insted. 


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BEATI'FICAL,N  From  beatut,  beatificOf 
Beati'fically,  f  to  be  happy;  to  make 
BsA'TiFicATioVy  V  happy  with  the  completion 
Beatz'fick,  Coi  celestial  enjoyment.  It 
Be'atify,  1  is  used  only  of  heavenly 

Beatx'ttm>e.  ^  fruition  after  death.  Bea- 
tification is  an  acknowledjipfnent  made  by  the 
pope,  that  the  person  beatified  is  in  heaven,  and 
therefore  may  be  reverenced  as  blessed ;  but  is 
not  a  concession  of  the  honors  due  to  saints, 
-which  are  conferred  by  canonisation.    . 

BmUifieaIfy  to  behold  the  face  of  God,  in  the  fal- 
neee  of  wiadom,  righteootness,  and  peace,  ii  bleaaed- 
neas  no  way  incident  unto  the  creatures  beneath  man. 

Haketvm, 

If  at  the  conversion  of  a  sinner  there  is  joy  before 
the  beaHJied  spirits,  the  angels  of  God,  and  that  is  the 
consununiUion  of  onr  pardon  and  our  consignation  to 
felicity ;  then  we  may  imagine  how  great  an  evil  it 
is  to  grieve  the  spirit  of  God,  who  is  greater  than 
the  angels.  Jttmmf  Tojfhr, 

In  midst  of  this  city  celestial. 
Where  the  eternal  temple  should  have  rose. 

Lightened  the  idea  beatifical 

End,  and  beginning,  of  each  thing  that  grows. 

Gilet  Fletcher. 

Admiring  the  riches  of  heaven's  pavement 
Than  aught  divine  or  holy  else,  enjoy'd 
In  vision  beaiifidi,  Millon, 

About  him  all  the  sanctities  of  heav'n 
Stood  thick  as  stars,  and  from  his  sight  received 
BeatUade  past  utterance.  Id. 

It  is  also  their  felicity  to  have  no  faith ;  for  enjoy- 
ing the  beatifical  vision  in  the  fruition  of  the  object  of 
faith,  they  have  received  the  full  evacuation  of  it. 

Brown^t  Vidgar  Erroun. 

He  set  out  the  felicity  of  his  heaven,  by  the  delights 
of  sense ;  sightly  passing  over  the  accomplishment  of 
the  soul,  and  the  heaiitude  of  diat  part  which  earth 
and  visibilities  too  weakly  affect.  Id, 

Wc  shall  know  him  to  be  the  fullest  good,  the 
nearest  to  us,  and  the  most  certain ;  and  consequently 
the  most  beati/jfing  of  all  others.  Broum. 

We  may  contemplate  upon  the  greatness  and 
stiangeness  of  the  beatifick  vision ;  how  a  created  eye 
should  be  so  fortified,  as  to  bear  all  those  glories  that 
stream  from  the  fountain  of  uncreated  light.       South. 

The  obedient,  and  the  men  of  practice,  are  those 
sons  of  light,  that  shall  outgrow  all  their  doubts  and 
ignorances,  that  shall  ride  upon  these  clouds,  and 
tritmiph  over  their  present  imperfections,  till  persua- 
sion pass  into  knowledge,  and  knowledge  aidvance 
into  assurance,  and  all  come  at  length  to  be  com- 
pleated  in  the  beatijick  vision,  and  a  full  fruition  of 
those  joys  which  God  has  in  reserve  for  them,  whom 
by  his  grace  he  shall  prepase  for  glory. 

South't  Sermont. 

Tins  is  the  image  and  little  representation  of  hea- 
ven ;  it  is  beatitude  in  picture.  Taffior. 

The  use  of  spiritual  conference  is  unimaginable  and 
unspeakable,  especially  if  free  and  unrestrained,  bear- 
ing an  image  of  that  conversation  which  is  among 
angels  and  beatified  sainu.  Hammomd. 

I  wish  I  had  the  wings  of  in  angel,  to  have  as- 
cended into  Paradise,  and  to  have  beheld  the  forms 
of  those  beatijkd  spirits  £rom  which  I  might  have  co- 
pied my  archangel.  Dryden. 

Over  against  this  church  stands  an  hosintal  erected 
by  a  shoemaker,  who  has  been  beatified,  though  never 

Additon. 


For  you  alone  his  raptures  can  describe. 
And  stem  the  impetuous  joys  that  rise 

Within  your  breasts  when  all  unveil'd  you  view. 
The  wonders  of  the  beatific  sight.  Mn.  Rowe, 

Beatification,  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  an  act 
by  which  the  pope  declares  a  person  beatified,  or 
blessed,  after  his  death.  It  is  the  first  step 
towards  canonisation,  or  raising  any  one  to  the 
honor  and  dignity  of  a  saint.  No  person  can  be 
beatified  till  fifty  years  after  his  or  her  death. 
All  certificates  or  attestations  of  virtues  and  mi- 
racles, the  necessary  qualifications  for  saintship, 
are  examined  by  the  congregation  of  rites.  This 
examination  often  continues  for  several  years; 
after  which  his  holiness  decrees  the  beatification. 
The  corpse  and  relics  of  the  future  saint  are  from 
thenceforth  exposed  to  the  veneraiion  of  all  good 
Christians;  his  image  is  crowned  with  rays,  and 
a  particular  office  is  set  apart  for  him ;  but  bis 
body  and  relics  ave  not  carried  in  procession. 
Indulgences  likewise,  and  remissions  of  sins,  are 
granted  on  the  day  of  his  beatification ;  which, 
though  not  so  pompous  as  that  of  canonisation,  is 
however  very  splendid.  Beatification  differs  from 
canonisation  in  this,  that  the  pope  does  not  act  as 
a  judge  in  determining  the  state  of  the  beatified, 
but  only  grants  a  privilege  to  certain  persons  to 
honor  him  by  a  particular  religious  worship, 
without  incurring  the  penalty  of  superstitious 
worshippers;  but  in  canonisation  the  pope  speaks 
as  a  judge,  and  determines,  ex  cathedra,upon  the 
state  of  the  canonised.  Beatification  was  intro- 
duced when  it  was  thought  proper  to  delay  the 
canonisation  of  saints,  for  the  greater  assurance 
of  the  truth  of  the  steps  taken  in  the  procedure. 
Some  particular  orders  of  monks  have  assumed  to 
themselves  the  power  of  beatification.  Thus 
Octavia  Melchiorica  was  beatified  with  extraor- 
dinary ceremonies  by  the  Dominicans. 

Beating,    in    book-binding.      See    Book- 
binding. 
'  Beating,  in  English  law.    See  Battery. 

Beating,  in  hunting,  a  term  used  of  a  stag, 
which  runs  first  one  vray  and  then  another. 
He  is  then  said  to  beat  up  and  down. — ^The  noise 
made  by  conies  in  rutting  time  is  also  called  beat- 
ing or  tapping. 

Beating,  or  Pulsation,  in  medicine,  is  ap- 
plied to  the  reciprocal  agitation  or  palpitation  of 
the  heart  and  pulse,  or  arteries.  Some  physi- 
cians distinguish  eighty-one  different  kinds  of: 
simple  beatings,  and  fifteen  compound  ones^ 
Th^  compute  sixty  beats  in  the  space  of  ^ 
minute  as  the  proper  number  in  a.  temperate* 
man ;  but,  in  fact,  we  generally  find  a  greater 
number. 

Beating,  in  navigation,  the  operation  of  ma- 
king a  progress  at  sea  against  the  direction  of 
the  wina  in  a  zig-zag  line,  or  traverse,  like  that  inr 
which  we  ascend  a  steep  hill.     See  Tackiik}. 

Beating,  in  paper-making,  signifies  the  beat- 
ing of  paper  on  a  stone  with  a  heavy  hammer, 
with  a  large  smooth  head  and  a  short  handle,  in 
order  to  render  it  more  smooth  and  uniform,  and 
fit  for  writing.  Engines  driven  by  water  are  now 
used. 

Beating  Flax,  or  Hemp,  is  an  operation  in 
the  dressing  of  these  substances,  to  render  them 
more  soft  and  pliant.    When  hemo  has  been 


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swingled  a  second  time,  and  the  hards  laid  by,, 
they  take  the  strikes,  and,  dividing  them  into 
dozens  and  half-dozens,  make  them  up  into  large 
thick  rolls,  which,  being  broached  on  long  strikes, 
are  set  to  dry ;  after  which  they  lay  them  in  a 
round  trough  made  for  the  purpose,  and  there 
beat  them  well  with  beetles  till  they  handle  both 
without  and  within  as  pliant  as  possible,  with- 
out any  hardness  or  roughness  to  be  felt:  that 
done,  they  take  them  from  the  trough,  open  and 
divide  die  strikes  as  before,  and,  if  any  be  found 
not  sufficiently  beaten,  they  roll  them  up  and 
beat  them  over  again.  Beating  hemp  is  a  pan-  ^ 
isfament  that  was  often  inflicted  on  loose  or  dis- 
orderly persons,  in  houses  of  correction,  before 
the  happy  invention  of  the  tread-mill  1 

fi£ ATiMC,  or  inflicting  stripes,  on  the  person, 
was  one  of  tlie  most  ancient,  as  well  as  universal, 

ries  of  punishment.  Among  the  Romans  it 
ined,  under  the  denomination  of  verberatio, 
fustigatio,  tlagellatio,  pulsatio,  &c.  In  the  East 
it  still  prevails,  under  the  name  of  Bastonado, 
which  see. 

Beating  the  Wind  was  a  practice  in  use  in 
the  ancient  method  of  trial  by  combat.  If  either 
of  the  combatants  did  not  appear  in  the  field,  at 
the  time  appointed,  the  other  was  to  beat  the 
wind,  or  make  so  many  flourishes  with  his  wea- 
pon ;  by  which  be  was  entitled  to  all  the  advan- 
tages of  a  conqueror.  Perhaps  St.  Paul  alludes 
to  this  1  Cor.  ix.  26. 

Beating  Time,  in  music,  a  method  of  mea- 
suring and  marking  the  time  for  performers  in 
concert,  by  a  motion  of  the  hand  and  foot  up  or 
down  successively,  and  in  equal  times.  Know- 
ing the  true  time  of  a  crotchet,  and  supposing  the 
measure  actually  subdivided  into  four  crotchets, 
and  the  half  measure  into  two,  the  hand  or  foot 
being  up,  if  we  put  it  down  with  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  first  note  or  crotchet,  and  then  raise 
it  with  the  third,  and  then  down  with  the  begin- 
ning of  the  next  measure ;  this  is  called  beating 
the  time  ;  and,  by  practice,  a  habit  is  acquired  of 
making  the  motion  very  equal.  Each  motion 
down  and  up  is  called  a  time  or  measure.  The 
general  rule  is,  to  contrive  the  division  of  the 
measure  so,  that  every  down  and  up  of  the 
beating  shall  end  with  a  particular  note,  on  which 
greatly  depends  the  distinctness;  and,  as  it  were, 
the  sense  of  the  melody.  Hence  tlie  beginning 
of  every  timeor  beating  in  the  measure  is  reckoned 
the  accented  part  of  it.  Beating  time  is  denoted, 
in  the  Italian  music,  by  the  term  of  a  battuta, 
which  is  usually  put  after  what  they  call  recitativo, 
where  little  or  no  time  is  observed,  to  denote  that 
here  they  are  to  begin  again  to  mark  or  beat  the 
time  exactly.  The  Romans  aimed  at  somewhat 
of  harmony  in  the  strokes  of  their  oars ;  and  had 
an  officer  called  portisculus  in  each  galleyy  whose 
business  was  to  beat  time  with  the  rowers,  some- 
times by  a  pole  or  mallet,  and  sometimes  only  by 
his  voice.  The  ancients  marked  the  rhythm  in 
their  musical  compositions;  but,  to  make  it  more 
observable  in  the  practice,  they  beat  the  measure 
or  time  in  different  manners.  The  most  usual 
consisted  in  a  motion  of  the  foot,  which  was 
i-aised  from,  and  struck  alternately  against,  the 
ground,  according  to  the  modern  method. 
Doing  thb  was.  commonly  the  province  of  the 


master  of  the  music,  who  was  thence  called 
fuuoxopocy  and  copv^oioc,  because  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  choir  of  musicians,  and  in  an  ele- 
vated situation,  to  be  seen  and  heard  more  easily 
by  the  whole  company.  These  beaten  of.  mea- 
sure were  also  called  by  the  Greeks  iro^ocmrDc, 
and  TToloif/i^oc,  because  of  the  noise  of  their  feet; 
and  ffvrrovapiotj  because  of  the  uniformity  Or  mo- 
notony of  the  riiythm.  The  Latins  denominated 
them  podarii,  pedarii  and  pedicularii.  To  make 
the  beats  or  strokes  more  audible,  their  feet  were 
generally  shod  with  a  sort  of  sandals,  either  of 
wood  or  iron,  called  by  the  Greeks  cpovirt^, 
icpovTroXa,  cpcviri|ra,  and  by  the  Latins  pedicuia, 
scabella,  or  scabilla,  because  resembling  little 
stools  or  foot-stools.  Sometimes  they  beat  upon 
sonorous  foot-stools,  with  the  foot  shod  vnth  a 
wooden  or  iron  sole.*  They  beat  the  measure  not 
only  with  the  foot,  but  also  with  the  right  hand, 
all  the  fingers  of  which  they  joined  to^lher,  to 
strike  into  the  hollow  of  the  left.  He  who  thus 
marked  tlie  rhythm,  vfas  called  manudactor. 
The  ancients  also  beat  time  with  shells,  as  oyster 
shells  and  bones  of  animals,  which  they  struck 
against  one  another,  much  as  the  modems  now 
use  castanets,  and  the  like  instruments.  This 
the  Greeks  called  tcpf^/i/SaXta^eiy,  as  is  noted  by 
Hesychius.  The  scholiast  on  Aristophanes  speaks 
mach  to  the  same  purpose.  Other  noisy  instru- 
ments, as  drums,  'cymbals,  citterns,  &C.,  were 
abo  used  on  the  same  occasion.  They  beat  the 
measure  generally  in  two  equal  or  unequal  times ; 
at  least,  this  holds  of  the  usual  rhythm  of  a  piece 
of  music,  marked  either  by  the  noise  of  sandals, 
or  the  slapping  of  the  hands.  But  the  other 
rhythmic  instruments  last-mentioned,  and  which 
were  used  principally  to  excite  and  animate  the 
dancers,  marked  the  cadence  after  another  man- 
ner; that  is,  the  number  of  their  percussions 
equalled,  or  even  sometimes  surpassed,  that  of  the 
different  sounds  which  composed  the  air  or  song 
pljTved. 

Beatitude,  in  divinity,  denotes  the  fruition 
of  God  in  a  future  life  to  all  eternity.  Beatitude 
is  also  used  in  speaking  of  the  theses  contained 
in  Christ^s  sermon  on  the  mount,  whereby  be 
pronounces  the  poor  in  spirit,  those  that  mourn, 
the  meek,  &c.,  blessed. 

Beatitude,  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  was  a  title 
anciently  given  to  all  bishops ;  but  of  latter  days 
has  been  restrained  to  the  pope.  It  appears  to 
have  been  sometimes  aUo  given  to  laymen. 

BEATON  (David),archbishopof  St.  Andrew's, 
and  a  cardinal  of  Rome,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  bom  in  1494.  Pope  Paul 
III.  raised  him  to  the  degree  of  a  cardinal  in  De- 
cember 1538 ;  and  being  employed  by  James  V. 
in  negociating  his  marriage  with  the  court  of 
France,  he  was  there  consecrated  bishop  of  Mire^ 
poix.  Soon  after  his  instalment  as  archbi^op 
of  St.  Andrew's,  he  promoted  a  furious  persecu- 
tion of  the  reformers  in  Scotland ;  but  the  kini^'s 
death  put  a  stop,  for  a  time,  to  his  arbitrary  pro- 
ceedings, he  being  then  excluded  from  a&iis  of 
government,  and  confined.  He  raised,  howev^, 
so  strong  a  party,  that,  upon  the  coronatioD  of 
the  young  queen  Mary,  he  was  admitted  m  die 
council,  maae  chancellor,  and  procured  a  com- 
mission as  legate  h  latere  from  the  court  of  Rome. 


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He  now  began  to  renew  his  persecution  of  here- 
tics :  and,  among  the  rest,  of  tne  iamous  protestant 
preacher  George  Wishart,  whose  sufferings  at  the 
xtake  he  viewed  from  his  window  with  apparent , 
exultation.  It  is  said,  that  Wishart,  at  his  death, 
R  retold  the  murder  of  Beaton,  which  indeed 
happened  shortly  after,  he  being  assassinated  in 
his  chamber,  May  29th,  1547.  Beaton  had  great 
talents,  and  vices  that  were  no  less  conspicuous. 

Beaton  (James),  a  nephew  of  the  archbishop, 
was  born  at  Balfour,  in  1530,  and  raised  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Glasgow,  when  about  twenty-five 
years  of  age.  In  1560  he  collected  the  sacred 
vessels  and  records  belonging  to  his  cathedral, 
and  embarked  for  France,  where  he  died  in  1603. 
lie  wrote  a  history  of  Scotland,  but  it  was  nerer 
printed. 

BEATORUM  Insula,  in  ancient  geography, 
was  seven  days  journey  west  of  Thebae,  a  district 
of  the  Nomos  Oasites,  and  called  an  island,  be- 
cause surrounded  with  sand,  like  an  island  with 
water ;  yet  abounding  in  all  the  necessaries  of 
life.  Some  suppose  it  to  have  been  a  third  Oasis, 
in  the  Regio  Ammoniaca;  and  the  site  of  the 
temple  of  Ammon  answers  to  the  above  descrip- 
tion, as  appears  from  the  writers  on  Alexander's 
expedition  thither.  Ulpian  says,  it  was  a  place 
of  banishment  for  criminals  from  which  there  was 
no  escape. 

BEATSON  (Robert),  an  ingenious  and  ex- 
tensive compiler  of  books,  was  born  in  1742  at 
Dysart,  in  tne  county  of  Fife.  At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he' entered  into  the  army,  but  rising  no 
higher  than  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant,  turned  his 
attention  to  liter&tiire  aj  aprofesaion,aud  in  1786 
published  A  Political  Index  to  the  Histories  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  of  which  there  have 
been  three  editions.  In  1790  appeared  his  Na- 
val and  Military  Memoirs  of  Great  Brhain,  in  3 
vols.  8vo.,  to  which  he  subsequently  added  three 
more;  and  in  1807  a  Chronological  Register  of 
both  Houses  of  Parliament  from  the  Union.  He 
obtained  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Scotland.  He  died  in  1818. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  .an  Essay  on  vertical 
and  horizontal  Windmills. 

BEATTIE  (James),  LL.  D.,  professor  of  mo- 
ral philosophy  and  logic  in  the  Marischal  college, 
Aberdeen,  was  bom  in  Kincardineshire,  in  1735. 
His  father,  who  kept  a  small  shop  in  Laurence- 
kirk, and  rented  a  farm  in  the  neighbourhood, 
gave  him  all  the  education  which  could  be  ob- 
tained at  the  parish  school,  and  afterwards  sent 
him  to  the  university  of  Aberdeen.  There  he 
pursued  his  studies  with  great  diligence,  and  was 
soon  preferred  to  a  bursary.  Having  continued 
four  years  at  the  university,  studying  philosophy 
and  divinity,  with  a  view  to  the  established 
church,  and  no  prospect  opening  for  him,  he  ac- 
cepted in  1753,  of  tne  office  of  schoolmaster  and 
parish  clerk  in  the  parish  of  Fordun.  Here  he  con- 
tinued four  years,  little  known  or  noticed  In 
1758  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  ushers  to  the 
g^rammar  school  of  Aberdeen,  and  soon  after 
gained  attention  among  the  men  of  letters  in  the 
university.  In  1760  he^ublisheda  smallvolume 
of  original  poems  and  translations,  and  the  same 
year  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy ;  the 


duties  of  which  situatton  he  continued  to  dis- 
charge till  within  a  short  time  of  his  death. 
Abenieen  could  at  this  period  boast  of  Drs. 
Campbell,  Gerard,  Gregory,  and  Reid,  among 
its  professors ;  and  the  benefits  which  their  new 
associate  must  have  derived  from  such  company, 
were  rendered  still  more  invaluable,  by  the  har- 
monv  in  which  they  lived  with  each  other,  and 
the  familiar  manner  in  which  they  communicated 
their  sentiments.  In  a  kind  of  literary  club,  which 
met  twice  a  month,  they  discussed  freely  all  the 
topics  of  literature  and  philosophy  which  occurred 
to  any  of  them ;  and  it  was  in  this  society  that 
those  speculations  took  their  rise,  which  have 
since  made  their  names  so  ^miliar  to  all  who 
read  for  instruction.  In  1763  Mr.  Beattie  visited 
London,  and  in  1765  published  his  Judgment 
of  Paris;  this  year  also,  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  poet  Gray,  and  continued  in  close 
friendship  with  him  while  he  lived.  In  1767  he 
married  a  daughter  of  Dr.  Dun,  master  of  the 
grammar  school ;  and  about  this  time  seems  to 
have  begun  his  Minstrel,  and  his  Essay  on  the 
Nature  and  Immutability  of  Truth ;  the  latter  of 
which  was  published  in  1770.  It  was  designed 
particularly  to  oppose  the  philosophy  of  Hume, 
who  is  said  to  have  been  so  sensible  of  the 
strength  of  its  arguments  and  popularity,  that  he 
never  afterwards  could  hear  the  name  of  Beattie 
mentioned  without  displeasure.  In  1771  ap- 
peared the  first  canto  of  that  beautiful  poem, 
The  Minstrel,  which  was  completed  in  1774, 
and  in  a  very  short  time  ran  through  several  edi- 
tions. In  a  second  journey  to  London,  he  was 
introduced  by  his  friend  Dr.  Gregory  to  Mrs. 
Montagu,  and  to  all  the  distinguished  literary 
society  thf  n  in  the  metropolis.  He  visited  Lon- 
don a  third  time  in  1773,  and  associated  for  some 
months  with  Drs.  Johnson,  ^Porteus,  and  other 
eminent  men.  About  this  time  he  received  an  ho- 
-norary,  degree  of  LLD.  from  Oxford;  and  obtained 
a  pension  from  the  king  of  £200  per  anniyn.  He 
had  also  the  honor  of  an  interview  with  tlieir 
majesties.  This  year  there  was  a  proposal  for 
transferring  Dr.  Beattie  to  tlie  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, but  he  declined  it;  and  in  1774  two 
offers  were  made  him  in  the  church  of  England, 
one  of  them  a  living  of  £500  a  year,  with  views 
of  further  preferment;  but  these  he  also  declined. 
Dr.  Priestley  at  this  time  made  an  attack  upon 
him,  of  which,  however,  he  took  no  notice.  In 
1776  he  published  a  volume  of  Essays;  and  in 
1783,  Dissertations  Moral  and  Critical,  in  one 
volume  4to,  At  the  recommendation  of  the 
bishop  of  London,  in  1786,  he  published  two 
small  volumes  on  \he  Evidences  ot  the  Christian 
Religion ;  and  in  1790  the  Elements  of  Moral 
Science,  being  the  outlines  of  his  academical 
lectures.  Dr.  Beattie  was  very  much  tried  by 
domestic  affliction :  his  wife  became  the  victim 
of  hereditary  insanity,  and  his  two  sons,  James 
Hay  and  Montagu,  died  successively,  after  at- 
taining to  manhood.  The  situation  of  his  wife,  and 
the  precarious  state  of  his  own  health,  had  sunk 
him  into  an  habitual  depression  ;  but  the  death 
of  his  eldest  son  James,  who  had  been  conjoined 
with  him  in  the  professorship,  was  so  severe  a 
shock  to  him  that  he  never  recovered  from  it. 
But  the  sudden  death  of  his  only  remaining  child 


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in  1796,  completely  unhinged  his  mind ;  the  first 
symptom  of  which  was  a  temporary,  but  almost 
total  loss  of  memory,  respecting  bis  son.  At  this 
time,  after  searching  in  every  room  in  the  house, 
he  would  say  to  his  niece,  Mrs.  Glennie,  *  You 
may  think  it  strange,  but  I  must  ask  you  if  I 
have  a  son>  and  where  he  is  ? '  She  then  felt  her- 
self,' hays  Sir  William  Forbes,  'under  the  painful 
necessity  of  bringing  to  his  recollection  nis  son 
Montagu's  sufferings,  which  always  restored  him 
to  reason.  And  he  would  often,  with  many  tears, 
express  his  thankfulness  that  he  had  no  child, 
saying,  *  How  could  I  have  borne  to  see  their 
elegant  minds  mangled  with  madness  1 '  When 
he  looked  for  the  last  time  on  the  dead  body  of 
hi^  sen,  he  said,  '  I  have  now  done  with  the 
world/  His  last  publication  was  An  Account 
of  the  life.  Character,  and  Writings  of  James 
liay  Beattie.  His  spirits  from  tliis  period  were 
nerer  restored,  and  his  health  continued  gra- 
dually to  decline,  till,  in  1799,  he  was  struck 
witl\  palsy ;  and,  after  being  reduced  to  a  state 
of  permanent  insensibility,  this  excellent  man, 
all  of  whose  labors  tended  to  enlighten  and  be- 
nefit mankind,  expired  in  June,  1803. 

BEAU',  "J  From  the  Fr.  beauy  good,  gay, 
Beau'ish,  Sfine.  'The  plural  beaux  is  now 
Beau'ship.  j  Anglicised.  A  beau  is  a  man  of 
dress,, whose  great'  care  is  to  deck  his  person. 
Vulgarly  employed  to  designate  a  lover,  who  of 
course  must  be  a  smart  fellow.  A  be<m  was  the 
dandy  of  the  last  dage,  as  a  dandy  is  the  fop  of  the 
present. 

Wliat  will  not  beaux  attempt  to  please  the  fair. 

The  water  nymphs  are  too  unkind 
To  VilFroy  ;  are  the  land  nymphs  so  ? 

And  fly  they  all,  at  once  combln'd 
To  shame  a  general,  and  a  beau?  Prior. 

You  will  become  the  delight  of  nine  ladies  in  ten, 
and  the  envy  of  ninety-nine  beaux  in  a  hundred. 

Swift, 
A  youth  more  glittering  than  a  birth-night  beau, 
That  even  in  slumber  caus'd  her  cheek  to  glow. 

Pope,  Rape  of  the  Lock. 
"With  varying  vanities  from  ev'iy  part. 
They  shift  the  moving  toy-shop  of  their  heart. 
Where  wigs  with  wigs,  with  sword-knots  sword-knots 

strive. 
Beaux  banish  beaux^  and  coaches  coaches  drive. 
This  erring  mortals  levity  may  call. 
Oh  blind  to  truth!  the  sylphs  contrive  it  all.  Id, 

Just  at  that  time  of  life,  whea  man  by  rule. 
The  fop  laid  down,  takes  up  the  graver  fool. 
He  started  up  a  fop,  and  fond  of  show 
Look'd  Like  another  Hercules  tum'd  beau. 

CfiurchiU. 
Beau  (Charles  le),  a  learned  French  author, 
bom  at  Paris  in  1701.  He  became  professor  in 
the  Royal  College,  and  secretary  of  tne  Academy 
of  Inscriptions.  He  wrote  a  history  of  the  Lower 
Empire,  in  22  vols,  which  is  much  esteemed; 
also  Opera  Latins,  published  at  Paris  five  years 
after  his  death,  in  3  vols.  12mo.  He  died  at 
Paris  in  1778. 

Beau  (John  Lewis  le),  brother  of  Charles,  was 
also  a  roan  of  considerable  learning.  He  was 
bom  at  Paris  in  1721,  and  became  professor  of 
flieloric  in  the  college  of  the  Grassins,  and  mem- 


ber of  the  academy  of  inscriptions.  In  1746  he 
published  an  edition  of  Homer  in  Greek  and 
Latin,- 2  vols:  and  in  1750,  the  Orations  of 
Cicero,  3  vols. :  also  a  Discourse  on  the  Porerty 
of  the  Learned.    He  died  in  1766. 

BEAUBASSIN,  a  bay  in  the  straits  of  Magel- 
lan, on  the  coast  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  so  named 
by  Bougainville.  '  According  to  his  account, 
there  is  good  anchorage  in  it  from  forty  to  twelve 
fethoms;  the  bottom  of  sand,  small  gravel,  and 
shells.     Long.  71**  13'  W.,  lat.  54**  22*  S. 

BEAUCAIRE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Gard  and  ci-devant  proviace 
of  Languedoc,  on  the  Rhone,  opposite  to  Taras- 
con,  with  which  it  has  a  communication  by  a 
bridge  of  boats.  The  fair  of  the  Magdalen,  which 
b  held  July  22,  partly  in  the  town,  and  partly 
under  tents  in  an  adjacent  valley,  for  seven  days, 
is  one  of  the  most  famous  in  Europe,  though  of 
.late  it  has  declined.  Beaucaire  is  ten  miles  east 
of  Nismes.  The  canal  of  Aigues  Mortes  now 
extends  to  this  town,  where  it  communicates  with 
the  Rhone.  On  the  Rhone,  opposite  Tsrascon, 
are  the  picturesque  rains  of  an  old  castle.  Its 
population  is  stated  to  be  8500.  Long.  4''  39'  £^ 
lat.  43**  50*  N. 

BEAUCE,  one  of  the  former  provinces  of 
France,  famous  for  its  fertility  in  grain.  It  was 
situated  between  Perche,  the  Isle  of  France,  the 
Blasois,  and  the  Orleanais,  Chartnes  was  its  capi- 
tal. Beauce  now  forms  a  part  of  the  department 
of  the  Eure  and  Loir. 

BEAUCLERC,  Port,  a  good  harbour  in  an 
island  in  the  North  Pacific,  on  the  west  coast  of 
North  America.  .  Long.  226°  23*  E.,  lat.  56* 

irN. 

BEAUCLERK  (Topham),  a  gentleman  of 
whom  Dr.  Johnson  said,  referring  to  his  conver- 
sational power  and  &cility  of  expression,  that  his 
talents  were  those  which  he  had  felt  himself  more 
disposed  to  envy  than  those  of  any  whom  be  bad 
known.  He  was  the  son  of  lord  Sidney  Bean- 
clerk,  and  was  bom  in  December  1739.  In 
1768  he  married  lady  Diana  Spencer,  daughter 
of  the  duke  of  Mariborough,  whose  previous 
marriage  with  viscount  Bolingbroke  had  two 
days  before  been  dissolved  by  act  of  pariiamenL 
Mr.  Beauclerk  died  at  his  house  in  Great  Rus- 
sell Street,  Bloomsbuiy,  March  11,  1780,  leaving 
by  his  wife  a  son  and  two  daughters,  and  a  veiy 
valuable  library.  Lady  Diana  Beauclerk  long 
survived  him,  and  died  in  August  1806,  at  the 
age  of  seventy-four.  She  was  a  lady  distin- 
guished for  her  tiste  and  skill  in  the  arts. 

BEA'VER.  Sax.  befer,  Dut.  bever^  Germ. 
biber,  Fr.  bievre,  laX.fibla.  An  animal,  otherwise 
named  the  castor^  amphibious,  and  remarkable 
for  his  art  in  building  his  habitation ;  of  which 
many  wonderful  accounts  are  delivered  by  tra- 
vellers. His  skin  is  very  valuable  on  account  of 
the  fur. .  Of  this  fur,  hats  of  the  best  quality  are 
manu&ctured,  and  therefore  called  beetogrs. 
Highe  on  hora  he  sat. 
And  on  his  he  J  a  Flaundriab  beoer  hat. 


Then  ante  him  al^  monstrcraa  beasts  retorted. 
Bred  of  two  kindes ;  as  griffons,  minotaon. 
Crocodiles,  dragons  beavert,  and  Centaom. 

^pmMT.  Mother  BtAberi'MTeie^ 


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Ha!  yoa  felt  the  wool  of  I 
Or  fwans'  down  ever  ? 
Or  have  smelt  o'  the  bad  o'  the  briar^ 
Or  the  Hard  in  the  fire. 
Or  have  tasted  the  bag  of  the  bee  ; 
Oh,  so  white !  Oh,  so  soft !  Oh  so  sweet  it  she ! 

BenJoiutn. 

They  placed  this  invention  upon  the  leaoer,  for  the 
sagacity  and  wisdom  of  that  animal ;  indeed  from  its 
artifice  in  building.  Browne*»  Vulgar  Erroun, 

You  see  a  smart  rhetorician  turning  his  hat,  mould- 
ing it  into  different  cocks,  examining  the  lining  and 
the  button  during  his  harangue :  a  deaf  man  would 
think  he  was  cheapening  a  heaoer,  when  he  is  talking 
of  the  fate  of  a  nation. '  Addiaon. 

The  broker  here  his  spacious  beaner  wears. 

Upon  his  brow  sit  jealousies  and  cares.  (kty, 

Beaver,      )    From  baviere,  French ;  bamere, 
^BEA  VERED.  \  says  Cotgrave,  is  the  bib,  mocket, 
or  mockcter,  to  pat  before  the  bosom  of  a  slarer- 
ang  child ;  so  that  baviere  or  beaver,  is,  accord- 
ing to  the  £ncy.  Met,  that  part  of  the  helmet 
M^hich  lets  down  to  enable  tne  wearer  to  drink, 
and  which  receives  the  drops  or  dribblings;  by 
Sliakspeare  and  others,  however,  as  the  editor 
admits,  it  is  quite  oppositely  applied. 
His  dreadful  hideous  head. 
Close  coached  on  the  beaoer,  seem'd  to  throw 
From  flaming  mouth  bright  sparklet  fiery  red. 


Big  Mart  seemt  bankrupt  in  their  beggar'd  host. 
And  faintly  through  a  rusty  beaoer  peept.  Shalupeare, 
1  saw  yoong  Harry ^ — ^with  his  beaoer  on. 
His  cuisses  on  his  thighs,  gallantly  armM,-— 
Rise  from  the  ground  like  feathered  Mercaiy, 
And  vaulted  with  such  ease  into  his  seat. 
As  if  an  angel  dropp'd  down  from  the  clouds. 
To  turn  and  wind  a  fiery  Pegasus, 
And  witch  the  world  with  noble  horsemanship.  Id, 
He  was  slain  apon  a  coarse  at  tilt,  the  splinters  of 
Lis  staff  going  in  at  his  beaoer.  Bacon* 

His  beaoer'd  brow  a  birchen  garland  heart* 
Dropping  with  infant's  blood,  and  mother's  tears. 

Pope, 

Beaver,  in  zoology.    See  Castor. 

Beaver  Skins  are  a  prodigious  article  of 
trade,  being  the  foundation  of  the  hat  manufac- 
tory. In  1763  were  sold,  in  a  single  sale  of  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  54,670  skins.  They 
vary  in  their  colors;  the  finest  are  black,  but  the 
geneial  color  is  a  chestnut  brown,  more  or  less 
dark:  some  have  been  found,  but  very  rarely, 
white.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  names  of 
coat  beaver^  which  is  what  has  been  worn  as 
coverlets  by  the  Indians:  parchment  beaver, 
because  the  lower  side  resembles  it ;  and  stage 
beaver,  which  is  the  worst,  and  is  that  which  the 
Indians  kill  out  of  season,  on  their  stases  or 
joumevs.  Besides  hats  and  furs,  in  which  the 
beaver  s  hair  is  commonly  used,  thev  attempted 
in  France,  in  1699,  to  make  cloths,  flannels, 
stockings,  &c.  partly  of  beaver's  hair,  and  partly 
of  Segovia  wool.  This  manufactory,  whicti  was 
set  up  at  Paris,  in  St.  Anthony's  suburbs,  suc- 
ceeded at  first  pretty  well ;  and,  according  to  the 
geoius  of  the  French,  the  novelty  of  the  thing 
brought  into  some  repute  the  stufis,  stockings, 
gloves,  and  cloth,  made  of  beaver's  hair.  But 
they  were  found  of  very. bad  wear,  and  the 


colon  quickly  fiided :  when  they  had  been  wet^ 
they  became  dry  and  hard,  like  felt.  When  the 
hair  has  been  cut  off  from  the  skins,  to  be  used 
in  the  manu&cture  of  hats,  the  skins  are  em- 
ployed by  trunk-makers,  to  cover  trunks  and 
lx)xe8;  by  shoe-makers;,  and  by  turners,  to 
make  sieves,  &c.  Merchants  distinguish  beaver 
skins  into, 

1.  Beaver,  Dry,  which  is  sometimes  called 
lean  beaver,  and  which  comes  from  the  summer 
hunting  at  the  time  when  these  animals  lose 
part  of  their  hair.  Though  this  is  inferior  to  the 
new  beaver,  yet  it  ma^  also  be  employed  in  fan ; 
but  it  is  chiefly  used  m  the  manufacture  of  hats. 
The  French  csdl  it  summer  castor  or  beaver. 

2.  Braver,  Fat,  is  that  which  has  contracted 
a  certain  gross  and  oily  humoi^  from  the  per- 
spiration which  exhales  from  the  bodies  of  the 
sava^,  who  wear  it  for  some  time.  Though 
this  18  a  better  kind  than  the  dry  beaver,  yet  it  is 
used  only  in  the  making  hats. 

3.  Beaver,  New,  or  Whitr  Beaver,  also 
called  Muscovy  beaver,  because  it  is  commonly 
kept  to  be  sent  into  Russia,  is  that  which  the 
savages  catch  in  their  winter  hunting.  It  is  the 
best,  and  the  most  proper  for  making  fine  furs, 
because  it  has  lost  none  of  its  hair  by  shedding. 

Beaver  Creek,  a  river  of  T^foith  America, 
which  falls  into  lake  Erie  at  its  east  end,  about 
seven  miles  south-east  from  Fort  Erie.  2.  A 
river  of  North  America,  which  falls  into  the  Alle- 
gany. Twenty-eight  miles  north-west  from  Pitts- 
burg. 3.  A  nver  of  Kentucky,  which  runs  into 
the  Cumberland.  4.  A  river  of  Georgia,  which 
runs  into  the  Tennessee. 

Beaver  Islands,  are  a  remarkable  chain  of 
small  islands  in  lake  Michigan,  extending  about 
thirty  miles  south-west.  They  appear  beautiful, 
but  the  soil  is  barren. 

Beaver  Kill,  a  river  of  North  America, 
which  falls  into  the  Popachton  branch  of  the 
Delaware. 

Beaver  Lake,  in  North  America,  lies  in 
about  52^  45'  N.  lat.,  and  101**  30'  W.  long. 

Beaver  River,  so  called  from  the  multitude 
of  beavers  ^hich  frequent  its  banks,  a  river  of 
North  America,  which  rises  on  tlie  eastern  side 
of  the  rocky  mountains,  and  falls  into  the  Yellow- 
stone firom  the  north. 

Also  a  river  of  North  America,  which  rises  in 
the  ridge  of  mountains  that  divides  the  waters 
which  discharge  themselves  into  Hudson's  bay, 
from  those  which  flow  towards  tlie  Northern 
Ocean.  It  falls  into  Lake  la  Crosse,  in  about 
56°  N.  lat.  and  108o  W.  long. 

Beaver's  Town,  a  town  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  in  the  western  territory,  built  in 
1764.    Eighty-five  miles  north-west  of  Pittsburg. 

BEAUFORT  a  sea-port  of  the  United  States, 
in  Carteret,  North  Carolina  county.  North  Ame- 
rica. Fif%y-five  miles  south  by  east  of  Newburn. 
Long.  rrW.,  lat.  34^47' N. 

Beaufort,  a  town  of  the  United  States,  in 
South  Carolina,  situated  on  the  island  of  Port 
Royal,  at  tlie  mouth  of  Coosawhatchie  river. 
It  has  an  excellent  harbonr,  and  is  seventy-three 
miles  from  Charlestown.  Long.  80°  55'  W., 
bt.  32°  26'  N. 

Beaufort  en  Vallee,  a  town  of  France,  in 


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iae  department  of  the  Maine  and  Loire,  late  pro- 
vince of  Anjou,  with  a  castle.  It  contains  two 
parishes,  and  formerly  had  a  convent  of  Recolets. 
Beaufort  gives  the  title  of  a  Dnke  in  England  to 
the  Doble  family  of  Somerset,  who  are  lineally 
descended  from  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancas- 
ter, whose  duchess  resided  here.  It  contains 
800  houses,  6000  inhabitants,  and  carries  on  an 
active  trade  in  grain,  wine,  and  hemp,  with 
manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen  stuffs,  and 
hats.  The  village  of  Beaufort  en  Franchise,  or 
Beaufort  hors  la  Ville,  is  separated  from  this 
town  by  an  arm  of 'the  river  Coesnon.  fifteen 
miles  east  of  Angers,  and  tliirty-eight  west  of 
Tours. 

Beaufort  District,  a  county  of  South  Caro- 
lina, which  lies  on  the  sea-coast,  between  Com- 
bahee  and  Savannah  rivers. 

Beaufort  (Henry),  brother  of  Henry  IV. 
king  of  England,  was  made  bishop  of  I^incoln, 
whence  he  was  translated  to  Winchester.  He 
was  also  nominated  chancellor  of  the  kingdom, 
and  sent  ambassador  to  France.  In  1426 
he  received  a  cardinal's  bat,  and  was  appointed 
legate  in  Germany.  In  1431  he  crowned  Henry 
VI.  in  the  great  church  of  Paris.  He  died  at 
Winchester  in  1447.  He  was  a  haughty,  turbu- 
lent prelate,  and  Shakspeare  is  considered  as 
giving  a  true  portrait  of  him,  when  he  describes 
his  last  scene. 

Beaufort  (Margaret),  the  foundress  of  Christ's 
and  St.  John's  colleges  in  Cambridge;  the  only 
daui^hter  and  heir  of  John  Beaufort,  duke  of 
Somerset,  and  of  Margaret  Beauchamp,  was  born 
in  1441.  She  married  in  1456  Edmund,  earl  of 
Richmond,  by  whom  she  had  king  Henry  VII. 
and  died  in  1509,  after  having  had  two  other 
husbands,  namely,  Sir  Henry  Staffojrd,  and 
Thomas,  lord  Stanley,  earl  of  Derby.  By  her 
marriage,  according  to  bishop  Fisher,  with  the 
earl  of  Richmond,  and  by  her  birth,  she  was 
allied  to  thirty  kings  and  queens,  within  the  fourth 
degree  of  either  blood  or  affinity.  Besides  the 
foundation  of  the  two  colleges  at  Cambridge, 
before-mentioned,  she  left  salaries  for  two  divi- 
nity lecturers,  one  at  Oxford,  and  the  other  at 
Cambridge;  as  also  for  a  grammar-school  at 
Wimborn,  and  other  foundations  in  support  of 
learning,  of  which  she  was  not  altogether  de- 
ficient herself,  as  appears  from  some  of  her  works, 
namely,  1.  The  Mirroure  of  Gold  for  the  Sinful  ' 
Soul;  translated  from  the  French  version  of  a 
book  entitled.  Speculum  Aureum  Peccatorum. 
2.  A  translation  of  the  fourth  book  of  Gerson's 
treatise,  entitled.  Of  the  Imitation  and  Following 
the  Blessed  Life  of  our  Most  Merciful  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ;  printed  at  the  end  of  Dr.  Atkin- 
son's English  translation  of  the  three  first  books, 
1504.  3.  A  Letter  to  her  Son,  printed  in  How- 
ard's Collection  of  Letters.  She  was  also  pos- 
sessed of  extraordinary  zeal  in  religion,  and 
declared  that  provided  she  could  induce  the 
princes  of  Christendom  to  form  a  league,  and 
march  against  the  infidels,  she  would  willingly 
attend  them  as  their  laundress. 

Beaufort  (Lewis  de),  a  celebrated  writer  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  He  disting:uishe  1  him- 
self in  the  literary  world  by  several  valuable 
works,  and  was  chosen  fellow  of  the  Royal  Socieiv 


of  LoDdon.  He  wrote  the  History  of  Germani- 
cus;  Dissertation  upon  the  Uncertainty  of  die 
five  first  Ages  of  the  Roman  Republic ;  History 
of  the  Roman  Republic,  or  Plan  of  the  Ancient 
Government  of  Rome.  He  died  at  Maestricht  in 
1795. 

BEAUFORTIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  class  polyadelphia,  and  order  icosandria. 
Its  generic  characters  are  five  groups  of  stax. 
opposite  to  the  petals:  anther,  inserted  into  the 
base;  bifid  at  the  apex,  lobes  deciduous:  caps. 
trilocular  one-seeded,  connate,  included  in  the 
thickened  tube  of  the  calyx  adnate  at  the  base. 
It  contains  two  species,  natives  of  New  Holland. 

BEAUFRONT,  a  small  town  of  Northumber- 
land, on  the  Tyne, 

BEAUGENCY,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Loiret,  and  arrondissemcnt  of 
Orleans,  seated  on  the  Loire.  Long.  1°  46*  E., 
lat.  47°  48'  N.  It  had  formerly  the  title  of 
county,  has  4900  inhabitants,  and  is  the  head  of 
a  canton.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  wine 
and  brandy;  a  few  cloth  stuffs  are  also  manu&c- 
tured,  and  there  are  several  tanneries.  Over  the 
Loire  is  a  stone  bridge.  Fifteen  miles  south-west 
of  Orleans,  and  eighteen  north-east  of  Blois. 
.  BEAUHARNOIS  (Alexander  de),  a  French 
nobleman,  who  perished  during  the  revolution, 
and  who  was  the  first  husband  of  the  late  em- 
press Josephine  of  France.  He  was  bom  at 
Martinique,  and  going  early  in  life  to  Paris,  wai 
elected  deputy  of  Blois  in  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly, in  which  he  joined  the  popular  party. 
He  proposed  equality  of  punishments  for  all 
classes  of  citizens,  and  their  eligibility  to  ail 
ofiices.  After  the  attempted  flight  of  Louis  XVI. 
Beauharnois  was  appointed  adjutant-general  to 
Luckner,  general-iuTchief  of  the  army  of  the  Mo- 
selle, in  which  post  he  gave  many  proofe  both  of 
his  courage  and  humanity.  He  was  offered  the 
place  of  minister  of  war,  which  he  refused.  Five 
days  previous  to  the  &11  of  Robespierre,  he  was 
condemned  by  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  and 
perished  on  the  scaffold,  July  23d,  1794. 

Beauharnois  (Eugene  de),  only  son  of  the 
preceding,  and  viceroy  of  Italy  under  Napoleon, 
was  intimately  connected  throughout  life  with  bis 
father-in-law.  He  is  said  to  have  governed  Italy 
with  great  judgment  and  moderation,  so  as  to 
conciliate  the  respect  and  esteem  of  the  inhabi- 
tants in  general.  In  the  Russian  campaign  he 
commanded  the  Italian  troops  of  the  grand  army. 
Napoleon's  downfall  in  1814  terminated  Deaubar- 
nois's  prosperity.  In  January,  1806,  he  married 
the  princess  Augusta  Amelia,  eldest  daughter  of 
the  king  of  Bavaria,  to  whose  court  at  Munidi 
he  retired  on  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVII I. 
and  died  there  in  1824. 

BEAULIEU,  a  village  of  Hampshire,  four 
miles  south-west  of  Southampton,  in  which  are 
the  remains  of  a  Cistercian  abbey,  founded  by 
king  John  iii  1204.  Its  walls  afforded  an  as)'- 
lum  to  Margaret,  the  queen  of  Henry  VI.  after 
the  battle  of  Barnet.  The  celebrated  Perkm 
Warbeck  was  protected  here  in  later  times; 
when  their  sanctity  was  so  far  respected,  thai 
though  surrounded  by  an  armed  force,  he  was  nc: 
seized,  but  voluntarily  surrendered  himself. 

Be  AC  LIEU,  a  small  town  of  France,  on  tJte 


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right  bank  of  the  Indre,  in  the  government  of 
Touraine.  It  had  forraerty  the  title  of  barony; 
since  the  revolution  it  has  been  included  in  the 
department  of  the  Indre  and  Loire.  It  has  1500 
inhabitants,  and  a  few  manufactures  of  linen  and 
woollen  stuffs  and  hats.  Nineteen  miles  S.S.W. 
of  Tours. 

Beaulieu  (Sebastian  de  Pontault  de),  a  cele- 
brated French  engineer,  and  major-general  under 
Louis  XI V.    He  published  plans  of  all  the  battles 
'  and  sieges  of  his  master,  to  which  he  added  his- 
torical subjects  in  perspective.  He  died  in  1674, 

BEAUMARCHAIS  (Peter  Augustin  Caron 
de)y  an  ingenious  French  artist  and  dramatic 
writer,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1732.  His  fjither 
was  a  clock-maker,  and  early  in  life  he  applied 
himself  with  great  diligence  to  that  occupation. 
He  invented  a  new  escapement,  the  honor  of 
which  was  contested  by  another  artist,  but  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  determined  it  in  favor  of 
young  Beaumarchais.  He  also  distin^ished 
himself  by  his  skill  in  music,  and  paiticularly  in 
playing  on  the  harp ;  which  recommended  him 
to  the  notice  of  the  sisters  of  Louis  XV.  who  en- 
couraged him  to  attend  their  concerts  and  private 
parties.  In  three  different  great  legal  causes  in 
which  he  was  engaged,  he  displayed  his  literary 
talents  so  advantageously,  as  obtained  for  him  a 
considerable  post  under  the  government.  He 
wrote,  1 .  Memoires  centre  les  Sieurs  de  Goeti- 
man,  &,c.  2.  Memoire  en  reponse  a  celui  de  G. 
Kornmann.  3.  Eugenie,  a  drama.  4.  Les  deux 
Amis.  5.  Le  Barbier  de  Seville.  6.  Le  Marriage 
de  Figaro.  7,  Tarare,  an  opera.  8.  La  M^re 
Coupable.  9.  Memoire  en  Reponse  au  Manifeste 
du  roi  d'Angleterre.  10.  Memoires  a  Lecointre  de 
Versailles.  At  the  commencement  of  the  revo- 
lution he  retired  to  Holland,  from  whence  he 
came  to  England,  and  was  proscribed  by  the 
convention,  yet  he  ventured  to  return  to  his 
country,  where  he  died  in  1799.  The  first  ap- 
pearance of  Le  Mariage  de  Figaro,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  revolution,  gave  rise  to  a  singular 
trial  of  strength  between  the  court  and  the  popu- 
lar party.     See  Antoinette, 

BEAUMARIS,  or  Beaumarsh,  Fr.  Beau- 
marais,  the  county  town  of  Anglesey  in  North 
Wales,  seated  on  a  bay,  which  affords  good 
anchorage,  and  is  frequently  a  refuge  for  ships  in 
«torms;  having  seven  fathoms  water  at  the  lowest 
ebb.  It  is  neat  and  well  built,  and  has  one 
very  handsome  street.  •  Edward  1.  to  ovemwe 
the  VVchh,  built  a  fortress  here  in  1295,  and 
fixed  on  a  marshy  spot,  near  the  chapel  of  St. 
IVIeugan,  that  he  might  have  an  opportunity  of 
forming  a  foss  round  the  castle,  and  of  filling  it 
-^rith  water  from  the  sea.  He  also  cut  a  canal,  to 
permit  vessels  to  discharge  their  lading  beneath  the 
'walls.  Within  the  last  century  iron  rings  were 
a.f}ixed  to  them,  for  the  purpose  of  mooring  ships 
or  boats.  The  marsh  was  in  early  times  of  tar 
greater  extent  than  at  present,  and  covered  with 
fine  bulrushes.  The  first  governor  was  Sir  Wil- 
liaun  Pickmore,  a  Gascon  knight.  The  constable 
of  the  castle  was  formerly  captain  of  the  town. 
It  was  garrisoned  for  Charles  I.  in  the  civil  wars, 
l>ut  captured  by  an  overwhelming  parliamentary 
force.  This  castle  is  in  ruins,  ana  the  present 
government  of  Beaumaris  is  vested  in  a  mayor. 


recorder,  two  bailiffs,  and  twenty-four  burgesses* 
two  sei-geants  at  mace,  a  town  clerk,  four  consta- 
bles, and  a  water  bailiff :  the  corporation  orriy 
electing  the  member  of  parliament  returned  by 
this  place.  Here  is  a  handsome  church,  contain- 
ing some  noble  monuments :  a  commodious  and 
elegant  town-hall,  having  shambles  under  it,  with 
iron  gates  and  railings,  and  a  secure  prison.  In 
the  hall  the  corporation  business  is  transacted, 
and  the  assemblies  are  held.  It  has  been  rebuilt 
by  viscount  Bulkeley.  The  grammar-school  and 
alms-houses  are  also  respectable  establishments. 
The  ferry,  which  is  near  the  town,  is  passable  at 
low  water.  The  markets  on  Wednesday  and 
Saturday  are  well  supplied  with  all  kinds  of  pro- 
vision. It  is  a  chapelry,  called  the  chapel  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  to  the  parish  of  Llaudegvan. 
251  miles,  by  Aberconway,  from  London,  and 
fifty-nine  west  by  north  from  Chester ;  and  con- 
tains upwards  of  2000  inhabitants.  It  is  near 
Beaumaris,  over  tlie  Bangor  ferry,  that  the  noble 
suspension  bridge  of  Mr.  Telford  has  been 
recently  erected.  The  span  of  the  principal  arch 
is  580  feet,  and  it  is  100  feet  above  the  surface 
of  the  sea  at  high  water,  which  will  allow  the 
largest  vessels  that  pass  the  strait  to  sail  beneatli 
it.  At  Plasnewydd,  about  one  mile  on  the  right, 
is  ^he  elegant  mansion  of  the  marquis  of  Anglesey . 

BEAUMELLE  (Laurence),  a  French  author, 
bom  at  Vallerangue,  in  Lower  Languedoc,  in 
1727.  He  was  a  man  of  considerable  abilities, 
and  went  to  Denmark,  where  he  settled  for  some 
time  as  professor  of  belles  lettres.  He  wrote  a 
Defence  of  the  Spirit  of  Laws ;  Letters  to  Vol- 
taire ;  Thoughts  of  Seneca ;  a  Commentary  upon 
the  Henriade ;  a  Life  of  Mad.  Maintenon,  &c. 
but  was  twice  confined  in  the  Bastile  for  libels 
and  satires.  The  king,  however,  appointed  him 
his  librarian  in  1772.   He  died  at  Paris  in  1773. 

Beaumont  (Francis),  a  celebrated  dramatic 
writer,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  James  L 
was  descended  from  an  ancient  family  of  his 
name  at  Grace-Dieu,  in  Leicestershire,  where  he 
was  born  about  1585  or  1586,  in  the  .reign  of 
queen  Elizabeth.  His  grandfather,  John  Beau- 
mont, was  master  of  the  rolls,  and  his  father, 
Francis,  one  of  the  judges  of  the  common  pleas. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  afterwards 
admitted  of  the  inner  temple.  It  does  not,  how- 
ever, appear,  that  he  had  made  any  great  pro- 
ficiency in  the  law.  Out  of  fifty-three  plays, 
which  are  collected  together  as  the  joint  labors 
of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  (for  an  account  of 
their  celebrated  joint  works,  see  Fletcher),  Mr. 
Beaumont  was  concerned  in  the  greater  part, 
yet  he  did  not  live  to  complete  his  thirtieth  year, 
death  summoning  him  away  in  the  beginning  of 
March,  1615.  He  was  interred  in  the  entrance 
of  St.  Benedict's  chapel,  Westminster  abbey. 
He  left  a  daughter,  Frances  Beaumont,  who 
died  in  Leicestershire,  and  who,  having  in  her 
possession  several  poems  of  her  father*s,  lost 
them  at  sea  in  a  voyage  from  Ireland. 

Beaumont  (Sir  John),  the  elder  brother  of 
Francis  the  poet,  was  bom  in  1582,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxford,  whence  he  removed  to  one 
of  the  inns  of  court.  In  1626  he  had  the  dig- 
nity of  a  baronet  conferred  on  him  by  king 
Charies  I.    He  wrote,  The  Crown  of  Thorns,  a 


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poem,  in  eight  books;  Bosworth  Field,  and 
other  poems;  Translations  from  the  Latin 
Poets ;  and  several  poems  on  religious  and  po- 
litical subjects:  as,  on  the  Festivals;  on  the 
Blessed  Trinity ;  a  Dialogue  between  the  World, 
a  Pilgrim,  and  Virtue ;  Of  the  miserable  State 
of  Man;  Of  Sickness,  &c.  He  died  in  1628. 
His  poetic  genius  was  celebrated  by  Ben  Jon- 
son  and  Michael  Drayton. 

Beaumont  (Mad.  le  Prince  de),  a  literary 
lady,  a  native  of  Rouen, -in  Normandy,  who  kept 
a  boarding  school  for  young  ladies  at  London, 
and  afterwards  at  Annecy,  in  Savoy,  where  she 
died  in  1780.  Her  publications  are,  Magazin 
des  Enfans ;  Magazin  des  Adolescens ;  Magazin 
des  Jeuncs  Dames;  Nouveau  Magazin  Anglois; 
Lettres  de  Madame  du  Montier ;  and  The  New 
Clarissa. 

Beaumont  (Elie  d'),  a  French  advocate,  bom 
at  Carentan  in  1732.  He  distinguished  himself 
by  his  interesting  memoir  in  favor  of  the  unfor- 
tunate family  of  Galas,  the  effect  of  which  upon 
the  nation  was  very  great.  Besides  this,  he 
wrote  several  other  pieces  of  considerable  merit. 
He  died  in  1786.  The  much  admired  novel, 
entitled.  Letters  of  the  Marquis  de  Roselle,  was 
written  by  his  wife,  who  died  in  1783. 

Beaumont  de  Lomagne,  a  town  of  France, 
in  Gascony,  with  3700  inhabitants ;  the  head  of 
a  canton,  situated  in  the  department  of  the  Tarn 
and  Garonne.  Here  are  manufactures  of  coarse 
cloths,  hats,  and  leather.  It  stands  on  the  small 
river  Gimone,  twenty-eight  miles  north-west  of 
Toulouse^ 

Beaumont  le  Vicomte,  a  town  of  France,  in 
the  province  of  Maine,  and  department  of  the 
Sartne.  It  contains  2400  inhabitants,  with  ma- 
nufactures of  woollen  stuffs,  and  lies  on  the  river 
Sarthe,  fifteen  miles  north  of  Le  Mans,  and  fif- 
teen south  of  Alenpon. 

Beaumont  sua  Oise,  a  small  town  of  France, 
with  2150  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Seine  and  Oise,  on  the  river 
Oise,  twenty  miles  north  of  Paris. 

Beaumont  sua  Vingeanne,  atown  of  France, 
in  Burgundy,  department  of  the  Cote  d'Or,  ten 
miles  west  of  Gray,  and  thirteen  north-east  of 
Dijon. 

BEAUNE,  or  Beaulne,  a  town  of  France,  in 
Burgundy,  included  since  the  revolution  in  the 
department  of  the  Cote  d*Or;  the  head  of  an 
arrondissement  of  nine  cantons.  It  is  tolerably 
well  fortified,  and  has  a  castle,  with  five  suburbs. 
The  only  public  establishment  deserving  men- 
tion is  the  hospital,  founded  in  1443,  by  the 
chancellor  Rolhn.  In  former  times  it  was  the 
third  town  in  Burgundy,  the  seat  of  a  gover- 
nor, and  other  functionaries,  and  the  capi- 
tal of  the  district  called  from  it  the  Beaunois. 
The  town  is  particularly  celebrated  for  its  wines, 
and  lies  in  an  agreeable  country,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Bouzeoise,  not  fer  from  the  Saone. 
Twenty  miles  S.S.W.  of  Dijon,  and  twenty- 
three  north-east  of  Autun.  Inhabitants  about 
10,200. 

Beaune  (James  de),  baron  of  Samblan9ai,  an 
unfortunate  financier  under  Francis  I.  While 
that  monarch  was  contending  about  the  Milanese, 
Beaune  had  seUled  matters  for  sending  300,000 


crowns  to  Lautrec,  the  commander,  for  paYiag 
the  troops  ;  but  the  queen  mother  demaaaea  the 
money  tor  herself,  threatening  to  ruin  the  soper- 
intendant  if  he  did  not  satisfy  her  demand,  and 
thus  obtained  it.  In  consequence  of  the  army 
not  receiving  the  promised  supply,  they  failed  in 
their  design,  and  laid  the  blame  upon  Samblan- 
cai,  against  whom  they  complained  to  the  kin;. 
The  baron  endeavoured  to  justify  hims^,  by 
laying  before  the  king  the  real  cause ;  but  the 
queen  mother  bribed  his  secretary  to  deliver  to 
her  the  receipts  she  had  granted  to  him,  by  which 
means  he  was  deprived  of  the  only  evidence  for 
substantiating  his  innocence ;  he  was  accordmglj 
accused  of  having  made  use  of  the  money  him- 
self, and  was  executed  in  1527.  He  met  his 
fate  with  the  utmost  intrepidity ;  and  his  courage 
is  commemorated  in  a  beautiful  epigram  by  the 
poet  Marot. 

BEAU-PLEADER,  or  BEW-PLEAOEa,  a  writ 
on  the  statute  of  Marlbridge,  whereby  it  is  pro- 
vided that  no  fine  shall  Ym  taken  of  any  man  in 
any  court  for  fair  pleading,  i.  e.  for  not  pleading 
aptly^  and  to  the  purpose. 

BEAURAIN  (John  de),  geographer  to  Lewis 
XV.  was  bom  at  Aix  in  1697.  Be»des  con- 
structing a  number  of  charts,  he  published  a  to- 
pographical and  military  description  of  the 
campaigns  of  Luxemburg,  from  1690  to  1694. 
three  volumes,  folJo.     He  died  in  1771. 

BEAUREGARD  L'Eveque,  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Puy-de-Dome, 
has  an  elegant  castle,  which,  before  the  revolu- 
tion, belonged  to  the  bishop  of  Clermont.  The 
memory  of  the  celebrated  Masillon  is  still  che> 
rished  here  by  the  inhabitants.  Beauregard  is 
not  far  from  the  AUier.  Nine  miles  east  of 
Clermont-Ferrand. 

BEAURIEU  (Gaspard-^juillard  de),  an  inge- 
nious French  philosopher,  bom  in  the  county  of 
Artois  in  1727.  His  most  celebrated  woik  was 
the  Pupil  of  Nature,  two  volumes.  He  iell  a 
sacrifice  to  the  revolutionary  storms,  being  left  lo 
perish  in  an  hospital  in  1795. 

BEAUSOBRE  (Isaac  de),  a  very  learned 
French  Protestant  writer,  was  bom  at  Nioit  in 
1659.  He  was  forced  into  Holland  to  avoid  the 
execution  of  a  sentence,  which  condemned  him 
to  make  the  amende  honorable,  for  having  bro- 
ken the  roval  signet,  which  was  put  npon  the 
door  of  a  church  of  the  reformed,  to  prevent  the 
public  profession  of  their  religion.  He  went  to 
Berlin  m  1694;  was  made  chaplain  to  the  king 
of  Prussia,  and  counsellor  of  the  royal  consis- 
tory. He  died  in  1738,  aged  seventy-nine,  after 
having  published,  1.  Defense  de  la  Doctrine  des 
Reibrm^s.  3.  A  Translation  of  the  New  Testament 
and  Notes,  jointly  with  M.  Lenfent.  3.  Disser- 
tation sur  les  Adamites  de  Boheme.  4.  Hiatoire 
Critique  de  Manichees,  et  du  Manicheisoiey  two 
vols,  ouarto.  5.  Several  dissertations  in. the 
Bibliotneqne  Britannique,  &c.  M.  Beausobre 
had  strong  sense,  with  profound  enidition ;  he 
preached  as  he  wrote,  with  warmth  and  spirit. 

Beausobre  (Lewis),  counsellor  to  the  king  of 
Prussia,  was  bom  at  Berlin  in  1730.  He  wrote 
Philosophical  Dissertations  on  the  Nature  of  Fire. 
Le  Pyrrhonisme  du  Sage;  andLesSongesd'Ep^- 
cure.    He  died  in  1783. 


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BEAUTY,  r.  h  n 

Beaute'ous, 

Beaute'ously, 

Beavteous'ness, 

Beauti'pier, 

Beauti'ful, 

Beatjti'fully, 

Beautifvl'ness, 

Beauti'pt, 

Beautify'iwo, 

Beauti'less^ 

Beauty'warnino,  ^ 


Beoti/e,  French ;  from 
the  ancient  Latin,  bentu, 
i.  e.  bornu;  fair;  good; 
lovely.  It  is  applied  to 
external  objects ;  to  what- 
ever imparts  pleasure, 
''and  comes  under  the 
cognizance  of  the  senses ; 
there  is  also  an  ideal 
world  of  beauty;  the 
various  qualities  of  the 
human  mind  and   cha- 


racter, and  the  productions  of  the  intellect  which 
have  a  relation   to  taste;   beauty  of  scenery; 
beauty  of  person;   beauty  of   description,    of 
thoughts,  01  words,  of  actions. 
Bat,  for  to  apekin  of  her  eyin  clere ! 
Lo !  trolly  the!  writtin  that  hire  seien. 
That  ParadiB  stode  formed  in  hire  eien ; 
And  with  hire  richd  beaute  evirmore 
Strove  love  in  hire  aie  which  of  hem  was  more. 

Chaucer.    Trtfiku  and  Creteide. 
Faire  Marian,  the  mnses  onely  darling  s 
Whose  beantie  thyneth  as  the  morning  cleare, 
With  silver  dew  upon  the  roses  pearling.     Spetuer. 
lis  beaaOjf  truly  blent,  whose  red  and  white 
Natore's  own  sweet  and  cunning  hand  laid  on. 

Shaktpeare, 
Beautjf  and  grace  are  like  those  beams  and  shining 
that  come  from  the  glorious  and  divine  sun,  which 
are  diverse,  as  they  proceed  from  the  diverse  objects, 
to  please  and  affect  our  several  senses  ^  '  as  the  spe- 
cies of  beauty  are  taken  at  our  eyes,  ears,  or  con- 
ceived in  our  inner  soul,'  as  Plato  disputes  at  large  in 
his  Dialogue  de  Pulchro,  Phaedos,  Hyppias;  and, 
after  many  sophistical  errors  are  confuted,  concludes 
that  beauty  is  a  grace  in  all  things,  delighting  the 
eyes,  ears,  and  soul  itself ;  so  that,  as  Yalesius  infers, 
hence  whatsoever  pleaseth  our  ears,  eyes,  and  soul, 
must  needs  be  beamtijrdi,  fair,  and  delightsome  to  us. 
Burton,     Ana*,  MeL 
His  hair  (which  the  young  men  of  Greece  used  to 
wear  very  long)  was  stirred  up  and  down  with  the 
wind,  which  seemed  to  haye   a  sport  to  play  with 
it  as  the  sea  had  to  kiss  his  feet;    himself  full  of 
admirable  beauty,  set  forth  by  the  strangeness  both. 
of  his  seat  and  gesture ;  for  holding  his  head  up  full 
of  unmoved  majesty,  he  held  a  sword  aloft  with  his 
fair  arm,  which  often  he  waved  about  his  crown,  as 
though  he  would  threaten  the  world  in  that  extremity. 
Sir  Phiiip  Sydney.     Areadia, 
A  bed  of  lilies  flower  upon  her  cheek. 
And  in  the  midst  was  set  a  circling  rose ; 
Whose  sweet  aspect  would  force  Narcissus  seek 
Kew  liveries,  and  fresher  colours  choose. 
To  deck  his  beautwue  head  in  snowy  tire  ; 
But  all  in  vain ;  for  who  can  hope  t'  aspire   - 
To  such  a  hit,  which  none  attain,  but  all  admire? 

Fleteker't  Purple  Uand. 
Ask  me  no  mure  where  Jove  bestows. 
When  June  is  past,  the  fading  rose  ; 
For  in  your  bemutiet  orient  deep. 
These  flowers,  as  in  their  causes,  sleep. 

T,  Carem, 
But  likeness  soon  together  drew. 
What  the  did  separate  lay. 
Of  which  one  perfect  beauty  grew. 
And  that  was  Celia.  Manett, 

O!  she  hay  fteoMly  might  ensnare 
A  eonqoeror'p  soul,  and  make  him  leave  his  crown 
At  nmdom,  to  be  scuffled  for  by  ilavei. 

Otway,  Orphm. 
Vol.  Ill 


Like  blossom'd  trees  o'ertum'd  by  vernal  storms. 
Lovely  in  death,  the  beauteous  vxia  lay. 

Young,  Night  Tftoughis: 
The  lengthened  night  elaps'd,  the  morning  shines 
Serene,  in  all  her  dewy  beauty  bright. 
Unfolding  fair  the  last  autumnal  day. 

Thomson.   Seasons. 
As  lamps  bum  silent,  with  unconscious  light. 
So  modest  ease  in  beauty  shines  most  bright. 

A.  HiU. 
Perhaps  the  most  complete  assembli^e  of  beautifid 
objects  Uiat  can  anywhere  be  found,  is  presented  by 
a  rich  natural  landscape,  where  there  is  sufficient 
variety  of  objects ;  fields  in  verdure,  scattered  trees 
and  flowers,  running  water,  and  animals  grazing. 

BkAr^s  Lectures, 

A  lady  seldom  listens  with  attention  to  any  praise 

but  that  of  her  beauty.  Johnson,  Rambler. 

The  silver  light,  which  hallowing  tree  and  tower. 
Sheds  beauty  and  deep  softness  o'er  the  whole. 
Breathes  also  to  the  heart,  and  o'er  it  throws 
A  loving  languor,  which  is  not  repose.  Byron. 

Her  cheek  of  youth  was  beauti^. 
Till  withering  sorrow  blanched  the  bright  rose  there. 
Matunn.     Bertram. 

Beauty.  Locke  defines  beauty,  as,  *  a  certain 
composition  of  color  and  figure,  causing  delight 
to  the  beholder.'  Mr.  Burke,  confining  his  defi- 
nition to  the  merely  sensible  (qualities  of  things, 
states  beauW  to  be  '  that  quality,  or  those  qua- 
lities, in  bodies  by  which  they  cause  love,  or  some, 
passion  similar  to  it.'  Others  define  it,  more 
generally,  as  a  term  whereby  we  express  a  certain 
relation  of  some  object,  either  to  an  agreeable 
sensation,  or  to  an  idea  of  approbation.  When, 
therefore,  we  say  a  thing  is  beautiful,  we  either 
mean  that  we  perceive  something  that  we  ap- 
prove, or  something  that  gives  us  pleasure: 
whence  it  appears,  that  the  idea  annexed  to  the 
word  beauty  is  double ;  which  renders  the  word 
equivocal,  and  this  is  the  source  of  most  of  the 
disputes  on  the  subject  of  beauty. 

Mr.  Hazlett,  in  an  ingenious  dissertation  on 
the  subject,  iu  the  Supplement  to  the  Encyolo- 
'psedia  Britannica,  speaks  of  it  as  that  property 
in  objects  by  which  they  are  recommended  to  the 
power  or  faculty  of  taste — ^the  reverse  of  ugliness 
—the  primary  or  most  general  object  of  love  or 
Admiration. 

We  do  not  regard  works  of  science  as  alto- 
gether suited  for  dissertations  on  matters  of  taste. 
We  find  our  space  and  our  attention  occupied 
with  tiie  more  tangible  and  better  defined  objects 
of  human  knowl»lge.  But  we  shall  endeavour 
to  collect  the  most  respectable  opinions  oa  this 
disputed  subject. 

Beauty,  says  Dr.  Reid,  (Essay  on  the  Intel- 
lectual Powers  of  Man,  ch.  iv.)  is  found  in  things 
so  various  and  so  very  different  in  nature,  that  it 
is  difBcult  to  say  wherein  it  consists,  or  what  can 
be  common  to  all  the  objects  in  which  it  is  found. 
Of  the  objects  of  sense,  we  find  beauty  in  color, 
in  sound,  m  form,  in  motion.  Hiere  are  beauties 
of  speech,  and  beauties  of  thought;  beauties  in 
tiie  arts,  and  in  the  sciences ;  beauties  in  actions, 
in  affKtions,  and  in  characters.  In  things  so 
different,  and  so  unlike,  is  there  any  quality,  the 
same  in  all,  which  we  may  call  by  the  name  o. 
beauW  ?  Why  then  should  things  so  different  be 
called  by  the  same  name?    They  please,  andari 

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denomioated^^beaatifdl,  not  in  Tirttte  of  any  one 
quality  commoa  to  them  all,  but  by  means  of 
several  different  principles  in  human  nature. 
The  agreeable  emotion  excited  by  them,  and 
called  beauty,  is  produced  by  different  causes. 
However,  though  there  be  nothing  common  in 
the  things  themselves,  yet  the  kinds  of  beauty, 
which  seem  to  be  as  various  as  the  objects  to 
which  it  is  ascribed,  must  have  some  common 
relation  to  us,  or  to  something  else,  which  leads 
us  to  give  Uiem  the  same  name.  All  the  objects 
we  call  beautiful,  agree  in  two  things,  which  seem 
to  concur  in  our  sense  of  beauty.  First,  when 
they  are  perceived,  or  even  imagined,  they  pro- 
duce a  certain  agreeable  emotion  or  feeling  in 
the  mind ;  and,  secondly,  this  agreeable  emotion 
is  accompanied  with  an  opinion  or  belief  of  their 
having  some  perfection  or  excellence  belonging 
to  them.  Whether  the  pleasure  we  feel  in  con- 
templating, beaut^  objects  may  have  any  ne- 
cessary connexion  with  the  belief  of  their  ex- 
cellence, or  whether  that  pleasure  be  conjoined 
with  this  belief,  merely  by  the  good  pleasure  of 
OUT  Maker,  Dr.  Reiddoes  not  determine.  Beau- 
tifiil  objects  excite  an  emotion  of  a  soothing  and 
enlivening  kind,  that  sweetens  the  temper,  allays 
angry  passions,  and  promotes  every  benevolent 
affection,  and  disposes  to  other  agreeable  emo- 
tioos,  such  as  those  of  love,  hope,  and  ioy. 

'  There  is  nothing,'  says  Addison,  *  that  makes 
its  way  more  direc^y.to  the  soul  than  beauty, 
which  immediately  diffuses  a  secret  satisfaction 
and  complacence  trough  the  imagination,  and 
gives  a  finishing  to  any  thing  that  is  great  and 
uncommon.  The  very  first  discovery  of  it  strikes 
the  mind  with  an  inward  joy,  and  spreads  a 
cheerfulness  and  delight  through  all  its  faculties.' 
This  agreeable  emotion,  produced  by  beautiful 
objects,  is  accompanied  vnth  an  opinion  or  judg- 
ment of  some  perfection  or  excellence  of  those 
objects,  adapted  by  its  nature  for  producing  that 
emotion ;  and  this,  according  to  Dr.  Reid,  is  a 
second  ingredient  in  our  sense  of  beauty.  To 
assert,  says  this  writer,  that  there  is  in  reality  no 
beauty  in  those  objects,  in  which  all  men  pei^ 
ceive  beauty,  is  to  attribute  to  man  fallacious 
senses ;  and  thus  to  think  disrespectfully  of  the 
Author  of  our  being ;  who  has  diffused  over  all 
the  woriis  of  nature  a  profusion  of  beauties, 
which  are  real,  and  not  nnciful,  and  thousands 
of  which  our  faculties  are  too  dull  to  perceive. 
This  author  distinguishes  our  detenninations  vrith 
regard  to  the  beauty  of  objects  into  two  kinds, 
viz.  instinctive  and  rational.  In  the  former  case, 
objects  strike  us  at  once,  and  appear  beautiful  at 
first  sight,  vnthout  any  reflection,  and  without 
our  being  able  to  say  why  we  call  them  beauti- 
fol,  or  being  able  to  specuy  any  perfection  which 
justifies  our  judgment.  Whereas  our  rational 
judgment  of  beauty  is  grounded  on  some  agree- 
able auality  of  the  object,  which  is  distinctly  oon- 
oeivea,  and  maybe  specified.  Beauty  itself  makj 
be  distinguished  into  original,  and  derived.  It 
is  natural  and  agreeable  to  the  strain  of  human 
aentiments  and  of  human  language,  says  Dr. 
S«id,  that  in  many  cases  the  beauty  which  ori- 
ginally and  properly  exists  in  the  things  signified, 
should  be  transferred  to  the  sign ;  that  which  is 
in  the  cause  to  the  effect;  that  ^riiicfa  is  in  the 


end  to  the  means ;  and  that  which  is  in  the  agent 
to  the  instrument  £.  G.  The  beauty  of  good 
breeding  is  not  originally  in  the  external  bdia^ 
viour  in  which  it  consists ;  it  is  derived  from  the 

aualities  of  mind  which  it  expresses ;  and  though 
lere  may  be  good  breeding  without  the  amiable 
qualities  of  mind,  its  beauty  is  still  derived  from 
what  it  naturally  expresses.  Good  breeding  is 
the  picture ;  these  agreeable  qualities  are  the  ori- 
ginal; and  it  is  the  beauty  of  the  original  that  is 
reflected  to  our  senses  by  the  picture. 

Dr.  Reid  is  of  opinion,  that  beauty  originally 
dwells  in  the  moral  and  intellectual  perfectioos 
of  mind,  and  in  its  active  powers,  and  that  from 
this,  as  the  fountain,  all  the  beauty  which  we  per- 
ceive in  the  visible  world  is  derived.  This  was 
the  opinion  of  the  ancient  philosophers ;  and  it 
has  been  adopted  by  lord  Shaftesbury  and  Dr. 
Akenside  among  the  modems. 

Mind,  mind  alone !  bear  witneM  earth  and  heaven. 

The  living  fountains  in  itself  contains 

Of  beauteous  and  sublime.     Here,  hand  in  hand. 

Sit  paramount  the  graces.     Here,  entliron'd. 

Celestial  Venus,  with  divinest  airs. 

Invites  the  soul  to  never-failing  joy. 

Akbwside. 

But  neither  mind,  nor  any  one  of  its  qualities  or 
powers,  is  an  immediate  object  of  perception  to 
man.  These  are  perceived  through  the  medium 
of  material  objects,  on  which  their  signatures  are 
impressed.  Ine  signs  of  these  qualities  are  im- 
mediately perceived  by  the  senses,  and  by  them 
reflected  to  the  understanding :  and  we  are  apt 
to  attribute  to  the  sign  the  b^uty  which  ujno- 
perly  and  originally  in  the  thing  signified.  Thus, 
the  invisible  Creator  hath  stamped  on  his  worics 
signatures  of  his  divine  wisdom,  power,  and  be- 
nignity, which  are  visible  to  all  men.  The  works 
of  men  in  science,  in  the  arts  of  taste,  and  in  the 
mechanical  arts,  bear  the  signatures  of  those  qua- 
lities of  mind,  which  were  employed  in  their 
production.  Their  external  behaviour  or  con- 
duct in  life  expresses  tlie  good  or  bad  qualities 
of  their  minds.  In  every  species  of  animals  we 
perceive  by  visible  signs  meir  instincts,  appetites, 
affections,  or  sagacity ;  and  even  in  the  inanimate 
world,  there  are  many  things  analogous  to  the 

aualities  of  mind;  so  that  there  is  hardlj^any 
ling  belonging  to  mind,  which  may  not  be  re- 
presented by  images  taken  from  the  objects  of 
sense ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  every  object  of 
sense  is  beautiful,  by  borrowing  attire  from  at- 
tributes of  the  mind.  Thus,  the  beauties  of 
mind,  though  invisible  in  themselves,  are  per- 
ceived in  the  objects  of  sense,  on  which  their 
beauty  is  impressed.  Thus  also,  in  those  qua- 
lities of  sensible  objects  to  which  we  ascribe 
beauty,  we  discover  in  them  some  relatioo  to 
mind,  and*  the  greatest  in  those  that  are  most 
beautiful.  The  qualities  of  inanimate  matter,  in 
which  we  perceive  beauty,  are  sound,  color,  form, 
and  motion :  the  first  being  an  object  of  hearing ; 
and  the  other  three  of  sight.  These  several  qua- 
lities are  particularly  iUustrated  by  Dr.  Reid, 
with  a  view  of  evincing  the  beautv  that  respec- 
tively belongs  to  them.  Of  all  the  objects  of 
sense,  the  most  striking  and  attractive  beauty  is 
perceived  in  the  human  species,  and  paiticulariy 


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in  the  fair  sex.  In  the  following  well-known 
passage  of  Milton,  this  great  poet  deriTcs  the 
beau^  of  the  first  pair  in  paradise  from  those  ex- 
pressions of  moral  and  intellectual  qualities, 
which*  appeared  in  their  outward  form  and  de- 
meanor. 

Two  of  far  nohler  »hape,  erect  and  tall,   , 
Godlike  erect !   with  native  honor  dad. 
In  naked  majegtj,  aeemM  lords  of  aU« 
And  worthy  seem'd,  for  in  their  looks  divine. 
The  image  of  their  glorioos  Maker,  shone 
IVuth,  wisdom,  sanctitude  severe,  and  pure  : 
Severe,  but  in  true  filial  freedom  placM, 
Whence  true  authority  in  man  ;  though  both 
Not  equal,  as  their  sex  not  equal  seemM  ; 
For  contemplation  he,  and  valour  fonn'd. 
For  softness  she,  and  sweet  attractive  grace. 

And  here  we  cannot  forbear  subjoining  the  ex- 
cellent reflections  of  Mr.  Thomson,  a  late  writer 
on  the  subject  of  beauty :  '  If  we  should  9ee  a; 
penon  employ  himself  with  a  sledge  hammer  to 
daflh  the  enchanting  form  of  the  Venus  de  Me- 
dicis  to  pieces,  break  her  lovely  limbs,  and  de- 
face her  beauteous  features,  we  should  not  hesi- 
tate a  moment  to  pronounce  him  a  savage 
barbarian,  without  taste,  feeling,  or  sentiment; 
though  his  frenzy  was  employed  only  on  a  sense- 
less piece  of  stone :  what  then  must  we  think  of 
the  aiabolical  savage,  who  exercises  the  worst  of 
all  cruelties  (because  the  most  lasting  and  affect- 
ing both  to  body  and  mind)  on  the  most  beauti-- 
fiil  and  amiable  of  all  creatures  on  this  Side 
heaven  ? — made  expressly  for  his  happiness,  so- 
Ikce,  and  delight ; — by  first  corrupting  and  be- 
traying her,  and  then  basely  abandoning  her  to 
perish  with  want,  wretchedness,  and  miseiy.' 

Dr.  Blair  (Lectures,  vol.  i.  p.  101,  &c.),  in  his 
enumeration  of  the  separate  principles  of  beauty, 
in  each  of  those  classes  of  objects,  which  most 
remarkably  exhibit  it,  begins  with  color,  as  af- 
fording the  simplest  instance  of  beauty.  With 
respect  to  this,  ne  observes,  that  neither  variety, 
nor  nnifbrmity,  nor  any  other  principle  which  he 
knows,  can  be  assigned  as  the  foundation  of 
beauty ;  and  that  it  can  be  referred  to  no  other 
cause  but  the  structure  of  the  ^-e,  which  deter- 
mines us  to  receive  certain  modifications  of  the 
'^ys  of  light  with  more  pleasure  than  others.  As 
his  organ  varies  in  different  persons,  they  have 
thRr  diflerent  respective  fevorite  colors.  In  some 
cases,  he  thinks  it  probable,  that  association  of 
ideas  has  influence  on  the  pleasure  which  we 
receive  from  color.  Green,  for  instance,  may 
appear  more  beautiful,  by  being  connected  in 
our  ideas  with  rural  prospects  and  scenes ;  white 
with  innocence ;  blue,  with  the  serenity  of  the 
sky.  Independently  of  such  associations,  those 
colors  chosen  for  beauty  are,  generally,  delicate, 
rather  than  glaring.  Figure  opens  to  us  fohns 
of  beauty  more  complex  and  diversified.  Under 
this  head,  regularity  is  first  noticed  as  a  source 
of  beauty.  Thus  a  circle,  a  square,  a  triangle, 
or  a  hexagon,  please  the  eye  by  their  regularity, 
as  beauti^l  figures.  But  regularity  is  not  the 
sole,  or  the  chief  foundation  of  beauty  in  figure. 
On  the  contrary,  a  certain  gracefiil  variety  is 
found  to  be  a  much  more  powerful  principle  of 
beauty.    Regularity,  according  to  this  author, 


expresses  beauty  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  on  account 
of  its  suggesting  the  idea  of  fitness,  propriety, 
and  use,  which  have  always  a  greater  connexion 
with  orderly  and  proportioned  forms,  than  with 
those  which  appear  not  constructed  according  to 
any  certain  rule.  Nature,  the  most  graceful 
artist,  hath,  in  all  her  ornamental  works,  pur- 
sued variety  with  an  apparent  neglect  of  regula- 
rity. Mr.  Hogarth,  in  his  Analysis  of  Beauty, 
published  about  the  year- 1753,  enumerates,  as 
elements  of  beauty,  fitness,  variety,  uniformity, 
simplicity,  intricacy,  and  quantity ;  and  he  ob- 
serves, that  figures  bounded  by  curve  lines  are, 
in  general,  more  beautiful  than  mose  bounded  by 
straight  lines  and  angles.  The  beauty  of  figure 
principally  depends,  in  his  opinion,  upon  two 
lines  which  he  has  selected.  One  of  them  is  the 
*  waving  line,'  somewhat  in  the  form  of  the  letter 
S :  and  this  he  calls  the  '  line  of  beauty,'  which 
is  found  in  shells,  flowers,  and  such  other  orna- 
mental works  of  nature,  and  is  also  common  in 
the  figures  designed  by- painters  and  sculptors  for 
the  purpose  of  decoration.  The  other  line,  which 
he  chXIb  the  *  line  of  grace,'  is  the  former  waving 
curve,  twisted  round  some  solid  body,  and  ex- 
hibited in  twisted  pillars  and  twisted  boms,  and 
in  the  curling  worm  of  a  common  jack.  Variety 
plainly  appears,  in  the  instances  which  he  men- 
tions, to  be  so  material  a  principle  of  beauty, 
that  he  defines  the  art  of  drawing  pleasing  forms 
to  be  the  art  of  varying  well ;  and,  accordmg  to 
him,  the  curve  line,  which  is  so  much  the  fiivor- 
ite  of  painters,  derives  its  chief  advantage  from 
its  perpetual  bending  and  variation  from  the 
stiff  regularity  of  the  straight  line.  Motiony 
says  Dr.  Blair,  furnishes  another  source  of 
beauty,  distinct  from  figure ;  being  of  itself  pleas- 
ing, so  that  bodies  in  motion  are,  ceeteris  pari- 
bus, preferred  to  those  at  rest.  But  the  quality 
of  beautiful  belongs  to  gentle  motion,  such  as 
that  of  a  bird  gliding  through  the  air,  and  that 
of  a  smooth  running  stream.  In  general,  motion 
in  a  straight  line  is  less  beautiful  than  thai  in  an 
undulating  direction;  and  motion  upwards  is 
also  commonly  more  agreeable  than  motion 
downwards.  The  easy  curling  motion  of  flame 
and  smoke  is  an  object  singularly  pleasing,  and 
exhibits  an  instance  of  Mr.  Flogarth  s  waving  line 
of  beauty.  This  artist  observes,  that,  as  all  the 
common  and  necessary  motions  for  the  business 
of  life,  are  performed  in  straight  or  plain  lines, 
all  the  graceful  and  ornamental  movements  are 
made  in  waving  lines. 

Dr.  Beattie,  in  his  Dissertations,  Moral  and 
Critical,  has  introduced,  in  his  digression  on 
beauty,  some  ingenious  remarks  on  this  subject. 
After  observing  that  custom  has  a  perpetual  in- 
fluence in  determining  our  notions  of  beauty,  he 
proceeds  to  prove,  that  from  associations  founded 
on  habit,  many,  or  perhaps  most  of  those  pleas- 
ing emotions  are  derived,  which  accompany  the 
perception  of  what  in  things  visible  is  called 
beauty.  With  regard  to  the  beauty  or  awkward- 
ness of  motion,  he  observes,  that  the  one  will  be 
found  to  please,  and  the  other  to  displease,  chiefly 
on  account  of  certain  disagreeable  ideas  suggested 
by  the  former,  and  of  certain  disagreeable  ones 
associated  with  the  latter.  Motions,  that  imply 
ease,  with  such  an  arrangement  and  proportion 

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BEAUTY. 


of  parts  in  the  moving  object,  as  may  gi?e  reason 
to  expect  its  continuance  without  injury,  are 
{renerally  pleasingr,  at  least  in  animals,  especially 
when  they  betoken  a  sort  of  perfection  suited  to 
the  nature  of  the  animal.  But  motions  that 
betray  infirmity,  unwieldiness,  imperfection,  or 
tlie  appearance  of  danger,  cannot  be  called  beau- 
tiful, because  they  convey  unpleasing  ideas. 
These  observations  are  illustrated  by  a  variety  of 
apposite  instances.  Cicero  (de  Off.  I.  i.  sect.  36) 
blames  every  motion  that  alters  the  countenance, 
quickens  the  breath,  or  betrays  any  discompo- 
sure. Rousseau  observes,  that  in  running,  a 
woman  is  destitute  of  that  grace  which  attends 
her  on  other  occasions.  Perhaps,  says  Beattie, 
the  jutting  out  of  her  elbows,  the  natural  effect 
of  her  endeavouring,  with  lifted  hands,  to  secure 
the  most  delicate  part  of  the  human  frame,  may 
give  to  her  motion  the  appearance  of  timidi^  and 
constraint.  Or,  perhaps,  she  may  fail  in  this 
exercise,  merely  because,  according  to  our  man- 
nets,  she  cannot  be  much  accustomed  to  it. 

It  is  not  easy  to  convey,  in  so  few  words,  so 
many  charming  ideas  of  beauty,  in  its  several 
varieties  of  color,  shape,  attitude,  and  motion,  as 
Gray  has  combined  in  the  following  image : — 

Slow  melting  strains  their  queen's  approach  declare ; 

Where'er  she  turns  the  graces  homage  pay : 

With  arms  sublime  that  float  upon  the  air. 

In  gliding  state  she  wins  her  easy  way  : 

O'er  her  warm  cheek  and  rising  bosom  move 

The  bloom  of  young  desire,  and  purple  light  of  love. 

Burke,  in  his  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the 
Origin  of  our  Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  Beau- 
tiful, excludes  from  the  number  of  real  causes  of 
beauty,  the  proportion  of  parts,  fitness,  or  that 
idea  of  utility  which  consists  in  a  partes  being 
well  adapted  to  answer  its  end,  and  also  perfec- 
tion; and  he  observes,  p.  210,  that  beauty  is,  for 
the  greater  part,  some  quality  in  bodies,  acting 
mechanically  upon  the  Imman  mind  by  the  in- 
tervention of  the  senses.  The  qualities  of  beauty, 
as  they  are  merely  sensible  qualities,  which  ne 
enumerates,  are  the  following :  they  should  be 
comparatively  small,  smooth,  various  in  the  di- 
rection of  their  constituent  parts;  these  parts 
should  not  be  angular,  but  melted,  as  it  were, 
into  each  other;  they  should  be  of  a  delicate 
frame,  without  any  remarkable  appearance  of 
strength;  the  colors  should  be  clear  and  bright, 
but  not  very  strong  and  glaring;  and  any  glaring 
color  that  is  introduced  should  be  diversified 
with  others.  These  are  the  seven  properties 
upon  which,  according  to  this  author,  beauty 
depends;  properties  that  operate  by  nature, 
and  are  less  liable  to  be  altered  by  caprice,  or 
confounded  by  a  diversity  of  tastes,  than  any 
others.  The  physiognomy  also,  says  Mr.  Burke, 
has  a  considerable  share  in  beauty,  especially  in 
that  of  our  own  species.  The  manners  give  a 
certain  determination  to  the  countenance,  which, 
being  observed  to  correspond  pretty  regularly 
with  them,  is  capable  of  joining  the  effects  of 
certain  agreeable  qualities  of  the  mind  to  those 
of  the  b<xly.  So  that  to  form  a  finished  human 
beauty,  and  to  give  it  its  full  influence,  the  fece 
must  be  expressive  of  such  gentle  and  amiable 
qualities  as  correspond  with  the  softness,  smooth- 


ness, and  delicacy  of  th«  outward  foim.  Foi 
Mr.  Burke's  mode  of  illustrating  and  confirming 
his  theory  of  beauty,  the  reader  is  referred  to  hi 
work  above  cited. 

Dr.  Savers,  in  his  Disquisitions,  Metaphy- 
sical and  Literary,  Svo.in  1793,  has  given  a  new 
analysis  of  beauty,  conducted  on  the  principles 
which  were  applied  by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  his  Lec- 
tures on  Oratory  and  Criticism,  and  by  Mr.  Ali- 
son, ui  his  Essays  on  Taste,  to  the  explanation 
of  the  intellectual  pleasures,  namely,  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Hartleyan  school.  His  argument, 
summed  up  in  a  few  words,  is  as  follows :  that 
individual  of  a  class  of  objects  is  justly  to  be 
esteemed  more  beautiful  than  the  rest,  with  the 
whole  of  which,  or  with  its  component  parts, 
when  properly  understood,  the  greater  number 
of  the  excellencies  of  its  class  are  universally 
associated.  The  9ame  may  be  asserted  of  any 
species  of  objects,  when  compared  with  any 
other  species  of  iU  kind ;  and  that  object  may 
be  justly  esteemed  a  '  standard  of  beauty,'  with 
the  whole  appearance,  or  with  the  component 
parts  of  which,  when  properly  understood,  all 
the  excellencies  of  its  kind  are  '  universally'  as- 
sociated. 

Mr.  Alison's  Essays,  Mr.  Knight's  Analytical 
Enquiry,  and  Mr.  D.  Stewart's  Dissertations  on 
the  Beautiful,  and  on  Taste,  in  his  Philosophical 
Essays,  are  each  of  them  modem  works  ofsterl- 
ing  merit,  and  may  be  said  to  contain  all  the 
known  truths  of  this  subject. 

Mr.  Alison  contends,  that  all  beauty,-  or  at 
least  all  the  beauty  of  material  objects,  depends 
on  the  associations  that  may  have  connected* 
them  with  the  ordinary  affections  or  emotions  of 
our  nature;  and  in  this,  which  is  the  fundamental 
point  of  his  theory,  we  conceive  him  to  be  no 
less  clearly  right,  than  he  is  convincing  and  judi- 
cious in  the  copious  and  beautiful  illustratioa. 
by  which  he  has  sought  to  establish  its  truth. 
When  he  proceeds,  however,  to  assert,  that  oar 
sense  of  beauty  consists  not  merely  in  the  sug- 
gestion of  ideas  of  emotion,  but  in  the  contem- 
plation of  a  connected  series  of  such  ideas,  and 
indicates  a  state  of  mind  in  which  the  &cidties, 
half  active  and  half  passive,  are  given  np  to  a 
sort  of  reverie  or  musing,  in  which  they  may 
wander,  though  among  kindred  impressions,  fiu 
enough  from  the  immediate  object  of  perception, 
we  confess  that  he  not  only  seems  to  ns  to  ad- 
vance a  very  questionable  proposition,  but  veiy 
essentially  to  endanger  the  evidence,  as  well  as 
the  consistency,  of  his  general  doctrine.  In  the 
long  train  of^  interesting  meditations  to  which 
Mr.  Alison  refers, — ^in  the  delightful  reveries 
in  which  he  would  make  the  sense  of  beauty 
consist, — it  is  obvious  that  we  must  soon  lose 
sight  of  the  external  object  which  gave  the  first 
impulse  to  our  thoughts ;  and  though  we  may 
afterwards  reflect  upon  it,  with  increased  interesl 
and  gratitude,  as  the  parent  of  so  many  charm- 
ing images,  it  is  imp<M8ible  that  the  perc^jtion 
of  its  beauty  can  depend  upon  a  long  senes  of 
various  and  shifting  emotions. 

The  work  of  Mr.  Knight  is  more  lively^  va- 
rious, and  discursive,  thim  Mr.  Alison's, hot  not 
so  systematic  or  conclusive.  It  is  die  dererer 
book  of  the  two,  but  not  the  moit  philosophical 


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discfifiiion  of  the  pubject.  He  ag^rees  with  Mr. 
Alison  in  holding  the  most  important,  and,  in- 
deed, the  only  considerable  part  of  beauty,  to  de- 
pend upon  association,  and  has  illustrated  this 
opinion  with  a  great  variety  of  just  and  original 
.  ooservations.  But  he  maintains  that  there  is  a 
beauty  independent  of  association,  prior  to  it, 
and  more  original  and  fundamental,  the  primi- 
tive and  natural  beauty  of  colors  and  sounds. 
Now  this  we  look  upon  to  be  a  heresy,  and  a 
heresy  inconsistent  with  the  very  first  principles 
of  catholic  philosophy.  Language,  it  is  be- 
lieved, affords  no  other  example  of  so  whimsical 
a  combination  of  difierent  objects  under  one  ap- 
pellation, or  of  the  confounding  of  a  direct 
physical  sensation  with  the  suggestion  of  a  so- 
cial and  sympathetic  moral  feeling. 

Mr.  Stewart  makes  fewer  positive  assertions, 
and  enters  less  into  the  matter  of  controversy. 
His  Essay  on  the  Beautiful  is  rather  philological 
than  metaphysical.    The  object  of  it  is  to  show 
by  what  gradual  and  successive  'extensions  of 
meaning,  the  word,  though  at  first  appropriated 
to  denote  the  pleasing  effect  of  colors  alone, 
might  naturally  come  to  signify  all  the  other 
pleasing  things  to  which  it  is  now  applied.    In 
this  investigation  he  makes  many  admirable  re- 
marks, and  touches  with  the  hand  of  a  master 
upon  many  of  the  disputable  parts  of  the  ques- 
tion ;  but  he  evades  the  particular  point  at  issue 
between  us  and  Mr.  Knight,  by  stating,  that  it 
is  quite  immaterial  to  his  purpose,  whether  the 
.beauty  of  colors  be  supposed  to  depend  on  their 
organic  effect  on  the  eve,  or  on  some  association 
between  them  and  other  agreeable  emotions,  it 
being  enough  for  his  purpose  that  this  was  pro- 
bably the  first  sort  of  oeauty  that  was  observed, 
and  that  to  which  the  name  was  at  first  exclu- 
sively applied.    It  is  evident  to  us,  however, 
that  he  leans  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Knight,  as 
to  this  beaifty  being  truly  sensual  or  organic.   In 
observing,  too,  that  beauty  is  not  now  the  name 
of  any  one  thing  or  quality,  but  of  very  many 
different  qualities, — and  that  it  is  applied  to 
them  all,  merely  because  they  are  often  united 
in  the  same  objects,  or  perceived  at  the  same  time 
and  by  the  .same  organs, — it  appears  to  us  that 
he  carries  his  philology  a  little  too  far,  and  dis- 
regards other   principles  of  reasoning   of   far 
higher  authority.    To  give  the  name  of  beauty, 
for    example,  to  every   thing  that  interests  or 
pleases  us  through  the  channel  of  sight,  includ- 
ing in  this  category  the  mere  impulse  of  light 
tJiat   is  pleasant  to  the  organ,  and  the  present- 
ment of  objects,  whose  whole  charm  consists  in 
awakening  the  memory  of  social  emotions,  seems 
to  us  to  be  confounding   things  together  that 
must    always  be  separate  in  our  feelings,  and 
giving  a  far  greater  importance  to  the  mere 
identity  of  the  organ  of  perception,  than  is  war- 
ranted either  by  the  ordmary  language  or  ordi- 
nary    experience    of  men.     Upon   the    same 
principle,  we  should  give  this  name  of  beautiful, 
and   no  other,  to  all  acts  of  kindness  or  magna- 
nimity, and,  indeed,  to  every  interesting  occur- 
rence ^hich  took  place  in  our  sight,  or  came  to 
our  knowledge  by  means  of  the  eye :  nay,  as  the 
ear  is  also  tdlowed  to  be  a  channel  for  impres- 
stohs  of  beauty,  tlie  same  name  should  be  given 


to  any  interesting  or  pleasant  thing  that  we  hear, 
and  good  news  read  to  us  from  the  gazette  should 
be  denominated  beautiful,  just  as  much  as  a  fine 
composition  of  music.  These  things,  however, 
are  never  called  beautiful,  and  are  felt,  indeed, 
to  afford  a  gratification  of  quite  a  different  na- 
ture. 

Beauty  in  the  Fine  Arts.  Nothing  here  has 
been  decided  as  to  the  nature  and  properties  of 
abstract  beauty  itself,  even  if  such  a  quality  be 
acknowledged.  If  an  Asiatic  artist  was  to  treat 
this  subject,  his  principle,  it  is  evident,  would 
differ  from  that  of  a  European.  This  must  not, 
however,  prevent  us  from  studying  some  prin- 
ciples of  beauty,  as  they  are  the  foundation  of 
the  ornamental  part  of  sculpture,  painting,  and 
architecture ;  and  govern  the  proportion  of  the 
human  figure.  Modern  artists  seem  to  have 
implicitly  adopted  Grecian  ideas ;  which  circum- 
stance may  account  for  the  prevalence  of  the 
antique  profile  in  modem  pictures,  which  is  cer- 
tainly a  great  inconsistency,  when  the  subjects 
are  chosen  from  any  other  than  Grecian  history ; 
there  being  one  pnnciple  of  beauty  in  the  form 
of  the  Greeks,  another  in  that  of  the  Romans, 
and  another  in  that  of  the  modern  Europeans, 
and  yet  they  are  all  beautiful.  Professor  Cam- 
per, in  his  book  upon  the  different  forms  of  the 
human  cranium,  has  endeavoured  to  trace  this 
style  of  the  straight  or  Grecian  profile  from  a 
probable  source.  The  projection  of  the  mouth 
and  depression  of  the  forehead,  with  a  flat  nose, 
marks  that  kind  of  face  \vhich  is  the  nearest 
allied  to  the  brute  creation ;  there  being  but  one 
degree  between  a  dog,  monkey,  ape,  ourang- 
outang,  Calmuc,  and  negro.  From  the  negro  tu 
the  European  countenance  are  many  degrees, 
which  may  be  traced  by  an  attentive  study  of 
the  human  species;  and  again,  between  the  best 
modern  faces  and  those  uf  the  antique,  there  are 
also  many  gradations  of  form  and  outline.  Per- 
haps from  the  Greeks  observing  the  resemblance 
between  the  lowest  class  of  human  countenances 
and  those  of  monkeys,  may  be  the  reason  why 
they  conceived  beauty  to  be  as  far  as  possible 
removed  from  all  resemblance  to  them.  As  the 
lower  part  of  the  brutal  face  pi  ejected,  in  such 
proportion  they  thought  the  same  position  of  the 
liuman  face  should  recede ;  and  as  in  the  former 
there  was  a  descent  from  the  forehead  to  the 
nose,  in  the  latter  it  should  be  perpendicular. 
As  a  small  space  between  the  eyes  gives  tbo  ap- 
pearance of  an  ape,  they  made  the  distance  of 
man  wide.  As  a  great  breadth  of  cranium  at 
the  eyes,  ending  above  in  a  narrow  forehead, 
and  below  in  a  pointed  chin,  marked  the  face  of 
a  savage;  they  gave  a  squareness  of  forehead 
and  a  breadth  of  face  below,  to  express  dignity 
of  character.  Hence,  may  be  the  origin  of  that 
ideal  beauty,  which  has  created  so  many  schisms 
apd  feuds  in  art,  and  which  nothing  but  a  re- 
currence to  nature  can  rectify.  See  Id£ai« 
Beauty. 

BEAUVAIS  (Charles  and  William),  two  anti- 
quaries. William,  bom  in  1698,  was  a  member 
of  the  Literary  Societies  of  Orleans,  (>ortona, 
&c.;  he  published  a  work  on  the  Medals  of  the 
Roman  Empire  in  3  vols.  12mo.  1767,  and  died 
in  1773. 


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Charles  Nicholas  was  a  native  of  Orleaos, 
where  he  was  born  in  1745.  He  practised  physic 
at  Montpelier,  and  is  the  author  of  some  Essays 
on  the  History  and  Antiquities  of  his  native 
city,  a  Topographical  Description  of  Mount 
Olivet,  ana  other  tracts.  His  death  took  place 
in  1794. 

Beauvais  (Vincent  de),  a  friar  of  the  Domi- 
nican order,  was  a  native  of  the  diocese  of  Beau- 
vais, in  France.  Louis  IX.  supplied  him  with 
the  means  of  prosecuting  his  great  work.  It  is 
a  kind  of  Encyclopedia,  divided  into  four  parts : 
the  first  entitled,  Speculum  Doctrinale,  treats  of 
the  sciences  in  general,  from  grammar  to  theo- 
logy ;  the  second  Speculum  Historiale,  contains 
a  summary  of  general  history  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  world  to  the  year  1254,  of  which 
there  is  a  continuation  by  an  anonymous  author 
to  1494;  the  third  part,  or  Speculum  Naturale, 
relates  to  physics,  oc  natural  philosophy;  the 
foutth,  Speculum  Morale,  is  a  treatise  on  vice 
and  virtue.  This  last  part  was  completed  by 
another  hand,  Beauvais  dying  in  1224 

Beauvais,  a  city  of  France,  the  ancient  Bel- 
lovacum,  in  the  department  of  the  Oise,  and  late 
province  of  the  Isle  of  France,  on  the  Therin.  The 
cathedral  is  dedicated  to  St.  Eeter^  and  is  much 
admired  for  its  fine  architecture,  and  the  extra- 
ordinary elevation  of  the  choir.  It  had  formerly 
a  great  number  of  relics,  and  a  curious  library. 
There  are  twelve  other  churches.  The  town  was 
ineffectually  besieged  by  the  English  in  1443 ; 
and  by  the  duke  of  Burgundy  in  1472,  with  an 
army  of  80,000  men.  In  this  last  siege  the 
women  signalised  themselves  by  sallying  forth 
against  the  besiegers,  headed  by  Jeanne  Laine, 
and  under  a  standard  which  was  loQg  after  pre- 
served in  the  church  of  the  Jacobins.  There 
was,  before  the  revolution,  a  procession  on  the 
10th  of  July  in  memory  of  this  exploit.  Beau- 
vais was  long  the  capital  of  Beauvoisis,  and 
the  see  of  a  bishop,  who  was  the  first  of  the 
three  ecclesiastical  counts  and  peers  of  France. 
At  the  coronation  of  the  king,  he  carried  the 
royal  mantle.  This  bishopric  was  suppressed  at 
the  revolution.  It  is  still  a  fortified  town, 
though  commanded  by  several  heights,  and  con- 
tains about  12,800  inhabitants.  It  has  several 
flourishing  manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen 
cloths,  calicos,  serges,  and  fine*  tapestry.  From 
its  supposed  impregnability,  it  has  obtained  the 
appellation  of  La  Pucelle.  Many  eminent  men 
have  been  bom  here.  It  is  about  six  leagues 
from  Paris,  in  lat.  49°  25'  N.,and  lone.  2°  19'  E. 

BEAUVILLIERS  (Francis  de,  duke  de  St. 
Aignan),  was  bom  in  1607,  and  entered  into  the 
army.  He  distinguished  himself  in  several  en- 
gagements ;  on  which  account  Louis  XIV.  raised 
him  to  a  dukedom.  He  was  adroit  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  court  festivals,  and  many  of  his 
verses  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  Madame 
Deshoulieres,  of  Scarron,  &c   He  died  in  1687. 

Beauvilliers  (Paul,  duke  de),  eldest  son  of 
the  above,  was  first  gentleman  of  the  bed- 
chamber, minister  of  state,  chief  of  the  royal 
council  of  finance,  and  governor  of  the  duke  of 
Burgundy,  father  of  Louis  XV.  He  died  in 
1714  at  the  age  of  sixty-six.  This  nobleman 
was  distinguished  for  his  cultivated  talents  and 


probity  of  cbancter;  as  well  as  for  his  i 

m  the  education  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy 

which  he  shared  with  the  celebrated  Feneton. 

BEAUviLLiEas  (Paul  Hippolitus,  duke  de  St 
Aignan),  son  of  the  preoeoing,  had  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  in  the  army,  the  collar  of  the 
royal  orders,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Frendi 
Academy«  He  was  the  author  of  Amusemens 
Litt^raires,  and  a  Memoir  of  the  TranaactioDS 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  on  the  cession 
made  by  Andrew  Paieologus,  of  the  empire  of 
Constantinople  and  Trebizond,  to  Charies  VIU. 
of  France. 

BEAU  VOIR  sua  Mer,  a  maritime  town  of 
France  in  the  department  of  La  Vendee,  and 
late  province  of  Poitou;  twenty-lhree  miles 
south-west  of  Nantes.  I^  lies  near  the  aea-ooastt 
opposite  the  Isle  of  Noirmontier,  and  had  for- 
merly the  title  of  marquisate.  It  contains  about 
1900  inhabitants,  and  trades  in  wood,  wool,  salt, 
cattle,  and  butter. 

BEAUVOISIS,a  ci-devant  territory  of  Fninee, 
formerly  part  of  Picardy,  and  afterwards  of  the 
Isle  of  France.    Beauvais  was  the  capital. 

BEAUZEE  (Nicholas),  a  Frencb  anther, 
bora  at  Verdun  in  1717.  He  became  professor 
of  grammar  in  the  military  school ;  aiMi  wrote 
an  Universal  Grammar,  or  Exposition  of  the 
Elements  of  Languages,  in  two  vols.  8vo. ;  an 
Exposition  of  the  Historical  Proo&  of  Beligion, 
and  several  other  works.  Having  been  elected 
member  of  the  academy,  he  wrote  the  articles 
relating  to  grammar  for  Uie  Encycloposdia;  but 
though  he  was  thus  connected  with  infidels,  he 
was  himself  a  faithful  churchman.  He  ooce 
asked  Diderot  how  they  came  to  elect  him  a 
member  of  the  academy,  being  a  Christian? 
Diderot  replied,  *  Because  we  had  not  a  gram- 
marian among  us,  and  we  considered  yon  an 
honest  man/ 

BE'BATHE.  Bathe,  with  the  prefix  be. 
See  Bathe. 

BEBELINGUEN,  or  BoBLTNCEV,  a  town  of 
Germany,  in  the  duchy  of  Wirtembuig,  sealed 
on  a  lake  fiK)m  which  proceeds  the  river  Wuim, 
ten  miles  north-west  of  Stutgard. 

BE'BLAST.  Blast,  with  the  prefix  be.  See 
Blast. 

BE'BLED,  i     Bled  and  blood,  with  the  pie- 

Be'blood.    I  fix.    See  both. 

BE'BLIND.    See  Blind. 

BE'BLISTER.  Blister,  with  the  prefix.  See 
Blister. 

BE'BLOT.    Blot,  and  the  prefix.    See  Blot. 

BE'BLUBBER.  Blubber,  with  the  prefix. 
See  Blubber. 

BEBRYCIA,  in  ancient  geography,  the  name 
of  Bithynia,  so  called  from  the  fiebryces  its  in 
habitants ;  who  were  afterwards  driven  oat  by 
two  Thracian  nations,  the  Bithyni  and  Thyni ; 
fix>m  whom,  in  process  of  time,  the  oountiy  took 
the  name  of  Bithynia. 

BEC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  departmeoi  oC 
the  Lower  Seine,  and  late  orovince  of  Normandy, 
seated  on  a  tongue  of  land,  at  the  conflaenee  of 
two  rivers. 

BECAH,  or  Bekah,  a  Jewish  coin,  being 
half  a  shekel.  In  Dr.  Arbuthnot's  table  of  re- 
ductions, the  bekah  amounts  to  13)^    In  Dr. 


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Piidanrx's  oompiitation  to  li.  7d.  Eyery  Is- 
raelite paid  100  bekahs  a-head  annually  for  the 
support  of  the  temple. 

BE'CALM,   ^     Calm,  and  the  pre6x  be. 

Be'calm INC.  $  See  Calm.  The  prefix  thus 
joined  to  give  emphasis ;  to  add  a  syllable  in  the 
verse ;  to  gif  e  a  ludicrous  or  endearing  force  to 
the  term  employed. 

BECANCOUR,  a  river  of  Lower  Canada, 
which  rises  to  the  south  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  is 
afterwards  increased  by  several  tributary  streams. 
After  an  easterly  course  of  about  forty-six  miles, 
it  diverges  to  the  north-west  for  about  twenty- 
one  miles,  and  discharges  itself  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence, seven  miles  below  the  town  of  Three 
Rivers. 

BECASSINE,  in  zoology,  a  name  given  to  the 
tringa  minor,  or  sand-piper. 

BECASSE,  in  zoology,  a  species  of  woodcock. 

BE'CAUSE.  Be  and  cause.  Cause  being; 
there  being  cause ;  because  of  his  sickness ;  i.  e. 
bis  sickness  is  die  cause.  It  formerly  also  ex- 
pressed the  motive  or  end ;  but  is  not  now  so 
used.  It  has  in  some  sort  the  force  of  a  prepo- 
sition. But  because  it  is  compounded  ot  a 
Doun,  h^  q/*  after  it. 

His  squiers,  which  that  ttoden  ther  beside^ 

Excused  him  becau$e  of  his  sikeaesse. 

Which  letted  him  to  done  hit  besinesse.     Ohaucer. 

God  persecateth  us  bycause  we  abase  his  holy  Tes- 
tament, and  bjftaiue,  when  we  knowe  the  truth,  we 
folowe  it  not.  TjfndaU'i  Wetka, 

'   Beeauae  thou  hast,  though  thron'd  in  highest  bliss. 
Equal  to  God,  and  equally  enjoying 
Ctodlike  fruition,  quitted  all  to  save 
A  world  from  utter  loss,  and  most  been  found. 
By  merit,  more  than  birthright.  Son  of  God ; 
Found  worthiest  to  be  so,  by  being  good. 
Far  more  than  great  or  high ;  hecauae  in  thee 
Love  hath  abounded  more  than  glory  abounds. 
Therefore  thy  humiliation  shall  exalt 
With  thee  thy  manhood  also  to  this  throne ; 
Here  shalt  thou  sit  incarnate,  here  shall  reign 
Both  God  and  Man,  for  both  of  God  and  Man, 
Anointed  universal  king ;  all  power 
I  give  thee  ;  reign  for  ever,  and  assume 
'ilty  merits ;  under  thee  as  head  supreme 
Thrones,  princedoms,  pow'rs,  dominions  I  reduce ; 
AVL  knees  to  thee  shall  bow,  of  them  that  bide 
In  heaven,  or  earth,  or  tmder  earth,  in  hell.    MUUm, 
Why  is  our  food  so  very  sweet? 

Bseamaewe  earn  before  we  eat. 

Why  are  our  wants  so  very  few  ? 

Becmue  we  nature's  calls  pursue. 

Whence  our  complacency  of  mind  ? 

Becauu  we  act  our  parts  aseign'd.  Cotton, 

BECCABUNGA,  brooklirae ;  the  trivial  name 
of  a  species  of  veronica.    See  Veronica. 

BECCAFICO,  in  zoology,  a  small  biitl, 
scarely  so  large  as  the  common  linnet,  and  with 
a  remarkably  short  body.  Its  head,  neck,  back, 
wings  and  tail,  are  of  a  greenish  gray,  and  in  some 
of  greenish  brown.  It  feeds  on  vegetables,  berries, 
&c.  and  is  common  in  the  north  of  England, 
where,  according  to  Ray,  it  is  called  the  petty- 
chaps. 

BECCARI  (James  Bartholomew),  a  physician 
of  Bologna,  was  bom  in  1682.  He  was  professor 
of  chemistry  at  his  native  city  many  years,  and 
published,  in  1729,  a  Dissertation  on  the  Impurity 


of  its  Air,  and  in  1730  a  Treatise  on  the  Inter- 
nal Motion  of  Fluids ;  &c.    He  died  1796. 

BECCARIA  (John  Baptist),  an  ingenious 
philosopher  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  a 
native  of  Mondovi  in  Piedmont,  and  became 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Palermo,  and  after- 
wards at  Rome,  from  whence  he  removed  to 
Turin.  The  king  of  Sardinia  had  a  very  great 
regard  for  him,  and  made  him  tutor  to  his  sons. 
He  made  several  important  discoveries  in  electri- 
city, and  wrote,  1.  Experimenta  quibus  Elec- 
tricitas  Vindex  late  constituitur,  &c.  4to.  Turin, 
1771.  2.  Electricismo  Artificiale,  4to,  1772, 
translated  into  English,  4to.  London,  1776;  be- 
sides an  Essay  on  the  Cause  of  Storms  and  Tem- 
pests, and.  several  pieces  on  the  Meridian  of 
Turin,  &c.  lie  died  in  1781. 

Beccaria  (Bonesana  Cssar,  marquis),  was 
bom  at  Milan  in  1735,  and  showed  a  very  early 
propensity  to  philosophical  subjects.  He  first 
studied  under  the  Jeruits  at  Parma,  but  left  col- 
lege at  seventeen,  and  became  henceforth  the 
director  of  his  own  useful  researches.  His  de- 
votedness  to  the  study  of  Jurisprudence  and  Po- 
litical Philosophy,  was  first  determined  by  the 
Lettres  Persannes  of  Montesquieu ;  a  production 
capable,  indeed,  of  alluring  a  less  epthusiastic 
mind.  But  his  industry  appears  to  have  been 
chiefly  stimulated  by  the  patriotic  and  honorable 
desire  of  diffusing  instruction  among  his  country- 
men, whom  he  represents  as  abandoned  to  igno- 
rance; and  who  were  little  prepared  for  liberal 
opinions  or  political  science.  Fortunately, 
however,  lie  gained  the  confidence  of  Count  Fir- 
miani,  then  governor  of  that  part  of  the  Austrian 
dominions ,  a  nobleman,  who,  with  comprehen- 
sive views  of  policy,  concurred  in  every  plan 
which  was  calculated  for  improving  the  state  of 
the  provinces. 

Beccaria^s  first  work  appeared  in  the  year 
1762,  and  consisted  of  Observations  on  the  De- 
rangement of  the  Currency  in  the  Milanese 
States.  Soon  after  he  established  a  select  lite- 
rary society  at  Milan,  which,  among  other  dis- 
tinguished men,  included  the  brothers,  Alessan- 
dro  and  Pictro  Verri.  Assisted  by  these  friends, 
and  patronised  by  Fermiani,  he  commenced  a 
periodical  published  under  the  name  of  the 
Caffe,  a  plan  suggested  to  them  by  tlie  cele. 
brity  of  our  English  Spectator.  But,  the 
most  remarkable  production  to  which  this  as- 
sociation gave  rise,  and  that  upon  which  the 
reputation  of  Beccaria  was  destined  chiefly  to 
rest,  was  the  treatise  on  Crimes  and  Punishments 
(Dei  Delitti  e  Delle  Pene).  This  is  said  to  have 
been  undertaken  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of 
Count  Alexander  Verri,  who  then  discharged  the 
functions  of  Protector  of  Prisoners  (Proteitore 
de'  Carcerati)  at  Milan.  It  was  written  at  the 
house  of  Peter  Verri,  where  the  meetings  of  the 
society  were  held ;  and  in  concert  with  him  the 
author,  every  evening,  corrected  what  he  had 
written  during  the  day.  In  this  manner  this  ce- 
lebrated work  was  completed  in  two  months,  and 
was  printed  in  the  course  of  the  year  1764. 

The  author  here  breaks  up  most  of  the  impor- 
tant ground  that  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  Bentham, 
and  others,  have  so  well  cultivated  since  :  he  is 
everywhere  the  advocate  of  reason,  sound  po- 


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licy,  and  huinanitv;  and,  by  eraniiping  the 
foundation,  objects,  and  consequent  boundaries 
of  penal  law,  he  exposes  the  inefficacy  as  well  as 
injustice  of  many  provisions  in  the  judicial  code 
of  his  own  country,  and  in  those  of  other  Euro- 
pean nations; — provisions  only  the  more  perni- 
cious in  many  cases,  as  derived  from  remote 
times,  and  perverting  our  respect  for  established 
maxims  into  the  most  debasing  and  servile  bar- 
barism. Six  Italian  editions  were  immediately 
called  for ;  and  it  is  computed  that  it  has  run 
through  more  than  fifty  editions  and  translations. 
As  a  most  important  conclusion  resulting  from 
this  examination,  or  rather  as  concentrating  a 
number  of  his  conclusions,  he  •  closes  his  book 
with  the  following  proposition :— *  In  order  that 
punishment  may  not  be  an  act  of  violence,  of 
one,  or  of  many,  against  an  individual  member 
of  society,  it  is  essential  that  it  should  be  public, 
prompt,  and  necessary,  the  least  possible  in  the 
given  case,  and  determined  by  the  law.' 

The  prospects  which  Beccaria  entertained  as 
to  the  probable  influence  of  his  works,  appears 
from  the  sentence  of  Lord  Bacon,  which  he  pre- 
fixed to  some  of  the  editions.  '  It  is  not  to  be 
expected  in  any  difficult  undertaking,  of  whatever 
kind,  that  the  same  person  who  sows  the  seed 
should  also  reap  the  harvest ;  but  there  must  of 
necessity,  be  a  preparation  and  gradual  progress 
to  maturity.'  *  Never,'  says  a  writer  in  the  Bio- 
graphie  Universelle,  *  did  so  small  a  book  pro- 
duce so  great  an  effect.'  Tlie  medal  given  by  the 
academy  of  Berne  was  instantly  bestowed  upon 
Beccaria;  and  the  Empress  Catharine  II.  in- 
vited him  to  St.  Petcrsburgh,  with  the  offer  of 
an  honorable  station  at  her  court ;  a  proposal 
which  was  the  means  of  procuring  him  a  similar 
distinction  at  home.  In  1767  was  issued  an  impe- 
rial order  for  establishing,  in  the  Palatine  College 
at  Milan,  a  Professorship  of  Public  Law  and 
Economics,  under  the  title  of  Scienze  Camerali. 
To  this  chair,  endowed  expressly  for  him,  the 
marquis  was  appointed  on  the  1st  of  November, 
1768,  and  commenced  the  duties  of  it  in  the 
month  of  January  following.  From  the  preli- 
minary discourse  (prolusione)  which  he  pro- 
nounced on  this  occasion,  and  in  which  he  sets 
forth  the  objects  of  the  institution,  iX  appears 
that  the  only  instructions  which  he  received  on 
his  appointment,  consisted  in  an  order  to  deliver 
his  discourses  in  the  vulgar  tongue ;  an  injunction 
as  highly  honorable  to  the  government  as  all  the 
other  circumstances  of  the  transaction.  His  lec- 
tures, which  he  received  a  special  permission  to 
deliver  in  his  own  house,  attracted  much  notice. 
They  were  not  published  during  his  life ;  but 
have  since  appeared,  under  the  title  of  Elementi 
di  Economia  Pubblica,  in  the  compilation  of  the 
Scrittori  Classici  Italiani  de  Economia  Politica, 
printed  at  Milan.  One  of  bis  inferences  on  this 
subject  is,  that  *  every  restriction  on  freedom, 
whether  in  the  case  of  commerce,  or  any  other, 
ought  to  be  a  result  from  the  necessity  of  pre- 
venting an  actual  disorder,  not  the  effect  of  a 
purpose  or  aim  at  amelioration.'  And  he  has 
repeated  the  same  doctrine  under  different  views, 
m  various  passages. 

In  1770  he  published  an  Enquiry  into  the  nature 
of  Style,  part  1.  which  he  never  completed.    In 


the  fbllowmg  year  he  was  appointed  a  i 
of  the  Supreme  Economic  Council ;  on  the  sup- 
pression of  which  he  was  tiansfened  to  the  Ib- 
gistracy  of  State;  and,  lastly,  by  a  despotdi  of 
Sie  17th  of  January,  1791,  was  named  one  of  die 
Board  for  Reform  of  the  Judicial  Code,  dvil  and 
criminal.  His  activity  in  the  discbarge  of  these 
important  trusts  is  proved  by  the  drcunistance^ 
that  all  the  chief  matters  in  those  different  de- 
partments were  committed  to  his  direction,  oc 
guided  by  his  counsels.  The  most  remarkable 
of  his  state  papers  were,  various  Ordinances  re- 
lative to  the  grain ;  a  very  important  Despatch 
transmitted  to  the  Court  in  1771,  ^hich  gave 
rise  to  the  reform  of  the  public  money  in  177B; 
a  Plan,  proposed  in  1780,  for  effecting  an  uni- 
formity in  tne  weights  and  measures ;  and  cer- 
tain Proposals,  in  1786,  founded  on  the  tables 
of  the  population. 

In  1 776  the  marquis  made  a  journey  to  Paris,  in 
company  withAlessandro  Verri,  and  there  passed 
about  three  weeks  in  the  socie^  of  D*Alembertt 
and  other  eminent  men  of  letters :  on  his  return 
he  visited  Voltaire.  This  seems  to  have  been 
the  only  incident  which,  for  a  period  of  twenty- 
five  years,  diversified  his  manner  of  life,  or  in- 
terrupted his  public  duties.  lie  died  of  apoplexy 
in  the  year  1793,  having  been  twice  marriecL 
He  has  the  character  of  having  been  stedfost  in 
his  firiendships;  modest,  but  tenacious  of  his 
opinions;  and  much  above  jealousy  or  envy  in 
regard  to  other  literary  men.  It  is  related  of  him 
that  the  king  of  Naples,  while  at  Milan,  twice  at- 
tempted to  find  him  at  his  house ;  but  that  the 
marquis  found  means  on  both  occasions  to  escape 
from  his  distinguished  guest. 

BECCLES,  a  town  of  Suffolk,  seated  on  the 
Waveney.  It  has  an  elegant  church,  with  a  1<^ 
spire ;  and  two  free  schools,  one  of  them  with  ten 
scholarships  for  Emanuel  college,  Cambridge. 
There  is  a  market  on  Saturday.  It  lies  twelve 
miles  south-west  of  Yarmouth,  and  109  north- 
east of  London. 

BE'CHANCE,  v.  ix.  adv.    Be  and  chance. 

BE'CHARM.  Be  and  Charm.    See  Chasm. 

BECHER  (John  Joachim),  a  celebrated  che- 
mist, bom  at  Spires  in  1645,  and  connected  with 
the  most  learned  men  in  Europe.  The  emperor, 
the  electors  of  Mentz  and  Bavaria,  and  other  per- 
sons of  high  rank,  furnished  him  with  the  means 
of  making  experiments  in  mathematics,  natural 
philosophy,  medicine,  and  chemistry.  He  was 
mvited  to  Vienna,  where  he  contributed  greatly 
to  the  establishment  of  several  manu&ctnres,  a 
chamber  of  commerce,  and  an  India  company; 
but  the  jealousy  of  the  ministeis  occasioned  his 
disgrace  and  ruin.  He  was  not  less  unfortunate 
at  Mentz,  Munich,  and  Wurtzburg ;  which  deter- 
mined him  to  go  to  Haerlem,  where  he  invented 
,  a  machine  for  working  a  great  quantity  of  silk  in 
a  little  time,  and  with  few  hands;  but  new  mis- 
fortunes made  him  come  to  England,  and  he 
died  at  London  in  1685.  He  wrote,  1.  Pbysica 
Subterranea,  which  was  reprinted  at  Leipsic  in 
1703,  and  in  1739,  in  8vo,  with  a  small  trestise, 
by  E.  Stahl,  entitled  Specimen  BecheriammL 
2.  Experimentum  Chymicum  Novum,  Svo.  3 
Character  pro  Notitia  linguarum  Univenali.  4. 


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Inititutiones  Qiymica,  seu  Mannductio  ad  Phi- 
iophiam  Hermeticam,  4to.  5.  Inititutiones 
Cnyroictt  Prodromi,  12mo.  6.  Experimentum 
Novum  ac  Curiosum  de  Minera  Arcnaria  Per- 
petua,&c. 

BECHERA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
class,  pentandria;  order,  digynia:  cal.  five-clefty 
with  a  globular  tube :  cor.  five-petalled  :  cap. 
two-celled  and  bi-valved.  The  name  is  derived 
i'rom  the  reverend  John  Becher  of  Southwell 
Nottinghamshire,  an  accurate  botanist,  to  whom 
the  science  is  indebted  for  the  discovery  of  the 
crocus  nudiflorus.  This  plant  is  a  native  of 
Tranquebar. 

Bechics,  Bechicha,  among  the  old  physi- 
cians, amount  to  much  the  same  with  pneumo- 
Dies,  tboracics,  expectorants,  and  pectorals. 

BECHIN,  a  town  and  circle  of  Bohemia, 
which  abounds  in  salt  mines  and  mineral  waters, 
and  particularly  the  singular  mineral  called 
Bechin  stone.  Bechin,  the  capital,  has  an  an- 
cient castle.  It  vras  taken  and  burnt  by  general 
Bucquoy  in  1 619,  and  was  often  the  scene  of  con- 
flict in  the  thirty  years'  war.  It  b  seated  on  the 
river  Luschiutz,  fifty  miles  south  by  west  of 
Prague. 

BECK,  r.  &  n.  )      Sax.  becken,  Fr.  bee,  head. 

Beck'ing.  )To  make  a  sign  with  the 
head ;  a  nod  of  command,  or  of  intimation. 

Bell,  book,  mnd  candle,  shall  not  drive  me  |»ack, 
"When  gold  and  lilver  beck  me  to  come  on. 

Sftahpeare, 
Oh  thii  false  soul  of  Egypt,  this  gay  chann, 
Whose  eye  bec^d  forth  my  wars,  and  callM  thorn 
home.  Id,  Antony  and  Cleopaira. 

Neither  the  lusty  kind  showed  %ny  roughnesa,  nor 
the  easier  any  idleness ;  but  still,  like  a  well- obeyed 
master,  whose  beck  is  enough  for  discipline.     Sidmey, 
Haste,  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 
Quips,  and  cranks,  and  wanton  wiles. 
Nods,  and  beclu,  and  wreathed  smiles.      MtUm, 
Then  forthwith  to  him  takes  a  chosen  band 
Of  spirits,  likest  to  himself  in  guile. 
To  be  at  hand,  and  at  his  beeh  appear.  Id. 

The  menial  fair,  that  round  her  wait. 
At  Helen's  beck  prepare  the  room  of  state.  Pupe, 

Beck,  or  Beke,  a  word  which  imports  a  small 
stream  of  water  issuing  from  some  bourn  or 
spring.  The  word  is  chiefly  used  among  us  in 
the  composition  of  names  of  places  originally 
situated  on  rivulets;  such  as  Welbeck,  Bourn- 
beck,  &c.  The  Germans  use  beck  in  the  same 
sense. 

BEGKET  (Thomas),  lord  chancellor  of  Eng- 
land, and  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  the  12th 
century.  The  story  of  his  birth  is  as  extraordi- 
nary as  that  of  his  life.  His  fether,  Gilbert 
Becket,  some  time  sheriff  of  London,  went  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  where  being  surprised 
and  enslaved  by  a  party  of  Saracens,  his  master's 
daughter  fell  in  love  with  him;  and  when  he 
made  his  escape,  followed  him  to  London.  So 
singuhir  an  instance  of  Heroic  affection  struck 
him ;  and  after  consulting  with  some  bishops,  he 
baptised  her  by  the  name  of  Matilda,  from 
which  marriage  proceeded  the  haughty  Thomas 
Becket.  Being  rai:»ed  to  the  archbishopric,  he 
began  the  great  dispute  between  the  crown  and 


the  mitre,  and  sided  with  the  pope:  at  which 
King  Henry  IL  was  greatly  offended ;  and  calling 
an  assembly  of  the  bisnops  at  Westminster, 
offered  six  articles  against  papal  encroachments, 
which  he  urge^  Becket  to  assent  to.  Becket,  at 
the  importunities  of  several  lords,  signed  them  * 
but  relapsing  he  was  ordered  to  be  tried  as  a 
traitor;  upon  which  he  fled  into  Flanders.  The 
king  banished  all  his  relations,  and  Becket  excom- 
municated all  his  opposers.  At  last,  after  seven 
years,  by  the  intercession  of  the  French  king  and 
the  pope,  he  returned ;  but  refused  to  absolve 
the  bishops  and  others,  whom  he  had  excommu- 
nicated :  upon  this  the  king  grew  enraged ;  and 
is  reported  to  have  said,  in  the  presence  of  his 
court,  then  in  Normandy,  that  he  was  an  unhappy 
prince,  who  maintained  a  great  number  of  insig- 
nificant persons  about  him,  none  of  whom  had 
gratitude,  or  spirit  enough,  to  revenge  him  on  a 
single  insolent  prelate.  Hearing  these  exclama- 
tions, four  gentlemen  of  the  court  started  for 
Canterbury,  determined  upon  assassinating  the 
archbishop.  They  endeavoured  to  drag  him  out 
of  the  cathedral,  but  finding  they  could  not  do 
this  without  difliculty,  they  beat  out  his  brains 
there,  on  the  pavement:  29th  of  December,  1171. 
The  assassins  being  now  afraid. they  had  gone  too 
far,  durst  not  return  to  the  king's  court,  but 
retired  to  Knaresborough  in  Yorkshire,  and  at 
length  took  a  voyage  to  Home;  where,  being 
ad-nitted  to  penance  by  Alexander  II L,  they  went 
to  Jerusalem ;  and,  according  to  the  pope*s  order, 
spent  their  lives  in  penitential  austerities.  In 
the  mean  time,  king  Henry  was,  or  affected  to 
be,  much  disturbed  at  the  news  of  Becket's  death, 
and  despatched  an  embassy  to  Rome  to  clear 
himself  from  the  imputation  of  being  connected 
with  it.  Immediately  all  divine  offices  ceased  in 
the  church  of  Canterbury,  for  a  year,  excepting 
nine  days ;  at  the  end  of  which,  by  order  or  the 
pope,  it  was  reconsecrated.  Two  years  after, 
becket  was  canonised;  and  the  two  following 
years,  Henry  returned  to  England,  went  to  Can- 
terbury, where  he  did  penance,  as  a  testimony  of 
his  regret  for  the  murder  of  Becket.  When  he 
came  within  sight  of  the  church  where  the 
archbishop  was  buried,  he  alighted  off  his  horse, 
and  walked  barefoot,  in  the  habit  of  a  pilgrim, 
till  he  came  to  the  tomb.  Here,  after  he  had 
prostrated  himself,  and  prayed  for  a  considerable 
time,  he  submitted  to  be  scourged  bv  the  monks, 
and  passed  all  that  day  and  night  without  refresh- 
ment, kneeling  upon  the  bare  stone.  In  1221 
Becket's  body  was  taken  up,  fifty  years  after  his 
murder,  in  the  presence  of  Henry  III.  and  a 
great  c6ncourse  of  the  nobility,  and  deposited  in 
a  rich  shrine,  erected  at  the  expense  ot  Stephen 
Langton,  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  This  was 
soon  visited  from  all  parts,  and  enriched  with 
the  most  costly  gifts  and  offerings:  the  miracles 
said  to  be  wrought  at  his  tomb  were  so  numerous, 
that  Gervase  of  Canterbury  tells  us,  two  large 
volumes,  recounting  them,  were  kept  in  the  church. 
The  monks  used  to  raise  his  body  every  year; 
and  the  day  on  which  this  ceremony  was  per- 
formed, which  was  called  the  day  of  his  transla- 
tion, was  a  general  holiday :  every  fiftieth  year  a 
jubilee  was  celebrated  to  his  honor,  which  lasted 
fifteen  days:   plenary  indulgences  were   dicn 


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gnntedto  all  that  visited  his  tomb;  and  100,000 
pilgrims  have  been  registered  at  a  time  in  Can- 
terbunr.  The  devotion  towards  jhim  had  almost 
effacea  in  this  town  the  adoration  of  the  Deity; 
nay,  even  that  of  the  Virgin.  At  God's  altar, 
for  instance,  there  were  offered  in  one  year  £3 
2s.  6d.;  at  the  Virgin's,  £63  5s.  6d. ;  and  at  St 
Thomas's  £832  12s.  3d.  But  next  year  the  dis- 
proportion was  still  greater:  there  was  not  a 
penny  offered  at  God's  altar ;  the  Virgin's  gained 
only  £4  Is.  8d.;  but  St.  Thomas's  had  for  its 
share  £954  6s.  3d.  Louis  VII.  of  France  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  this  miraculous  tomb,  and 
bestowed  on  the  shrine  a  jewel,  which  was 
esteemed  the  richest  in  Christendom.  Henry 
VIII.,  to  whom<  it  may  easily  be  intagined  how 
obnoxious  a  saint  of  this  character  would  appear, 
not  only  pillaged  St.  Thomas's  rich  shrine,  but 
made  the  saint  himself  be  cited  to  appear  in 
court,  and  be  tried  and  condemned  as  a  traitor. 
He  ordered  his  name  to  be  struck  out  of  the 
calendar ;  the  office  for  his  festival  to  be  expunged 
from  all  breviaries;  and  his  bones  to  be  burnt, 
and  the  ashes  thrown  in  the  air.  From  Thomas 
Warton  we  learn,  that  Becket  was  the  subject 
of  poetical  legends.  The  Lives  of  the  Saints  in 
verse,  in  Sennet's  library.  No.  CLXV.  contain 
his  martyrdom  aind  translation.  This  MS.  is 
supposed  to  have  been  written  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  same  writer  informs  us,  from 
Peter  de  Blois,  that  the  palace  of  Becket  was 
perpetually  filled  with  bishops  higlily  accom- 
plished in  literature,  who  passed  their  time  there 
m  reading,  disputing,  and  deciding  important 
questions  of  the  state.  These  prelates,  though 
men  of  the  world,  were  a  society  of  scholars; 
yet  very  different  from  those  who  frequented  the 
universities,  in  which  nothing  was  taught  but 
words  and  syllables,  unprofitable  subtleties,  ele- 
mentary speculations,  and  trifling  distinctions. 
De  Blois  was  himself  eminently  learned,  and  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  ornaments  of  Becket's 
attendants.  We  know  that  John  of  Salisbury, 
his  intimate  friend,  the  companion  of  his  exile, 
and  the  writer  of  his  life,  was  scarcely  exceeded 
by  any  man  of  his  time  for  his  knowledge  in  phi- 
lological and  polite  literature. 

BECKETS,  in  the  marine,  large  hooks,  or 
circular  wreaths  of  rope,  or  wooden  brackets, 
used  to  confine  ropes,  tackles,  oars,  or  spars,  in 
a  convenient  place  till  they  are  wanted.  And  to 
put  the  tacks  and  sheets  in  the  beckets,  is  to  hang 
up  the  weather-main  and  fore-sheet,  and  the  lee- 
main  and  fore-tack,  to  a  little  knot  and  eye- 
becket  on  the  fore-mast,  main,  and  fore-shrouds, 
when  the  ship  is  close  hauled,  to  prevent  them 
from  hanging  in  the  water. 

BECKINGHAM  (Charles),  an  English  dra- 
matic writer,  the  son  of  a  linen  diaper  in  London, 
was  bom  in  1669;  and  educated  under  the  . 
learned  Dr.  Smith.  He  early  discovered  an 
uncommon  genius  in  poetry,  two  dramatic  pieces 
of  his  writing  being  represented  on  the  stage 
before  he  was  twenty  years  old.  The  titles  of 
these  plays  are,  1.  Henry  IV.  of  France;  2.  Scipio 
Africanus.  He  wrote,  also,  several  other  poems,' 
and  died  18th  Feb.  1730,  aged  thirty-two. 

BECKMANN  (John),  forty-four  years  pro- 
lessor  at  Gottingeui  a  native  of  Hoya,  m  the  elec- 


torate of  Hanover,  and  bom  in  1 739.  Uk  father 
was  a  post-master  and  receiver  of  taxes.  His 
mother  became  a  widow  when  B«*kmann  was 
hardly  seven  years  old,  and,  though  left  in  nar- 
row circumstances,  sent  him,  in  his  fifteenth  year, 
to  the  school  of  Stade,  then  under  the  caie  of 
Gehlen.  In  1759  he  repaired  to  Gottingen,  to 
study  for  the  church,  but  quitted  it,  and  thisdesi^ 
together,  at  his  mother's  death,  in  1762,  to  fill 
the  situation  of  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  the  Lutheran  academy  at  St.  Petersbui^gh. 
Beckroann  soon  gave  up  this  place,  and  made  a 
journey  through  Sweden  to  acquire  a  detailed 
knowledge  of  its  mines.  Linnaeus  receiving  him 
hospitably  at  Upsal,  he  prolonged  his  stay  there. 
In  1766  the  governors  of  the  university  of  Got- 
tingen  appointed  him,  on  the  recommendation  of 
Busching,  professor  to  this  celebrated  establish- 
ment, of  which  he  became  one  of  the  chief  orna- 
ments. His  mind,  now  entirely  directed  to  the 
Sractical  uses  of  human  knowledge,  conceived 
le  idea  of  an  academical  classification  of  the 
arts,  both  political  and  domestic.  He  tberefoie 
composed,  as  a  guide,  to  serve  him  in  this  coarse 
of  instmction,  Treatises  on  Rural  Ecooonoy— 
On  Policy — On  Finance — On  Commerce,  and 
other  departments  of  practical  knowledge;  and 
his  lectures,  which  had  at  the  time  the  reconuneo- 
dation  of  novelty,  were  attended  by  the  flower  of 
the  youth  of  the  most  civilised  nations  of  Europe. 
He  was  in  the  habit  of  accompanying  them  to 
the  workshops,  to  give  them  a  knowledge  of  the 
different  processes  and  handicrafts.  His  notices 
on  these  subjects  make  five  volumes  in  octavo, 
poblished  at  Leipsic  from  1783  to  1805;  and 
will  ftimish  the  most  invaluable  materials  to  the 
individual,  or  to  any  society  who  may  hereafter 
venture  to  undertake  the  general  history  of  the 
origin  and  progress  of  the  mechanic  arts.  Great 
merit,  also,  belongs  to  his  History  of  the  earliest 
Voyages  made  in  modem  times;  of  which  he 
lived  only  to  publish  eight  numbers.  Another 
result  of  the  hteraiy  application  of  the  industry 
of  Beckmann  was  a  retum  to  the  studies  A 
humanity,  to  which  we  are  indebted  to  him, 
likewise,  for  editions  of  the  work  De  Mirabihbiis 
Auscultationibus,  attributed  to  Aristotle,  1786; 
of  the  Wonderful  Histories  of  Antigonus  Caiyv 
tius,  1711 ;  and  of  Maibodius*s  Treatise  oft 
Stones,  1799;  publications  whidi  required  the 
rare  union  of  physical  knowledge  and  sagacity 
with  philologies  learning.  The  Royal  Society 
of  Gottingen  had,  in  the  year  1772,  admitted 
him  one  of  its  members,  and,  horn  that  period 
to  1783,  Beckmann  supplied  their  proceedings 
with  several  interesting  memoirs,  among  which 
are :  On  the  Reduction  of  Fossils  to  their  Origi- 
nal Substances — On  the  History  of  Alum — On 
the  Sap  of  Madder— On  the  ftoth  of  the  Sea, 
from  which  the  Heads  are  formed  for  the  Nie»- 
tian  Fistule— On  the  History  of  Sugar.  Beck- 
mann died,  3rd  of  February,  1811,  a  member  of 
almost  all  the  learned  societies  of  Germany  and 
the  north  of  Europe. 
BECK'ON,  V.  &  n.  See  to  Beck. 
Thou  blinded  god,  qnodi  I,  forgive  me  this  offence. 
Unwittingly  I  went  about  to  malioe  thy  pretence. 
Wherewith  he  gave  a  Uek,  and  thus  medum^t  be 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BEC  731  BEC 

Thv  MTTOw  ought  suffice  to  puge  thy  fatOt,  if  it  nrwe    current;  hence  arises  to  befit;  decent;  appio- 
*  '  ^  priate;  suitable;  and  furtlier,  graceful;  omar 


MMMVtm  y 

The  virtue  of  which  sound  mine  heart  did  so  revive. 
That  I  mcthought  was  made  as  whole  as  any  man 
alive.  '*"''  9f  Sumjf, 

For  he  that  will  be  called  with  a  bech. 
Makes  hasty  suit  on  light  desire. 
If  ever  ready  to  the  check. 
And  bqznetb  In  no  wasting  fiie.  Wifoit, 

Proceeding  to  the  midst  he  stil  did  stand. 
As  if  in  mind  he  something  had  to  say  ^ 
And  to  the  vulgare  beckmtg  with  his  hand. 
In  sign  of  silence,  as  to  heare  a  play. 
By  lively  actions  he  gan  bewray. 
Some  argument  of  matter  passioned ; 
Which  doeu,  he  backe  retyred  soft  away. 
And,  passing  by,  his  name  discovered. 
Ease,  on  his  robe  in  golden  letters  cyphered. 


Biihop. 


It  heckofu  you  to  go  away  with  it. 
As  if  it  some  impartment  did  desire 
To  you  alone. 

The  queen,  lair  Fancy,  past ; 
And  thro*  her  rainbow-dnged  veil 

A  glance  benignant  cast ! 
Then»  ftwAfVun^  to  a  secret  glade, 

«  Come  see,*  she  cried,  '  the  train, 
Who  own  beneath  this  mystic  shade 

My  visionary  reign.' 
Anon  all  this  rout  was  brought  in  silence. 
And  I  by  an  usher  brought  to  presence 
Of  Lucifer;  then  low,  as  well  as  I  could, 
I  kneeled,  which  he  so  well  allow'd 
That  thus  he  beck'd,  and,  by  St.  Anthony, 
He  smiled  on  me  well-favour'dly.     ' 

Heywood,     The  Pardoner. 

So  throng  into  the  memory. 
Of  calling  8hi4>es,  and  hechowng  shadows  dire. 
And  aery  tongues,  that  syllable  men's  names. 
On  sands  and  shores  and  desert  wildernesses. 

MfiUon, 
With  this  his  distant  friends  he  heekem  near, 
Provokes  their  duty,  and  prevents  their  fear.  Dryden, 
What  heck'mng  ghost  along  the  moonlight  shade. 
Invites  my  steps  and  points  to  yonder  glade.  Pope. 
When  he  had  raised  my  thoughu  by  those  trans- 
porting airs,  he  beckoned  to  me,  and,  by  the  waving 
of  his  hand,  directed  me  to  approach.  Addison. 

All  ether  softening,  sober  evening  takes 
Her  wonted  station  on  the  middle  air, 
A  thousand  shadows  at  her  beek.     First,  this 
She  sends  on  earth,  then  that  of  deeper  dye 
Steals  soft  behind ;  and  then  a  deeper  still. 
In  circle  following, circle,  gathers  round. 
To  close  the  face  of  things.        Thonuon.     Summer. 
They  had  not  spoken ;  but  they  felt  allured 
As  if  their  souls  and  lips  each  other  beckon'd. 
Which  being  join'd  like  swarming  bees  they  dung. 
Their  hearts  the  flowers  from  whence  the  honey 
sprung.  Byron, 

BE'CLAP.    Be  and  clap.    See  Clap. 

BE'CLAWE.    Be  and  claw.    See  ClaW. 

BE'CLIP.    Be  and  clip.    See  Clip. 

BE'CLOUD.    Be  and  cloud.    See  Cloud. 

BE'COME,  -J     Be   and   come,  Aug.- 

.    BECOM'iNG,n.  o^'.  >Sax.  aanan;   Dutch  ko- 

Becoiiino'ly.  jmen;  Germ,  kommen; 
Swed.  komma.  Bccunum,  ingrediy  occwrrere,  per- 
vemrey  superveiwre;  to  go;  to  enter  in;  to  meet 
•with ;  to  come  or  attain  to ;  to  come  upon  sud- 
denly :  it  likewise  signifies  to  convene ;  to  con- 
cur ;  and  consequently  to  be  convenient  or  con- 


Id. 


Id. 


Id. 


mental.    See  Ency.  Met. 

The  Lord  God  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath 
of  life,  and  man  beeame  a  living  soul.      Gmem,  ii.  7. 
And  unto  the  Jews  I  became  a  Jew,  that  I  might 
gain  the  Jews.  1  Corinih.  ix.  24. 

Upon  that  other  side  Damian 
Becomm  is  the  sorwefuliest  man 
Th^t  ever  was.  ChoMcer. 

So  soone  as  she  was  entred,  round  about 
Shce  cast  her  eies,  to  see  what  was  become 
Of  all  those  persons  which  she  saw  without : 
But  lo !  they  streigbt  were  vanisht  all  and  some ; 
Save  that  same  woefull  lady ;  both  whose  hands 
Were  bounden  fast,  that  did  her  ill  become. 
And  her  small  waste  girt  rownd  with  yron  bands 
Unto  a  brasen  pillour,  by  the  which  she  stands. 

Spenetr^ 
She  to  her  sire  made  humble  reverence. 
And  bowdd  low,  that  her  right  well  became. 
And  added  grace  unto  her  excellence. 

Id,  Faerie  Qusene. 
I  cannot  joy,  until  I  be  resolv'd 
Wher^  our  right  valiant  father  is  become. 

ShaJupeare. 
If  I  beeome  not  a  cart  as  well  as  another  man,  a 
plague  on  my  bringing  up.  Id, 

I  would  I  had  some  flowers  o'  th'  spring  that  might 
Become  your  time  of  day  ;  and  your's  and  your's. 
That  wear  upon  your  virgin  branches  yet 
Your  maidenheads  growing. 

Yet  be  sad,  good  brothers ; 
For,  to  speak  truth,  it  very  well  becomes  'you. 

Your  dishonour 

Mangles  true  judgment  and  bereaves  the  state 

Of  that  integrity  which  should  become  it. 

What  is  then  beeome  of  so  huge  a  multitude,  as 

would  have  overspread  a  great  part  of  the  continent. 

lUUeigh, 
But  I  should  ill  beeome  this  throne,  O  peers  I 
And  this  imperial  sovreignty  adom'd 
With  splendour,  arm'd  with  power,  if  aught  propos'd 
And  judg'd  of  public  moment,  in  the  shape 
Of  difficulty  or  danger,  could  deter 
Me  from  attempting.  MUton, 

Perplex 'J  with  thoughts,  what  would  become 
Of  mc,  and  all  mankind  ?  Id, 

The  first  hints  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  were 
taken  from  a  common  person's  wondering  what  6c- 
came  of  all  the  blood  that  issued  out  of  the  heart. 

Orawtt. 
What  will  beeome  of  me  then  7  for,  when  he  is  free, 
he  will  infallibly  accuse  me.  Dryden, 

Why  would  I  be  a  queen  ?  because  my  face 
Would  wear  the  title  with  a  better  grace  ;. 
If  I  become  it  not,  yet  it  would  be 
Part  of  your  duty  died  to  flatter  me.  Id, 

Wicherly  was  of  my  opinion,  or  rather  I  of  his ; 
for  it  becomes  me  so  to  speak  of  so  excellent  a  poet. 

Id, 
Their  discourses  are  such  as  belong  to  their  age, 
their  calling,  and  their  breeding ;  such  as  are  becom^ 
ing  of  them,  a^d  of  them  only.  Id* 

What  beeari^oi  this  thoughtful  busy  creature,  when 
removed  from  this  world,  has  amased  the  vulgar,  and 
pusxled  the  vise.  Rogers, 

He  utterly  rejected  their  fables  concerning  their 
gods,  as  not  beeommg  good  men,  much  lesa  those 
which  were  worshipped  for  gjds.  SHUingfleet. 

Of  thee,  kind  boy,  I  ask  no  red  and  white 
To  make  up  my  delight. 
No  odd  becommy  graces. 
Black  eyes,  or  little  know-not*whata,  in  faces. 


Digitized  by 


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732 


BED. 


BECSANGIL)  the  ancient  Bithynia,  a  pro- 
vince of  Natolia  in  Asia;  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Black  Sea,  on  the  west  by  the  sea  of 
Marmora,  on  the  south  by  Natolia  Proper,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  province  of  Boli.  The  prin- 
cipal town  is  Bursa. 

BECSKERECK,  Nagy,  i.  e.  Great,  a  mar- 
ket town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Torontal, 
the  capital  of  the  circle  of  that  name.  It  sunds 
on  the  Bega,  and  has  a  salt  office,  and  the  right 
of  choosing  its  own  magistrate.* 

Becskereck,  Kis,  i.  e.  Little,  a  small  town 
of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Temeswar,  circle  of 
St.  Andrew. 

BECTASH,  preacher  to  Amurath  I.  sultan  of 
the  Turks,  and  founder  of  the  sect  of  Bectasse. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  given  rise  to  the  order  of 
Janissaries. 

BECTASSE,  a  sect  of  religious  among  the 
Turki.    All  the  janissaries  belonging  to  the  Porte 
are  of  this  sect.     The  habit  of  the  bectasse  is 
white :  on  their  heads  they  wear  caps  of  several 
pieces ;  with  turbans  of  wood  twisted  like  ropes. 
They  observe  constantly  the  hour  of  prayer, 
which  they  perform  in  their  own  assemblies, 
and  make  frequent  declarations  of  the  unity  of 
God. 
BECURL,  be  and  curL    See  Curl. 
BED,  17.  &  n.      ^      A  large  family,  from  one 
Bed'ding,  etymon  ;'Ang.  Sax.   bed^ 

Bed'chamber,        dian ;  Germ,  bedden  or  bet- 
Bed'clothes,  ten,  ttemere,  bed ;  that  is, 

Bed'fellow,  says   the    etymologist,    in 

Bed'maker,  the   Ency.  Met.,  stratum^ 

Bed'mate,  is  the  past  participle  of 

Bed'post,  this    verb;    therefore    we 

Bed'staff,  I  speak  of  a  garden-bed,  a 

Bed'presser,       I  bed  of  gravel,  &c.    In  the 
Bed'stead,  Ang.-Sax.  bedde  is  some- 

Bed'straw,  times  used  for  a  table.  See 

Bed'swerver,        Mark  iv.  21.     From  the 
Bed'rid,  strata  of  earth  where  things 

Bed'rite,  are  deposited,  &c.,  and  in 

Bed'time,  which,  till  disturbed,  they 

Bed'ward,  repose;  the  word  has  been 

Bed'work.  J  to  whatever  bears  applied 

and  supports ;  to  whatever  is  spread,  or  laid  out, 
or  prepared,  for  the  purpose  of  bearing  and  sup- 
porting. Thus  it  is  more  generally  applied  to  a 
lodging;  to  something  made  to  sleep  on  ;  hence, 
figurativelv,  it  is  used  for  marriage.  To  bed  is 
to  go  to  bed  with ;  to  place  in  bed ;  to  make 
partaker  of  the  bed ;  to  sow  or  plant  in  earth ; 
to  lay  in  a  place  of  rest  or  security;  to  lay  in 
order ;  to  stratify ;  to  cohabit  The  various  deri- 
vatives explain,  by  their  application,  their  own 
meaning. 

To  bed  he  goth,  and  with  him  goth  his  wife. 

As  any  jay  she  lyht  was  and  jolif.  Chaaieer, 

Flora  now  cnlleth  forth  echo  flower. 

And  bids  make  readie  Maia's  bower. 

That  newe  it  upiyst  from  bedd,  Spenmr, 

There  be  no  inns  where  meet  bedding  may  be  had, 
so  that  his  mantle  serveth  him  then  for  a  bed.         Id, 

On  my  knees  I  beg. 
That  yonll  voachMfe  me  raiment,  bed,  and  food. 

SMkipeare. 


Eno.  Mine,  and  moat  of  oar  intiinet,  to  i 

be — drank  to  bed.  J^ffdem,  Aat,  tmi  Ckap, 

IROS.  There's  a  palm,  preaaget  chastity,  if  aothiag 
else. 

Char.  Even  as  the  overflowing  Nilus  pmsftrth 


iROS.  Oo,  yon  wild  bedfiOow,  yon  cannot  soothsay. 

Id. 

And  as  the  sleeping  soldiers  in  th'  alaim^ 
Your  bedded  hairs,  like  life  in  excrements, 
Surt  up  and  stand  on  end.  Id. 

She's  a  bedewerver,  even  as  bad  as  those 
That  vulgars  give  the  boldest  titles  to.  Id. 

They  have  married  me : 
111  to  the  Tuscan  wars,  and  never  bed  her.  Id. 

For  he  will  be  swine  drunk,  and  in  his  sleep  he 
does  little  harm,  save  to  his  beddothet  about  him.  Id, 

He  loves  your  people. 
But  tie  him  not  to  be  their  bedfeUow^  Id. 

Misery  acquaints  a  man  with  strange  bedfeOoKe.  Id^ 

This  sanguine  loward,  this  bedpretmr,  this  hone- 
back  breaker,  this  huge  hill  of  flesh.  Id. 

Lying  not  erect,  but  hollow,  which  is  in  the  makiaf 
of  the  bed;  or  with  the  legs  gathered  up,  which  is  in 
the  posture  of  the  body,  is  tlM  more  wholesome. 


There  was  a  doubt  ripped  up,  whether  Anhnr  was 
bedded  with  his  lady.  Id. 

Herbs  will  be  tenderer  and  fairer  if  you  take  them 
out  of  bedt  when  they  are  newly  come  up,  and  re- 
move them  into  pots  with  better  earth.  Id. 

She  was  publickly  contracted,  sUted  as  a  bride,  and 
solemnly  bedded;  and,  after  she  was  laid,  Manmi- 
lian's  ambassador  put  his  leg,  stript  naked  to  the 
knee,  between  the  espousal  sheets.  ML 

Let  coarse  bold  hands,  from  slimy  nest. 
The  bedded  fish  in  banks  outwrest. 


So  high  as  heav'd  the  tumid  hills,  so  low, 
Down  sunk  a  hollow  bottom,  broad,  and  deep. 
Capacious  bed  of  waters.  MOlem. 

Rigour  now  is  gone  to  bed. 
And  advice  with  scrupulous  head.  ML 

George,  the  eldest  son  of  this  second  bed,  was,  after 
the  death  of  his  father,  by  the  singular  care  and  affec- 
tion of  his  mother,  well  brought  up.  Clmrtmie^ 

He  was  now  one  of  the  bed^amber  to  the  prince.  Id. 

They  were  brought  to  the  king,  abiding  them  in  his 
bedchamber,  HmgeMed. 

First,  with  assiduous  care  from  winter  keep. 
Well  fother'd  in  the  stalls  thy  tender  sheep  ; 
Then  spread  with  straw  the  beddittg  of  thy  fold. 
With  fern  beneath,  to  fend  the  bitter  cold.     I>i9dias. 

Arcite  retura'd,  and,  as  in  honour  tied. 
His  foe  with  bedding  and  with  food  supply'd.  Id. 

Those  houses  then  were  caves,  or  homely  sheds. 
With  twining  oziera  fenc'd,  and  moss  their  bede.     Idm 

See  hoary  Albula's  infected  tide 
O'er  the  warm  bed  of  smoaking  sulphur  glide. 

AddimHu 

What  charming  bedfeUowi,  and  companions  for  life, 
men  choose  out  of  sudi  women.  Id. 

I  was  deeply  in  love  with  my  bedmaker,  upon  which 
I  was  rusticated  for  ever.  /d. 


I  came  the  next  day  prepared,  and  placed  her 
in  a  clear  light,  her  head  leaniqg  to  a  be^nat,  an- 
other standing  behind,  holding  it  steady. 

Wie^mm't  Sntyeij. 


Smfi. 


Chimnies  with  scorn  rejecting  i 
Stools,  tables,  chairs,  and  bedeteadt  broke. 


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BED 


733 


BED 


Bed  may  be  more  accurately  aefined  a  con?e- 
nience  for  stretching  and  composing  the  body  on, 
for  ease,  rest,  or  sleep ;  consisting,  generally,  of 
feathers  enclosed  in  a  ticken  case,  and  supported 
by  a  frame  work,  called  the  bedstead,  standing 
on  pedestals.  Mr.  Whittaker  in  his  history  of 
Manche*ster  observes,  that  it  was  universally  the 
practice,  in  the  first  ages,  for  mankind  to  sleep 
upon  the  skins  of  beasts.  It  was  originally  the 
custom  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as-  well  as 
of  the  ancient  Britons,  before  the  Roman  Inva- 
sion. These  skins  were  spread  on  the  floor  of 
their  apartments.  Afterwards  they  were  changed 
for  loose  rushes  and  heather :  the  Welsh  a  few 
years  ago  lay  on  the  former,  and  many  of  the 
Highlanders  of  Scotland  sleep  on  the  latter  to 
this  day.  In  process  of  time,  the  Romans  sug- 
gested to  the  interior  Britons  the  use,  and  the 
introduction  of  agriculture  supplied  them  with 
the  means,  of  the  neater  convenience  of  straw 
beds.  The  beds  of  the  Roman  gentry  at  this 
period  were  generally  filled  with  feathers,  and 
those  of  the  inns  with  the  soft  down  of  reeds. 
But  for  many  ages  the  beds  of  the  Italians  had 
been  constantly  composed  of  straw;  it  still  formed 
those  of  the  soldiers  and  officers  at  the  conquest 
of  Lancashire;  and  from  both,  our  countrymen 
learnt  their  use.  But  it  appears  to  have  been 
taken  up  only  by  the  gentlemen,  as  the  common 
Welsh  nad  their  beds  thinly  stuffed  with  rushes 
93  late  as  the  conclusion  of  the  twelfth  century ; 
and  with  the  gentlemen  it  continued  many  a<^es 
afterwards.  Straw  was  used  even  in  the  royal 
chambers  of  £ngland  as  late  as  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century. 

In  the  Highlands  heath  is  generally  used  as 
bedding  even  by  the  gentry;  and  a  heath  bed  has 
been  celebrated  by  travellers  as  a  peculiar  luxury, 
superior  to  that  of  down.  In  France  and  Italy 
straw  beds  arc  frequent  to  this  day.  But  after 
the  above  period,  beds  were  no  longer  suffered  to 
rest  upon  the  ground.  The  better  mode,  that 
had  anciently  prevailed  in  the  east,  and  long 
before  been  introduced  into  Italy,  was  adopted 
in  Britain ;  and  they  were  now  mounted  on  pedes- 
tals. This,  however,  was  equally  confined  to  the 
higher  ranks.  Beds  still  continued  on  the  floor 
among  the  common  people,  and  were  laid  along 
the  walls  of  their  houses,  as  one  common  dormi- 
tory for  all  the  members  of  the  family. 

Bed,  in  masonry,  a  course  or  range  of  stones ; 
and  the  joint  of  the  bed  is  the  mortar  between 
two  stones,  placed  over  each  other. 

Bed,  in  «ea  language,  a  flat,  thick  piece  of 
timber  laid  under  the  quarters  of  casks  contain- 
ing any  liqjaid,  and  stowed  in  the  ship*s  hold. 

Bed,  Din  inc.,  lectus  triclinaris,  or  discubito* 
liuj,  that  whereon  the  ancients  lay  at  meals. 
The  dining  or  discubitory  beds  were  four  or  five 
leet  high.  Three  of  these  were  ordinarily  ranged 
by  a  square  table  (whence  both  the  table  and 
the  room  where  they  e^t,  were  called  triclinium), 
in  such  a  manner  th^t  one  of  the  sides  of  the 
table  remained  open  and  accessible  to  the  waiters. 
Each  bed  woula  hold  three  or  four,  rarely  Ave 
persons.  They  were  unknown  in  Rome  before 
the  second  Punic  war :  the  Romans,  till  thou, 
sat  down  to  eat  on  plain  wooden  benches,  in 
imitation  of  the  heroes  of  Homer,  or,  as  Vanro 


expresses  it,  after  the  manner  of  the  Lacedemo- 
nians and  Cretans.    See  Accusation. 

Bed  of  a  great  Gun;  that  thick  plank 
which  lies  immediately  under  the  piece,  being,  as 
it  were,  the  body  of  the  carriage. 

Bed  of  a   Mortar,  with  gunners,  a  soiid 

Siece  of  oak  hollowed  in  the  middle,  to  receive 
le  breech  and  half  the  trunnions. 

Bed  of  Corn,  is  a  heap,  flat  at  top,  three  or 
four  feet  high,  otherwise  (ailed  a  couch.  Com, 
in  granaries,  keeps  best  in  beds. 

Bed  of  Justice,  in  the  ci-devant  French  cus- 
toms, a  throne  upon  which  the  king  was  seated 
when  he  went  to  the  parliament.  The  king 
never  held  a  bed  of  justice  but  for  aflairs  that 
concerned  the  state,  and  then  all  the  ofiicers  of 
parliament  were  clothed  in  scarlet  robes. 

B£DA,  commonly  called  Venerable  Bede,  one 
of  our  most  ancient  historians,  was  born  A.  D. 
672,  near  Weremouth,  in  the  bishopric  of  Dur- 
ham. He  was  educated  by  the  abbot  Benedict, 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Wyre.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  was 
ordained  deacon,  and  priest  at  thirty.  About 
this  time  he  was  invited  to  Rome  by  Pope  Ser- 
gius ;  but  it  is  not  certain  that  he  accepted  the 
invitation.  In  731  he  published  his  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History ;  a  work  of  so  much  merit,  notwith- 
standing the  legendary  tales  it  contains,  that  it 
were  alone  sufficient  to  immortalise  the  author. 
He  died  A.  D.  735,  of  a  lingering  consumption, 
pro])ably  occasioned  by  a  sedentary  life,  ana  long 
uninterrupted  application  to  study  and  literary 
compositions,  of  which  he  left  an  incredible  num- 
ber. He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  his  con- 
vent at  Jarrow;  but  his  bones  were  afterwads 
removed  to  Durham,  and  deposited  in  the  same 
cofiin  with  those  of  St.  Cuthbert.  Bede  was 
undoubtedly  a  singular  phenomenon  in  an  igno- 
rant and  illiterate  age.  His  leaiiiing,  fur  the 
times,  was  extensive,  his  application  incredible, 
his  piety  exemplary,  and  his  modesty  excessive. 
He  was  universally  admired,  consulted,  and 
esteemed,  during  his  'ife;  and  his  writings  are 
deservedly  considered  as  the  foundation  of  our 
ecclesiastical  history.  His  language  is  neither 
elegant  nor  pure,  but  perspicuous  and  easy.  All 
his  works  are  in  Latin.  The  first  general  collec- 
tion of  them  appeared  at  Paris  in  1544,  in  three 
volumies,  folio.  They  were  printed  again  at 
the  same  place  in  1554,  in  eight  volumes.  They 
were  also  published  in  the  same  size  and  number 
of  volumes  at  Basil,  in  1567,  reprinted  at  Co- 
logne in  1613,  and  at  the  same  place  in  1688. 
Besides  this  general  collection,  there  are  several 
of  his  compositiomi,  which  have  been  printed 
separately,  or  amongst  the  collections  of  the 
writings  of  ancient  authors ;  and  there  are  several 
MSS.  ascribed  to  him,  which  are  preserved  in 
the  libraries  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

BE'DABBLE.  Dabble,  with  the  prefix  be. 
See  Dabble. 

BE'DAFF.  Daff,  and  the  prefix  be.  SeeDAPF 

BE'DaGGLE.  Daggle,  and  the  prefix  be 
See  Dagole. 

BEDAH,  or  .Vedah,  also  called  Battas  or 
Waddas,  a  wild  people  inhabiting  the  mountains 
and  forests  in  the  interior  of  Ceylon.  See  Cbt- 
LON  and  Batta. 


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BEDAL^  a  maiket  town  in  the  north  riding 
of  Yorkshijrey  through  which  passes  a  Roman 
causeway  to  Richmond,  Banuid  Castle,  &c. 
The  parts  adjacent  are  noted  for  hunting  and 
road  horses.  It  has  a  market  on  Tuesday :  and 
is  six  miles  from  North  AUerton,  eight  from  Rich- 
mond, and  220  from  London. 

BEDALACH,  in  the  materia  medicsi,  a  name 
given  by  some  writers  to  the  gum  bdellium ;  but 
particularly  to  that  kind  of  it  which  was  brought 
tirom  Arabia,  and  was  of  a  yellowish  color,  like 
wax. 

BEDALGENSE,  a  name  given  by  the  Arab 
astronomers  to  a  fixed  star  of  the  first  magnitude, 
in  the  right  shoulder  of  Orion.  It  is  of  a  ruddy 
color,  by  which  it  is  easily  distinguished. 

BEDAMUNGALUM,  a  town  of  the  Mysore. 
Hindostan,  near  the  river  Palar,  which  is  here 
about  forty  feet  wide.  It  was  formerly  a  con- 
siderable place,  but  is  now  reduced.  Salt 
abounds  throughout  the  neighbouring  country, 
which  consists  of  poor  black  soil,  and  low  wet 
grounds.    Long.  78°  24'  E.,  lat  12°  58'  N. 

J3EDAN,  a  deliverer,  and,  probably,  a  judge 
of  the  Israelites^  mentioned  by  the  prophet  Sa- 
muel (1  Sam.  xii.  11.),  in  his  expostulation  with 
the  people ;  but  not  mentioned  particularly  else- 
where, in  Scripture.  Some  suppose  him  to  be 
the  same  with  Barak ;  others  with  Samson,  who 
was  Ben  Dan,  the  son  of  Dan ;  others,  that  he 
was  Jair,  and  named  Bedan  after  his  ancestor. 

BEDARIDES,  a  town  of  France,  near  the 
Rhone,  formerly  in  the  papal  counW  of  Venais- 
sin ;  but,  since  the  revolution,  included  in  the 
department  of  Vaucluse.  The  population  is 
about  1700,  and  the  environs  are  fertile  and 
beautiful.    Five  miles  north  of  Avignon. 

BE'DARK.    Be  and  dark.    See  Dark. 

BEDARRIEUX,  or  Bsc  du  Rieux,  a  town 
of  France,  on  the  river  Orbe,  in  the  department 
of  the  Herault.  It  has  3340  inhabitants,  with 
manufacturesof  drugget  and  woollen  stuffs,  which 
are  exported  as  far  as  into  Germany.  ThirW- 
three  miles  west  of  Montpelier.  Long.  3°  15'  £., 
lat.  43°  &r  N. 

BE'DASH     Be  and  dash.    See  Dash. 

BE'DAW.  Of  uncertain  etymology.  Awake 
on  the  watch.  See  Adaw,  to  watch  over,  to 
keep  under. 

BE'DAUB.  Be  and  daub.  See  Dabblb  and 
Daub. 

Bbpcbamber,  Lords  of  the,  in  the  British 
court,  are  twelve  noblemen  who  attend  in  their 
turns,  each  a  month;  during  which  time  they 
anciently  lay  in  the  king's  bedchamber,  and 
waited  on  him  when  he  dined  in  private. 

BEDDAPOLLAM,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  in 
the  Mysore,  fourteen  miles  west  of  Gurram- 
conda. 

BEDDER,  Beder,  or  Bedr,  a  valley  of  Arabia, 
where  the  tribe  of  Koreish  was  defeated  by  Ma- 
homet in  the  first  year  of  the  Hejira^  A.  D>  622. 
Distant  forty  miles  fixHn  Mecca,  and  twenty  from 
Medina. 

BEDDIJAM,  a  town  of  Ceylon,  eighty  miles 
south  of  Candy. 

BEDDINGTON,  a  village  of  Surry,  between 
Carshalton  and  Croydon,  adjoining  which  is  Bed- 
dington  Park^  where  queen  Elizabeth  is  said  to 


have  resided.  The  parish  chuich  is  an  aacieot 
Gothic  building,  vrith  stalls  in  the  aisle  like  a 
cathedral. 

BEDDOES  (Thomas),  M.  D.  a  physician  of 
considerable  celebrity,  was  bom  at  Shiffbal, 
Salop,  in  the  year  1760.  He  was  edacated  it 
Bridgenorth,  Oxford,  and  Edinburgh.  In  1786 
he  took  his  doctor's  degree,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Oxford ;  an  appoint- 
ment which  his  political  opinions,  on  the  brak- 
ing out  of  the  French  Revolution,  did  nolpermit 
him  to  retain.  In  1793  he  removed  to  Bristol, 
where  he  began  a  series  of  medical  and  physiolo- 
gical researches,  experiments,  lectures,  &c; 
which  might  have  established  for  him  a  lasting 
reputation.  He  was  capable  of  great  things  but 
aimed  at  too  much.  Publications  upon  a  variety 
of  subjects  political,  scientific,  and  medical,  came 
from  his  pen  in  rapid  succession,  until  1808,  when 
he  was  seized  with  a  liver  complaint,  which  proved 
&tal  in  the  course  of  that  year.  Of  his  numeroos 
works,  the  principal  are;  1.  A  Translation  of 
Spallanzani's  Dissertations  on  Natural  History, 
1784;  reprinted  in  1790.  2.  A  Translation  of 
Bergman's  Essay  on  Elective  Attrai^doiis,  1785. 
3.  Translations  of  Scheie's  Chemical  Essays, 
1786.  4.  Chemical  Experiments  and  Opinions, 
extracted  from  a  work  published  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, &c. 

BEDE.    See  Beda. 

BEDEAD.    Be  and  dead.    Sec  Dead. 

BE'DECK.    Be  and  deck.    See  Deck. 

BEDELL  (Dr.  William),  a  learned  prelate, 
bom  at  Black  Notley,  in  .Essex,  in  1750,  and 
educated  at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  when 
he  obtained  a  fellowship  in  1593.  A&r  being 
some  time  minister  of  St.  Edmund's  Buy,  be 
went  to  Venice,  as  chapUin  to  Sir  Henry  Wot- 
ton,  thelEnglish  ambassador,  and  continuing  eight 
years  in  that  city,  contracted  an  intimate  ac^ 

rintance  with  the  famous  Father  Paul ;  durio^ 
time  he  translated  the  English  Commoo 
Prayer  Book  into  that  language ;  and  drew  up 
an  English  grammar  for  Father  Paul,  who  de- 
clared he  had  learned  more  from  him  in  dimity 
than  from  any  one.  At  his  departure  Paul  pre- 
sented him  with  his  picture,  the  MSS.  of  hk 
History  of  the  Council  of  Tnent,  his  Uistoiy  of 
the  Interdict  and  Inquisition,  with  otlier  literary 
donations.  In  1629  Dr.  Bedell  obtained  the 
bishopric  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh  in  Ireland, 
and  applied  himself  vigorously  to  refonning 
abuses.  He  procured  an  Irish  translatioii  of  the 
common  Prayer-Book,  which  he  caused  to  be 
read  in  his  cathedral  every  Sunday.  The  New 
Testament  having  been  translated  by  archbishop 
Daniel,  he  patronised  a  ooneqKmding  verskm 
of  the  Old  Testament;  which  was  afteiwaids 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  great  Mr.  fioyie. 
In  1 624  he  published  a  controversial  book  against 
the  Rbman  Catholics,  which  he  dedicated  to 
Charles,  prince  of  Wales ;  and  assisted  the  arcb^ 
bishop  or  Spalatro  in  finishing  his  fiunoos  work 
De  Republica  Ecclesiastica.  When  the  rebel- 
lion broke  out  in  Ireland,  in  October  1641,  the 
bishop  at  first  did  not  feel  the  violence  <^  its 
efiects;  for  the  veiy  rebels  had  ooDoeived  a 
great  veneration  for  him,  and  they  dedaied  he 
should  be  the  last  Englishman  they  would  drive 


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out  of  Ireland.  About  the  middle  of  December, 
however,  th§  rebels  required  him  to 'dismiss  the 
people  who  had  taken  refuge  with  him ;  and, 
upon  his  refusing  to  do  this,  they  seised  him  and 
his  family,  and  carried  them  prisoners  to  the 
castle  of  Cloughboughter,  putting  them  all  ex- 
cept the  bishop  in  irons.  After  being  confined 
for  about  three  weeks,  the  bishop  and  his  sons 
were  exchanged  for  some  of  the  principal  rebels ; 
but  the  worthy  prelate  died  soon  after,  on  the 
7th  lebruary,  1642,  his  death  being  chiefly 
occasibned,  it  is  said,  by  this  imprisonment. 
The  Irish  rebel  chiefs,  and  a  large  part  of  their 
force,  accompanied  his  body  to  the  church- 
yard. 

BE'DELVE,j      Be  and  delve.     See  Delve. 

Bedelven.     S 

BEDENGIAN,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by 
Avicenna  and  Serapion  to  the  pomum  amoris, 
or  love-apple,  a  sort  of  fruit  used  in  food  by  the 
Italians,  and  some  other  nations,  and  seeming  to 
be  the  third  species  of  the  strychnos,  or  solanum, 
mentioned  by  Theophrastus.  The  author  first 
describes  two  kinds  of  this  plart,  the  one  of 
which  occasioned  sleepy  disorders,  and  the  other 
threw  people  who  eat  of  it  into  madness.  After 
these,  which  he  properly  accounts  poisonous,  he 
mentions  a  third,  which  was  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens, for  the  sake  of  the  fruit,  which,  he  says,  is 
large  and  esculent.  This  is  certainly  the  same 
with  bedengian. 

BE'DEVIL.     Be  and  devil.     See  Devil. 

BE'DEW,  >      Ang.-Sax.  deawian,  to  wet,  to 

Be'dew.      5  moisten. 

Both  nations  shall,  in  Britalne's  royal  crowne. 
Their  difiTring  names,  the  signcs  of  faction,  druwne  ; 
The  silver  sircames  which  from  this  spring  increase. 
Bedew  all  Christian  hearts  with  drops  of  peace. 

Beaumoni    Bcnoorth  Field. 

For  never,  gentle  knight,  as  he  of  late. 
So  tossed  was  in  fortune's  craell  freakes. 
And   all  the  while  salt  tears  bedeaw'd  the  hearers' 
cheaks. 


What  slender  youth  bedew'd  with  liquid  odours. 
Courts  thee  on  roses,  in  some  pleasant  cave  ?     Milton. 

Thrice  happy  he !  who,  on  the  sunless  side 
Of  a  romantic  mountain,  forest-cruwn'd. 
Beneath  the  whole  collected  shade  reclines  ; 
Or  in  the  gelid  caverns,  woodbine  wrought. 
And  fresh  hedew'd  with  ever-spouting  streams. 
Sits  coolly  calm.  Thom$on. 

May  all  the  youths,  like  me,  by  \oi^  deceiv'd. 
Not  quench  the  ruin»  but  applaud  the  doom ! 
And  -when  thou  dy'st,  may  not  one  heart  be  griev'd. 
May  not  one  tear  bedew  the  lonely  tomb '.    Hammond. 

Oo,  my  boy,  and  if  you  fall,  though  distant,  ex- 
posed, and  unwept  by  those  that  love  you,  the  most 
precious  tears  are  those  with  which  heaven  bedewi 
the  unburied  head  of  a  soldier 

Goldtmith.  Viear  of  Wakefield. 

BEDFORD  (John,  duke  of),  a  younger  son 
of  Henry  IV.,  was  Shakspeare^s  *  prince  John  of 
Lancaster.'  During  the  reign  oi  Henry  V.  he 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  conquest  of  France ; 
and  was,  after  tne  death  of  the  king,  appointed 
regent  of  that  country.  ^He  displayed  great  mili- 
tary skill  in  the  battle  of  Vemenil  in  1424.  The 
only  blemish  in  his  character  is  his  cruel  and 
unjustifiable  treatment  of  the  maid  of  Orleans. 


He  survived  tliis  event  about  four  years,  and 
dying  at  Rouen,  in  1435,  was  buried  in  tiie  ca^ 
thedral  of  that  city.  Bedford  deserves  notice  as 
a  patron  of  the  arts.  A  curious  proof  of  his 
taste  in  them  is  still  existing  in  the  Beaford  Missal, 
a  small  thick  folio  volume,  highly  illuminated, 
described  by  Mr.  Dibdin  in  his  Bibliomania, 
page  253. 

The  dukedom  of  Bedford,  now  enjoyed  by  the 
Russel  family,  is  perfectly  distinct  from  that  of 
•this  prince.  The  title  has  been  twice  revived 
since  his  time. 

Bedford  (Francis  RuSsel,  duke  of),  an  illus- 
trious English  nobleman,  and  distin^ished  agri- 
cultulist;  was  bom  July  23d,  1765.  Upon 
the  death  of  his  grandfather  in  1771,  he  succeeded 
to  the  title  and  fortunes  of  his  family.  He 
received  the  first  rudiments  of  education,  we 
believe,  at  Loughborough  house,  a  fiashionable 
preparatory  school :  from  this  place  he  was  re^ 
moved  at  an  early  age  to  Westminster-school, 
but  he  did  not  remain  long  at  this  celebrated 
seminary.  Here  it  was  that,  in  consequence  of 
a  blow  from  a  cricket  ball,  he  became  subject  4o 
an  inveterate  hernia,  which  proved  the  ultimate 
cause  of  his  premature  death.  His  grace,  at  the 
university,  applied  to  his  studies  with  more 
diligence  than  most  young  noblemen,  and  soon 
acquired  the  esteem  of  his  fellow-students, 
and  of  those  who  superintended  his  conduct. 
Early  in  life  he  manifested  a  strong  predilection 
for  the  amusements  of  the  turf,  but  this  was  soon 
weakened  (though  not  destroyed)  in  consequence 
of  a  superior  attachment  to  the  more  rational 
pursuits  of  agriculture.  On  his  first  outset  in 
public  life  he  was  connected  with  Mr.  Fox, 
and  became  a  firm  and  disinterested  supporter 
of  the  whig  principles.  It  was  long  before  he . 
could  so  fer  overcome  his  natural  diffidence  as 
to  speak  in  public;  although,  in  private  com- 
pany, the  clearness  of  his  judgment,  the  solidity 
of  his  remarks, .  and  the  strength  and  accuracy 
of  his  expression,  had  decidedly  proved  that 
his  grace  possessed  the  chief  requisites  of  a 
distinguished  orator.  What  the  persuasions  of 
his  friends  could  not  effect,  was  at  length  un- 
expectedly produced  by  a  momentary  glow  of 
inaignation.  In  a  debate  in  the  house  of  lordo, 
the  duke  imagined  himself  personally  alluded  to 
by  one  of  the  speakers.  He  rose  and  defended 
himself  and  his  party  by  a  most  able  and  ani- 
mated reply.  From  that  period  he  occasionally 
spoke  upon  the  most  important  questions  that 
divided  the  house,  and  was  constantly  heard, 
even  by  his  political  adversaries,  with  the  most 
respecuul  attention.  His  eloquence  was  rather 
solid  and  masculine  than  brilliant  and  showy ; 
he  did  not  trim  up  his  language  with  the  gaudv 
flowers  of  the  rhetorician,  but  always  spoke  with  ' 
such  accuracy,  and  digni^  of  style  ana  manner, 
as  naturally  resulted  from  the  profound  medita^ 
tion  of  an  enlarged  and  cultivated  mind. 

But  the  duke  of  Bedford  was  not  merely 
eminent  as  an  orator  and  politician;  he  deserved 
much  regard  as  an  anxious  promoter  of  aericul- 
cure,  and  every  art  subservient  to  that  highly 
important  pursuit.  The  late  Mr.  Bakewell  was 
one  of  his  first  instnictors  in  the  knowledge  of 
cattle ;  but  he  soon  equalled,  if  not  ezcelledy  his 


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master,  at  least  in  a  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
tiottgfa  not  perhaps  in  success  as  an  improver  of 
die  different  breeos.  His  improyeraents  in  &rm- 
ing^,  as  well  as  grazing,  were  very  considerable. 
His  experimental  farm  consisted  of  about  3000 
acres,  and  it  was  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  before 
his  time,  unexampled  in  this  country.  In  the 
practice  of  irrigation  his  grace  was  remarkably 
successful,  and  he  evinced  its  wonderful  effects 
upon  several  hundred  acres  of  land.  The  fai^ 
mers  and  graziers  for  miles  round  his  family 
seat  at  Wobum  will  long  remember  his  grand 
annual  sheep-shearings  held  there ;  from  which 
every  one  returned  pleased  with  the  hospitality 
and  affability  of  the  noble  duke,  and  with  the 
prospect  of  advantage  to  the  agricultural  in- 
terests of  the  nation  at  large,  which  the  pre- 
miums here  offered  were  likely  to  produce. 
His  grace  was  never  married.  His  death  was 
occasioned  by  the  strangulation  of  the  hernia 
already  spoken  of;  which  was  brought  on  by 
playing  at  tennis.  He  died  March  2d,  1802,  in 
nis  thirty-seventh  year. 

Bedford,  the  chief  town  of  Bedfordshire, 
is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  supposed  to  be  an 
ancient  Roman  sution,  and  by  some  the  Lacti- 
dorum  of  Antoninus ;  although  Camden  is  of 
a  different  opinion,  from  the  fact  of  its  not 
standing  on  any  of  the  Roman  roads,  as  also 
from  no  Roman  coins  having  been  found  in  the 
immediate  vicinity.  1 1  is  situated  on  the  river 
Ouse,  ten  miles  from  Olney,  and  fifty  miles 
north  of  London  ;  and,  according  to  the  census 
of  1821,  contains  upwards  of  1070  houses,  and 
5466  inhabitants. 

Bedford  is  supposed  to  be  the  Bedicanford  of 
the  ancient  Saxons,  called  Bedician  Forda,  for- 
tress of  the  Ford,  from  its  fortifications,  which 
commanded  the  river,  and  rendered  the  place 
almost  impregnable.  Several  ancient  battles 
were  fought  here,  between  the  Britons  and  the 
Saxons,  particularly  one  in  572,  the  obstinacy 
of  which  has  been  justly  celebrated.  It  has  also 
been  the  scene  of  many  severe  and  bloody  con- 
flicts with  the  Danes,  and  of  many  other  changes 
and  remarkable  events,  since  the  extinction  of 
the  Danish  power.  Offa,  king  of  the  Mercians, 
chose  this  town  as  his  burial  place,  and  his  re- 
mains were  accordingly  interrea  in  a  small  chapel, 
on  the  brink  of  tlie  river;  but  both  the  royal 
deposit  and  the  chapel  containing  them  have  been 
long  swept  away  by  a  violent  inundation.  Shortly 
after  the  Norman  conquest,  William  Rufiis  gave 
the  barony  of  Bedford  to  Pain  de  Beauchamp, 
who  built  a  strong  castle,  adjoining  the  town. 
This  place,  in  1137,  stood  a  siege  against  king 
Stephen  and  his  army,  and  was  afterwards  com- 
mitted to  Faux  de  Brent,  a  royal  fiivorite.  But 
this  gentleman,  having  fortified  it  strongly,  set 
the  royal  power  at  defiance,  and  having  other- 
wise rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  Heniy  III. 
the  king,  in  1224,  marched  wifli  an  army  to  re- 
duce him  to  obedience ;  and  after  a  siege  of  two 
months,  which  forms  one  of  the  most  curious 
detaUs  in  Enslish  history,  the  place  was  stormed 
by  four  assaults,  and  taken,  the  castle  was  dis- 
mantled, the  trenches  filled  up,  and  of  the  site  on 
which  it  stood  only  a  few  traces  are  now  visible. 
Before  the  conqnest,  here  was  a  collegiate  church, 


dedicated  to  St.  Paul,  which  was  afterwards  re- 
moved to  the  parish  of  Goldington,  about  a  mile 
distant.  Numerous  other  religious  houses,  in  the 
town  and  suburbs,  were  founded  at  an  early 
period,  of  which  scarcely  any  vestiges  remain. 
A  bridge  of  great  antiquity  stood  over  the  ri%er, 
which  is  hence  navigable  to  the  German  Ocean ; 
but  that  edifice  being  in  a  state  of  great  decay, 
was  removed  in  1813,  and  a  new  and  handsome 
one  was  erected  on  its  site,  preserving  the  com- 
munication  between  the  northern  and  aouthem 
divisions  of  the  town.  Bedford  is  generally  con- 
sidered a  compact,  handsome  place,  containing 
the  parishes  of  St.  John,  St.  Mary,  St  Cuthbeit, 
St.  Peter,  and  St.  Paul.  It  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  recorder,  aldermen,  two  chamberlains, 
and  thirteen  common  council  men.  It  gives  the 
title  of  duke  to  the  fiimily  of  Russel,  and,  as 
early  as  1295,  sent  two  members  to  parliament, 
the  election  of  whom  is  vested  in  about  1400 
voters,  consisting  of  burgesses,  freemen,  and 
householders  not  receiving  alms.  The  town  is 
a  borough  and  corporation  by  prescription,  and 
the  earliest  charter  is  dated  in  1166,  100  yean* 
after  the  conquest.  Of  the  five  churches  three 
are  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  and  two  on 
the  south.  St.  Paul's  is  a  very  handsome  Gothic 
edifice  with  a  spire.  It  has  a  fine  organ,  a  very 
ancieat  stone  pulpit,  and  contains  an  altar  tomb 
with  brass  figures  of  Sir  William  Harpur  and 
his  lady,  the  former  of  whom^  a  great  Dene&c- 
tor  of  the  town,  died  in  1574.  The  dissenters 
in  Bedford  are  numerous  and  respectable.  There 
are  three  Independent  chapels,  one  of  whidi 
was  built  as  early  as  1707,  and  a  second  in  1772. 
The  celebrated  John  Bunyan  was  one  of  the 
pastors  of  the  original  meeting-hoose,  whidi 
preceded  both,  from  1671  to  1688,  and  during 
the  thirty-two  years  exercise  of  his  ministry  in 
that  place  and  the  neighbourhood,  suffered  twelie 
years  imprisonment,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
finished  his  celebrated  work  entitled  The  Pil- 
grim's Progress.  A  free  grammar  school  was 
founded  here  in  1556,  by  Sir  William  Harpur,  a 
native  of  Bedford,  who,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  lord  mayor  of  Lon- 
don. It  was  endowed  with  thirteen  acres  of  land, 
which,  being  now  let  for  building,  produces  an 
improved  rent  of  £6000  per  annum,  the  aurpins 
of  which  is  applied  to  other  purposes  of  a  chari- 


table nature ;  £700  is  given  in  small  pi 
for  the  apprenticing  of  children,  and  £800  is 
given  in  marriage  portions,  of  £20  eadi,  to 
forty  poor  maidens  of  the  town,  with  restrictioos 
that  tne  young  women  must  be  of  good  reputa- 
tion, between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  fifty,  and 
married  within  two  months  after  receiving  the 
gratuity.  An  infirmary,  capable  of  recetring 
thirty-eight  patients,  was  erected  in  1803;  to- 
waids  £e  building  and  endowment  of  which 
Mr.  Whitbread,  one  of  the  memben  of  parlia- 
ment for  the  borough,  gave  £8000.  A  new  gaol 
was  erected  in  1801,  tovrards  which  d»e  same 
gentleman  contributed  £500.  In  1813  wa 
erected  an  asylum  for  lunatics.  The  assiaes  an 
sessions  of  the  county  are  held  in  the  Shire 
hall,  erected  in  1753. 

The  principal  mannfrctnie  b  laoe,  but  in  tiw 
house  of  industry  an  extensire  mannfiMCloix  of 


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•flannel  has  been  established,  whicli  has  9onsider- 
ably  reduced  the  poor's  rates. 

The  soil  in  the  neighbourhood  is  singularly 
productive  of  good  "wheat  and  barley,  which  are 
chiefly  sent  to  the  markets  of  Hitchin  and  Hert- 
ford. There  are  six  annual  fairs,  besides  a' wool 
fair,  which  has  been  established  by  the  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  the  county.  There  are  also 
two  weekly  markets ;  one  on  Saturday,  for  com, 
and  another  on  Tuesday  for  cattle.  A  consider- 
able trade  is  carried  on  in  coals,  timber,  and 
iron,  which  are  brought  by  the  river  from  Lynn 
and  Yarmouth. 

The  bailiff  of  Bedford  is  a  name  which  the 
inhabitants  of  Ely  have  from  time  immemorial 
given  to  the  inundations  of  the  Ouse,  the  waters 
of  which,  afler  violent  rains,  frequently  over- 
spread the  island,  so  as  to  suspendall  pursuits, 
and  confine  the  people  prisoners  till  they  are 
abated. 

Bedford,  a  county  of  the  United  States, 
in  Virginia,  bounded  on  the  north  by  James 
river,  east  by  Campbell,  west  by  Botetourt,  and 
south  by  Franklin  county.  It  is  thirty-four 
miles  in  length,  and  twenty-five  in  breadth. 
Chalk  and  gypsum  are  met  with  in  this  county. 
It  is  agreeably  variegated  with  hills.  The  chief 
town  is  New  London. 

Bedford,  a  large  mountainous  county  of 
Pennsylvania,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Hunting- 
don, east  by  the  North  mountain,  west  by  the 
Alleghany  mountain,and  south  by  part  of  Washing- 
ton and  Alleghany  counties,  in  the  state  of  Mary, 
land.  It  is  fifty  miles  in  breadth  fit)m  north  to 
south,  and  fifty-four  in  length  from  east  to  west; 
and  is  divided  into  nine  townships,  viz.  Bedford, 
Woodbury,  Hopewell,  Dublin,  Providence,  Bel- 
fiaist.  Bethel,  Colrain,  Cumberland  valley,  and 
Londonderry.  The  chief  waters  are  the  Rays- 
town  branch  of  the  Juniatta,  Wills,  and  Licking 
creek.  The  chief  mountains  are  Wills,  Evits, 
Warriors,  Sideling-hill,  Dunnings,  &c.  and  a  few 
others  of  inferior  magnitude.  The  valleys  between 
some  of  these  are  extensive,  rich,  and  in  many 
parts  well  cultivated.  Limestone  and  iron  ore 
are  found  in  many  places.  This  county  was  pur- 
chased from  the  Indians  in  1768  by  William 
Penn,  and  established  in  1771. 

Bedford,  a  ppst  town  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
capital  of  the  above  county,  situated  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Raystown  branch  of  Juniatta  river, 
between  two  small  creeks.  The  town  stands  on 
an  eminence,  and  is  embosomed  by  still  loftier 
hills  on  all  sides ;  that  on  the  west  rising  to  the 
altitude  of  1300  feet,  and  that  on  the  east  1100. 
It  is  regularly  laid  out,  and  contains  a  brick 
market-house,  a  stone  jail,  a  courthouse,  a  brick 
building  for  keeping  the  records  of  the  county, 
and  a  bank.  The  inhabitants  are  supplied  with 
water  from  a  spring  at  the  distance  of  half  a  mile, 
which  is  conveyed  by  wooden  pipes  to  a  reservoir 
in  the  centre  of  the  town.  It  was  incorporated 
by  an  act  of  the  assembly,  passed  in  the  winter 
session  of  1 795,  and  is  governed  similar  to  Chester. 
It  is  ten  miles  west  of  Philadelphia.  Long. 
C"^  16'  W.,  lat,  40°  0'  N. 

Bedford  New,  a  sea-port  and  post  town  in 
the  county  of  Bristol,  Massachusetts^  United 
tSiJtes  of  America,  is  about  fifty-two  miles  south 
Vol.  III. 


of  Boston,  the  capital  of  thRt  province.  Seated 
pleasantly  on  an  arm  of  the  sta,  which  stretches 
nrom  Buzzard's  Bay,  and  forinsthe  estuary  of  the 
Accushnet  river,  it  commands  an  extensive  pros- 
pect, with  a  spacious  and.  commodious  harbour- 
As  late  as  1810  Bedford  included  Fairhaven,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  estuary,  which  has  since 
been  mcorporated  into  a  distinct  town.  Its  popu- 
lation, after  the  above  division,  was  computea  at 
something  more  than  5000,  many  of  whom  are 
engaged  in  commerce.  The  chief  buildings  are 
a  bank,  five  places  of  worship,  and  a  library,  be- 
sides which  there  is  a  considerable  academy,  for 
the  use  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  The  amount 
of  shipping  belonging  to  the  port  in  1818  was 
24,000  tons.  The  vessels  are  employed  in  the 
whale,  cod,  and  other  fisheries,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  wl4ch  trade  to  Europe  and  the 
West  Indies.  The  average  value  of  exports  from 
this  port  of  America  has  been  calculated  at 
130,000  dollars;  the  imports  are  not  accurately 
known.  Ship-building  is  carried  on  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  and  a  weekly  newspaper  is  pub- 
lished. The  town  lies  in  lat.  41°  38'  N.,  lonir 
70**  54'  W. 

Bedford,  a  town  of  the  United  States  in  West 
Chester,  county  of  New  York,  thirty-five  mileit 
N.  N,  E.  of  New  York.    Long.  70°  51*  W, 

Bedford,  a  tovrn  of  Virginia,  100  miles  south- 
west of  Richmond. 

Bedford,  a  town  of  the  United  States  in  the 
west  end  of  Long  Island,  New  York.  Four  miles 
north-west  of  Jamaica  bay,  and  six  east  from  the 
city  of  New  York. 

Bedford,  a  township  of  New  Hampshire,  in 
Hillsborough  county.  It  lies  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Merrimack,  fifty-six  miles  west  of  Ports- 
mouth. 

Bedford,  Cape,  a  cape  on  the  coast  of  Labra- 
doir,  in  Davis'  straits.  Long.  67**  50'  W.,  lau 
67**  N.;  also  a  cape  at  the  north-east  extremity  of 
New  Holland.   Long.  21 4°  45'  W.,  lat.  15°  16'  S. 

Bedford,  New,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  in 
Bristol  county.  Fifty-eight  miles  south  of  Bos- 
ton.   Long.  70°  52'  W.,  lat  40°  41'  N. 

Bedford  Level,  an  extensive  tract  of  low 
land,  stretching  over  part  of  the  counties  of 
Sufiblk,Norfolk,Huntingdon,Lincoln,Northamp- 
ton,  Cambridge,  and  the  Isle  of  Ely,  including  a  su- 
perficial area  of  nearly  400,000  acres,  or  625  square 
miles.  It  appears  from  various  phenomena, 
noticed  by  different  authorities,  that  the  greater 
part  of  this  space  anciently  consisted  of  dry  and 
cultivated  land,  although  firom  mismanagement, 
neglect,  or  some  convulsion  of  nature,  it  lost  its 
fertility,  and  assumed  its  present  appearance. 
Numerous  trees  of  considerable  dimensions,  re- 
mains of  buildings,  with  other  natural  and  arti- 
ficial productions,  found  at  various  depths  below 
the  surface,  sufiiciently  evince,  that  it  could  no^ 
always  have  been  a  morass ;  although  they  fumis> 
no  means  of  ascertaining  the  original  causes  and 
steps  of  its  deterioration.  Dugdale  states,  that 
in  draining  the  isle  of  Axholme,  many  oaks,  firs, 
and  other  trees  were  found  at  the  depUis  of  three, 
four,  and  five  feet ;  the  roots  were  firm  in  tlic 
earth,  and  the  trunks  had  been  evidently  burnt 
down,  as  the  ends  were  reduced  to  a  kind  of 
charcoal.    *  The  oaks  were  Ivinsr  in  multitudes, 

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BEDFORDSHIRE. 


atid  of  an  extraordinary  size,  being  five  yards  in 
compass,  and  sixteen  yards  long,  and  some  smal- 
ler, of  a  great  length,  with  a  great  quantity  of 
acorns,  a!nd  small  nuts  near  them/  Coincident 
with  the  above  statement,  is  the  foUomng  of  Mr. 
Elstob,  in  his  Historical  Account  of  the  Bedford 
I^vel.  which  relates,  that  '  in  1764,  many  roots 
of  trees  were  found  near  Boston  in  Lincolnshire, 
in  the  position  in  which  they  had  grown,  at  Ae 
depth  of  eighteen  feet  below  the  thin  pasturage 
of  the  surface/  But  the  most  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance is,  that  not  onl^  trees,  but  the  foun- 
dations of  buildings,  a  smith's  forge,  with  many 
of  his  tools,  several  iron  articles,  horse-shoes  8cc. 
have  been  found  near  Boston,  at  sixteen  feet  depth 
in  the  soil.  Tacitus,  in  his  life  of  Agricola, 
states  that  'the  Britons  complained  of  their  hands 
and  bodies  being  worn  out  and  consumed  by  the 
Romans,  in  clearing  the  woods,  and  embanking 
ihe  fens,'  in  which  he  is  thought  to  allude  more 
particularly  to  the  destruction  of  the  forests,  which 
anciently  covered  a  considerable  part  of  the  Bed- 
ford Level.  Heiury  of  Huntingdon,  a  writer  of 
the  time  of  king  Stephen,  who  reigned  from  tl36 
to  1154,  describes  this  part  of  the  kingdom  '  as 
very  pleasant  and  agreeable  to  the  eye,  watered 
witn  many  rivers  which  run  through  it,  diversi- 
fied with  many  large  and  small  lakes,  and  adorned 
with  many  woods  and  islands.'  WiHiam  of 
Malmsbury,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
II.,  Stephen's  successor,  describes  Sm  tract  of 
country  in  the  most  favorable  terms,  and  mentions 
with  astonishment  the  size  of  the  trees,  by  which 
many  parts  of  it  were  adorned.  This  statement 
forms  a  singular  coincidence  with  those  already 
given,  and  is  corroborated  by  &cts  and  evidences 
yet  remaining,  which  furnish,  perhaps,  the  best 
illustration  of  this  singular  and  interesting  sub-  ' 
ject. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  above  testimonies,  that 
the  inundation,  by  which  this  beautifiil  country 
was  converted  into  the  present  morass,  must  have 
liappened  after  the  period  of  the  latter  historian, 
altnough  the  precise  circumstances  which  led 
to  it  are  not  determined.  This  is  certain,  that  the 
country  was  completely  overflowed,  and  that  it 
was  rendered  almost  impassable,  even  for  boats, 
by  the  sedge,  reeds,  and  mud,  with  which  it  was 
covered,  while  the  putrid  efiSuvia,  arising  from 
the  stagnant  waters,  destroyed  the  health  of  the 
inhabitants. 

The  reign  of  Edward  I.  was  distinguished  by 
an  unsuccessfiil  effort  to  drain  these  fens,  and 
several  succeeding  attempts,  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VI.  and  Charles  L,  after  involving  consi- 
derable expenses,  were  alike  unfortunate.  At 
length,  in  tne  year  1634,  Francis,  earl  of  Bed- 
ford, in  conjunction  with  thirteen  gentlemen,  un- 
dertook the  Herculean  task,  and  to  a  considerable 
length  succeeded;  whence  the  whole  of  this 
farming  district  was  called  after  his  name.  As 
a  considerable  part  of  the  estate  of  this  nobleman 
consibted  of  possessions'  in  the  vicinity  of  this 
marsh,  which  had  been  granted  to  his  ancestor 
on  tlie  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  by  Henry 
VIII ;  he  prosecuted  the  work  with  the  greater 
assiduity,  on  the  promise  of  having  95,000  acres 
assigned  him  in  case  of  a  successftil  accomplish- 
ment of  his  enterprise.    The  king  granted  an 


immediate  charter  of  incorporation,  and  widin 
three  years  and  a-haif  from  the  before  mentioneA 
period,  the  public  surteyor,  at  the  instance  of  tie 
commissioners,  set  out  the  land.  The  right  d 
this  corporation  was  afterwards  opposed,  and  the 
earl  disposseised  of  the  reward  of  his  services; 
but  the  civil  wars  giving  a  new  direction  to  Ote 
schemes  of  political  enterprise,  William  Duke  ef 
Bedford  was,  in  1649,  restored  to  the  possession 
of  his  rightful  patrimony,  and  under  the  patron- 
age of  a  new  act,  operations  were  continoed  upon 
an  extensive  scale ;  and  in  1653,  after  an  expense 
of  £400,000,  the  level  was  thought  to  be  folly 
drained,  and  the  original  grant  was  finally  con- 
firmed. The  new  territory  was  afterwards  (for 
the  better  regulation  of  property),  divided  into 
three  districts,  viz.  the  northera,  middle,  and 
southern.  A  surveyor  was  appointed  for  eadi  of 
the  former,  and  two  for  the  IMfer;  numeroos 
contentions,  litigations,  charters,  and  laws,  have 
nevertheless  issued ;  for  fiirdier  information  upon 
which  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  Beauties  of 
England  and  Wales,  vol.  ii.  and  Elstob's 
Historical  Account  of  the  Bedford  Levd. 
Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  done,  much 
fine  land  remains  undrained  in  this  part  of  En- 
gland ;  and,  in  the  winter  season,  is  snbiect  to 
ftequent  inundations.  It  is  the  haunt  of  vait 
flocks  of  waterfowl,  which  are  taken  in  consi- 
derable numbers.  As  many  as  3000  conple  are 
often  sent  to  the  London  mark^  in  one  we^ 
firom  a  single  decoy,  in  tiie  neighbourhood  of 
Ely. 

BEDFORDSHIRE,  a  small  inland  county  of 
England,  bounded  on  the  north  and  north-wnt 
by  Northamptonshire,  on  die  east  by  the  counties 
of  Huntingdon,  Cambridge,  and  Hertford,  and  on 
the  west  by  those  of  Buckingham  and  Northamp- 
ton. Its  limits  are  winding  and  irregular,  and 
the  only  natural  ones  are  the  Ouse,  for  a  short 
space  on  the  east  and  west,  and  a  small  rivulet 
on  the  south-west  border.  Its  form  is  nearly 
oval ;  it  is  thirty-six  miles  in  extreme  length,  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-two  in  breadth,  and  143  t& 
circumference. 

The  total  of  land  in  this  county  has  bem 
variously  calculated.  The  report  of  the  Board  of 
Agriculture  states  the  superficial  area  at  307,200 
acres.  The  returns  to  parliament,  relative  to  the 
poor's  rates,  make  it  275,200  acres;  but  Dr. 
Becke,  in  his  Observations  on  the  Income  Tax, 
gives  the  content  at  293,059  acres;  whilst  the 
Population  Returns  of  1821  state  the  area  at  463 
sauare  miles,  which  is  rather  more  than  the  mean 
of  the  three  preceding  numbers,  and  is  founded 
upon  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  England  asJ 
Wales.  According  to  one,  we  believe,  of  ihe 
most  correct  authorities,  the  superficial  content 
of  land  in  Bedfordshire  is  computed  at  296,3^ 
square  acres,  of  which  80,000  are  in  a  course  of 
tillage,  and  168,000  employed  in  pasturage. 
This  populated  area  includes  124  parishes^  with 
ten  market  towns,  in  which  are  13,640  hou^e^ 
and  upwards  of  71,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
4155  tamilies  are  employed  in  commerce  and 
manufactures,  and  9431  in  agriculture.  It  is  in 
the  Norfolk  circuit,  province  of  Canterbury-,  and 
bishopric  of  Lincoln,  and  is  divided  into  nine 
hundreds,  viz.  Barford,   Biggleswade.    Cliilon, 


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BEDFORDSHIRE. 


Vlut,  xilanshead,  Redbome,  Stodden^  Wiliey,  and 
AVixamtree.  Its  rivers  are  the  Ouse,  the  Ivel, 
the  Lea,  and  the  Ouzel,  together  with  a  few  others 
of  ii^ferior  note,  which  come  more  properly  under 
the  denomination  of  streams.  The  Ouse  is  made 
navigable  to  Bedford,  and  divides  the  county 
into  two  parts.  Nearly  the  whole  of  Bedfordshire 
lies  upon  the .  eastern  aide  of  the  grand .  ridge, 
which .  separates  the  waters  which  flow  into  the 
German  Ocean  from  those  which  pour  themselves 
into  the  Irish  Sea:  its  general  inclination  is  there- 
fore towards  the  east,  .and  in  that  direction  its 
principal  rivers  flow. 

The  face  of  the  county  is  generaUy'varied  with 
small  hills  and  valleys,  few  of  which  aspire  to 
the  height  of  mountains.  There  are,  nevertbeless, 
some  of  a  bolder  description.  The  Chiltem  hills, 
composed  of  a  vast  mass  of  chalk  and  flint  stoned, 
lie  along  the  southern  border,  and  form  a  lofty 
range,  which,  rising  to  an  unusual  altitude,  and 
irrefoilsLrly  projecting  over  the  valleys,  gives  the 
whole  landscape  a  remarkable  appearance.  The 
dav  hills  are  stretched  over  ti^ie  northern  part, 
and  a  c^ge  of  sand  bills  enters  the  county  from 
the  west,  in  a  direction  towards  the  north-east. 
From  the  south-east  comer  to  the  middle  of  the 
county  runs  a  line  of  good  dairy  land ;  the 
western  side  is,  for  ^e  most  part,  flat  and  sandy. 
The  north  and  east  portions  have  a  deep  soil, 
'which  produces  large  crops  of  com,  and  is  gene- 
rally well  wooded.  The  alluyial  soils,  which  pre- 
.  vail  in  Bedfordshire,  generally  consist  of  yellow 
and  dark  colored  clays,  which  are  diversified  with 
tracts  of  chalk  and  saiul.  On  the  south  of  Luton 
and  Dunstable  particularly,  the  upper  stratum  is 
chalk,  blended  with  numerous  layers  of  flints  and 
silicious  earth,  which  is  succeeded  bv  hard  chalk 
alone.  The  mineral  productions  of  the  county 
are  limestone,  coarse  marble,  and  some  coal. 
The  fuller's  earth,  which  is  found  so  plentifully, 
is  a  kind  of  mixed  day,  chiefly  <^tamed  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Wobura,  and  is  of  great-use  in 
cleansing  woollen  goods.  Mineral  springs  are 
also  found  in  diflerent  parts  of  the  county,  fd- 
though  they  have  not  acquired  much  celebrity. 
The  chief  are  those  of  Barton,  Bedford,  Bletsoe, 
Blunham,  Bromham,  Bushmead,  Clapham, 
Cranfield,  Holcot,  Milton  Ernest,  Odell,  Pertcn- 
hall,  Riseley,  Silsoe,  Turvey,  and  Wrest  Garden. 
Some  of  these  are  saline,  and  others  chalybeate, 
whilst  several  have  not  been  yet  analysed. 

The  climate  of  Bedfordshire,  from  its  situation 
as  an  inland  county,  is  of  a  medium  temperature 
and  moisture.  From  meteorological  observations, 
made  at  Leighton-Buzzard,  for  four  years,  ending 
with  1804,  it  appeared  that  the  mean  monthly 
height  of  the  baromf'tpr  was  29^52  inches ;  that 
of  the  thermometer,  with  a  northern  aspect,  and 
in  the  open  air,  observed  at  eight  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  was  47^  2.  The  average  quantity  of 
rain  per  month  vras  1,93  inches,  and  the  evapo- 
ration l'05.  Thus,  by  multiplying  these  numbers 
by  12,  we  have  23*  16  and  12*6,  the  former  of 
which  is  little  more  than  the  average  of  London. 
The  most  prevalent  wind  observed  during  this 
period  was  the  south-west.  Upon  the  whole,  this 
county  does  not  appear  to  be  remarkably  salu- 
brious, since,  from  tne  late  returns  of  the  popu- 
lation, fewei  instances  of  longevity  were  found. 


in  proportion  to  the  number  of  inhabitants,  than 
in  many  others  of  the  uiiited  iangdom. 

This  county  has  never  been  remarkable  for  th« 
extent  of  either  its  commerce  or  manufactures. 
The  most  general  employment  is  the  making  of 
lace,  and  preparing  straw-plat  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  hats,  bonnets,  baskets,  toys,  mats,  &c. 
The  market-towns,  for  the  promotion  of  internal 
commerce,  are,  Bedford,  Ampthill,  Dunstable, 
Biggleswade,  Leighton-Buzzaid,  Luton,  Potton, 
Shefford^Tuddington,  and  Woburn .  Four  mem- 
bers are  sent  from  this  county  to  parliament,  in 
vidiichthe  Bjussel,  Osborne,  and  Whitbread  fa- 
milies have  a  preponderating  influence. 

When  the  Romans  landed  in  Britain,  A.  A.  C. 
55.,  this  county. was  included  in  the  district  in- 
habited by  the  Catieuchlani,  whose  chief,  Cassi- 
belinus,  headed  the  force  of  the  whole  island 
against  Caesar,  .and  the  year  following  was  totally 
defeated.  In  310  the  emperor  Constantine  di- 
vided Britain  into  five  Roman  provinces,  when 
this  county  was  induded  in  the  third  division, 
called.  Flavia  Cesariensis ;  in  which  state  it  con- 
tinued 426  years,  when  the  Romans  quitted  Bri- 
tain, A  severe  battle  was  fought  at  Bedford  in 
571.  or  580y  betw.een  the  Saxons  and  the  Britons. 
At  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Mercia 
(one  of  the  divisions  of  the  Saxon  heptarchy),  it 
was  considered  as  part  of  that  kingdom ;  and 
so  continued  from  582 .  to  827,  When,  with  the 
other  petty,  kingdoms  of  the  island,  it  became 
subject  to  the. West  Saxons,  under  Egbert,  and 
the  vi^hole  was  named  Enghmd.  In  889  Alfred 
held  the  sovereignty,  when  England  was  divided 
into  covinties,  hunareds,  and  tythings,  and  Bed- 
fordshire first  received  its  present  name. 

In  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  this  county 
was  the  seat  of  various  conflicts  with  the  panes, 
which  terminated  in  the  final  expulsion  of  the 
invaders.  Many  castles  had  been  erected  during 
these  periods,  most  of  which  were  demolished 
by  king  John^  during  his  progress  to  tlie  north, 
except  that  of  Bedfo^,  which  was  dismantled  by 
Henry  III. ;  after  which  the  county  is  noted  for 
few  remarkable  occurrences  till  the  year  1642, 
when  it  entered  into  an  association  against 
Charles  I. 

The  remains  of  both  Saxon  and  Gothic  archi- 
tecture are  to  be  seen  in  several  of  the  churches, 
as  also  a  few  specimens  of  stained  glass  in  their 
windows.  Roman  antiquities,  also,  are  frequently 
discovered  in  the  county.  It  is  intersected  by 
three  Roman  roads,  and  interspersed  with  mili- 
tary stations.  A  fortification,  called  Tottemhoe 
Castle,  is  seen  on  the  brow  of  a  hill,  about  two 
miles  ^om  Dunstable,  and  consists  of  a  lofty  cir- 
cidar. mound,  with  a  slight  vallum  around  its 
base ;  at  a  distance  from  which  is  a  much  larger 
one.  of  irregular  form.  The  other  remarkable  re- 
mains are,  a  Roman  station  at  Sandy  near  Potton, 
(the  Magiovinum  of  Antoninus,)  by  others  sup- 
posed to  be  the  ancient  Salens,  containing  thirty 
acres,  where  many  urns,  coins,  &c.  have  been 
dug  up.  Another  at  Madining-bowre,  or  Maiden- 
bower,  one  mile  from  Dunstable,  containing 
about  nine  acres,  which  Camden  supposes  to 
have  been  a  Roman  station,  from  the  coins  of  the 
emperors  having  been  freouently  dug  up  there, 
and  calls  it    Magintum.    Leighton-Buzzard   ii 

3  B  2 


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BED  740 

-supposed  to  have  been  a  Iloman  camp,  and  ano- 
ther is  at  Arlesey  near  Shefford,  and  a  Roman 
ampliitheatre  may  be  traced  near  Bradford  Magna. 
The  lioman  road,  Icknield-street,  crosses  this 
country;  entering  at  Leighton-Buzzard,.  from 
ivhence  it  passes  Dunstable,  vhere  it  inclines 
northward  over  Warden  hilis  to  Baldock  in  Hert* 
fordshire.  The  Watling-street  enters  this  county 
near  Luton  from  St.  Albans,  passes  a  little  north 
of  Dunntabley  where  it  crosses  the  Icknield-street, 
and  from  thence  to  Stoney  Stratford  in  Bucking- 
hamshire. A  Roman  road  also  enters  near  Potton, 
passes  on  to  Sandy,  and  from  thence  to  Bedford, 
where  it  crosses  the  Ouse,  and  proceeds  to  New- 
port Pagnell  in  Buckinghamshire.  The  following 
antiquities  in  this  county  are  well  worthy  of 
attention :  Bedford  Bridge  and  Priory ;  Chick- 
sand  Abbey,  near  Shefford ;  Dunstable  Priory, 
near  Luton ;  Eaton  Park  House,  or  £aton  Bray ; 
Five  Knolls,  near  Dunstable ;  Newnham  Priory, 
near  Bedford ;  Northill  church,  three  miles  from 
Biggleswade;  Summeris  Tower,  near  Luton; 
Warden  Abbey,  near  Shefford ;  Wobum  Abbey ; 
and  Woodhill  Castle,  or  Oddhill  Castle,  near 
Harwood. — John  duke  of  Bedford,  third  son  of 
Plenry  IV.  king  of  England,  commanded  the 
English  army  in  France  in  1422 ;  and,  after  mak- 
ing himself  master  of  that  kingdom,  died  at 
Rouen  in  1435,  where  a  handsome  monument 
was  erected  to  his  memory.  One  of  the  courtiers 
of  Charles  VIIL  having  advised  him  to  destroy 
it,  the  king  answered,  '  Let  him  rest  in  peabe, 
who,  when  living,  made  all  the  French  tremble.' 

BEDIM,  be  and  dim.    See  Dim. 

BEDIZEN,  be  and  dizen.    See  Dizev. 

BED'LAM,  n.  &  adj.  )       Corrupted      from 

Bed'lamite.  )  bethlehem,  the  name 

of  a  religious  house  in  London,  converted  after- 
wards into  an  hospital  for  the  mad  and  lunatic. 
The  adjective,  in  the  sense  of  mad,  is  applied  to 
things  as  well  as  persons. 

Let's  follow  the  old  earl,  and  get  the  bedlam 
To  lead  him  where  he  would  ■,  his  roguish  madness 
Allows  itself  to  any  thing.  ShaJupeate. 

One  morning  vezy  early,  one  morning  in  the  spzing, 
I  heard  a  maid  in  Bedlam,  who  mournftdly  did  slug. 
Her  chains  %hp  rattled  on  her  hands,  while  sweetly 

thus  sung  she, 
I  love  my  love,  because  I  know  my  love  loves  me. 

Prior. 
If  wild  ambition  in  thy  bosom  reign, 
Alas !  thou  boast'st  thy  sober  sense  in  vain ; 
In  these  poor  bedlamites  thyself  survey. 
Thyself  less  innocently  mad  than  they. 

Fitagerald. 

At  this  rate  we  are  wonderfully  mistaken  when  we 
speak  of  Don  Quixote  as  a  madman,  and  of  Leonidas, 
Brutus,  Wallace,  Hampden,  Paoli,  as  wise,  and  good, 
and  great !  The  case  it  seems  is  just  the  reverse ;  these 
deserve  no  other  names  than  tl^at  of  raving  bedla- 
Beattie,  Don  Qmjtote. 


BED 


BEDLIS,  or  Betlis,  a  strong  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey  in  the  Pachalic  of  V&n,  lat.  38°  34'  N., 
and  long.  42°  35'  E.  It  is  placed  in  a  narrow 
defile,  defended  by  a  triangular  castle,  between 
two  lofty  mountains,  and  traversed  by  the  river 
Kuzur,  which  joins  the  J  hi  Rub^  below.  Here 
arc  many  public  buildings  deserving  notice,  and 


among  them  several  medresehs,  or  coU^es, 
which,  together  with  the  list  of  eminent  whti'r^ 
who  have  been  natives  of  this  place,  show  that 
learning  was  much  encouraged  by  its  former 
rulers.  The  castle  contains  300,  and  the  town 
about  5000,  houses  within  its  precincts.  This 
fortress  submitted  to  the  Mussulman  arms  under 
the  caliphate  of  Omar  (A.  D.  647),  and  was  con- 
quered by  the  Turks  under  Sultin  Mniiid  IV, 
(A.  D.  1634).  Its  inhabitants  are  Ruzegis,  a 
tribe  of  Kurds  and  Armenians,  in  nearly  equal 
proportions,  who  amounted  in  die  middle  of  die 
seventeenth  century  to  about  80,000.  The 
strength  of  its  position  has  often  enabled  them  to 
maintain  a  virtual  independence  of  the  Porte. 

BEDLOE  (WiUiam),  who  assumed  the  title  of 
captain,  was  an  infamous  adyentarer  of  low 
birth,  in  the  reign  of  Charies  II.  He  had  tra- 
velled over  great  part  of  Europe  under  different 
names  and  disguises,  as  a  man  of  rank  and  for- 
tune. Encouraged  by  the  success  of  Oates,  be 
gave  an  account  of  Godfrey's  murder,  and  added 
many  circumstances  to  the  narrative  of  the  for- 
mer. These  villains  had  the  boldness  to  accuse 
the  queen  of  entering  into  a  conspiracr  ag»nst 
king  Charles  I's  life.  A  reward  of  £500  was 
voted  to  Bedloe  by  the  Commons.  He  is  said 
to  have  asserted  the  reality  of  the  plot  on  his 
death-bed :  but  it  abounds  with  absordi^,  con- 
tradiction, and  perjury.  He  died  at  Bristol, 
August  20th,  1680.  Giles  Jacob  informs  ns, 
that  he  was  author  of  a  play,  called  The  Excom- 
municated Prince,  or  the  False  Relict,  1679. 
The  printer  of  it  having,  without  the  anthoi's 
knowledge,  added  a  second  title,  and  called  it 
The  Popish  Plot  in  a  Play,  greatly  exdted  the 
curiosity  of  the  public,  who  were,  however,  modi 
disappointed,  wnen  they  found  the  plan  of  the 
piece  to  be  founded  on  a  quite  different  story. 
Anth.  Wood,  however,  asserts  that  this  plaj  wis 
written  partly,  if  not  entirely,  by  Thos.  Walter, 
M.  A.  of  Jesus  College,  Oxford. 

BED-MOULDING,  in  architecture,  nsually 
consists  of  an  ogee,  a  list,  a  large  boiiltine,  and 
another  list  under  the  coronet. 

BEDNORE,  or  Biddakore,  a  district  in  the 
north-west  extremity  of  the  Mysore,  Hindostan, 
on  the  summit  of  the  western  Ghauts.  From 
the  elevation  of  the  country,  the  season  is  a  month 
later  here  than  on  the  sea  coast  The  exports 
consist  of  cattle  of  small  size,  pepper,  betel-nut, 
cardamoms,  sandal-wood;  the  imports  are  salt, 
rice,  cocoaruuts,  oil,  turmeric,  and  cotton  doths. 
When  overrun  by  Hyder,  in  1763,  the  Bednore 
dominions  extended  over  the  maritime  province 
now  named  Canara,  and  to  the  east  over  a  tract 
of  open  country,  extending  to  Sunta,  Bednore, 
and  Hoolukera,  within  twenty  miles  of  Chin^ 
droog. 

Bednore,  or  Biddanore,  a  town  of  Hindos- 
tan,  capital  of  the  district  of  that  name,  452  miles 
south-east  of  Bombay,  and  187  north-west  of 
Seringapatam.  It  was  taken  by  the  British  in 
1783,  and  retaken  soon  after  by  Tippoo  Sultan; 
but  on  his  defeat  and  death,  in  1799,  the  town 
and  its  suburbs  became  subject  to  the  British. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  once  a  well-forti6ed  uid 
magnificent  city,  containing  20,000  houses:  at 
the  time  of  the  sulUn  Tippoo's  death,  it 


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sisted  of  about  1 500  houses,  besides  huts.  When 
tak6n  by  Hyder,  in  1763,  it  was  eight  miles  in 
circumference,  and  it  is  said  the  plunder  actually 
realised  amounted  to  twelve  millions  sterling. 
He  afterwards  changed  its  name  to  Hydernagur. 

BEDOTE,  To  doat  upon,  to  pet,  to  befool; 
obsolete. 

Tcrbedote  thii  I  ween  wu  their  interest. 

BEDOWINS,  or  Bedwins,  the  nomade  inha- 
bitants of  the  Arabian  and  African  deserts,  whose 
name,  derived  from  the  Arabic  bedowi, '  a  native 
of  the  desert,'  answering  to  the  Arabes  scenits 
of  the  ancients,  or  Arabs  dwelling  in  tents,  agrees 
"With  their  mode  of  living  in  encampments,  pitch- 
ing their  movable  habitations  wherever  they  can 
find  pasturage,  and  changing  their  site  as  often 
as  plunder,  famine,  and  o&er  circumstances  may 
require. 

They  are  the  purest  and  best  preserved  of  all 
the  Arab  tribes,  tracing  their  origin  to  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Ishmael,  mentioned  in  Gen.  zvi.  11, 
xzv.  12;  and  are  the  lineal  descendants  of  those 
ancient  Arabs  mentioned  by  the  Greek  historians, 
"whose  site  they  occupy,  and  whose  customs, 
manners,  prejudices,  and  superstitions,  they  ri- 
gorously preserve.  These  people  have  been  fre- 
quently confounded  by  ecclesiastical  writers  with 
the  Edomites,  Amalekites,  and  other  neighbour- 
ing nations  to  the  Hebrews;  but  it  is  evident 
that  the  latter  nations,  {ilthough  branches  derived 
from  the  same  stock,  differ  in  many  important 
points  from  the  genuine  Bedowins. 

Dwelling  in  the  interior  of  those  vast  deserts 
which  extend  from  the  confines  of  Persia  to 
Morocco,  the  true  Arabians  have  had  little 
foreign  intercourse,  and  have  never  mixed  with 
surrounding  nations,  either  by  conquest  or  cap- 
ture; few  emigrations  occurred  even  at  the 
epoch  of  the  revolution  effected  by  Mahomet : 
on  which  account,  the  prophet,  in  his  Koran,  is 
continually  styling  the  Arabs  of  the  desert  infi- 
dels and  rebels ;  nor  has  the  lapse  of  time  since 
that  period  effected  any  remarkable  change  in 
their  national  character.  They  stiil  answer  the 
description  given  by  the  angel  in  prophecy, 
'wild  men,  whose  hand  is  against  every  man, 
and  every  man's  hand  against  them ;'  and  their 
mode  of  living,  at  the  present  -day,  is  precisely 
the  same  as  that  mentioned  by  Diodorus  Siculus, 
nearly  2000  years  ago.  It  has,  indeed,  been 
thought  remarkable,  that  Diodorus  should  ob- 
serve silence  with  respect  to  their  predatory 
habits;  but  it  is  highly  probable  that,  at  that 
time,  they  were  so  much  restrained  by  the  vigi- 
lance of  die  Roman  government,  as  rarely  to  have 
an  opportunity  of  exhibiting  that  distinguishing 
feature  of  their  character. 

The  wandering  life  of  these  people  arises  in  a 
great  measure  from  the  site  tney  occupy.  To 
paint  to  himself  these  deserts  (says  Mr.  Volney,) 
the  reader  must  imagine  a  sky  almost  perpetually 
inflamed,  and  without  clouds,  immense  and 
boundless  plains,  without  houses,  trees,  rivulets, 
or  hills,  where  the  eye  frequently  meets  nothing 
but  an  extensive  and  uniform  horizon,  like  tlie 
sea,  though  in  some  places  the  ground  is  uneven 
and  stony.  Naked  as  it  is  almost  invariably  on 
all  sides,  the  earth  presents  nothing  but  a  few 
Wild  plants  thinly  scattered,  and  thickets,  whose 


solitude  is  rarely  disturbed  but  by  antelopes, 
hares,  locusts,  and  rats.  Such  is  the  nature  of 
nearly  the  whole  country,  which  extends  600 
leagues  in  length  and  300  in  breadth,  stretching 
from  Aleppo  to  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  from  Egypt 
to  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  must  not,  however,  be 
imagined  that  the  soil  in  so  great  an  extent  is 
everywhere  the  same;  it  varies  considerably  in 
different  places.  On  the  frontiers  of  Syriaj  for 
example,  the  earth  is  in  general  fat  and  culti- 
vable, nay  even  fruitful.  It  is  the  same  also  on 
the  banks  of  the  Euphrates :  but  in  the  internal ' 

CI  of  the  country,  and  towards  the  south,  it 
mes  white  and  chalky,  as  in  the  parallel  of 
Damascus ;  rocky,  as  in  the  Tih  and  the  Hed- 
jaz;  and  a  pure  sand,  as  to  the  eastward  of  Ye- 
men. This  variety  in  the  qualities  of  the  soil  is 
productive  of  some  minute  differences  in  the 
condition  of  the  Bedowins.  For  instance,  in  the 
more  sterile  countries,  that  is,  those  which  pro- 
duce but  few  plants,  the  tribes  are  feeble  and 
very  distant ;  which  is  the  case  in  the  desert  of 
Suez,  that  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  interior  of  the 
great  desert  called  Najd.  Where  the  soil  is 
more  fruitful,  as  between  Damascus  and  the 
Euphrates,  the  tribes  are  more  numerous,  and 
less  remote  from  each  other ;  and,  lastly,  in  the 
cultivable  districts,  such  as  the  pachalics  of 
Aleppo,  the  Hauran,  and  the  neighbourhood  of 
Gaza,  the  camps  are  frequent  and  contiguous. 
In  the  former  instances,  the  Bedowins  are  purely 
pastors,  and  subsist  only  on  the  produce  of  their 
nerds,  and  on  a  few  dates  and  fresh  meat,  which 
they  eat  either  fresh  or  dried  in  the  sun  and  re- 
duced to  a  powder.  In  the  latter,  they  sow  some 
land,  and  add  cheese,  barley,  and  even  rice,  to 
their  flesh  and  milk  diet.  In  those  districts, 
where  the  soil  is  stony  and  sandy,  as  in  the  Tih,. 
the  Hedjaz,  and  the  Najd,  the  rains  make  the 
seeds  of  the  wild  plants  shoot,  and  revive  the 
thickets,  ranunculi,  wormwood,  and  kali.  They 
cause  marshes  in  the  lower  grounds,  which  pro- 
duce reeds  and  grass,  and  the  plain  assumes  a 
tolerable  degree  of  verdure.  \Vhile  the  rains 
continue,  the  soil  produces  great  abundance  both 
for  the  herds  and  their  masters ;  but  on  the  re- 
turn of  the  heats  every  thing  is  parched  up,  and 
the  earth,  converted  into  a  gray  and  fine  dust, 
presents  nothing  but  dry  stems  as  hard  as  wood, 
on  which  neither  horses,  oxen,  nor  even  goats 
can  feed.  Such  is  the  situation  in  which  nature 
has  placed  the  Bedowins,  to  make  of  them  a  race 
of  men  equally  singular  in  their  physical  and 
moral  disposition. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  Bedowin  Arabs  are  so 
striking,  that  their  neighbours  the  Syrians  regard 
them  as  extraordinary  beings,  especially  those 
tribes  which  dwell  i(i  the  depths  of  the  deserts, 
such  as  the  Anasa,  Kaibar,  Tai,  and  others, 
which  never  approach  the  towns.  When,  in  the 
time  of  Sheik  Daher,  some  of  their  horsemen 
came  as  far  as  Acre,  they  excited  the  same  curi- 
osity there  as  a  visit  from  the  savages  of  America 
would  among  us.  Everybody  viewed  with  sur- 
prise these  men,  who  were  more  diminutive, 
meagre,  and  swarthy,  than  any  of  the  known  Be^ 
dowins.  Th^ir  withered  legs  were  onW  composed 
of  tendons,  and  had  no  calves,  llieir  bellies 
seemed  to  cling  to  their  backs,  and  their  hair  waa 


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friziled  almost  as  much  as  that  of  the  negroes. 
They,  on  the  other  hand,  were  no  less  astonished 
at  every  thing  they  saw;  tliey  could  neit«ier  con- 
ceive how  the  houses  and  minarets  could  stand 
erect,  nor  how  men  ventured  to  dwell  beneath 
them,  and  always  in  the  same  spot ;  but  above 
all,  Uiey  were  in  ecstacy  on  beholding  the  sea, 
nor  conld  they  comprehend  what  that  desert  of 
water  could  be.  The  Arabs  of  the  frontiers  are 
not  such  novices ; .  there  are  even  several  small 
tribes  of  them,  who,  living  in  the  midst  of  the 
country,  as  in  the  valley  of  Bekaa,  that  of  the 
Jordan,  and  in  Palestine,  approach  nearer  to  the 
condition  of  Ae  peasants ;  but  these  are  despised 
by  the  others,  wno  look  upon  them  as  bastard 
Arabs  and  Rayas,  or  slaves  of  the  Turks.  The 
Bedowins  in  general  are  small,  meagre,  and  tawny, 
owing  to  the  heat'  of  the  climate,  their  con- 
tinual exercise,  and  extraordinary  abstinence; 
but  well  formed,  active,  and  alert  in  a  high  de- 
gree, having  expressive  countenances,  and  bright 
sparkling  eyes.  Their  beards  are  remarkably 
thin,  their  hair  is  black  and  wiry.  The  two  ends 
ef  the  shawl  which  forms  their  turban,  hang 
down  upon  their  shoulders,  and  constitute  almost 
the  only  distinction  between  the  dress  of  the  Be- 
dowins and  other  Arabs.  Their  sheiks  wear 
very  wide  sleeves  to  their  robes,  and  girdles 
richly  embroidered.  They  also  preserve  a  single 
lock  from  the  crown  of  the  head,  by  which,  in 
common  with  other  superstitious  Mussulmans, 
they  believe  the  prophet  will  carry  them  up  to 
Paradise.  They  are  continually  stroking  and 
anointing  their  beards;  to  spit  upon  which  is  the 
greatest  possible  offence^  and  the  loss  or  diminu*^ 
tion  of  it  will  cause  an  Arab  to  wander  far  from 
his  tribe,  and  even  from  his  country,  to  avoid 
the  derision  consequent  upon  such  a  catastrophe. 
The  abstinence  of  the  Bedowins  has  long  been 
celebrated ;  indeed  the  inferior  classes  live  in  a 
state  of  almost  habitual  wretchedness  and  famine, 
especially  among  the  tribes  of  the  Naid  and  the 
Hedjaz.  It  will  appear  almost  incredible  to  us, 
but  is  an  undoubted  fact,  that  the  quantity  of 
food  usually  consumed  by  the  greatest  part  of 
them  does  not  exceed  six  ounces  a  day.  Six  or 
seven  dates  soaked  in  melted  butter,  a  little  sweet 
milk  or  curds,  is  the  Bedowin's  common  allow- 
ance, and  he  deems  himself  happy  when  he  can 
add  a  small  quantity  of  coarse  flour,  or  a  little 
ball  of  rice.  Meat  is  reserved  for  the  greatest 
festivals;  and  they  never  kill  a  kid  but  for  a 
marriage  or  funeral.  A  few  wealthy  sheiks  alone 
kill  young  camels  occasionally,  and  eat  baked 
rice  with  their  victuals.  In  times  of  dearth,  the 
vulgar,  always  half  famished,  do  not  disdain  the 
most  wretched  kinds  of  food :  and  eat  locusts, 
rats,  lizards,  and  serpents,  broiled  on  briars. 
Hence  are  they  such  plunderers  of  the  cultivated 
lands,  and  robbers  on  the  high  roads.  Habit 
undoubtedly  has  its  influence  m  enabling  them 
to  support  this  extraordinary  abstemiousness,  by 
preventing  the  dilaUtion  of  the  stomach,  other- 
wise common  to  the  human  constitution;  whilst 
the  extreme  heat  of  the  climate  destroys  in  a 
great  measure  the  activity  and  tone  of  the  diges- 
tive organs.  When  we  consider  the  influence  of 
climate,  custom,  and  discipline,  the  real  wants  of 
tJic  Bedowin  appear  few,  and  easily  satisfied ; 


and  it  has  been  quescbned  whether  even  the 
above  abstinence  arises  from  choice  or  necessity. 
But,  depending  for  provisions  entirely  on  the 
oases,  or  small  islands  of  verdure,  which  lie  scat- 
tered upon  tlie  desert,  the  produce  of  whidi  is 
often  oestroyed  by  the  hot  pestilential  winds, 
his  means  appear  still  more  contracted  than  his 
exigencies,  and  leave  no  doubt  that  necessity  is 
the  parent  motive. 

M.  Volnev  remarked  that  the  sheiks,  that  is 
the  rich,  and  their  attendants,  were  always  taller 
and  more  corpulent  than  the  common  chus.  He 
has  seen  some  of  them  above  five  feet  five  and 
six  inches  high ;  though  in  general  they  do  not 
(says  he)  exceed  five  feet  two  inches.  This  dif- 
ference can  only  be  attributed  to  their  food,  with 
which  the  former  are  supplied  more  abundantly 
than  the  latter :  the  effects  of  this  are  equally 
evident  in  the  Arabian  and  Turkic  camels,  for 
the  latter,  dwelling  in  countries  rich  in  forage, 
are  far  more  robust  and  fleshy  than  the  fonner. 

With  respect  to  their  internal  constitution  and 
government,  the  Bedowins  are  divided  into  sepa- 
rate tribes,  each  composed  of  one  or  more  pno- 
cipal  families,  the  members  of  whidi  bear  the 
tiUe  of  sheiks,  i.  e.  chiefs  or  lords*  These  families 
have  a  great  resemblance  to  the  patricians  of 
Rome,  and  the  nobles  of  modem  Europe.  One 
of  the  sheiks  has  the  supreme  commana  over  the 
others.  Mr.  Neibuhr  styles  him  the  grand  sbeik. 
He  is  the  general  of  their  little  army ;  and  some- 
times assumes  the  title  of  emir,  which  signifies 
commander  and  prince.  The  more  relations, 
children,  and'  allies  he  has,  the  greater  is  his 
strength  and  power.  To  these  he  adds  particu- 
lar adherents,  whom  he  studiously  att^Jies  to 
him,  by  supplying  all  Uieir  wants.  A  number  of 
small  ftimilies  also,  who,  not  being  strong  enough 
to  live  independent,  stand  in  need  of  protection 
and  alliances,  range  themselves  under  the  ban- 
ners of  this  chief;  forming  by  their  union  the 
elementary  parts  of  what  is  called  a  kabila,  or 
tribe.  The  tribes  are  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  the  name  of  their  respective  chie6,  or 
by  that  of  the  ruling  family;  and  when  they 
speak  of  the  individuals  who  compose  diem,  they 
call  them  the  children  of  such  a  chief^  ^ough 
they  may  not  be  all  really  of  his  blood,  and  he 
himself  may  have  been  long  since  dead.  Thus 
ihey  say,  Beni  Temin  Oulad  Tai,  the  cfaiklreD 
of  Temin  and  of  Tai.  This  mode  of  expressioa 
is  even  applied,  by  metaphor,  to  the  names  of 
countries :  the  usual  phrase  for  denoting  its  in- 
habitants being  to  call  them  the  children  of  such 
a  place.  Thus  the  Arabs  say,  Oulad  Masr,  the 
£g3rptians;  Oulad  Sham,  the  Syrians;  they 
would  also  say,  Oidad  Fransa,  die  French  ;  Ou- 
lad Moskou,  the  Russians ;  a  remark  which  is 
not  unimportant  to  ancient  history. 

The  principal  sheik  has  an  indefinite  and 
almost  absolute  authority.  He  neverdwless 
leads  a  simple  life,  and  commonly  studies  the 
wel^u^  of  his  subjects.  Persons  of  this  descrip- 
tion, according  to  M.  Volney,  who  in  1784 
resided  with  one  of  the  most  powerful  in  the 
country  of  Gaza,  may  be  compared  to  our  sub- 
stantial farmers.  A  sheik  who  nas  the  command 
of  600  horsemen,  does  not  disdain  to  saddle  and 
bridle  his  own  horse,  and  give  him  bariey  and 


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chopped  straw.  In  the  tent,  his  wife  makes  the 
coffee,  kneads  the  dough,  and  superintends  the 
dressing  of  the  victuals.  His  daughters  and  kins- 
women wash  the  linen,  and  go  with  pitchers  on 
their  head,  and  veils  over  their  iietces,  to  draw 
water  from  the  fountain.  These  manners  are 
highly  antique,  and  agree  precisely  widi  the 
descriptions  of  Homer,  and  the  history  of  Abra- 
ham in  the  book  of  Genesis. 

Every  grand  sheik  considers  himself,  in  a  po- 
litical point  of  view,  absolute  lord  of  his  whole 
territories;  he  exacts  duties  upon  all  goods  ear- 
ned through  his  dominions,  to  which  impositions 
those  who  send  caravans  trough  the  desert  to 
]\Aecca,  are  obliged  to  submit  The  Bedowins, 
on  the  other  hand,  keep  open  the  wells  for  them ; 
permit  the  free  passage  of  merchandise,  escort  the 
caravans,  and  it  they  sometimes  pillage  them,  the 
baughty  perfidious  conduct  of  the  Turkish  offi- 
cers is  the  invariable  cause.  The  latter  affect  to 
consider  the  former  as  lebels,  and  violate  their 
engagements.  The  Arabs  take  their  revenge  by 
pillaging  the  caravans.  When  the  famous  Ali 
Bey  conducted  the  Egyptian  canvan  to  Mecca, 
be  refosed  to  defray  dX\  the  duties  on  the  road, 
but  promised  to  pay  the  rest  on  his  return.  This 
promise  was  broken,  and  the  year  following,  the 
Arabs  assembled  in  greater  numbers,  and  obliged 
the  captain  of  the  caravan  to  pay  for  himself  and 
Ali  ^y  both.  The  Turks  exclaimed  against 
this  as  an  act  of  robbeiy ;  yet  the  Arabs  had  only 
done  themselves  justice.  The  conduct  of  Abdal- 
lah,  pacha  of  Damascus,  who  commanded  the 
Syrian  caravan  in  1756,  was  still  more  odious. 
When  the  sheiks  of  the  tribe  of  Harb  came  to 
meet  him^  to  receive  the  stipulated  toll,  he  gave 
them  a  friendly  invitation  to  visit  him,  but 
instead  of  paying  the  toll,  cut  off  their  heads,  and 
sent  them  to  Constantinople,  as  a  proof  of  hb 
victory  over  the  rebel  Arabs.  The  stroke  which 
the  latter  suffered  by  the  death  of  their  chiefe,. 
prevented  their  attempting  any  thing  in  revenge 
either  that  or  the  following  year;  the  caravans 
travelled  in  triumph  to  Mecca;  and  the  Turks 
boasted  of  the  valor  and  prudence  of  Abdallah 
Pacha.  But,  in  the  third  year,  the  dark  storm  of 
vengeance  burst  over  the  heads  of  the  aggressors, 
when  the  Arabs,  with  an  army  of  80,000  men, 
under  the  command  of  the  sheik  of  the  Anspse 
tfibe,  routed  the  Turks  with  great  slaughter,  and 
confiscated  the  treasures  of  a  large  caravan. 
These  violent  measures,  however,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  only  the  effects  of  perfidy  and  pro- 
vocation. Mr.  Niebuhr  observes,  that  the 
Bedowins  are  not  cruel,  and  do  not  murder 
those  whom  they  rob,  except  where  the  travellers 
stand  upon  the  defensive,  and  in  the  contest  kill 
one  of  their  number;  in  which  case  the  Arabs 
proceed  according  to  the  law  of  retaliation.  A 
mufti  of  Bagdad,  returning  from  Mecca,  says  the 
same  author,  was  robbed  inNedsjed.  He  entered 
into  a  written  agreem^t  with  the.robbers,  who  en- 
gaged to  conduct  him  safe  and  sound  to  Bagdad 
for  a  certain  sum,  payable  at  his  own  house. 
They  delivered  him  to  the  next  tribe ;  those  to 
a  third,  and  he  was  thus  conveyed  from  tribe  to 
tribe,  till  he  arrived  safe  at  home. 

An  European,  belonging  to  a  caravan  which 
was  plundered,  had  been  infected  with  the  plague 


upon  liis  journey.  The  Arabs,  seeing  him  too 
weak  to  follow  his  companions,  took  him  with 
themselves,  lodged  him  without  their  camp, 
attended  him  till  he  was  cured,  and  then  sent 
him  to  Basra.  An  Englishman,  who  was  tra- 
velling express  to  India,  and  could  not  wait  for 
the  departure  of  a  caravan,  hired  two  Arabs  at 
Bagdad,  who  were  to  accompany  him  to  Basra. 
By  the  way  he  was  attacked  by  some  sheiks, 
against  whom  he  at  first  defended  himself  with 
his  pistols ;  but,  being  hard  pressed  by  their 
lances,  was  forced  to  surrender.  The  Arabs, 
upon  whom  he  had  fired,  beat  him  till  he  could 
not  walk.  They  then  carried  him  to  their  camp, 
entertained  him  for  some  time,  and  at  last  con- 
ducted him  safe  to  Basra.  When  Mr.  Forskal 
was  robbed  b)r  the  Arabs  in  Egypt,  a  peasant, 
who  accompanied  him,,  was  beaten  oy  the  robbers 
because  he  had  pistols,  although  he  had  made 
no  attempt  to  defend  himself  with  them.  Pil- 
laging expeditions  amongst  the  Arabs  are  con- 
sidered as  lawful  hostilities  against  enemies,  who 
would  defiraud  the  nation  of  their  dues,  or 
against  rival  tribes,  who  have  undertaken  to. 
protect  illegal  traders. 

The  tribes  of  the  Bedowins  are  extremely 
numerous,  and  to  attempt  an  enumeration  of 
them  would  be  a  hopeless  task.  Soydti,  in  the 
fifteenth  centu^,  collected  many  interesting 
accounts  respecting  them ;  but  all  investigations 
must,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  subject,  be 
exceedingly  imperfect.  The  principal  noticed 
by  modem  travellers  lie  in  the  following 
order  :— 

I.  Those  on  the  southern  and  eastern  side  of 
the  Great  Arabian  and  Syrian  Desert,  extending 
from  the  province  of  Nejed  and  £1  Ahsk  to  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates. 

1.  Benl  Kh41ed  (the  chiklren  of  Kh^led),  in 
£1  Ahsa. 

2.  Ben)  Kiyikb,  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  in  Persia. 

3.  Benl  I&m,  on  the  Tigris. 

4.  Montefic,  or  Montefij,  on  the  Euphrates, 
between  Basra  and  Baghdad. 

II.  Those  on  the  borders  of  Mesopotamia  (Al 
Jezirah),  nominally  subject  to  the  pach^  of 
Baghd&d. 

1.  Tfii,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  powerfiil 
tribes,  occupying  the  fertile  plains  between  Mosul 
and  Nisibis,  and  rendered  illustrious  by  one  of 
its  princes  named  H&tim,  the  subject  of  many 
well-known  romances. 

2.  Some  other  tribes  which  are  small  and  im- 
important. 

III.  Those  on  the  borders  of   Syria,  who 

Srovide  escorts  for  the  caravans  of  pilgrims  to 
lecca. 

1.  TheMawali. 

2.  The  Ben)  S^ker 

3.  The  Fiihili,  and 

4.  A  numerous  and  powerful  tribe,  master  ci 
the  whole  caravan  route  between  Aleppo  and 
Medinah ;  and,  during  the  reign  of  the  Wahh^bis, 
one  of  their  most  effective  adherents.  It  is  di- 
vided into  five  inferior  clans,  and  extends  from 
Syria  to  the  Nejed. 

IV.  More  than  one  hundred  other  tribes  have 
been  mentioned  by  the  writers  whose  names  are 


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ftC  the  close  of  this  article ;  besides  which  there 
are  several  in  Omsin,  Hadrama^t,  Mahrab,  and 
other  provinces  of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  who 
have  never  been  visited  by  Europeans.  Bedo- 
wins  also  occupy  a  large  portion  of  Egypt, 
stretch  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  almost  to 
the  confines  of  Abyssinia,  and  are  found  even  in 
the  Siidhn  itself,  as  far  as  the  fifteenth  degree  of 
east  longitude.  The  latter  call  themselves 
branches  of  the  Anezehs,  Johainahs,  and  other 
well-known  tribes  in  the  Arabian  and  Sjrrian 
deserts.  The  Bedowins  in  Sudan  retain  the 
Arab  cast, '  both  in  complexion  and  features, 
bearing  no  similitude  to  the  negroes,  and  one  of 
the  Ben)  Hassan,  established  in  Dkr  Katakii, 
near  Bom5,  whom  Burckhardt  met  at  Mecca, 
was  of  a  dark  brown  color,  *  approaching  to  a 
copper  tinge ;'  yet  '  his  features  were  decidedly 
Arab,'  having  nothing  of  the  Negro  in  them. — 
Burckhardt^s  Nubia,  p.  477. 

Each  of  the  Bedowin  tribes  appropriates  to 
itself  a  tract  of  land,  forming  its  territorial  do- 
main ;  and  collected  in  camps,  which  are  dispersed 
through  the  country,  make  a  successive  progress 
over  the  whole,  in  proportion  as  it  is  exhausted 
by  the  cattle.  Hence  it  is,  that  within  a  great 
extent  few  spots  are  inhabited,  and  these  vary 
from  one  day  to  another ;  but  as  the  entire  space 
is  necessary  for  the  annual  subsistence  ot  the 
tribe,  whoever  encroaches  on  it  is  deemed  a 
violator  of  property ;  this  is  with  them  the  law 
of  nations.  If,  therefoie,  a  tribe,  or  any  of  its 
subjects,  enter  upon  a  foreign  territory,  they  are 
treated  as  enemies  and  robbers,  and  a  war  breaks 
out.  Now,  as  all  the  tribes  have  affinities  with 
each  other  by  alliances  of  blood  or  conventions, 
leagues  are  formed  which  render  these  wars  more 
or  less  general.  The  manner  of  proceeding  on 
such  occasions  is  very  simple.  The  offence  made 
known,  they  mount  their  horses  and  seek  the 
enemy ;  when  they  meet  they  enter  into  a  parley, 
and  the  matter  is  frequently  made  up ;  if  not, 
they  attack  either  in  small  bodies  or  man  to  man. 
Thev  encounter  each  other  at  full  speed  with 
fixed  lances,  which  they  sometimes  dart,  not- 
withstanding their  length,  at  the  flying  enemy : 
the  victory  is  usually  decided  by  the  firet  shock ; 
the  vanquished  take  to  flight  full  gallop  over  the 
naked  plain  of  the  desert,  and  the  night  generally 
favors  their  escape  from  the  conqueror.  The 
tribe  which  has  lost  the  battle  immediately 
strikes  its  tents,  removes  to  a  distance  by  forced 
marches,  and  seeks  an  asylum  among  its  allies. 
The  enemy,  satisfied  with  their  success,  drive 
their  herds  fartlier  on,  and  the  fugitives  soon 
after  return  to  their  former  situation ;  although 
the  slaughter  made  in  these  engagements  fre- 
(juently  sows  the  seeds  of  hatreds  which  originate 
future  dissensions. 

An  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth, 
was,  we  know,  exacted  by  the  law  of  Moses ; 
and  the  universality  of  this  Lex  Talionis  is  one 
of  the  distinclive  marks  of  the  Bedowin  race, 
prevailing  through  the  whole  extent  of  the 
Arabian  deserts.  By  this  law  the  blood  of  every 
man  must  be  avenged  by  shedding  that  of  his 
murderer.  This  vengeance  is  called  tar,  or  re- 
taliation; and  the  right  of  exacting  it  devolves 
©n  the  nearest  of  kin  to  the  deceased.    So  nice 


are  the  Arabs  on  this  point  of  honor,  Aat  if 
any  one  neglects  to  seek  his  retaliation  he  is  dis- 
graced for  ever.  He  therefore  watches  every 
opportunity  of  revenge :  if  his  enemy  perish^ 
from  any  other  cause,  still  he  is  not  satisfied, 
and  his  vengeance  is  directed  against  the  nearest 
relation.  These  animosities  are  transmitted  is 
an  inheritance  from  fiUher  to  diildren,  and  never 
cease  but  by  the  extinction  of  one  of  the  fiunilies, 
unless  they  agree  to  sacrifice  the  criminal,  or 
purchase  the  blood  for  a  stated  price,  in  money 
or  in  flocks.  Without  this  satisfaction  there  ii 
neither  peace,  nor  truce,  nor  alliances,  between 
Aem,  nor  sometimes  even  between  whole  tribes: 
there  is  blood  between  us,  say  they  on  every 
occasion ;  and  this  expression  is  an  insurmoont- 
able  barrier.  Such  accidents  being  necessarily 
numerous  in  a  long  course  of  time,  the  greater 
part  of  the  tribes  have  ancient  quarrels,  and  live 
IB  an  habitual  state  of  war ;  which,  added  to 
their  way  of  life,  renders  the  Bedowins  a  military 
people,  though  they  have  made  no  great  progress 
in  war  as  an  art.  Their  camps  are  formed  in  a 
kind  of  irregular  circle,  composed  of  a  single 
row  of  tents,  with  greater  or  less  intervals.  Th^ 
tents,  made  of  goat  or  earners  hair,  are  black  or 
brown,  in  which  they  differ  from  those  of  the 
Turkmen,  which  are  white.  They  are  stretched 
on  three  or  four  pickets,  only  five  or  six  feet  high, 
which  gives  them  a  very  flat  appearance ;  at  a 
distance,  one  of  these  camps  seems  only  like  a 
number  of  black  spots ;  but  the  piercing  eye  of 
the  Bedowin  is  not  to  be  deceived.  Each  tent 
inhabited  by  a  family  is  divided  by  a  curtain 
into  two  apartments,  one  of  which  is  appro- 
priated to  the  women.  The  empty  space  within 
the  large  circle  serves  to  fold  their  cattle  every 
evening.  .  They  never  have  any  intrenchments ; 
their  only  advanced  guards  and  patroles  are 
dogs ;  their  horses  remain  saddled  and  ready  to 
mount  on  the  first  alarm ;  but  as  there  is  neither 
order  nor  regularity,  these  camps,  always  easy 
to  surprise,  aSbrd  no  defence  in  case  of  an  attack : 
accidents,  therefore,  very  frequently  happen,  and 
cattle  are  carried  off  every  day;  a  species  of 
marauding  war  in  which  the  Arabs  are  very  ex- 
perienced. The  tribes  which  live  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Turks  are  still  more  accustomed  to  attacks 
and  alarms.  The  latter  never  cease  to  wage 
secret  or  open  war  against  them.  The  pachas 
study  on  every  occasion  to  harass  them.  Some- 
times they  contest  with  them  a  territory  which 
they  had  let  them,  and  at  others  demand  a  tribute 
which  they  never  agreed  to  pay.  Should  a  &mily 
of  sheiks  be  divided  by  interest  or  ambition, 
they  alternately  succour  each  par^,  and  conclude 
by  the  destruction  of  both.  Frequently  too 
they  poison  or  assassinate  those  chie&  whose 
courage  or  abilities  they  dread,  though  they 
should  even  be  their  allies.  The  Arabs,  on  their 
side,  regarding  the  Turks  as  dangerous  enemies, 
watch  every  opportunity  to  <do  them  an  injury, 
cut  their  luurests,  carry  off  their  flocks,  and  in- 
tercept their  communication  and  commerce, 
making  it  their  study  to  put  them  to  every  in- 
convenience, and  deprive  them  of  every  thing 
but  life. 

Notwithstanding  the  depredations  whidi  render 
them  a  terror  to  those  around   them,  among 


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themselves  Aev  are  remarkable  for  a  good  &itb, 
a  disinterestedness,  and  a  generosity,  which 
would  do  honor  to  the  most  civilised  people. 
The  rights  of  hospitality  are  scrupulously  re- 
garded. The  tent  of  a  Bedowin  is  an  asylum 
amongst  all  the  tribes,  and  the  moment  a  stranger, 
or  even  an  enemy,  flying  for  refuge  arrives  there, 
his  person  becomes  instantly  inviolable;  from 
that  moment  it  would  be  reckoned  an  in- 
delible shame  to  satisfy  even  a  just  vengeance  at 
his  expense,  and  all  the  power  of  the  sultan 
would  De  insufficient  to  force  a  refugee  from  the 
protection  of  a  tribe,  but  by  its  total  extermina- 
tion. All  Bey  (Don  Pedro  de  la  Badla),  informs 
us,  that  when  one  of  the  Bedowins  heard  that 
bis  wife  had  given  some  food  to  his  enemy,  who 
by  mistake  solicited  charity  at  his  tent,  he  replied, 
*  1  should  probab^  have  killed  my  enemy  had  I 
found  bim  nere,  but  I  should  not  have  spared 
my  wife  if  she  had  forgotten  the  law  of  hospi- 
tality/ What  little  the  Bedowin  possesses  he  is 
ever  generous  to  divide,  he  sits  at  the  door  of 
his  tent,  and  invites  passengers  to  partake  of  his 
repast ;  and  to  observe  the  conduct  of  the  Bedowin 
Arabs  towards  each  other,  one  would  be  tempted 
to  suppose  they  had  all  things  in  common. 

Witn  respect  to  their  domestic  laws,  Mr.  Ni#»- 
buhr  tells  us, '  that,  although  the  Mahommedans 
are  permitted  to  have  four  wives,  the  Bedowins, 
who  are  poor,  and  cannot  easily  find  the  means 
of  subsistence,  content  themselves  with  one,  for 
the  most  part.  Those  who  are  in  the  easiest  cir- 
cumstances, and  who  have  two  wives,  seem  to 
have  married  so  many,  chiefly  that  they  might 
superintend    their   concerns   in    two   different 

g laces.  The  conduct  of  our  sheik  of  Beni 
aid,  as  well  as  his  conversation,  led  us  to  make 
this  reflection.  The  disagreement  that  subsisted 
between  his  two  wives  afforded  an  instance  of 
some  of  the  inconveniences  that  attend  polygamy. 
The  dress  of  the  females  in  the  desert,  although 
simpler,  is  in  reality  the  same  as  that  worn  by 
the  ordinary  women  of  Egypt,  although  the  wira 
of  one  of  our  sheiks  wore  an  uncommon  piece 
of  dress :  brass  rings  of  an  enormous  size  in  her 
ears.  These  women  living  remote  from  the 
world,  and  being  wholly  occupied  in  the 
management  of  their  domestic  anairs,  appear 
to  be,  from  these  circumstances,  less  shy  and 
scrupulous  than  the  other  women  of  the  east. 
They  make  less  difficulty  of  conversing  with  a 
stranger,  or  exposing  their  faces  unveiled  before 
him.' 

The  property  of  the  Bedowin,  like  his  wants, 
lies  within  a  small  compass,  and  consists  of 
movables,  of  which  the  following  is  a  pretty 
exact  inventory : — ^A  few  male  and  female  camels ; 
some  goats  and  poultry ;  a  mare  and  her  bridle 
and  saddle ;  a  tent ;  a  lance  sixteen  feet  long ; 
a  crooked  sibre ;  a  rusty  musket  with  a  flint  or 
matchlock ;  a  pipe ;  a  portable  mill ;  a  pot  for 
<M>oking;  a  leatnem  bucket;  a  small  coffee 
roaster ;  a  mat;  some  clothes ;  a  mantle  of  black 
wool;  a  few  glass  or  silver  rings,  which  the 
women  wear  upon  their  legs  and  arms.  If  none 
of  these  are  wanting  their  furniture  is  complete. 
But  what  the  Arab  takes  most  pleasure  in  is  his 
mare,  which  is  his  chief  support,  and  assists  him 
m  his  excursions.    They  prefer  the  mare  on  ac- 


count of  her  superior  docility,  and  her  milk, 
together  with  the  improbability  of  her  neighing, 
to  the  betrayment  of  the  rider.  The  Arabs  trace 
the  genealogies  of  their  favorite  horses  to  the 
mares  of  Mahoii(iet's  stud,  or  even  to  those  of 
Solomon's.  The  power  of  enduring  hunger  and 
fatigue  in  these  animals  is  astonishing.  The 
Emir  visited  by  the  Chevalier  d'Arvieux  was 
saved  by  a  mare,  who  carried  him  three  days  and 
nights,  without  rest  or  food,  and  conveyed  him 
out  of  the  reach  of  his  enemies.  The  attach- 
ment of  the  Bedowin  to  his  horse  Ls  almost  as 
proverbial  as  the  fleemess  of  the  animal  itself. 
He  inhabits  the  same  tent,  is  treated  with  the 
same  care,  and  is  almost  as  much  caressed  as  the 
children  of  the  family ;  which  gives  the  Arabian 
steeds  a  docility  and  tractability  which  no  other 
breed  possesses.  Niebuhr,  indeed,  speaks  of  the 
Kohl&nlet,  or  thorough  bred  Arabian  horses,  as 
not  possessing  any  beauty,  or  other  excellence 
than  swiftness ;  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  he 
was  deceived  by  the  wretched  condition  in  which 
they  are  commonly  kept,  from  the  great  difficulty 
of  procuring  fodder.  He  appears  also  to  have 
been  equally  misinformed,  as  to  the  little  value 
set  upon  them  by  the  Turks ;  since  the  fact  is 
certain,  that  the  Turks  esteem  them  highly,  and 
give  immense  prices  for  them,  when  they  can 
meet  with  the  genuine  Arab  breed. 

The  simplicity  of  the  Bedowins  has  long  been 
celebrated,  and  numerous  illustrations  of  it  have 
been  given.  Their  love  of  poetry  is  well  known, 
and  toe  most  ancient  Arabian  poems,  containing 
the  lively  descriptions  of  their  customs  and 
opinions,  are  the  productions  of  Bedowins.  The 
book  of  Job-  affords  a  more  ancient  picture  of 
the  same  nation ;  and  both  its  phraseology  and 
imagery  are  susceptible  of  much  illustration  from 
the  poems  and  romances  of  the  early  Arabs* 
Tales  in  prose  form  another  part  of  their  favorite 
amusements,  after  the  maimer  of  the  Adventures 
of  Antar  and  Ablat,  and  the  Arabian  Nights. 
They  have  a  peculiar  passion  for  such  stories, 
and  employ  in  them  almost  all  their  leisure,  of 
which  they  have  a  great  deal.  In  the  evening 
they  seat  tnemselves  on  the  ground,  at  the  thresh- 
old of  their  tents,  or  under  cover,  if  it  be  cold ; 
and  there,  ranged  in  a  circle  round  a  little  fire 
of  dung,  their  pipes  in  their  mouths,  and  their 
legs  crossed,  they  sit  a  while  in  silent  meditation, 
till  on  a  sudden  one  of  them  breaks  forth  with^ 
once  upon  a  time,  and  continues  to  recite  the 
adventures  of  some  young  sheik  and  female  Be- 
dowin :  he  relates  in  what  manner  the  youth 
first  ffot  a  secret  eUmpse  of  his  mistress  ;  and 
how  he  became  desperately  enamored  of  her : 
he  minutely  describes  the  lovely  fair;  boasts 
her  black  eyes,  as  large  and  soft  as  those  of  the 
gazelle ;  her  languid  and  impassioned  looks,  her 
arched  eye-brows,  resembling  two  bows  of  ebon  v ; 
her  waist  straight  and  supple  as  a  lance;  he 
forgets  not  her  steps,  light  as  those  of  the  young 
fiUey ;  nor  her  eye-lashes,  blackened  with  kool ; 
nor  her  lips  painted  blue ;  nor  her  nails,  tinged 
with  die  goloen  colored  henna;  nor  her  breasts, 
resembling  two  pomegranates ;  nor  her  words, 
sweet  as  honey.  He  recount!  the  sufferings  of 
the  young  lover,  so  wasted  with  desire  and  pas- 
sion that  his  body  no  longer  yields  any  shadow. 


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At  lengthy  after  detailing  his  Tarious  attempts  to 
see  his  mistress,  the  obstacles  of  the  parents, 
the  invasions  of  the  enemy,  the  captivity  of  the 
two  lovers,  &c.  he  terminates,  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  audience,  by  restoring  them,  united  and 
happy  to  their  paternal  tent;  and  receives  the 
tribute  paid  to  bis  eloquence,  in  the  Ma  cha  allah 
(an  exclamation  of  praise,  equivalent  to  admi- 
rably v^ell  1)  he  has  merited.  The  Bedowins 
have  likewise  their  love  songs,  which  have  more- 
sentiment  and  nature  in  them  than  those  of  the 
Turks  and  inhabitants  of  the  towns ;  doubtless,, 
because  the  former,  whose  manners  are  chaste,, 
know  what  love  is ;  while  the  latter,  abandoned 
to  debauchery,  are  acquainted  only  vrith  enjoy- 
ment. These  tales,  together  with  a  few  traditional 
receipts  in  medicine,  and  a  practical  knowledge 
of  a  few  of  the  constellations,  constitute  the 
whole  of  their  literature ;  and  their  ignorance  in 
other  respects  is  very  remarkable.  The  following 
anecdote  by  Mr.  Niebuhr,  has  been  thought 
worthy  of  insertion.  *  In  one  of  those  expedi- 
tions, a  few  years  since,  undertaken  against  the 
pacha  of  Damascus,  who  was  conductor  of  the 
Syrian  caravan  to  Mecca,  the  tribe  of  Anisse, 
which  gained  the  victory,  showed  instances  of 
their  ignorance,  and  of  the  simplicity  of  their 
manners.  Those  who  happened  to  take  goods 
of  value  knew  not  their  worth,  but  exchanged 
them  for  trifles.  One  of  those  Arabs  having  ob- 
tained for  his  share  a  bag  of  pearls,  thought 
them  rice,  which  he  had  heard  to  be  good  food, 
and  gave  them  to  his  wife  to  boil,  who,  whea 
she  found  that  no  boiling  could  soften  them,, 
threw  them  away  as  useless.* 

With  respect  to  religion,  the  freedom  of  the 
Bedowins  is  remarkable.  There  is,  however,  a 
striking  difference  between  the  Arabs  of  the 
towns  and  those  of  the  desert.  While  the  former 
crouch  under  the  double  yoke  of  political  and 
religious  despotism,  the  latter  live  in  a  state  of 
perfect  freedom  from  both.  On  the  frontiers  of 
the  Turks,  indeed,  the  Bedowins,  from  policy, 
preserve  the  appearance  of  Mahommedanisna; 
out  so  relaxea  is  their  observance  of  its  cere- 
monies, and  so  little  fervor  has  their  devotion, 
that  they  are  genecally  considered  as  infidels, 
who  have  neither  law  nor  prophet.  They  even 
make  no  difficulty  in  saying  tnat  the  religion  of 
Mahomet  was  not  made  for  them ;.  '  Tor  (add 
they)  how  shall  we  make  ablutions  who  have  no 
water  ?  How  can  we  bestow  alms  who  are  not 
rich  ?  Why  should  we  fast  in  the  Ramadan,  since 
^le  whole  year  with  us  is  one  continued  fast? 
And  what  necessity  is  there  for  us  to  make  the 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  if  God  be  preseoi  every- 
where V  In  short,  every  man  acts  and  thinks 
as  he  pleases,  and  the  most  perfect  liberty  exists 
among  them« 

Their  superstitious  dread  of  charms  appears 
fi'om  the  following  passage  of  Burckhardt's  Ac- 
count of  his  Joumev  in  the  Peninsula  of  Mount 
Sinai.  He  had  made  it  a  rule  never  to  let  the 
Arabs,  among  whom  he  was  travelling,  see  him 
write;  but  *on  one  occasion  hw  long  absence 
from  his  companions  roused  their  curiosity.  One 
of  them  came  to  look  after  him,  and  seeing  him 
immovably  fixed,  st^uatted  down  on  the  ground, 
and  closely  muffled  up,  he  approached  on  the 


tiptoe,  and  suddenly  lifting  up  the  cloak  whiob 
skreened  him,  detected  a  book  in  bis  hand. 
<  What  is  this  V  exclaimed  the  Arab,  '  What  are 
you  doing  ?  I  shall  not  make  you  answanbie 
for  it  at  present,  because  I  am  your  companion , 
but  I  shall  talk  further  to  you  about  it  when  we 
are  at  the  convent.'  When  they  had  returned 
to  their  halting  place,  Burckhardt,  'requested 
him  to  tell  what  he  had  further  to  say.'  To  tlus 
the  Bedowin  replied,  in  a  passionate  tone,  '  ¥o^ 
write  down  our  country,  pur  mountains,  our 
pasturing  places,  and  the  rain  which  falls  nom 
neaven ;  other  people  have  done  this  before  yon, 
but  I  at  least  will  never  assist  in  the  rain  of  my 
country.'  Burckhardt  assured  him  that  he  liked 
the  Arabs  too  well  to  wish  to  injure  them.  '  On 
the  contrary,'  he  added,.  <  had  not  I  occasionally 
written  down  some  prayers  ever  since  we  left 
Taba,  we  should  most  certainly  have  been  all 
killed,  and  it  is  very  wrong  in  you  to  accuse  me 
on  account  of  that,  the  omission  of  which  woukl 
have  cost  us  our  lives.'  He  was  startled  at 
this  reply,  and  seemed  nearly  satisfied.  *  Per- 
haps you  say  the  truth,'  he  observed ;  '  but  we 
know  that  some  years  since,  several  men,  God 
knows  who  they  were,  came  to  this  countiy, 
visited  the  mountains,  wrote  down  every  thing, 
stones,  plants,  animals,  even  serpents  and  spiders, 
and  since  then  little  rain  has  &llen,  and  the  game 
has  greatly  decreased.'  The  same  opinions  pre- 
vail in  the  mountains  as  are  current  among  the 
Bedowins  of  Nubia,  and  they  believe  that  a  sor- 
cerer, by  writing  down  certain  charms,  can  stop 
the  rains  and  traa^r  them  to  his  own  countiy. 
Travels  in  Si^  and  thi  Holy  Landy  p.  519. 

Notwithstanding  this  general  ignorance  and 
credulity,  the  Bedowins  possess  coosideraUe 
strength  of  genius;  their  poems  abound  with 
native  similitudes,  which  emoellish  by  their  force 
and  variety,  and  are  distinguished  by  unexpected 
epigrammatic  turns.  The  skill,  also,  with  which 
they  draw  an  unforeseen  inference,  or  bring  out 
an  unexpected  result,  shows  the  acuteness  of 
their  understandings,  habituated  to  a  rapidity 
of  plan  and  execution.  Their  talent  for  repartee 
is  well  known.  When  one  who  could  repeat 
aU  tlie  Hadith  or  sayings  of  Mahomet  by  heart, 
was  asked  how  his  memory  could  retain  so  manv 
different  sentences  at  once,  he  instantly  replied, 
'just  as  the  sand  in  the  desert  retains  ail  the 
pearly  drops  that  fidl  from  the  heavens  without 
losing  a  single  one  of  them.'  Amusing  sketches 
of  these  people  may  be  found  in  Volney,  Son- 
nini,  Bruce,  and  other  Asiatic  travellers;  but 
the  most  accurate  are  those  of  the  Chevalio* 
d'Arvieux,  Memoires  ;  six  tomes,  in  12mo.  Paris 
1735,  edited  by  Father  Labat,  Niebuhr,  Bescb- 
reibung  von  Arabien,  p.  379.  Seetzen,  Von 
Zachi,  Monathliche  Correspondenz,  1819,  Fe- 
bruary and  March.  Description  de  TEgrpte, 
Memoires  par  Dubuis  et  I^arrey ;  also  in  Buick- 
hardt's  Travels,  who,  as  he  took  great  delight  in 
ftudying  the  manners  and  characters  of  the  Be^ 
dowins,  has  left  a  separate  and  detailed  account 
of  tliem. 

Living  constantly,  as  the  Arabs  do,  under  their 
camel's  hair  tents,  occupied  as  they  are  solely 
with  the  care  of  their  flocks  and  herds,  speiking 
nearly  the  same  langu^,  and  placed  many  of 


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them  in  the  same  re^ons  as  the  Israelites  under 
Moses,  their  customs  and  habits  bear  in  many  res- 
pects a  strong  resemblance  to  those  of  the  Jewish 
patriarchs.  The  Memoires  of  the  Chevalier 
(i'Arvieax,  already  quoted,  hare  supplied  much 
curious  and  useful  information  on  this  subject, 
the  perasal  of  which  will  interest  the  resuler, 
and  by  comparing  the  articles,  as  he  proceeds, 
with  the  Jewish  narrative,  he  will  find  nis  views 
of  the  patriarchal  period,  with  respect  both  to 
the  geography  and  political  incidents  of  it, 
greatly  enlarged. 

Those  who  are  fond  of  tracing  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  local  circumstances  upon  the  genius 
and  national  character  of  a  people,,  will  find 
much  interesting  matter  for  their  consideration 
in  the  detailed  particulars  of  the  history  of  this 
remarkable  people.  For  further  historical  au- 
thorities, we  refer  to  the  JWcrAor  of  Soy(U% ;  the 
great  historical  works  of  ^4^  CFeak,  Skahriti6nk^ 
and  Makri/i;  Pococfu^s  Specimen  HUtorue  Ara- 
bum  ;  Sale's  Preliminary  discourse  to  his  transla- 
iions  of  the  Kordn ;  iurckhardt*s  'D^ansUUions 
from  Aiakrizi  (Nubia,  Appendix,  No.  iii.)  Quo- 
tremhes  Mtmoires  sur  rt^ypteyii.  190 ;  Jackson's 
Account  of  Morocco;  Sonmni,  Voyages  en  Egypte, 
and  Volney's  Travels,  ii.  25. 

BED'RAGGLE,  be  and  draggle.  See 
Draggle. 

DE'DRAWE,  be  and  draw.    See  Draw. 

BE'DREINTE,  i     g^  Drench  and  Drink. 

Be  treinte.        ( 

BEDRI,  a  town  and  district  in  the  pachalic  of 
Bagdad,  the  former  surrounded  by  fine  g^irdens. 
It  is  the  frontier  of  the  Turkish  empire. 

BEDRIACUM,  in  ancieni  geography,  a  vil- 
lage of  Italy,  situated,  according  to  Tacitus,  be- 
tween Verona  and  Cremona,  but  nearer  the 
latter  than  the  former.  From  an  account  given 
by  that  historian,  Cluverius  conjectures  that  the 
ancient  Bedriacum  stood  in  the  place  where  the 
town  of  Caneto  now  stands.  This  village  was  re- 
markable for  the  defeat  of  the  emperor  Galba  by 
Otho,  and  afterwards  of  Otho  by  Vitellius. 

BE'DRIBBLE,  be  and  dribble.  See  Drib- 
ble. 

BEDRIP,  Bedrepe,  or  Bbderape,  the  cus- 
tomary service  which  inferior  tenants  anciently 
Said  their  lord,  by  cutting  down  his  com,  or 
oing  other  work  in  the  field. 

BE'DROPT,  be  and  drop.    See  Drop. 

BEDWIN,  Great,  a  town  of  Wiltshire,  six 
miles  south  of  Hungerford,  and  seventy  west  from 
London.  It  is  an  ancient  borough  by  prescrip- 
tion, and  sends  two  members  to  parliament  It 
Ir  said  to  have  been  a  considerable  citv  in  the 
time  of  the  Saxons,  and  that  the  traces  of  its  for- 
tifications are  extant.  It  is  situated  by  the  side 
of  the  Kennet  and  Avon  canal.  The  church  is 
spacious,  with  a  lofty  tower,  and  is  constructed 
entirely  of  flints. 

BEE,  ^     Ang..Sax.  beo.     Wachter 

BEE-UARDEN,f  derives  the  name    from  the 

Bee-hive,      &01d  Saxon  byan,  which  sig- 

Bee-master.  Unifies  to  build,  and  to  inhabit, 
because  the  animals  designated  by  the  term 
dwell  together  under  one  government,  and  con- 
struct their  habitations  with  great  skill  and  in- 
dobtiy. 


Houieor  Cobweb ;  good  Moiuieiir,  get  your  wea- 
pons in  your  haad,  and  kill  me  a  red-hipM  humble 
hee  on  the  top  of  a  thifttle ;  and  good  Monsieur  bring 
me  the  honey  bag.  Shah^pean, 

So  work  the  honey  hee». 
Creatures  that  by  a  ruling  nature  teach 
The  art  of  order  to  a  peopled  kingdom.  Id. 

For  that  doth  wrong  must  look  to  be  wronged  again  \ 
Habet  et  musca  splenem,  et  formica  sua  bilis  inest. 
The  least  fly  hath  a  spleen,  and  a  litde  hee  a  sting. 
An  asse  overwhelmed  a  thisselwarps's  nest,  the  little 
bird  pecked  hie  gaul'd  back  in  revenge,  and  the 
humble-ftM  in  the  fable  Ihzng  down  the  eagle's  eggs 
out  of  Jupiter's  lap.  Bmt4m.  Ami,  Met. 

As  heee 
In  spring  dme,  when  the  sun  with  Taurus  ridee. 
Pour  forth  their  populous  youth  about  the  hive 
In  clusters ;  they  among  ^sh  dews  and  flowers 
Fly  to  and  fro ;  or  on  the  smoothed  plank. 
The  suburb  of  their  ptraw  built  citadel. 
New  rubb'd  with  balm,  expatiate  and  confer 
Their  state  afiairs*  MiUcn. 

They  that  are  hee  matten,  and  have  not  care 
enough  of  them,  must  not  expect  to  reap  any  consi- 
derable advantage  by  them.  Mortimer. 
A  convenient  and  necessary  place  ought  to  ba 
made  choice  of  for  your  apiary  or  hee-garden,  Ji^ 
To  have  BfiES  in  the  head.  A  phrase  mean- 
ing  to  be  choleric;  to  have  that  in  the  head 
which  is  easily  provoked,  and  gives  pain  when 
it  is.  Also  to  be  restless.  To  have  '  a  bee  io. 
the  bonnet,'  is  a  similar  phrase. 

But,  Wyll,  my  maister  halh  heeemhie  hmi. 
If  he  fiiid  me  here  pratinge,  I  am  but  deade* 

Damon  and  PiOk,  O.  PK 
He  has  a  headfiiU  ofhees, 

Ben  Jemem,  Baeth  Foer^ 

Bee,  in  natural  history,  a  genus  of  insects,  the 
characters  and  habits  of  whidi  are  fully  giveo 
under  the  general  name,  apis.  The  principal 
species  are  there  also  described.    SeeA^is. 

Bee,  in  astronomy.    See  Apie. 

Bee,  in  metaphorical  language,  denotee  sweet-* 
ness,  industry,  &c.  Thus  Xenophon  is  called 
the  Attic  bee,  on  account  of  the  great  sweetness 
of  his  style.  Antonius  got-  the  (knomination  of 
Melissa,  or  the  bee,  on  account  of  his  collection 
of  common  places.  Leo  Allatius  gave  die  ap- 
pellation of  apes  urbane,  i.  e.  city  bees,  to  toe 
illustrious  men  at  Rome  from  1630  to  1632. 

Bee,  or  Bie,  in  the  Saxon  language,  signifies 
a  station ;  and  in  this  sense  mal^  part  of  the 
names  of  several  places  in  Scotlana;  such  as 
Caimbie,  Middlebie,  Overbie,  &c.  Perhaps  also 
the  different  Beestons,  &c,  in  England  may  have 
had  their  names>ftom  the  same  origin. 

Beb-biu>.    See  Colibbi. 

Bee-brbad,  Beb's-bbbad,.  or  Beb-olue,  the 
fiurina  of  flowers  collected  by  the  working  bees : 
called  by  the  ancients  propolis..  See  Apis.  We 
feel,  however,  the  following  remarks  of  Mr.  Bon- 
ner's loo  sensible  and  important  to  be  omitted 
here : — '  The  substance,  commonly  called  bee- 
bread,'  he  says, .'  is  to  be  found  at  the  bottom  of 
many  of  the  cells,  and  is  frequently  covered  over 
with  honey.  The  bees  carry  it  home  in  loads  upon 
their  legs,  or  rather  their  thighs.  It  is  generally  of 
a  yellow  color,  but  often  takes  its  color  from  the 
flowers  from  which  it  is  collected.  Various  con- 
jectures have  been  made  by  different  authors  re- 


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specting  its  use.  Some  allege  that  the  bees  eat  it ; 
hence  the  name  bee-bread.  Others  suppose,  that 
after  being  taken  into  their  stomachs,  it  is  con- 
verted by  some  peculiar  action  of  their  internal 
juices  into  wax,  of  which  everybody  knows  their 
combs  are  made.  But  an  objection  to  this  hy- 
pothesis arises  from  the  consideration,  that  the 
oees,  when  first  put  into  an  empty  hive,  carry 
little  or  none  of  this  stuff  on  their  legs  for  some 
time,  till  a  great  number  of  combs  are  made ; 
and  that  after  the  combs  are  completed  (which 
they  generally  are  within  two  or  three  weeks  after 
the  swarm  have  taken  possession  of  the  hive),  the 
bees  still  continue  to  carry  in  this  stuff  during 
ihe  whole  working  season^  To  thb,  however,  it 
may  be  replied,  that,  perhaps,  as  Uiey  have  no 
cells  to  put  it  into  at  that  time,  they  carry  it 
home  in  tneir  bellies,  where  it  probably  undergoes 
a  speedy  change  in  passing  through  their  bodies, 
and  may  thereby  be  converted  into  perfect  wax, 
with  which  they  manufacture  their  combs.  There 
is  another  class  of  authors,  who  suppose  that  the 
bee-bread  is  used  by  the  old  bees  to  fe«d  the  young 
ones  in  the  cells,  by  the  mouth,  as  pigeons  feed 
their  young  ones.  To  this  it  may  oe  objected, 
that  the  young  bees  surely  cannot  make  use  of 
all  the  bee-bread,  which  the  old  bees  are  almost 
constantly  carrying  into  the  hive,  when  they  are- 
at  work.  Perhaps  both  these  last  hypotheses  may 
be  true ;  as  it  may  not  only  serve  to  feed  the- 
young  bees,  but  also,  by  passing  through  the  bo- 
dies of  the  old  ones,  may  be  converted  into  wax ; 
with  which  bees  not  only  build  their  combs^ 
when  a  swarm  is  newly  put  into  a  hive,  but  also 
seal  up  both  their  young  in  the  cells,  and  their 
honey  in  the  combs.  If  this  supposition  be  true, 
then  the  consumption  of  bee-bread,  through  the 
course  of  the  year,  but  especially  during  the 
honey  and  breeding  seasons,  must  be  very  great  ;^ 
and  therefore  we  need  not  be  surprised  at  the 
quantities  imported  by  the  working-bees.  But, 
whatever  trutn  may  be  iu  either  or  both  of  these 
theories,  I  am  certain  of  one  thing,  that  the  bees 
do  not  live  on  bee-bread  alone ;  for  they  will  die 
of  hunger,  although  there  be  plenty  of  it  in  the 
hive,  if  there  be  no  honey  in  it ;  whereas,  when 
they  have  abundance  of  honey,  they  will  live 
without  bee-bread,  at  least  for  many  weeks. 
Reaumur,  however,  says,  that  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  food  to  bees.  For  my  part,  I  have 
always  observed  the  bees  most  busily  employed 
in  carrying  in  this  stuff  while  the  young  bees  are 
breeding ;  but  when  they  want  a  queen^  and 
have  no  eggs  to  rear  anofiier,  they  immediately 
give  over  carrying  it  into  the  hive;  thinking 
(as  it  would  seem),  that  as  they  have  no  young 
bees  to  feed  or  seal  up  in  the  cells,  it  would  be 
an  idle  business  to  bring  any  more  of  it  home; 
especially  as  they  do  not  make  much  use  of  it 
themselves,  and  have  more  already  in  the  hive, 
than  they  will  stand  in  need  of,  for  their  own 
use.' 

Bee-eater.  See  Meeropis. 

Bee-hives.    See  Apis. 

Bee  humble.    See  Bombyliues. 

BEEBAN,  a  pass  in  the  high  road  between 
Algiers  and  Constantina.  The  rocks  which 
cross  it  are  in  many  cases  hewn  down  like  so 
many  doors,  which  has  led  the  Arabs  to  give  it 


the  appellation  of  beeban,  or  gates.    Six  miles 
north  of  Acoaba. 

BEECH^  '\  Bece  and  hoc.  Old  Saxon ;  fmc, 

Bee'chen,  >  and  Latin  fagus.     The  j6.  and /. 

Bee'chy.  )  being  chang^  into  b.  The  mast 
bearing  tree  in  the  earliest  ages  furnished  food 
for  man. 

The  smooth-leaved  bet^shet  in  the  field  receive  him. 
With  coolest  shades  till  noontide  rage  is  spent. 

Fletcker'a  Pnrpie  Idam 

Black  was  the  forest,  thick  with  heeeh  it  stood. 

With  diligence  hell  serve  as  when  we  dine. 
And  in  plain  heechen  vessels  fill  our  wine.  Jd, 

I  know  not  why  the  ftsecA  delights  the  glade. 
With  boughs  extended,  and  a  nrander  shad^  ; 
Whilst  towering  firs  in  conic  forms  arise. 
And  with  a  pointed  spear  divide  the  skies.     Prior. 
Dull  are  the  pretty  slaves,  their  (rfumage  dull. 
Raggedy  and  all  its  brightening  lustre  lost ; 
Nor  is  that  sprightly  wUdness  in  their  notes    • 
Which,  clear  and  vigorous,  waxbles  from  the  teecft. 

TAomaoft's  Ssmpml 
Not  a  pine  in  my  grove  is  there  seen. 
But  with  tendrils  of  woodbine  is  bound  ; 
Not  a  beech  's  more  beautiful  green. 
But  a  sweet-briar  twines  it  around. 


Beech,  in  botany.    See  Fagus. 

Beecr-Fork,  a  river  of  the  United  States 
in  Kentucky,  and  one  of  the  three  principal 
sources  of  the  river  Salt,  which  rise  in  tnree  aif- 
ferent  parts  of  Mercer  county;  and,  winding 
westward,  unite  and  form  that  large  navigable 
river,  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  Ohio. 

Beech  Gall,  in  natural  history,  a  hard 
knot  on  the  leaJP  of  the  beech,  containing  die 
maggot  of  a  species  of  fly.  There  are  some- 
times only  one  of  these  upon  a  leaf,  some- 
times more ;  they  always  grow  from  the  same 
point,  owing  to  the  fly's  having  laid  so  many 
eggs  in  the  same  spot.  Tliey  are  of  an  oblong 
figure  somewhat  flatted,  and  shaped  like  the  stone 
of  a  plum.  They  are  so  hard  as  not  to  be  broken 
between  the  fingers ;  their  substance  seems  of 
the  same  nature  with  that  of  a  nut-shell.  In 
each  gall  there  is  only  one  cavity  inhabited  by  a 
white  worm,  which  in  time  passes  through  the 
nymph  state  into  that  of  the  fly,  to  which  it  owed 
its  origin. 

Beech  Mast,  the  fruit  of  the  beech-tree;  a 
triangular  seed,  like  an  acorn,  containing  a  whitish 
oleaginous  pith,  of  a  very  agreeable  taste. 
It  is  used  for  fattening  hogs,  deer,  &c.  It  has 
sometimes,  e?en  to  men,  proved  an  useful  substi- 
tute for  bread.  Chios  is  said  to  have  endured  a 
memorable  siege  by  means  of  it« 

Beech  Oil,  an  oil  drawn  by  expression  from 
beech  mast.  This  oil  is  veiy  common  in  Picardy, 
and  used  there,  and  in  otiier  parts  of  Fiance, 
instead  of  butter ;  but  most  of  diose  who  take  a 
great  deal  of  it  complain  of  pains  and  a  heaviness 
in  the  stomach.  An  attempt  was  made  some 
years  ago  to  introduce  the  raanu^ture  of  beech- 
oil  into  England,  and  a  patent  was  granted  to 
Ae  proprietor,  but  without  success ;  the  country 
people  turning  their  mast  to  better  account  in 
feeding  hogs  with  it,  than  by  selling  it  to  the  pa- 
tentee for  oil. 

B££D£R,  a  province  in  the  Deccan,  Ilin- 
dostan,  now  possessed  by  the  Niiam,  simate<i 


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principally  between  the  sixteenth  and  eighteenth 
degrees  of  north  latitude.  To  the  north  it  is 
bounded  by  Aurungabad  and  Nandere ;  on  the 
south  by  the  river  Krishna ;  to  the  east  it  has  the 
province  of  Hyderabad ;  and  to  the  west  the  pro- 
-viuce  of  Bejapoor.  In  length  it  may  be  estimated 
at  140  milesy  by  sixty-five  the  average  breadth. 
The  surface  of  tnis  province  is  uneven  and  hilly, 
but  not  mountainous,  and  it  is  intersected  by 
many  small  rivers  which  fertilise  the  soil,  and 
flow  into  the  Beemah,  Krishna,  and  Godavery. 
The  country  is  very  productive,  and  under  the 
ancient  Hindoo  government  contained  a  redun- 
dant population,  but  is  now  thinly  peopled. 

Beeder,  a  town  in  the  province  ot  Beeder, 
of  wliich  it  is  the  capital.  Lat.  17^  47'  N.,  long. 
77°  48^  E.  It  is  forufied  with  a  stonewall,  a  dry 
ditch,  and  many  round  towers.  The  wall  is 
six  miles  in  circumference,  and  the  town  which 
it  enctoses  stands  in  an  open  plain,  except  the  east 
side,  which  is  a  rising  ground  about  lOOyardshigh. 
The  remains  of  many  good  buildings  are  to  be 
seen  in  this  decayed  city.  It  was  formerly  noted 
for  works  of  tutenague  inlaid  with  silver,  and  be- 
fore the  Mahommedan  invasion,  was  the  capital 
of  a  Hindoo  sovereignty.  Travelling  distance 
from  Hyderabad,  seventy-eight  miles,  from  Delhi 
857,  from  Madras  430,  and  from  Calcutta  980 
miles. 

BEEF,  n.  &  adj,  "j  Fr.  boeuf,  from  the  Lat- 
Beep'-eater,  >bos,  hovis,  Gr.  povg,  from 
Beef-witted.  )  ^w  (j3o<fKw).  To  feed.  The 
flesh  of  the  ox,  bull,  or  cow,  prepared  for  food. 
The  plural  is  beeves.  Johnson  says,  the  flesh  of 
black  cattle.  Beef-eater,  because  the  commons 
is  beej\  when  in  waiting.  Mr.  Stevens  derives 
it  thus ;  beef-eater  may  come  from  heaufetierj 
one  who  attends  at  the  sideboard,  which  was 
ancientW  placed  in  a  beaufet.  The  business  of 
the  beefeaters  Was  to  attend  the  king  at  meals. 
A  yeoman  of  the  guard. 

Have  by  the  night,  accursed  thieves,    . 
Slaine  his  lambes,  or  stolne  his  beeees. 

Browne,  The  Shepherd**  Pipe. 
A  pound  of  man's  flesh 
Is  not  BO  estimable  or  profitable. 
As  flesh  of  muttons,  heeeei,  or  goats. 

Shahipeare, 
'The  plague  of  Greece  upon  thee,  thou  mongrel  beef- 
witted  lord.  Id. 

One  way  a  band  select  from  forage  drives 
A  herd  of  beeves,  fair  oxen,  and  fair  kine. 
From  a  fat  meadow  gronnd.  MiUon, 

The  fat  of  roasted  ftee/ falling  on  birds,  will  baste 
I  hem.  Swiji. 

On  hides  of  beeves,  before  the  palace-gate. 

Sad  spoils  of  luxury !  the  suitors  sate.  Pope. 

Beef-eaters,  (Beaufetiers),  yeomen  of  the 
guard  to  the  king  of  Great  Britain,  so  called  from 
being  stationed  by  the  sideboard  at  great  royal 
dinners.  They  are  kept  up  rather  from  state 
than  for  any  military  service.  Their  arms  are  a 
sword  and  lance.  They  were  first  raised  by 
Henry  VI  [.  in  the  year  1485,  and  anciently  con- 
sisted of  250  men  of  the  first  rank  under  gentry, 
and  of  a  larger  stature  than  ordinary,  each  being 
required  to  be  six  feet  high.  At  present  there 
are  but  100  on  constant  duty  and  seventy  more 


not  on  duty ;  and  when  any  one  of  the  1 00  dies,  his 

Slace,  is  supplied  out  of  the  seventy.  They  go 
ressed  after  the  manner  of  king  Henry  Vlllth's 
time.  Their  first  commander,  or  captain,  was 
the  earl  of  Oxford. 

Beef-eater,  in  zoology,  the  English  name  of 
'  the  Buphaga  Airicana.    See  B(7phaga. 

Beef  Islano,  one  of  the  smaller  Virgin  islands . 
in  the  West  Indies,  between  Dog  Island  on  the 
west  and  Tortola  on  the  east,  about  five  miles  long 
and  one  broad.  Long.  63*»  2'  W.,  lat.  18**  23'  N. 

Beef  Tea,  in  medicine,  the  substance  of  beef, 
extracted  by  boiling  it  in  water,  which  is  now 
very  generally  prescribed,  and  with  great  success, 
in  all  diseases  of  debility,  when  the  stomach  is 
not  able  to  digest  solid  food. 

Beek  (David),  an  eminent  portrait-painter, 
was  bom  at  Amheim,  in  Guelderland,  in  1621, 
and  became  a  disciple  of  Vandyck;  fitom  whom 
he  acquired  a  fine  manner  of  penciling  and  co- 
loring. He  possessed,  besides,  that  freedom  of 
hand,  and  rapidity  of  execution,  for  which  Van- 
dyck was  so  remarkable.  King  Charles  I.  when 
he  observed  his  expeditious  manner  of  painting, 
was  so  surprised,  that  he  told  him,  he  supposed 
he  could  paint  if  he  was  riding  post.  He  was 
appointed  portrait^painter  to  queen  Christina  of 
Sweden ;  and  by  her  recommendation,  most  of 
the  illustrious  persons  in  Europe  sat  to  him  for 
their  pictures.  Having  an  earnest  desire  to  visit 
his  friends  in  Holland,  he  left  the  court  of  Swe- 
den much  against  the  queen's  inclination,  and 
died  soon  after  at  the  Hague,  where,  it  is  sus- 
pected that  he  was  poisoned.  This  happened  in 
1656,  when  he  was  only  thirty-five.  A  singular 
adventure  happened  to  him,  as  he  passed  through 
Germany.  He  was  suddenly  and  violently  taken 
ill  at  the  inn  where  he  lodged,  and  seeming  to  all 
appearance  dead,  was  laid  out  as  a  corpse.  His 
servants  expressed  the  strongest  marks  of  grief 
for  the  loss  of  their  master;  but  consoled  them- 
selves, while  they  sat  beside  his  bed,  by  drinking 
very  freely.  At  last  one  of  them  said  to  his  com- 
panions, '  our  master  was  fond  of  his  glass  while 
alive,  let  us  give  hia  one  glass  now:'  and 
raised  up  his  master's  head  to  pour  the  liquor 
into  his  mouth.  Beek,  on  this  opened  his  eyes ; 
and  by  proper  management  and  care  recovered 

BE^E,«  kind  of  pick-axe,  used  by  the  miners 
for  separating  the  ores  from  the  rocks  in  which 
they  he ;  and  called  a  tubber  by  the  miners  of 
Comwidl.  The  iron  part  of  it  weighs  about  eight 
or  ten  pounds.  Though  it  is  steeled  at  each  end, 
it  wears  out  so  fast,  that  it  requires  n^w  points 
once  a  fortnight. 

BEELIKE,  or  BEELiCH,a  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  duchy  of  Westphalia,  with  a  Benedictine  pro- 
vostship.  Twelve  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Aredsberg, 
and  thirteen  north-west  of  Brilon.  Long.  8° 
2r  E.,  lat.  SI**  30'  N. 

BEELZEBUB;   Beelzebul.      See    Baal- 

ZEBUfi. 

BEEMAH,  or  Bewrah  River  (Bhima,  ter- 
rific), rises  in  the  mountains  to  the  north  of 
Poonah,  not  far  firom  the  source  of  the  Godaveiy, 
and  passes  within  thirty  miles  to  the  east  of 
Poonah,  where  it  is  esteemed  sacred.  It  is  one 
of  the  principal   rivers  that  join  the  Krishna, 


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which  it  does  near  the  town  of  Tiiozegur,  in  the 
province  of  Beeder.  The  length  of.  its  course, 
including:  the  wiodinf^s,  may  be  estimated  at  400 
miles.  The  horses  most  esteemed  by  the  Mah- 
rattasy  are  those  bred  on  .the  banks  of  the 
Beemah. 

BEEMEN,  or  Sheemen,  in  astronomy, seven 

stars  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  following  eacli 

other,  in  the  fourth  flexure  of  the  constellation 

Eridanus. 

BEER',  -J    Ger.andDut.fcier.  Oold- 

Beer'-hovse,     >a8t  tlunks  from  fyrk,  beer 

Beer'-brewer.  J  being  first  made  of  oears. 

Vossius  derives  it  from  the  Lat.  bibere^  to  drink ; 

Noel  from  beor,  describing  a  kind  of  beverage 

made  from  honey.     Johnson  traces   it  to  bir, 

Welsh,  and  adds,  liquor  made  of  malt  and  hops. 

It  is  distinguished  from  ale  either  by  being  older 

or  smaller. 

Oh,  let  them  come,  «nd  taste  this  he^r, 
And  water  haaeefoKth  they'll  fonwear. 

Thenuu  Nebb^,  m  EUii, 

Among  those  that  were  without  the  fort,  and  which 

were  of  the  foreaaid  company  of  Captaine  Ribaalt, 

there  waa  a  carpenter  of  .threeKorc  years  olde,  once  a 

bere-b''mper,  HaUuyi*»  Voyt^get, 

Here's  a  pot  of  good  double  beer,  neighbour ;  d|ink> 


Plow.  Welsted!  flow,  like  thine  inapirer,  beer; 
Tho'  stalf!,  not  ripe  ;  tho'  thin,  yet  never  clear  ; 
So  sweeny  mawVkh,  and  so  smoothly  dull ; 
Heady,  not  strong ;  and  foaming,  tho'  not  full. 

Pope^ 

Beer  is  perhaps  any  fermented  liquor  made 
from  a  fannaceous  grain,  but  generally  ,  from 
barley.  It  is,  properly  speakinff,  the  wine  of  bar- 
ley. Under  the  article  Ale,  we  have  entered  upon 
the  sul^ect  of  brewing  that  article  [>retty  generally. 
The  only  other  species  of  beer  is  porter.  See 
therefore,  Ale,  Porter,  and  Brewing.  Small 
or  Table  Beer,  we  may  here  add,  is  usually  made, 
particularly  in  quantity  and  for  sale,  by  mashing 
with  a  fresh  quantity  of  water  what  is  left  after 
the  beer  or  ale  wort  is  drawn  off;  and  sometimes 
from  a  small  quantity  of  malt  brewed  on  pur- 
pose. Two  parts  of  London  table  beer  may  be 
considered  equivalent  in  strength  to  one  of  ale  ; 
but,  according  to  the  legsd  distinction,  (59.  Geo. 
III.  c.  53.  sect.  25.),  all  beer  sold  above  the  price 
of  18s.  per  barrell  is  deemued  ale,  or  strong  beer, 
and  pays  ale  duty,  viz.  10s.  per  barrel ;  and  be^r, 
of  the  price  of  18s.  per  barrel,  or  under,  exclu- 
sive of  the  duty,  namely,  2s.  per.barrel,  is  consi- 
dered as  table  beer  within  the  meaning.of  the  act. 

The  final  gravity  of  tabic  beer  wort  is  usually 
from  11  to  12,50lbs.  per  barrel.  Every  brewer, 
however,  fixes  that  final  standard  strength,  which 
he  finds  most  suitable  to  his  trade. 

Beer,  in  weaving,  nineteen  threads  running 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  piece. 

Beer,  in  ancient  geography,  a  city  twelve 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  roadtoShechem ; 
where  Jotham  the  son  of  Gideon  concealed  him- 
self  from  his  bloody  brother  Abimelech. 

Beer,  or  Beer  £lim,  a  place  in  the  country 
of  the  Moabites,  where  the  Israelites  dug  wells. 
Numbers,  xxi.  18. 

.•Beer,  Beerjick,  Bib,  or  Biradshick,  a  town 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  government  of  Orfa, 


the  aqcient  Thiar  or  Barsampse.    It  standi  upon 
a  lofty  eminence  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, which  is  here  deep  and  rapid,  about 
130  yaflds  broad.  A  bridge  of  boats  conveys  ca- 
ravans from  Aleppo  to  Orfa  at  this  point,  for 
which  privilege  a  pontage  is  paid  here.  Niebnhr 
Aays,  it  consists  of  500  houses,  protected  by  a 
citadel  and  a  wall ;  but  the  whole  place  is  in  a  di- 
lap^ated  condition.    It.was  long  deemed  im- 
pregnable, and  is   still  consideiied  a  place  of 
strength.  Pococke  notices  a  collection  m  ancient 
apos  and  armour,  which  he  saw  here.    Among 
these  were  various  sorts  of  foil  arrows:  many 
of  them  pointed  with  iron,  and  to  the  extrenuties 
of  some,  combustible    matter,  made  up  .in   a 
triangular  form,  was  attached,  which  being  ig- 
nited was  carried  into  the  town  wjbidi  it  was 
intended  to  set  on  fire.    There  was  another  sort 
to  which  iron  bottles,  or  cases  filled  with  similar 
combustibles,  were  fixed,  which  were  inflamed 
previous  to  their  dischsj^e.     The  cross-bows 
were  straight,  and  were  about  five  feet  long. 
There  were  also  a  variety  of  slings.  Some  writers 
are  of  opinion  that  tlie  arms  now  described  may 
have  been  those  of  the  Romans,  ai  they  veiy  well 
correspond  with  the  description  given  of  them  by 
Anuniaims  MarcoUinus.    Formerly  considerable 
(trade  was  carried  on  to  Bagdad  by  means  of  ves- 
sels descending  the  river.    Beer  is  sixty-^evni 
miles  from  Oifa;  115  sonth-west  of  Diarbekir; 
and  114  north-east  of  Aleppo.     It.  is  the  great 
thoroughfare   from  Aleppo  to  Diarbekir  and 
Persia. 

Beer,  Eaqer,  is  used  by  calico  printers, 
chemists,  lapidaries,  scarlet-dyers,  vinegar-mer- 
chants, white-lead  men,  &c. 

Beer  La-ua-roi,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
place  between  Kadesh  and  Shur,  south  of  Canaan, 
where  the  angel  appeared  to  Hagar.  Genesis 
xvi.  14. 

Beer  Machines,  are  contrivances  by  means 
of  which  tliat  liquor  is  drawn  from  three  or  four 
casks  at  once,  and  delivered  from  cocks  placed 
close  together  in  the  bar  of  a  tavern  or  other  con- 
venient place  above  the  cellar.  These  madiines 
are  nothing  else  than  an  assemblage  of  small  lift 
pumps,  whose  suction  pipes  communicate  with 
the  casks  containing  the  beer :  they  are  now  veiy 
common  in  Loudon  and  other  large  towns.  The 
internal  part  of  the  machine  consists  of  four  lift 
pumps,  nrmly  fixed  between  two  blocks  of  wood, 
and  m  each  of  whicli  semicylindric  excavations 
are  made  to  contain  the  barrels:  these  are  held 
together  and  fastencu  .^  the  case  enclosing  the 
pumps  by  two  screws  between  each  barrel,  seen 
plainly  in  the  figure.  The  upper  part  of  the  case 
of  the  pumps  isa  half  cylinder,  and  has  four  narrow 
openings  in  it,  corresponding  to  the  axis  of  each 
pum  p ;  in  these  openings  the  levers  which  give  mo- 
tion to  the  pump  buckets  move :  they  are  bent,  the 
angular  point  being  the  centre  on  which  they 
move :  a  short  arm  has  the  pump  rod  joined  to 
it,  and  to  a  long  one  is  affixed  the  handle.  The 
centre  pins  of  the  levers  are  supported  on  a  piece 
of  wood  fixed  in  the  case  nearly  in  the  axis  o. 
its  cylindrtc  head  ;  the  pump  rod  is  divided  into 
two  branches ;  at  their  lower  ends  which  receive 
a  pin,  joining  them  to  the  bucket  rod,  throuch 
which  the  pin  passes.  The  rod  is  continued  abore 


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as  \»eU  as  below  the  joint :  the  lower  part  goes 
into  the  pump,  and  the  upper  slides  through  a 
brass  collar  tixed  to  the  back  of  the  case;  this 
collar  is  included  between  the  two  branches  of 
the  pump  rod  :  its  use  is  to  confine  the  bucket 
rod  to  move  truly  vertical,  while  the  pump  rod 
being  attached  to  it  at  only  one  point  can  obey 
the  irregular  motion  occasioned  by  the  lever  de- 
scribing a  circular  arc.  The  bucket  rod  passes 
through  a  stuflSng  box  in  the  top  of  the  pump, 
through  which  it  moves  easily,  a»d  yet  without 
.  permitting  the  escape  of  any  liquor  by  it :  below 
this  it  is  screwed  into  the  branches  of  the  bucket, 
which  has  a  valve  in  it,  and  is  surrounded  by  soft 
leather,  which  makes  it  fit  the  barrel  of  the  pump 
without  leaking.  In  the  bottom  of  the  barrel 
another  valve,  similar  to  that  in  the  bucket,  is 
placed,  and  a  close  tube  leads  from  it  to  a  leaden 
pipe,  bringing  the  liquor  from  the  casks  in  the 
cellar.  At  the  upper  part  of  each  barrel  a  small 
leaden  pipe  is  soldered :  these  pipes  are  bent  up- 
wards, and  come  through  the  side  of  the  <iase. 
Sometimes  the  pipes  leading  from  the  two  first 
pumps  are  brought  into  one,  askl  both  deliver 
through  the  same  spout ;  for  the  convenience  of 
mixing  two  kinds  of  beer. .  The  operation  of  the 
pumps  is  exactly  the  same  as  Ae  common  sucking 
pump.  Some  beer-punps  (as  those  invented  by 
Mr.  Rowntree  of  Blackfriar'v-road)  are  of  a 
more  complex  construction. 

BEERING'S  or  Behring's  Bay,  is  situated 
in  the  sixtieth  degree  of  latitude,  on  the  west 
coast  of  North  America,  and  received  this  name 
from  captain  Vancouver,  in  honor  of  Vitus  Beh- 
ring,  who  visited  these  shores  in  1740,  and  an- 
<:hored  in  a  large  bay,  the  position  of  which  was 
not  correctly  ascertained.  Captain  Cook  assigned 
this  appellation  to  »  different  part  of  this  shore ; 
but  as  ne  only  saw  it  at  a  distance,  he  could  not 
perceive  the  tract  of  low  ground  tiiat  stretches 
from  the  base  of  the  mountains  which  he  sup- 
posed to  bound  the  bay.  Vancouver  found  thftt 
this  low  land  precluded  all  appearance  of  a  bay, 
in  the  place  which  Captain  Cook  had  assigned 
to  it ;  and  therefore,  as  the  name  was  intended 
to  be  applied  to  the  bay  in  which  Behring  an- 
chored, he  transferred  it  to  that  which  Mr.  Dixon 
had  previously  called  Admiralty  Bay.  There 
is  no  other  Bay,  he  tells  us,  between  Cape  Suck- 
ling and  Cape  Fairweather,  in  which  Behring 
could  have  found  shelter. 

Beering's  Island,  an  bland  in  the  North 
Pacific  ocean,  which  is  sometimes  classed  with 
the  Aleutian  chain,  of  which  it  may  be  considered 
the  most  western  link.  It  extends  104  miles  in 
length,  by  fifteen  in  breadth ;  is  mountainous  and 
sterile.  The  west  coast  is  elevated,  the  northern 
point  low  land  ;  the  principal  mountains,  called 
the  Hanavoy  ridge,  consisting  of  granite  and  sand- 
stone, contam  many  cavenis.  There  are  two 
bays  on  the  coast,  wherein  vessels  in  the  fur  trade 
winter,  but  they  are  shallow,  of  dangerous  access, 
and  exposed  to  the  north  winds;  the  climate  is  ri- 
gorous. No  wood  grows  here,  but  various  kinds  of 
plants  are  common.  Several  small  streams  issue 
from  the  lakes  and  pools  near  the  shore.  Mine- 
rals of  value  are  said  to  have  been  found,  and 
pieces  of  native  copper  are  cast  ashore  after 
storms.  The  surroundmg  seas  abound  in  whales ; 


phoce  are  numerous  on  the  shores,  and  multi- 
tudes of  sea  otters;  black  and  blue  foxes  formerly 
inhabited  the  island.  The  sea  cow  was  an  object 
of  pursuit,  but  so  incessantly  sought  after,  that 
the  species  is  either  extinct  or  deterred  by  danger 
from  approaching  the  island,  as  none  have  been 
seen  on  it  since  the  year  1708.  When  the  sea 
otter,  whose  numbers  have  also  been  greatly  di- 
minished, disappears  in  March,  it  is  replaced  by 
the  sea  lion,  because  in  the  northern  regions  ani- 
mals frequent  particular  places  in  the  most  regular 
succession.  This  island  was  discovered  in  1740, 
or  1741,  by  Vitus  Beering,  a  Dane,  a  commodore 
in  the  Russian  service.  The  latitude  of  this 
island  is  about  55*  N.,  and  the  long.  167*  E. 

BEEROO,  a  country  of  central  Africa,  to  the 
south  of  Bambara,  and  having  Ludamar  on  the 
west.  The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Moors.  It  is  probably  very  populous,  since 
Walet,  the  capital  was  reported  to  be  larger  than 
Tombuctoo  ;  but  the  interior  is  little  known. 

BEERSHEBA;  from  "UO,  a  well,  and  PdV, 
he  sware,  or  njTaV,  an  oath ;  a  city  to  the  south 
of  the  tribe  of  Judea,  adjoining  to  Idumea,  where, 
anciently,  Abraham  and  Isaac  swore  friendship 
to  Abimelech.  It  stood  twenty  miles  south  of 
Hebron,  and  forty-two  in  the  same  direction  from 
Jerusalem.  When  Eusebius  wrote,  A.  D.  315, 
it  was  still  a  considerable  town,  lewfiii  fuyiffiyf 
garrisoned  by  Roman  soldiers.  The  boundaries 
of  the  Holy  Land  are  often  described  in  Scrip- 
ture as  extending  from  Dan  to  Beersheba  (2  Sam. 
xvii.  11);  and  alter  the  separation  of  the  king- 
doms of  Judah  and  Israel,  the  boundaries  of  the 
former  are  mentioned  as  from  Beersheba  to 
Mount  Ephraim.  The  Beersheba  which  is  de- 
scribed by  the  historian  of  the  Crusades  (Jaco- 
bus de  Vitriaco,  Hist.  Hieros.  36;  Guliehnu» 
Tyrius,  xiv.  22),  as  situated  ten  or  twelve  mile» 
from  Ascalon,  is  a  different  place. 

BEES  Head  (St.),  a  lofty  promontory,  with  a 
light-house  on  the  top  of  it,  about  five  miles 
from  Whitehaven,  to  which  it  is  connected  by 
one  continued  range  of  rocks  rising  perpendicu- 
larly from  the  beech. 

Bees,  Saint,  a  town  in  the  county  of  Cum- 
berland, between  Whitehaven  and  Egremont, 
noted  for  its  public  school.  It  had  once  a  nun- 
nery, the  church  of  which  is  still  used,  and  the 
free  grammar-school  has  a  good  library.  The 
schoolmaster  is  appointed  by  the  provost  and 
fellows  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  The  parish 
is  of  great  extent,  and  appears,  from  its  ruins,  to 
have  been  fortified  by  the  Romans  at  all  die  con- 
venient landing  places. 

BEESTINGS,  Breastings,  or  perhaps  more 
properly  Beastinos,  a  term  used  by  country 
people  for  the  first  milk  taken  from  a  cow  after 
calving.  The  beestings  are  of  a  thick  consist- 
ence, and  yellow  color,  seemingly  impregnated 
with  sulphur.  Dr.  Morgan  imagines  them  pecu- 
liarly fitted  and  intended  by  nature  to  cleanse 
the  young  animal  from  the  recrements  gathered 
in  its  stomach  and  intestines,  during  its  long 
habitation  in  utero.  The  like  quality  and  virtue 
he  supposes  in  women's  first  milk  after  delivery ; 
and  hence  infers  the  necessity  of  the  mother's 
suckling  her  own  child,  rath<>r  than  committing 
it  to  a  nurse  whose  first  miix  is  gone. 


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r.E'KT,  n,  s.    Lat.  beta,  the  name  of  a  plant. 
See  Beta. 

Beet,  in  botany.    See  Beta. 


BEETLE,  17.  &  ». 

BEEt'LING, 

Beetle'brows, 
Beetle'browed, 
Beetle'ueaded, 
B^etle'stocked. 


BeetUf  an  insect,  the 
name  probably  derived 
from  the  word  beatf  be- 
''cause  it  heavily  beats  the 
air  witli  its  wings.  Beetle, 
a  mallet;  a  three-man- 
beetle,  was  one  so  heavy  that  it  required  three 
men  to  manage  it,  two  at  the  long  handles,  and 
one  at  the  head.  BeetUheaded,  probably  in 
allusion  to  this  it  means  a  thick  and  heavy  skull. 
Beetlebrow  is  an  overhanging  heavy  brow.  To 
beetle  is  to.  hang  over  like  the  top  of  a  cliff. 

The  poor  beetle  that  we  tread  upon. 
In  corporal  auffranoe  feela  a  pang  as  great 
Am  wben  a  giant  dies.  Shaktpeare. 

A  whoreson,  heetleheaded,  flap-ear'd  knave*         Jd. 

Enqmre  for  the  beetlebraw'd  critic,  &c.  Swift. 

When  by  the  help  of  wedges  and  beetla,  an  image 

is  cleft  out  of  the  trunk  of  some  well-grown  tree ;  yet 

after  all  the  skill  of  artificers  to  set  forth  such  a  divine 

block,  it  cannot  one  moment  secure  itself  from  being 

«aten  by  worms,  or  defiled  by  birds,  or  cut  in  pieces 

by  axes.  StUUnsfieet. 

Others  come  sharp  of  sight,  and  too  provident  for 

that  which  concerned  their  own  interest ;  but  as  blind 

as  beetlei  in  foreseing  this  great  and  common  danger. 

KnoOet'  Hittory  of  the  Turk*, 

The  butterflies  and  heetlet  are  such  numerous  tribes, 

that,  I  believe,  in  our  own  native  country,  alone,  the 

species  of  each  kind  may  amount  to  one  hundred  and 

itfty,  or  more.  Ray, 

Or  where  the  hawk 

High  in  the  heetlmg  cliff  his  eiry  builds. 

Thommm, 
Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight. 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds. 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight. 
And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds. 

Gny't  Eiegy. 

Beetle,  in  entomology.  See  Attelabuh, 
and  Scarabjeus. 

Beetle,  in  mechanics,  is  likewise  called  a 
stamper,  and  by  pavioars  a  rammer. 

BETALL.    Be  and  fall.    See  Fall. 

BETIGHT.    Be  and  fight    See  Fight. 

BE'FIT.    Be  and  fit.    See  Fit. 

BETOAM.    Be  and  foam.    See  Foam. 

BE'FOOL.    Be  and  fool.    See  Fool. 

BETORE,     -^     Compounded    of  be  and 

Before'uand,  Sfore,    written  differently    in 

Before'tim  e.  j  different  eras  of  our  literature, 
as  bifore,  b^ore,  befom,  and  befome.  '  When  re- 
fernng  to  time,  it  signifies  anterior  or  prior ;  to 
place  in  front,  or  in  presence  of;  and  to  the  state 
of  the  mind  it  expresses  preference. 

Befofetime  in  Israel,  when  a  man  went  to  enquire 
of  God,  thus  he  spake.  1  Sam.  ix.  9. 

But  tell  me,  lady !  wherefore  do  you  beare 
This  bottle  thus  before  you  with  such  toile. 
And  eke  this  wallet  at  your  backc  arreare, 
rhat  for  these  carles  to  carry  much  more  comely  were  ? 

SpeMety 

Thou'rt  so  far  before, 
Tlie  swiftest  wing  of  recompense  is  slow 
To  overtake  thee.  Shahpeore, 


His  profession  is  to  deliver  precepu  neeessaiy  tr 
eloquent  speech;  yet  so,  that  they  which  xeceiTe 
them,  may  be  taught,  beforehand,  the  skill  of  speak* 
ing.  Heeker. 

In  this  realm  of  England,  before  Normans,  yea,  ie- 
fore  Saxons,  there  being  Christians,  the  du«F  paston 
of  their  souls  were  bishops.  Id.  Eccie$.  Pei. 

Heavenly  bom. 
Before  the  hills  appeared,  or  fountain  flowed. 
Thou  with  eternal  wisdom  didst  converse.     Jfilte. 

You  tell  me,  mother,  what  I  knew  hrfure. 
The  Phrygian  fleet  is  landed  on  the  shore. 

Dryde^ 
Your  soul  has  been  befonhmd  with  your  body. 
And  drunk  so  deep  a  draught  of  promis'd  bits*. 
She  slumbers  o'er  the  cup.  H. 

I  have  not  room  for  many  reflections,  the  last  dted 
author  has  been  beforehand  with  me,  in  its  proper 
moral.  AdHtoii. 

BEFORT,  a  ci-devant  district  of  France,  oi. 
the  frontiers  of  Switzerland,  now  comprehended 
in  the  department  of  the  Upper  Rhine.  Though 
comparatively  sterile,  it  has  excellent  iron  mines; 
these,  and  the  forges  connected  with  them,  era- 
plov  a  large  portion  of  its  population. 

Befort,  or  Belfort,  once  the  capital  of  the 
county,  and  now  of  an  arrondissement,  is  a  small 
but  strong  town,  seated  on  the  Sayoureuse.  It  w» 
ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia,  j. 
1648.  It  is  important  as  being  a  pass  from  Al- 
sace to  Franche  Comt^ ;  and  it  is,  by  its  central 
position,  enabled  to  carry  on  a  good  trade  in  the 
wines  of  Burgundy  and  Champagne.  It  is  si- 
tuated at  the  point  of  meeting  of  several  great 
roads,  viz.  of  two  from  Paris,  two  from  Switzer- 
land, one  from  Strasburg,  and  one  from  Lorraine. 
The  county  and  town  of  Befort  were  ceded  by 
Austria  to  France  in  1648.  In  1659,  Loais 
XIV.  granted  them  to  cardinal  Mazarin ;  and  in 
1781  they  were  obtained  by  the  duke  of  Valen- 
tinois,  who  lost  them  at  the  Revolution.  The 
fisheries  and  forests,  as  well  as  the  mines,  are 
considered  very  productive.  Befort  is  about 
thirty-five  miles  south-west  of  Colmar,  and 
seventy  in  the  same  direction  from  Stiasburg. 
Lat.  47°  38'  N.,  long.  6°  57'  E. 

BE'FRIEND.     Be  and  friend.    See  Fric»d. 

BE'FRINGE.    Be  and  fringe.    See  Frxkge. 

BEG',  V.  ^      Ger.  beggeretL 

Beg'gar,  v.,  n.  s.,  &  adj.       It    is    probably 

Beg'gable,  V,  a  corruption  of 

Beg'oart,  baggar,  becanse, 

Beo'ging,  n.  says   the  Ency- 

Beogar'ino,  1  clop«diaMetro- 

Beogau'liness,  rpoUtana,beggan 

Begoak'ly,  adj.  &  adv.  carry  with  them 

Begoar'fear,  bag»^  into.wbich 

Beggar'maid,  dkey  putthe  alms 

Begoar'man,  that      may     be 

Beggar'wouan.  J  bestowed    upon 

them.    To  beg,  is  to  ask,  to  entreat,  with  a  view 

to  obtain  any  object.    It  is  the  gentle  force  of 

persuasion  opposed  to  violence    and   demand. 

To  beggar,  is  to  reduce  to  a  state  of  dependence 

on  the  gratuitous  aid  of  others.    To  bring  into 

the  condition  of  imploring  &vor. 

^     And  she  was  clad  full  porely. 
All  in  an  old  tome  cuortpy. 


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▲■  fbe  were  all  with  dogget  tome. 
And  both  behind  and  eke  befbnie 
Clouted  was  she  beggerly.  Chameer. 

He  raiseth  up  the  poor  out  of  the  dust,  and  lifteth 
«p  the  leggar  firom  the  dunghill,  to  set  them  among 
princes.  Samuel. 

Touching  God  himself,  hath  he  revealed  that  it  is 
his  delight  to  dwell  beggarly  f  And  that  he  taketh  no 
pleasure  to  be  worshipped,  saving  only  in  poor  cot- 
tages ?  Hooker. 

So  as  their  heggmg  now  them  failed  quite ; 
For  none  would  give,  but  all  men  would  them  wyte ; 
Yet  would  they  take  no  pains  to  get  their  living. 
But  seeke  some  other  way  to  gaine  by  giuing. 
Much  like  to  legging,  but  mudi  better  namM  \ 
For  many  beg,  which  are  thereof  asham'd. 

Speiuer.     Mother  H^Mard's  Tale, 
On  he  brought  me  into  so  bare  a  house,  that  it  was 
the  picture  of  miserable  happiness  and  rich  beggarg, 

Sidiieg, 
Well,  whiles  I  am  a  beggar,  I  will  rail. 
And  say, — there  is  no  sin,  but  to  be  rich ; 
And  being  rich,  my  virtue  then  shall  be. 
To  say, — ^there  is  no  vice  but  beggairgl  Shaktpeare. 

Ifm  her  person 
It  beggar'd  all  description ;  she  did  lie 
In  her  pavilion,  doth  of  gold,  of  tissue, 
CVer-picturing  Venus.  Id. 

I  will  ever,  though  he  do  shake  me  off 
To  beggarly  divorcement,  love  him  dearly.  Id. 

Be  finds  it  his  best  way  to  be  always  craving,  be- 
«aose  he  lights  many  times  upon  things  that  are  dis- 
posed of  or  not  b^ggable.  Btdler. 

thy  suppliant 

I  beg  and  clasp  thy  knees ;  bereave  me  not. 
Whereon  I  live,  thy  gentle  look,  thy  aid, 
Thy  counsel  in  this  uttermost  distress.     MUton. 
What  subjectt  will  precarious  kings  regard  ? 
A  beggar  speaks  too  softly  to  be  heard.        Ihgden, 
These  shameful  beggan  of  principles,  who  give  this 
precarious  account  of  the  original  of  things,  assume 
to  themselves  to  be  men  of  reason.  TUloteoi^. 

Big,  a  place  in  Ayrshire,  in  the  parish  of 
Galston ;  celebrated  for  being  one  of  the  retreats 
of  the  patriotic  Sir  William  Wallace,  where,  in 
a  rude  fortification,  attended  by  only  fifty  of  his 
friends,  h^  obtained  a  complete  victory  over  200 
Englishmen. 

Beg,  or  Bey,  in  the  Turkish  government.  See 
Bey.  Beg  is  more  particularly  applied  to  the 
lord  of  a  Imnner,  called  in  the  Turkish  language 
sangiak  beg.  A  beg  has  the  command  of  a  cer- 
tain number  of  the  sipahis,  or  horsey  maintained 
by  the  province  under  the  denomination  of  tima- 
riots.  All  the  begs  of  a  province  obey  one  go- 
vernor-general, called  begler-beg,  or  beyler-beg, 
q.  d.  lord  of  lords,  or  of  the  l^s  of  the  pro- 
vince. 

Begs,  or  Beghs,  of  Egypt,  generals  who 
have  the  command  of  the  militia  or  standing 
forces  of  the  kingdom ;  and  are  appointed  to  se- 
cure the  country  from  the  Arabs,  as  well  as  to 
protect  the  pilgrims  in  their  annual  expeditions 
to  Mecca.  The  begs,  several  of  whom  are  de- 
scended from  the  ancient  race  of  the  Mamalukes, 
are  very  rich  and  powerful,  maintaining  500 
fighting  men  each  for  their  own  guiird,  and  the 
service  oS  their  court.  On  discontents,  they  have 
freauently  risen  in  rebellion.  They  are  often  at 
▼nnaiioe  with  the  bashaw,  whom  they  have  more 
chan  once  imprisoned  and  plundered. 
Vol.  Ill 


BEGA  (Cornelius),  painter  of  landscapes,  cat- 
tle, and  conversations,  was  bom  at  Haerlem  in 
1620,  and  was  the  disciple  of  Adrian  Ostade 
Falling  into  a-  dissipated  way  of  life,  he  was  dis- 
inherited by  his  &tner :  for  which  reason  be  cast 
off  his  father's  name,  Begeyn,  and  assumed  that 
of  Bega ;  his  early  pictures  being  marked  with 
the  former,  and  his  later  works  with  the  other. 
He  had  a  fine  pencil,  and  a  delicate  manner  of 
handling  his  colors,  so  a^)  to  give  them  a  look  of 
neatness  and  transparence ;  his  performances  are 
so  much  esteqxncd  in  the  Low  Countries  as  to  be 
placed  among  the  works  of  the  best  artists.  He 
caught  the  plague  from  a  woman  with  whom  he 
was  deeply  enamoured,  and  died  a  few  days  after 
her,  ag^  forty-four. 

Bega,  St.  an  Irish  virgin,  who  is  said  to  have 
lived  a  solitary  life  of  devotion  at  the  spot  in  the 
county  of  Cumberland,  where  the  town  of  St. 
Bees  was  afterwards  built,  and  thus  named  after 
her. 
BEGALLED,  be  and  galled.     See  Galled. 
BEGAWED,  be  and  gawed.    See  Gawed. 
BEGAY,  be  and  gay.    See  Gay. 
BEGEMDER,  a  fertile  province  of  Abyssi- 
nia, bounded  by  Dembea  on  the  west,  Samen  on 
the  north,  Angot  on  the  east,  and  Amhara  on 
the  south.    It  includes  the  dependency  of  Lasta^ 
and  its  length  has  been  stated  at  180  miles,  and 
its  breadth  at  sixty.    There  is  a  much  greater 
proportion  of  what  may  be  called  level  ground 
nere,  than  in  almost  any  of  the  other  provinces  in 
this  alpine  region.    The  mountains  abound  with 
iron,  and  afibnl  good  ^turage  for  the  noble  herds 
of  cattle,  with  which  Begemder  is  stocked.    Mr. 
Bruce  was  informed  that  it  was  csmable  of  rais- 
ing 45,000  effective    cavalry,     llie    southern 
boundary  is  fall  of  deep  and  rugged  ravines. 
BE'GET,     -N     Be  and  get.    Ang.-Sax.  be- 
Beoet'ter,  #  gettan,  gettan.    To  obtain,   to 
Beget'timg,> produce  as  effects;  to  produce 
Be'got,         ias  accidents;    to  generate,  to 
Begot'ten.  y  procreate;  to  become  the  father 
of,  as  of  children. 

A  yon^  man  called  Melibeus,  mighty  and  riche, 
begaie  upon  his  wif,  that  was  called  Pnidence,  s 
daughter  which  that  called  was  Sophie.  Chameer. 

next  he  did  beget 

An  infinite  increase  of  angels  bright* 

All  glist'ning  glorious  in  their  Maker's  light. 

Spenaer. 
Bat  first  come  the  hoars,  which  we  begoi 
In  Jove's  sweet  paradise,  of  day  and  night. 
Which  do  the  seasons  of  the  year  allot.  Id. 

•  see  here  be  all  the  pleasares 

That  Fancy  can  begei  on  yonthfal  thoughts. 
When  the  fresh  blood  grows  lively,  and  returns 
Brisk  as  the  April  buds  in  primrose  season. 

UtUon. 

Love  is  begoi  by  fancy,  bred 

By  ignorance,  by  expectation  fed.     QroneilU, 

Mon  continue  the  r*ce  of  mankind,  commonly 

without  the  intention,  and  often  against  the  consent 

and  will,  of  the  begetter.  Locke. 

My  whole  intention  was  to  beget,  in  the  minds  oi 

mfjk,  magnificent  sentiments  of  God  and  his  works. 

Son  of  the  Father,  first  begotten  Son  ! 
Ere  the  short  measuring  line  of  time  begun. 
The  world  has  seen  tliy  works,  and  joy'd  to  see 
The  bright  effulgence  manifest  in  thee.       ParmU. 

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BFX>GHE,(St.),  the  founder  of  tbe  order  of 
the  Beguards,  and  probably  of  that  of  the  Be- 
guines.    She  flourisned  about  A.  D.  680. 

BEGHERME,  an  extensive  country  in  the 
eastern  part  of  central  Africa,  little  known.  It 
is  said  to  have  Bomou  on  the  north,  Bergoo  on 
the  east,  and  Cassina  on  the  west,  and  to  be  go- 
verned by  a  sultan  of  its  own,  dependent  on  that 
of  Bomou;  according  to  Dr.  Seetxen  it  has 
latelv  been  annexed  to  Bergoo,  which  is  also  de- 
pendent upon  Bofnou. 

BE'GILT,  be  and  gUt    See  Gilt. 
BE'GIN,  V.  &  n.  ^     I  began  or  begun ;  I  have 
Beoin'ner,  f  begun.      Sax.    hejinnan. 

Beg  in'n  I  NO,         &  from  be,  or  by  to,  and  jan- 
Begin'mnglssa.  }  san,  ^^aan,  or  jan,  to  go; 
applied  to  the  first  motion  towards  any  act,  pur- 
pose, or  design;  to  enter  upon  existence,  to  have 
Its  original. 

Mindes  he  our  tears ;  or  ever  moued  hit  eyen  T 
Wept  he  for  rath  ?  or  pitied  he  par  loue  ? 
What  shall  I  set  before,  or  where  begin  f  Surrey 

Thus  heaping  crime  on  crime,  and  grief  on  grief. 
To  loss  of  love  adjoining  loss  of  friend, 

I  mean*  to  purge  both  with  a  third  mischief. 
And,  in  my  woe's  begiimer,  it  to  end.  Spenter, 

They  began  at  the  ancient  men  which  were  before 
the  house.  Exekiel. 

By  peace  we  wiU  begin.  Shakipeare. 

Ill  sing  of  heroes  and  of  kings. 
Begin  my  muse !  Cowlejf. 

They  are,  to  begimtert,  an  easy  and  familiar  intro- 
duction; a  mighty  augmentation  of  all  virtue  and 
knowledge  in  such  as  are  entered  before.        Hooker, 


if  ye  know. 

Why  ask  ye,  and  superfluous  begin 

Your  message,  like  to  end  as  much  in  vi^f 

MUton. 

Begin  every  day  to  repent;  not  that  thou  shouldst 

«t  all  defer  it ;  but  all  that  is  past  ought  to  teem 

little  to  thee,  seeing  it  is  so  m  itself.     Begin  the  next 

day  with  the  same  zeal,  (ear,  and  humility,  as  if  thou 

hadst  never  begttn  before.  Ti^flqr, 

The  air  was  soon  after  the  fight  begm 

Far  more  inflam'd  by  it  than  l^  the  sun. 

MmvOl, 
Youth,  what  man's  a^e  is  like  to  be,  doth  show ; 
We  may  our  end  by  our  beginning  know.        Denhmn. 

By  viewing  nature,  nature's  handmaid,  art. 
Makes  mighty  things  from  small  begiminge  grow  : 

Thus  fishes  first  to  shipping  did  impart. 
Their  tail  the  rudder,  and  their  head  the  prow. 

J>ryden. 
The  understanding  is  passive;  and  whether  or  not 
it  will  have  these  begiwA^,  and  materials  of  know, 
ledge,  is  not  in  its  own  power.  Looke, 

These  systems  are  so  many  enchanted  castles; 
they  appear  to  be  something— 4hey  are  nothing  but 
appffarances :  like  them,  too,  dissolve  the  charm,  and 
they  vanish  from  the  sight.  To  dissolve  the  charm, 
we  mutt  begin  at  the  beginning  of  them:  the  expret- 
tion  may  be  odd,  but  it  is  significant. 

Bolinghroke.     Stndg  of  Hittorg. 

Rapt  into  future  dmet,  the  hard  begm, 

A  virgin  shall  conceive.  Pope 

I  have  taken  a  litt  of  several  hundred  words  in  a 

•emum  of  a  new  he^ginnm',  which  not  one  hearer  could 

|i0aaibly  nnderstand.  Swift. 


BE'GIRT,  )     Saxon    begUrdtmj    hegyrdnn, 
Be'girted.  S  tpfrdan;  to  close  in  round  about ; 
be  and  gird,  to  bind  with  a  girdle ;  to  shut  in 
with  a  fiege;  to  beleaguer;  to  block  up. 

Begird  th'  Almighty  tknme. 
Beseeching,  or  betiepng.  MUtm. 

Or  should  she,  confident 
As  sitting  queen  adom'd  on  beauty's  throne. 
Descend,  with  all  her  wuming  charms  be^, 
f  enamour.  Id, 

At  home  surrounded  by  a  servile  crowd. 
Prompt  to  abuse,  and  in  detraction  loud : 
Abroad  begirt  with  men,  and  swords,  and  speaia; 
Hit  very  state  acknowledging  his  feaia.  Priar. 

BEGLERBEG,  a  governor  of  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal governments  in  the  Turkish  empire,  and 
next  in  dignity  to  the  grand  virier.  To  every 
beglerbeg  the  grand  seignior  gives  three  ensigns 
or  staves,  trimmed  with  a  horse-tail,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  bashaws,  who  have  but  two; 
and  from  simple  begs,  orsangiac  begs,  who  lave 
but  one.  Five  of  the  beglerl^gs  have  the  title  of 
viziers,  vix.  those  of  Anatolia,  Babylon,  Cairo, 
Romania,  and  Buda.  The  beglerbegs  appear 
with  great  state,  an4  a  large  retinue,  especially 
in  the  camp,  being  obliged  to  bring  a  soldier  for 
every  5000  aspers  of  rent  which  they  eojoy. 
Those  of  Romania  brought  10,000  effective  men 
into  the  field.  The  beglerbegs  are  become  al- 
most independent,  and  have  under  their  jurisdic- 
tion several  sangiacs  or  narticular  governments, 
and  begs,  agas,  and  otncr  officers,  v^  obey 
them. 

BE6LERBEGLIK,  or  Beglierbeglie,  the 
province  or  government  of  a  beglerbeg.  Thee 
are  of  two  sorts,  viz.  1.  Beglerbeelik,  basilo, 
which  have  a  certain  rent  assigned  out  of  the 
cities,  countries,  and  signiories  allotted  to  the 
principality :  and  are  in  number  twenty-two, 
vis.  those  of  Anatolia,  Caramania,  Diafb^ir, 
Damascus,  Aleppo,  Tripoli,  Trebixond,  Buda, 
Temeswar,  &c.  2.  Beglerbegiik,  salianc,  for 
maintenance  of  which  is  annexed  a  salary  or 
rent,  collected  by  the  grand  seignior's  officers  with 
the  treasure  of  the  empire.  These  are  io  nank- 
ber  six,  viz.  those  of  Cairo,  Babylon,  &c. 

BE'GNAW.    Be  and  gnaw.    See  Ghaw. 

BE'GGNE.  Be  and  gone.  .Decayed  or  worn. 
Far  advanced,  or  sunk  deep,  either  in  weal  or 
woe.  Also;  the  imperative  0€,  and  the  past  par- 
ticiple gone;  as  go,  depart;  generally  expressing 
impetuosity  or  displeasure.  As,  Get  oiit  of  my 
sight. 

I  was  a  los^  one 
And  faiie,  and  riche,  and  yonge,  and  well 


And  witteth  ^reli,  that  one  of  the 
Is  with  treasoor  to  foU  begone^ 
That  if  je  happe  thereupon. 
Ye  shall  be  riche  men  lor  ever. 
Begone,  I  will  not  hear  thia  vain  eatm 
\ut,  as  thon  lov'tt  thy  life,  make  speed  i 

Begone,  tha  geddeaa cries  with  itai 
Begone!  nor  dan  the  htllow'd 
She  fled,  fw  ever  bawsbM  hm 


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Uncnttdhl  wntck !  hggom,  and  a 
my  dwelling  with  thy  bMeaeM ;  kigom,  umI  oever  let 
me  see  thee  •g^in.  Go  £rom  my  doon ;  end  the  <mly 
ponishment  I  wish  thee,  is'  mn  alumed  conacienee, 
which  will  be  a  sufficient  tormentor.  GoUmmth, 

BEGONIA,  ID  botany,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  polygamia  monoBcia  class ;  the  characters  of 
which  are  tliese :  the  flowers  are  of  two  kinds ; 
the  one  is  the  male  flower,  .composed  of  four 
leaves,  some  broader,  and  others  narrower ;  the 
other,  which  produces  the  embryo  fruit,  is  of  the 
rosaceous  sort,  and  is  composed  of  several  petals, 
arranged  in  a  circular  form,  and  placed  on  a 
foliated  cup,  which  finally  becomes  a  trigonal 
alated  fruit,  divided  into  three  cells,  and  con- 
taining small  seeds.  Willdenow  describes 
twenty-five  species  of  this  genus,  which  belong 

?rincipaUy  to  the  West  India  Islands.     See 
"'rttmactioiu  of  the  LuuuMtn  Society,  vol.  i. 

BE'GORED.    Be  and  gwed.    See  Gore. 

BE'GRAVE.    Be  and  grave.    See  Grave. 

BE'GRIME.    Be  and  grime.    See  Grime. 

BE'GRIPE.    Be  and  gripe.    See  Gripe. 

BFGROW.    Be  and  grow.    See  Grow. 

BE'GRUDGE.  Be  and  grudge.  SeeGRuncE. 

BEGSHEHRI  (BeVshehri)  a  town  and  cap- 
taincy in  the  Pachalic  of  Karaman-ili,  Anatoha. 
The  town  is  protected  by  a  castle  built  by  Al^ 
ud-din,  theSeljiik^  suitan  in  the  twelfth  century. 
This  district  contains  122  smaller,  and  12  larger 
fiefs,  called  by  the  Tuiks  Zimdrets  and  Ziy&- 
mets. 

BEGUARDS,  or  Beghards,  the  third  order 
of  the  religious  of  St.  Francis  in  Flanders.  They 
were  established  at  Antwerp  in  the  year  1228, 
mnd  took  St.  Begghe  for  theur  patroness,  whence 
they  had  their  name.  From  their  first  institution 
thev  employed  themselves  in  making  linen  cloth, 
each  supporting  himself  by  his  own  labor,  and 
united  only  by  the  bonds  of  charity,  without 
having  any  particular  rule.  But  pope  Nicholas 
rV.  having  confirmed  that  of  the  third  order  of 
St.  Francis  in  1289,  they  embraced  it  in  1^90. 
They  were  greaUy  fieivored  by  the  dukes  of  Bra- 
bant, particularly  John  II.  and  John  III.  who 
exempted  them  fipom  all  contributions  and  taxes. 
See  Franciscans. 

BEGUE,  an  old  term  for  the  natural  mark  in 
the  mouth  of  a  horse,  which  distinguishes  his 
age.  It  is  probably  derived  firom  the  French,  in 
which  the  same  word  signifies  a  stutterer. 

Begue  (Lambert  le),  the  founder  or  restorer 
of  the  order  of  the  Beguines,  flourished  about  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

B£'GUIL£»-\     Be  and  guile.     GmU,  torn 

Be'guilbrs,  igewigUan,  and  wile,  from  toig- 

Be'gviling,  i7i«n,  to  deceive,  to  allure  into  a 

Be'guilty.  J  snare ;  the  worst  kind  of  wick- 
edness ;  hence  the  general  term  guilt.  The  he- 
guUen  and  the  begwled  divide  4)ur  species,  with 
the  exception  of  thioee  who  are  abused  and  hated 
by  both,  because  they  have  wisdom  without' 
lEnavery,  and  ffoodness  without  ft>lly,  qualities 
equally  deteswle  to  the  deceivers  and  the  de- 
ceived. 

This  miUer  flfluM  at  hir  lUMtee, 
And  thought,  all  this  n'  is  don  but  lor  a  wilo. 
They  jnonen  that  no  nan  may  hom  hegih. 

Chmuer. 


Vot  otfkcn  he  that  will  k^gik. 

Is  guiled  with  the  same  guile. 

And  thus  the  guiler  it  beguiled,  Octoer. 

When  we  escape  from  a  little  wile,  and  know  the 

6«^'2er,  we  thinke  that  wo  are  beguiled  already  with 

other  greate  wiles.  Golden  Book. 

Her  lips,  most  happy  eaeh  in  other's  kisses. 
From  their  so  wisht  imbracements  seldome  parted. 
Yet  seem'd  to  blush  at  each  their  wanton  blisses ; 
Bnt,  when  tweet  words  their  ioyning  sweet  disparted. 
To  th'  eare  a  dainty  mosique  they  imparted^ 
Upon  them  fidy  sate  deli^tfol  smiling, 
A  thousand  smiles  with  pleating  stealth  beguUing : 
Ah,  that  such  shows  of  ioyet  should  be  all  ioyet  ex- 
iling. Spofuor 
And  often  did  beguile  her  of  her  tears. 
When  I  did  speak  of  some  distressful  stroke 
That  my  youth  suffered.                              Shakipeare. 

Sweet,  leave  me  here  awhile ; 
My  spirits  grow  dull,  and  fain  I  would  beguile 
The  tedious  day  with  sleep.  Id. 

By  easy  commutadons  of  publick  penance,  for  a 
private  pecnniaxy  mulct,  thou  dott  at  once  beguiUif 
thine  own  science  with  sordid  bribery,  and  embolden 
the  adulterer  to  conunit  that  sin  again  without  fear. 

Biahop  Sand&rtom. 
Some  cursed  fraud 
Of  enemy  hath  beguiled  thee,  yet  unknown. 
And  me  with  thee  hath  ruin'd,  for  with  thee 
Certain  my  resolution  is  to  die.  ifXlUm^ 

Whosoever  sees  a  man,  who  would  have  begmkd 
and  imposed  upon  him  by  making  him  believe  a  lye, 
he  may  truly  say,  that  it  the  man  who  would  have 
ruined  me.  Souih. 

While  o'er  hit  lipt  her  lovely  forehead  bow'd. 
Won  by  hit  grateful  eloquence,  which  to<^'d 
With  sweet  variety  the  tedious  march, 
BeguSing  time.  Olooer.  Leomdne. 

B£GUINAGE,  the   place  of  residence  of  a 
society  of  Beguines.     See  next  article.    The 
finest  beguinage  in  Flanders  was  that  of  Malines.     , 
That  of  Antwerp  was  very  spacious,  and  had 
two  separate  churches. 

BEGUINES,  a  congr^tion  of  nuns,  which 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Beghards, 
founded  either  by  St.  Begghe,  or  by  Lambert  le 
Begue.  They  were  established  first  at  Liege, 
and  afterwards  atNivelle  in  1207;  and  fromdhis 
last  settlement  sprang  the  great  number  of  Be- 
guinages,  which  are  spread  overall  Flanders, and 
which  have  passed  from  Flanders  into  Germany. 
In  the  latter  country,  some  of  these  religious  fell  ' 
into  extravagant  errors,  persuading  themselves 
that  it  was  possible,  in  the  present  life,  to  arrive 
to  the  bigh^t  perfection,  even  to  impeccability, 
and  a  clear  view  of  God ;  in  short,  to  so  eminent 
a  degree  of  contemplation,  that  there  was  no  ne- 
cessity, after  this,  to  submit  to  the  laws  of  mortal 
meoy  civil  or  eodesiastical.  The  council  of  Vien- 
ne,  in  1113,  condemned  tbeae  errors,  and  abo-  * 
lished  the  order  of  Beguines ;  permitting,  never- 
tbelesB,  those  among  them,  who  continued  in  the 
true  fidth,  to  live  in  cbasti^  and  penitence,  either 
with  or  without  vows.  It  is  by  favor  of  this  lat- 
ter clause,  that  theie  still' subsist  (or  at  least  sub- 
sisted till  lately)  so  many  communities  of  Be- 
guines in  Flanders ;  who,  subsequently  to  the 
council  of  Vienne,  conductedthemselves  with  so 
much  wisdom  and  pietv,  that  pope  John  XXll .  by 
his  decretal,  which  explains  that  of  his  predecessor 
made  in  the  council  of  Vienne,  took  them  under 

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his  protection ;  and  Boniface  VIII.  in  another, 
exempted  them  from  the  secular  tribunal,  and 
put  them  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops. 
There  was  scarce  a  town  in  the  Low  Countries  in 
which  there  was  not  a  society  of  Beguines;  and 
even  at  Amsterdam  there,  was  a  very  flourishing 
one.  These  societies  consisted  of  several  houses 
placed  together  in  one  enclosure,  with  one  or 
more  churches,  according  to  the  number  of  Be- 
guines. There  was  in  every  house  a  prioress,  or 
mistress,  without  whose  leave  they  durst  not  stir 
out.    They  made  a  sort  of  vow,  in  the  following 

terms :  <  1 promise  to  be  obedient  and 

chaste  as  lone  as  I  continue  in  this  Beguinage.' 
They  observed  a  three  years  noviciate  before  they 
took  the  habit.  They  were  formerly  habited  in 
different  manners ;  some  in  gray,  others  in  blue ; 
but  of  late  they  aU  wore  black.  When  they 
went  abroad,  in  Amsterdam,  they  put  on  a  black 
veil.  Formerly  they  had  as  many  different  sta- 
tutes as  there  were  societies.  In  the  visitations 
of  the  year  1600  and  1601,  by  the  archbishop 
Matthias  Hovius,  they  were  forbidden,  under  the 
penalty  of  a  fine,  to  have  lap-dogs. 

BEHABAN,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  province 
of  Pars.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Kho- 
gilaea,  and  is  pleasantly  situated  in  an  extensive 
and  highly  cultivated  valley,  which  is  intersected 
by  the  rivers  Zab  and  Jerahi.  The  walls  are  three 
miles  in  circumference,  and  the  population  is 
10,000.    It  is  153  miles  from  Shiraz. 

BEHALF.  This  word  Skinner  derives  from 
half,  and  interprets  it,  for  my  half;  as,  for  my 
Dart.  It  seems,  to  be  rather  corrupted  from 
behoof,  profit;  the  pronunciation  degenerating 
easily  to  behafe ;  which,  in  imitation  of  other 
words  so  sounded,  was  vmtten,  by  those  who 
knew  not  the  etymology,  behalf  For  my  or  your 
part  or  share,  or  sake.  Whatever  is  done  in 
fevour,  for  the  sake  of,  either  in  support  or  vin- 
dication. 

Yet  tbiB  I  say  m  hir  beholfe 
If  Helen  were  hir  leeke. 
Sir  Paris  need  not  to  disdaine 
Hir  through  the  seas  to  seeke.     TurheniUe. 
He  might,  in    his  presence,  defy  all   Aicadiaa 
knights,  in  the  hehaifa{  his  mistress's  beaaty. 

Sidney, 
Michael  this  my  behest  have  thoa  in  chai^. 
Take  to  thee  from  among  the  Cherabim, 
Thy  choice  of  flaming  warriors,  lest  the  fiend. 
Or  in  behalf  of  man,  or  to  invade 
Vacant  possession,  some  new  trouble  raise ; 
Haste  thee,  and  from  the  paradise  of  God 
Without  nmorse  drive  out  the  sinful  pair.    Mihon, 
Were  imt  my  heart  as  naked  to  the  view. 
Marcus  would  see  it  bleed  in  his  behalf,         Addmn. 
Never  was  any  nation  blessed  with  mon  frequent 
interpositions  of  divine  providence  in  its  behalf, 

Attarhmy. 
BE'HANG.    Be  and  hang.    See  Hang. 
BE'HAPPEN.  Be  and  happen.  See  Happen. 
BE'HATED.    Be  and  hate.    See  Hate. 
BEHA'VE,  -^   Beandhavejbeandhaviour. 
Beha'ving,    SGoth.haban.Ang.-Sax.habban! 
BEHA'viouR,>See  Have  and  Haviour. 
To  govern,  to  subdue,  to  discipline,  its  ancient 
and  now  obsolete  sense.    To  carry,  to  act,  to 
eonduct  ones*  self.    Manners,  carnage,  gesture. 


appearance.    It  is  taken  in  either  a  good  or  bad 
sense,  as  he  behaved  well  or  ill. 

The  beautiful  prove  accomplished,  but  not  a£  gnat 
spirit ;  and  study,  for  the  most  part,  rather  behmhmr 
than  virtue.  Batem^ 

He  who  adviseth  the  philosopher,  altogether  de- 
voted to  the  Muses,  sometimes  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the 
altars  oi  the  Graces,  thought  knowledge  impeifert 
without  behaoiour.  WaUtn. 

But  who  his  limbs  with  labours,  and  his  mit^^i 
Behanee  with  cares,  cannot  so  easy  miss. 

Faerie  Qaeem, 

With  such  sober  and  unnoted  passion 
He  did  behane  his  anger  ere  'twas  spent. 
As  if  he  had  but  proved  an  argument.    ■^iiAnnmi. 
One  man  sees  how  much  anoUier  man  is  a  fool, 
when  he  dedicates  his  behanjUmr  to  love.     Shdfapnre. 
Get  ye   all  three  into   this  box.tree ;    MalvoUo's 
coming  down  this  walk ;  he  has  been  yonder  i'the 
sun,  practising  behanumr  to  his  own  shadow,  this  half 
hour  :  observe  him  for  the  love  df  mockery. 

m     ,  Shak^tean. 

To  their  wills  wedded,  to  their  errouxs  slaves. 
No  man  like  them,  they  think,  himself  bd»aeet. 


We  so  live,  and  so  act,  as  if  we  were  secure  of  the 
final  issue  and  event  of  things,  however,  we  may 
behane  ourselves.  Auerhmr^. 

We  are  not,  perhaps,  at  liberty  to  take  for  grsm«d 
that  the  lives  of  the  preachers  of  Christianity  were  as 
perfect  as  these  lessons ;  but  we  are  endtied  to  con- 
tend, that  the  observable  pan  of  their  bdtaeiom  must 
have  agreed  in  a  greater  measure  with  the  dotica 
which  they  taught.  p^ 

BEHEAD,  1      Be  and  head.     See  Head.  " 

Beheading,  S  To  head,  or  behead,  b  to 
take  off,  cut  off,  strike  off,  the  head  :  a  GaUican 
accomplishment,  greatly  in  vogue  during  the 
Revolution. 

His  beheading  he  underwent  with  all  Christian 
magnanimity.  Ctmemia^ 

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  was  beheaded  in  the  leign 
of  queen  Elizabeth.  Adduem. 

I  think  it  was  Caligula  who  wished  the  whole  cky 
of  Rome  had  but  one  neck,  that  he  might  heiuad  them 
at  a  blow.  Speeiater, 

She  (Anne  Boleyn)  was  beheaded  by  the  execu- 
tioner of  Calais,  who  was  sent  for,  as  more  expat 
than  any  in  England.  Mm^. 

On  each  side  they  fly. 
By  chains  connext,  and,  with  destructive  sweep. 
Behead  whole  troops  at  once.  PMys. 

Lord  Clarendon  relates  that  he  (marquis  of  Aigyle) 
was  condemned  to  be  hanged,  which  was  petfoimcd 
on  the  same  day ;  on  the  contrary,  Burnet,  Woodrow, 
Heath,  Echard,  concur  in  stating  that  he  was  ke^ 
headed;  and  that  he  was  condemned  opcm  the  Satar^ 
day,  and  executed  on  the  Monday.  Pale^ 

Beheading,  a  capital  punishment,  wherein 
the  head  is  severed  from  the  body  by  the  stroke 
of  an  axe,  sword,  or  other  cutting  instrument 
Decollatio,  or  beheading,  was  a  military  punish- 
ment among  the  Romans.  Among  them  the 
head  was  laid  on  a  dppus,  or  block,  placed  in  a 
pit  dug  for  the  purpose ;  in  the  army,  without 
the  vallum ;  in  the  city,  without  the  walls,  at  a 
place  near  the  porta  decumana.  Prepaiatoiy  to 
the  stroke,  the  criminal  was  tied  to  a  stake,  and 
whipped  with  rods.  In  the  early  ages  the  blow 
was  given  with  an  axe,  and  was  but  clumsily 
performed;  but  in  after-times  with  a  sword, 
which  was  thought  the  more  reputable  manner  ot' 
dying :  when  the  executioneis  grew  more  expert. 


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and  took  oif  the  head  with  one  circular  stroke. 
St.  Paul  thus  says  that  the  magistrate  '  beareth 
not  the  sword  in  vain.'  In  England,  beheading 
is  the  punishment  of  nobles,  being:  reputed  not 
w  disgraceful  as  hanging.  In  France,  during 
the  revolutionary  government,  the  practice  of  be- 
heading by  an  instrument  called  a  guillotine  (so 
denominated  from  its  inventor.  Dr.  Guillot,)  was 
very  general.  It  resembles  an  instrument  long 
ago  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  Scotland,  called 
the  maiden,  and  which  is  still  preserved  in  Edin- 
burgh. See  Guillotine  and  Maiden.  It  is 
doubtless  the  most  speedy,  and  least  painful,  of 
capital  punishments. 

BE'HEARD,  he  and  heard,  past  participle  of 
the  verb  to  hear.    See  Hear. 

BEH  EM  (Martin),  an  eminent  geographer  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg. 
Assuming  the  existence  of  a  western  continent, 
he  is  said  to  have  applied,  in  1459,  to  Isabella, 
regent  of  the  duchy  of  Burgundv  and  Flanders, 
to  supply  him  with  a  vessel,  wiu  which  he  dis- 
Govered  the  island  of  Fayal,  one  of  the  Azores,  or 
at  least  established  a  colony  of  Flemings  there, 
for  the  discovery  is  claimed  for  Gonsalvo  Velho, 
a  Portuguese.  Afler  residing  at  Fayal  for  twenty 
years,  in  1484  (eight  years  b«fore  the  expedition 
of  Columbus),  according  to  letters  of  nis  still 
preserved,  it  is  said,  in  the  archives  of  Nurem- 
oerg,  he  induced  John  II.  of  Portugal,  to  intrust 
him  with  the  command  of  an  expedition  to  the 
south-west.  He  is  said,  at  this  time,  to  have  dis- 
covered firasil,  and  even  to  have  sailed  to  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  which  he  mathematically 
delineated  on  a  map.  These  letters  bear  date 
I486;  and  the  event  is  related  in  the  Latin 
Chronicle  of  Hartman  Schedl,  and  by  Peter 
Mateus,  who  wrote  on  the  canon  law  two  years 
before  the  expedition  of  Columbus.  His  dis- 
ooveries  are  likewise  referred  to  by  Cellarius  and 
Riccioli,  the  first  of  whom  mentions  the  service 
which  his  charts  afforded  Magellan  ;  and  the  latter 
asserts  that  Columbus  obtsuned  direct  informa- 
tion from  Behem  in  Madeira.  He  was  knighted 
by  the  king  of  Portugal,  and  otherwise  honored 
as  a  person  of  great  merit ;  although  these  re- 
wards some  writers  attribute  to  his  discovery  of 
Congo.  He  died  at  Lisbon  in  in  July  1506, 
leaving  no  works  behing  him,  except  the  chart 
before  mentioned,  and  a  terrestrial  globe,  still  in 
the  library  of  Nuremberg,  &c.  Dr.RoberUon  treats 
the  stoiy  of  his  discovery  of  America  as  a  legend ; 
n  is  certainly  strange  that  he  should  leave  the 
world  without  more  formally  claiming  it ;  but 
the  memoir  of  M.  Otto,  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Transactions,  may  be  profitably 
consulted  on  this  curious  question. 

BEHEMOTH,  «.  s.  Behemoth,  in  Hebrew, 
signifies  beasts  in  general,  particularly  the 
larger  kind,  fit  for  service.  But  Job  speaks  of 
an  animal  behemoth,  and  describes  its  properties. 
Bochait  has  taken  much  care  to  make  it  the 
hippopotamus,  or  river-horse.  Sanctius  thinks 
it  18  an  ox.  The  &thers  suppose  the  devil  to  be 
meant  by  it.  Calmei. 

Behold  now  h^emoth,  which  I  made  with  thee ;  he 
cftteth  grass  as  an  ox.  Job. 

Scarce  from  his  mould 
Behemoth,  biggest  bom  of  earth,  epbesvM 


His  vsstness :  ileec'd  the  flocks  and  bleating  nse 
As  plants  :  ambiguous  between  sea  and  land. 
The  river-borse  and  scaly  crocodile.  MUton, 

Behold!  in  plaited  mail 
Behemoth  rears  his  head.  Thornton. 

Behemoth  is  generally  supposed  by  commen- 
tators, as  well  as  natural  historians,  to  mean 
either  the  elephant  or  the  river-horse.  The  late 
Mr.  Bruce  endeavours  to  prove  that  the  rhino- 
ceros is  the  animal  meant  by  this  word.  Others 
think  that  thb  word  denotes  the  same  animal  with 
mammoth,  a  huge  creature,  generally  supposed 
to  be  extinct ;  but  whose  bones  are  firequently 
found  in  marshy  grounds  in  Asia  and  America. 
See  Mammoth.  According  to  the  Jewish  rab- 
bin, God,  in  the  beginning,  created  two  behe- 
moths, male  and  female ;  the  female  was  killed 
and  salted  to  be  reserved  as  an  entertainment  for 
the  faithful  whenever  the  Messias  shall  come ; 
the  male  is  still  living,  and  when  the  last  day 
arrives,  God  will  kill  it,  and  give  it  to  the  Israel- 
ites, who  shall  then  rise  from  the  dead.  Calmet 
relates  that  the  Jews  are  still  so  convinced  of 
these  extravagant  traditions,  that  it  is  a  common 
custom  to  swear  by  the  share  that  they  are  to 
have  of  Behemoth  hereafter.  Job  xl.  15.  See 
Calmeft  Dictionary ,  and  Harmer'i  Oinervatiom 
on  Scripture,  vol.  ii. 

BE'HELD,  participle  passive  from  Behold, 
which  see. 

All  hail !  ye  virgin  daughters  of  the  main ! 
Ye  streams,  beyond  my  hopes,  beheld  again !      Pope, 

BE'HEN, )     Valerian  roots ;  a  name  of  the 
Ben.         )  silene  inflata  or  bladder  campion 

BE'HEST,  Be  and  best;  Goth.  h(utan;  A 
Shcaan,  hatan;   Dutch,  heien;   Germ,  heinen, 
command ;  precept ;  mandate ;  the  declared  will 
of  any  personage,  power,  or  sovereignty. 
To  breken  forword  is  not  min  entente 
Behcet  is  dette,  and  I  would  hold  it  fayn 
All  my  beheti  I  can  no  better  sayn.  Chaueer. 

Her  tender  youth  bad  obediently  lived  under  her 

parents'  behmU,  without  framing,  out  of  her  own  will, 

the  forechoosing  of  any  thing.  8idmey. 

To  visit  oft  those  happy  tribes. 

On  high  behettt  his  angels  to  and  fro 

Pass'd  frequent 

In  heav'n  God  ever  blest,  and  his  divine  _ 

Behettt  obey,  worthiest  to  be  obey'd.  Id, 

The  plain,  by  slow  degrees,  shall  rise 
Higher  than  erst  had  stood  the  summit  hill ; 
For  time  must  nature's  great  beheei  fulfil.  Prior. 

BEHET, 

Beui'c 

Beho'i 

Beho'i 

Behe'teer, 

Right.    Likewise  to  command ;  to  adjudge ;  to 
address ;  to  intend ;  to  reckon ;  to  esteem. 

^Xn  right  ill  array 

She  was  with  storm  and  heat,  I  you  behighi  (inform). 


False  fiitour,  Scudamour,  that  hast  by  flight 
And  foule  advantage  this  good  knight  dismay 'd, 
A  knight  much  better  than  thyself  Mdjfki  (esteemed). 

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The  author'*  meaming  should  of  right  be  heard. 
He  knoweth  beet  to  what  emd  he  enditeth ; 
Words  sometimes  bear  more  than  the  heart  bek^hitih 

(mrans).  Mirror  for  Magitlratet. 

Aud  him  restoring  unto  living  light. 
So,  brought  unto  his  lord,  where  he  did  sit 
Beholding  all  that  womanish  weake  fight ; 
Whom  soone  as  he  beheld  he  knew,  and  thus  beMgkt 

(addressed).  Spmmr. 

There  it  was  judged,  by  those  worthy  wights. 
That  Satyrane  the'  first  day  best  had  donne  ; — 
The  second  was  to  Triamond  behighi  (adjudged).   Id» 
So  taking  courteous  conge,  he  befu^  (commanded) 
Those  gates  to  be  unbarr'd  ;  and  forth  he  went.     Jd, 

But  now  aread,  old  father,  why  of  lata 
Didst  thou  hehigkt  (name)  me  born  of  English  blood. 
Whom  all  a  faeries  son  do  nominate?  Id. 

That  most  glorious  house  that  glis'treth  bright. 
Whereof    the  keys  are  to  thy  hands  hM^  (en- 
trusted) 
By  wise  Fidelia.  Id* 

Sir  Guyon,  mindful  of  his  vow  yplight. 
Uprose  from  drowsy  couch,  and  him  addrest 
Unto  the  journey  which  he  had  hdught  (proposed  or 

premised).  Id. 

BEHE'W,  V.  be  and  hew.    See  Hew. 

BEHIND,  nrep.  "^     The  imper.  be,  and  the 

Behind,  OCR;.        >  noun  bind.    Goth.  Aiiufer; 

Behinddand.  3  Sax.  bekindauy  hiiukm, 
after.  Posterior  in  time  or  space,  dilatory,  too 
late.  There  is  a  distinction,  however,  to  be  ob- 
served between  the  meaning  of  after  and  behind: 
after  respects  order;  behind  respects  position: 
one  runs  after  a  person,  or  stands  behind  his 
chair.  After  is  used  either  figuratively  pr  li- 
terally; behind  is  used  only  literally.  See 
Crabbe. 

Whan  that  thou  wendest  homeward  by  the  mell. 
Right  at  the  entree  of  the  dore  behind. 

Thou  shalt  a  cake  of  half  a  bushel  find. 
That  was  ymaked  of  thin  owen  mele 
Which  that  1  halpe  my  fader  for  to  stele. 

Chaucer's  Canterbmy  Tales. 

After  the  overthrow  of  this  first  house  of  God,  a 
serond  was  erected ;  but  with  so  great  odds,  that  they 
wept,  which  beheld  how  much  tUs  latter  came  behind 
it.  Hooker. 

Therefore  the  prince,  whom  great  affaires  in  mynd 
Would  not  permit  to  make  there  longer  stay. 
Was  foiced  there  to  leave  them  both  behjfnd 
In  that  good  hermit's  chaige,  whom  he  did  pray 
To  tend  them  well,  so  forth  he  went  his  way. 

Spemer. 

All  hurt  behind,  backs  red,  and  faces  pale 
With  flight  and  sgued  fear !  Mend  and  chaige  home. 
Or,  by  ihe  fires  of  heaven.  111  leave  the  foe. 
And  make  my  wars  on  you.  8hakq»eare, 

And  these  thy  offices. 
So  rarely  kind,  are  as  interpreters 
Of  my  behindhand  slackness.  Id. 

'  his  ponderous  shield. 

Ethereal  temper,  massy,  large,  and  round. 
Behind  him  cast.  MUion. 

Such  is  the  swiftness  of  your  mind. 

That  like  the  earth's,  it  leaves  our  sense  behind. 

Drgden. 

What  he  gave  me  to  publish,  was  but  a  small  part 
if  what  he  left  behind  him.  Pope. 

Consider,  whether  it  is  not  better  to  be  half  a 
rear  behindhand  with  the  fisshionable  part  of  the 
irorld,  than  to  strmia  beyond  his  circumstances. 


We  cannot  be  sure  that  we  have  all  the  paitiadaH 
before  us ;  and  that  there  is  no  evidence  behind,  and 
yet  unseen,  that  may  cast  the  probability  on  the  other 
side. 


In  the  journey  of  life  some  are  left  I 
they  are  naturally  feeble  and  slow;  i 
they  miss  the  way,  and  many  because  they  leave  it 
by  choice,  and,  instead  of  pressing  onward  with  a 
steady  pace,  delight  themselves  with  momentary  de- 
viations, turn  aside  to  pluck  every  flower  and  repose 
in  every  shade.  Johnson.  RaaMer. 

BEIilRAT  EL  Merdj,  er  Kuotaibe,  a  lake 
of  Syria,  about  seven  or  eight  leagues  in  drcuai- 
ference.  It  has  no  visible  outlet,  and  the  waten 
not  exhibiting  any  sensible  increase  by  the  rivers 
and  the  melting  of  snow  which  it  receivess  it  n 
supposed  to  discharge  them  by  some  sohtena- 
neous  channel.  Distant  twenty-oae  miles  east  of 
Damascus. 

BEHMEN  (Jacob).    See  Boehmbn. 

BEHN  (Aphra),  an  authoress,  descended  fnm 
a  good  family  m  Canterbury,  was  bom  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  1.  Her  fadier's  name  vras  Johnson, 
whoth rough  the  interest  of  lord  WiU<Kigfaby,  to 
whom  he  was  related,  was  appointed  lieutenaDt- 
general  of  Surinam.  Mr^  Johnson  died  on  die 
voyage  thither;  but  his  fiunily  reaching  Smi- 
nam,  settled  there  for  some  yean.  Here  Aphia 
formed  an  intimacy  with  the  American  pnnoe 
Oroonoko,  and  his  beloved  Imoinda,  whose  ad- 
ventures she  relates  in  her  celebrated  novel  of 
that  name,  and  which  Mr.  Southeme  afterwards 
made  the  ground-work  of  one  of  the  best  trage- 
dies in  the  English  language.  On  her  return  to 
London,  she  became  the  wife  of  Mr.  Behn,  aner- 
chant,  of  Dutch  extraction ;  but  her  wit,  abilities, 
and  some  less  creditable  qualifications,  haring 
brought  her  into  estimation  at  the  court  of  Charies 
II.  she  was  sent  over  to  Antwerp,  where,  by  means 
of  her  influence  over  Vender  Albert,  a  Datdi- 
man  of  eminence,  she,  in  1666,  sent  home  in- 
telligence of  the  design  formed  by  De  Royter, 
to  bum  the  English  ships  in  their  nu-boors.  In 
her  return  to  l^gland  she  was  nearly  lost  in  a 
storm.  From  this  period  she  devoted  her  lifr 
entirely  to  pleasure  and  the  Muses ;  and  her  wit 
gained  her  the  acquaintance  of  Dryden,  Sooth- 
erne,  and  other  men  of  genius.  She  publi^ed 
Miscellaneous  Poems;  Histories  and  Novds; 
translated  Fontenelle's  Plumlity  of  Worlds,  aud 
annexed  a  criticism  on  it ;  her  Plays  make  ionr 
volumes.  The  character  her  plays  should  main- 
tain in  dramatic  history,  it  is  ^flicolt  to  deter- 
mine, as  their  &ults  vatd.  perfections  are  equally 
striking.  In  all,  even  the  most  indilfepeBt  oJF 
her  pieces,  there  are  strong  marks  of  geniiis  and 
understanding.  Her  plots  are  full  of  bi^anesi 
and  ingenuity,  and  ner  dialogue  everywhere 
sparkles  with  the  dazzling  lustre  of  genuine  wit 
But  then  she  has  been  accused  of  interlanlinff 
her  comedies  with  the  most  indecent  scenes,  and 
giving  an  indulgence  in  her  wit  to  the  most  in- 
delicate expressions.  Pope,  in  bis  characters  of 
women,  alludes  to  Mrs.  Behn  nnder  her  poetical 
name  of  Astrea : 

The  stage  how  loosely  does  Attrea  tread. 
Who  fairly  pnts  her  characters  to  bed. 


Sjpeeiaier.    After  a  life  intermingled  with  nnmeroiis  dittp- 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BEH 


759 


BEH 


pointments^  she  died  Aprril  16,  1689,  and  lies 
interred  in  Westmioster  Abbey. 

BEHOXD,         ^     Compounded  of  the  in- 

Beho'ldkn,         /  tensive  be  and  hold,  it  sig- 

Beho'loing,         >  nifies  to  hold  or  fix  the  eye 

Beuo'lder,       '  m  on  an  object ;  it  is  derived 

Beiio'ldingness,  J  from  the  Saxon  behealdan. 
It  is  sometimes  employed  as  an  interjection,  in 
order  to  excite  attention  or  admiration.  Behol- 
den, participle  adjective.  Dut.  Gehouden.  To 
be  held,  ana  as  applied  to  the  mind,  to  be  held 
in  obligation.  Beholdingness  expresses  the  state 
of  being  obliged.  Hold  in  the  sense  of  being 
under  bond  or  obligation,  is  used  by  Gower, 
Conf.  Am.  book  vii.   and   also  in    book  viii.  _  .  . 

,  Behold  is  used  by  Wiolif,  and  some  of  the  elder    ^  "  ^^^  extraordinary, 
writers,  in  the  sense  of  preference,  to  look  on    ^®'  y<>"  instruction, 
with  favor. 

Maist«re  we  witen  that  thou  art  soth  ^t  and 
thou  techiae  m  treuth  the  wey  of  God,  and  thoa  char- 
gist  not  of  ony  man,  for  thoa  beholdut  not  the  per- 
8one  of  men,  therefore  seye  to  us,  what  it  teemeth  to 
thee.  Widif.  Matt.  chap.  zxii. 

Thej  ihoold  consider  howe  deeply  they  wer  bounden 
and  beholden  to  hym,  therefore,  and  with  devout 
thankes  inwardlye  remember  his  ineatimable  booty 
therin.  Sir  Tfumaa  Man's  Workes, 

His  pleasure  was,  that  for  our  saluscion  we  should 
to  him  be  hehoUyng,  and  not  to  the  kepyng  of  the 
lawe. 


UdaU,  Galathmt.  ci^. 
This  olde  Soudannesse 
Ordeined  hath  the  feste  of  which  I  tolde ; 
And  to  the  feste,  Cristen  folk  hem  dresse. 
In  general  ya,  both  yonge  and  olde 
Ther  may  men  fest  and  realtee  behoUe 
4nd  deintees,  mo  than  I  can  you  devise ; 
But  all  to  dere  they  bought  it  or  they  rise. 

Chaucer,  Cant,  TaU$. 
Dan  Troilus,  as  he  was  wont  to  gide. 
His  yonge  knightis,  ledde  hem  up  and  downe 
In  thrlke  large  temple  on  every  side ; 
Beholding  aio  the  laJeis  of  the  toune, 
■Tow  here,  now  there  ;  for  no  devocioune 
Bad  he  to  none,  to  revin  him  his  rest. 
But  gan  to  praise  and  lackin  whom  he  lest. 

Id,     Tr&dm  and  Crcmde, 

All  sodainely  she  saw  transfigured 
Her  linnen  stole  to  robe  of  scarlet  red. 
And  moone-like  mitre  to  a  crowne  of  gold  ; 
That  even  she  herself  much  wondehsd 
At  such  a  cbaunge,  and  ioyed  to  hehM 
Hesself  adom'd  with  genu  and  iewells  manifold. 

Qpenm, 
With  him  went  Hope  in  rancke,  a  handsome  mayd. 
Of  chearcful  looke,  and  lovely  to  hehoid ; 
In  silken  samite  she  was  light  array'd. 
And  her  fayrc  locks  were  woven  up  in  gold.  •  Id, 
The  king  invited  us  to  his  court,  so  as  I  must  ac- 
knowledge a  beholdtngnem  unto  him.  SOney, 

Tn  this,  my  debt,  I  scem'd  loth  to  confess, 
tn  that  I  shunn'd  hehcidingma.  Dome, 

When  Thessalians  on  horseback  were  beheld  afar 
off,  while  their  horses  watered,  while  their  heads  were 
depressed,  they  were  conceived  by  the  specutors  to 
lie  one  animal.  Brown's  Vu^ar  Brrours. 

I  found  you  next,  in  respect  of  bond,  both  of  near 

and  particulsrl)  of  communicadon  in  stu- 

wherein  I  must  acknowledge  mysalf  beholden  to 

Baeom. 


Horns,  which  such  as  you  are  fain  t^be  ftdkdUm  to 
your  wives  for.  Shahtpeare. 

Little  are  we  beholden  to  your  love. 
And  little  look'd  for  at  your  helping  hands.  Id, 

For  Brutus'  sake,  I  am  beholden  to  you.  Id, 

But  I  will  haste,  and  &om  each  bough  and  brake 
Each  plant  and  juiciest  gourd  will  pluck  such  cheer 
To  entertain  our  angel  guest,  as  he 
Beholding  shall  confess,  that  here  on  earth 
God  hath  dispens'd  his  bounties  as  in  heaven. 

MiUon. 
When  out  of  hope  behold  her!  not  far  off. 
Such  as  I  saw  her  in  my  dream,  adom'd 
With  what  all  earth  or  heaven  could  bestow. 
To  make  her  amiable.  Id, 

The  philosophy  you  have  condescended  to  reveal  to 
We  are  beholden  to  you 
Shafiednarg, 
Man  looks  aloft,  and,  with  erected  eyes. 
Beholds  his  own  hereditary  skies.  JDryden* 

At  this  the  former  tale  again  he  told^ 
With  thundering  tone,  and  dreadful  to  behold. 

Id, 
The  Saviour  comes,  by  ancient  bards  foretold ! 
Hear  him,  ye  deaf;  and  all  ye  blind  behold  I      Pope, 
I  think  myself  mighty  beholden  to  you  for  the  repre- 
hension you  then  gave  us.  Addison, 
We,  who  see  men  under  the  awe  of  justice,  cannot 
conceive  what  savi^e  creatures  they  would  be  without 
it ;  and  how  much  beholden  we  are  to  that  wise  con- 
trivance.                                                       Atterbury, 
BEHO'OVE,  or^ 


Beho've,  v.  &  n. 

Behoof, 

Behove'ful, 

Behove'fully, 

Behov'able, 

Beho'vedly, 

Behove'ly. 


Sax.  behopan,  it  is  a 
duty.  To  be  fit;  to  be 
meet:  either  with  respect 
to  duty,  necessity,  or  con- 
venience. It  is  used  only 
impersonally  with  t^ 


Her  majesty  may  alter  any  thing  of  those  laws,  for 
her  own  behoof,  and  for  the  good  of  the  people. 

Speneer, 

It  is  veiy  behoiKeJid  in  this  country  of  Ireland, 

where  there  are  waste  deseru  fill  of  grass,  that  the 

same  should  be  eaten  down.  Id, 

Tell  OS  of  more  weighty  disUkes  than  these,  and 

that  may  more  behoooefulljf  import  the  reformadon. 

Id, 

Laws  are  many  times  full  of  imperfections ;  and 

that  which  is  supposed  behooveful  unto  men,  proveth 

oftentimes  most  pernicious.  Hooker, 

For  better  examination  of  their  quality,  it  behoooeth 

the  very  foundation  and  root,  the  highest  well-spring 

and  fountain  of  them,  to  be  discovered.  Id, 

Madam,  we  have  oullM  such  necessaries 

As  are  behoooeful  for  our  state  to-morrow. 

Shahspeare* 
No  mean  recompence  it  brings 
To  your  behoof:  if  I  that  region  lost. 
All  usurpation  thence  expcU'd,  reduce 
To  her  original  dafkness,  and  your  sway. 

Wert  thou  some  star,  whirh  from  the  ruinM  roof 
Of  shak'd  Olympus  by  mischance  didst  fall ; 
Which  careful  Jove,  in  nature's  true  behoof. 
Took  up,  and  in  fit  place  did  reinstall.  Id. 

Because  it  was  for  the  behoof  of  the  animal,  that* 
upon  any  sudden  accident,  it  might  be  awakened^ 
there  were  no  shuts  or  stopples  made  for  the  ears. 

Ray, 

It  may  be  most  isftooorVf  for  prinees,  in  matlen 
6!  ^racc,  to  transact  the  lame  puUidy ;  so  it  it  M 


Digitized  by 


Googl( 


BEI 


760 


BEI 


and 


requisite  in  matten  of  judgment,  pnnithment, 
censure,  that  (ke  same  be  transacted  prirately, 

CUuremdoH. 
It  would  be  of  no  behoof,  for  the  settling  of  go- 
vernment, unless  there  were  a  way  taught,  how  to 
Vnow  the  person  to  whom  belonged  this  power  and 
dominion.  Locks. 

He  did  so  prudently  temper  his  passions,  as  that 
none  of  them  made  him  wanting  in  the  offices  of  life, 
which  it  behoooed  or  became  him  to  perform. 

AUerhnry, 
But  should  you  lure  the  monarch  of  the  brook, 
Behoooei  you  then  to  ply  your  finest  art,  Thammm. 
BEHOWL,  be  and  howl.  See  Howl. 
BEJA,  or  Bexa,  an  appanage  of  the  queens 
of  Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Alentejo,  com- 
prehending a  city,  tnree  towns,  and  twenty-one 
parishes.  The  chief  place  is  the  city  of  Beja, 
which  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  duchy  by  King 
John  II.,  and  has  a  population  of  6000  inhabi- 
tants. It  was  anciently  the  Roman  Pax  Julia. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  who  is  suffragan  of  Com- 
postella,  and  lies  on  tne  side  of  a  hill,  in  a  de- 
lightful tract  of  country,  seventy-two  jniles 
S.  S.  E.  of  Lisbon.  Long.  7^  50' W.,  lat.  37° 
55.  N. 

BEJADE,  be  and  jade.  See  Jade. 
BEJAGUR  (Vijayaghar),  a  district  in  the 
province  of  M alwah,  situated  about  the  twenty- 
second  degree  of  north  latitude.  It  is  possessed 
by  different  MahratU  chiefs.  The  chief  towns 
are  Awass,  Sindwab,  and  Gherowd. 

BEJAPE,  be  and  jape ;  perhaps  as  jabber, 
and  gibe,  from  Germ,  gabbaren;  Fr.  gaber;  Ital. 
gabbare.    To  joke,  mock,  deride,  delude,  jeer. 
Thou  hast  b^aped  here  dark  Theseus 
And  falsely  changed  hast  thy  name  thus. 

Chaucer, 
BEJAPOUR,  a  city  of  Hindostan.    See  Vi- 

SXAPOUR. 

BEJAR,  a  town  of  Estremadura  in  Spain,  in 
the  district  of  Placentia,  famous  for  its  baths.  It 
is  seated  in  a  very  agreeable  valley,  surrounded 
with  high  mountains,  whose  tops  are  always  co- 
vered with  snow.  Here  the  duke  of  Bejar  had 
a  handsome  palace :  it  was  raised  to  a  dukedom 
in  the  house  of  Zuniga  in  1448.  In  this  neigh- 
bourhood are  forests  filled  with  game,  and 
watered  with  fine  springs ;  also  a  lake  abounding 
with  excellent  fish.  It  is  pretended  that  this  lake 
is  so  much  agitated  before  a  storm  as  to  be  heard 
fifteen  miles  off*. 

BEJASI,  or  Beiasites,  a  liberal  sect  of  Ma- 
hommedan  Arabs. 

BEIBENIiE  Stellje,  a  name  riven  bjr  some 
astronomers  to  the  principal  fixed  stars  in  each 
constellation ;  otherwise  .  called  corda,  though 
some  distin^ish  between  corda  and  beibenis 
Stella,  restraining  the  former  to  stars  only  of  the 
first  magnitude,  and  extending  the  latter  to  seve- 
ral of  the  second  or  third.  Hermes  has  a  trca^ 
tise  express  De  Stellis  Beibeniis,  published  by 
Junctinus,  in  his  Speculum  Astrologicum,  and 
also  in  his  commentaries  upon  Jo.  de  Sacrobos- 
co's  book  De  Sphere. 

BEICHLINGEN,  a  county  of  Saxony,  in 
Thuringia,  on  the  Lossa,  and  belonging,  since 
1815,  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  The  castle  of 
Beicfalingen  is  situate   not  far'^rom  Kolleda, 


eighteen  miles   north  of  Weimar,  and  twoKy 

north-east  of  Erfurt. 

BEIDELSAR,  in  botany,  a  name  by  which 
some  authors  call  the  apocynum  Syriacum,  or 
Syrian  dogVbttne,  a  poisonous  plaLt 

BEJETZK,  or  Beshezh,  a  town  of  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Twer,  the  capital  of  a  drele 
of  the  same  name.  Here  are  3100  inhabitants ;  and 
an  annual  fiair  is  held  here,  which  lasts  five  days. 
The  principal  articles  for  sale  are  giain,  iron, 
silk,  and  cotton  stuffs.  It  is  forty-eight  miles 
N.N.  E.  of  Twer,  260  south-east  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

BEJIGHUR,  a  tovm  in  the  Mahratta  territo- 
ries, in  the  province  of  Agra,  Hindostan,  about 
seventy  miles  south-west  from  Agra.  It  stands 
at  the  extremity  of  a  low  hill,  and  has  an  upper 
and  lower  fort.  The  surrounding  country  con- 
sists of  ranges  of  low  hills  much  covered  with 
junrie,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  inter- 
mediate plains,  intersected  by  deep  ravines;  but 
upon  the  whole,  well  supplied  with  water. 

BEILD,  beeld,  shelter.  Old  Sax.  be-hlidan, 
to  cover,  to  protect,  to  shelter. 

BEILSTEIN,  in  mineralogy,  axe-stone,  a 
green  stone,  remarkable  for  its  toughness,  and 
used  by  the  South  Sea  islanders,  the  New  Zea- 
landers,  for  making  hatchets,  &c.  Images  of 
idols  and  personal  ornaments  have  also  been 
made  from  it;  numbers  of  which  have  been 
brought  to  this  country,  and  may  be  seen  in  both 
public  andprivate  cabinets. 

BEIN,  Beinn,  or  Bhein,  in  the  Gaelic  lan- 
guage, signifies  a  mountain,  and  accordingly 
makes  part  of  the  names  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  hills  and  mountains  in  Scotland ;  particu- 
larly, 

Bein-an-Ini,  in  Argyllshire,  which  has  a  seam 
of  coals  in  it,  that  has  been  twice  attempted  to 
be  wrought,  but  from  various  causes  given  up. 

Bein-an-Lochan,  i.  e.  the  hill  of  the  lake,  in 
Argyllshire,  so  named  from  a  lake  which  washes 
its  base. 

BEiK-ARnLANiCH,  in  Ranoch,  in  the  parish  of 
Fortingal,  Perthshire,  about  3500  feet  alwve  tite 
levelof  the  sea,&c. 

BEINASCHI  (Giovanni  BattisU),  historical 
painter,  vna  a  Piedmontese,  and  bom  in  1634. 
He  studied  at  Rome,  under  Pietro  del  Po ;  and 
some  say  afterwards  under  Lanfranc.  It  is  cer- 
tain he  was  particularly  fond  of  Lanfranc's 
works,  and  became  so  thoroughly  acquainted 
vfiih  his  style  and  manner,  that  many  of  his  pic- 
tures are,  at  this  day,  accounted  the  works 
of  Lanfranc.  He  was  an  admirable  designer ; 
his  invention  was  lively,  and  he  was  not  only 
expeditious  but  correct  His  merits  procured 
him  the  honor  of  knighthood,  whence  he  is 
styled  cavalier. 

BEINHEIM,  a  fort  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Lower  Rhine,  and  ci-devant  pro- 
vince of  Alsace;  seated  on  the  Sur,  near  its 
confluence  with  Uie  Rhine. 

BEIRA,  a  province- of  Portugal,  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  on  the  south  by 
the  Portuguese  Estremadura;  on  the  south-east 
by  the  Spanish  Estremaduia ;  on  the  east  by  the 
Diovincc  of  Tralos  Monies,  and  Entie-Dwso-e- 
Minho ;  and  on  the  north  by  the  river  Douro. 


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It  extends  in  length  about  thirty-ibur  leagues, 
and  in  breadth  about  thirty  leagues,  and  is  di- 
Tided  into  six  commarcas.  The  chief  episcopal 
city  is  Coimbra,  which  is  likewise  an  university ; 
and  Viseu,  also  a  bishopric,  and  formerly  the 
capital  of  a  dukedom.  It  contains,  altogether, 
seven  episcopal  cities,  230  towns,  and  900,000 
inhabitants.  The  country  is  equally  agreeable 
and  fruitful,  producing  com,  wines,  &c.  in 
abundance,  and  the  hills  affording  excellent  pas- 
ture to  cattle  and  sheep.  Of  late,  however,  the 
grain  has  been  said  not  to  be  sufficient  for 
home  consumption  ;  and  that  the  chestnut-trees, 
which  cover  many  of  the  mountains,  supply 
the  place  of  it  to  many  of  the  lower  orders  of  the 
people.  Olive  plantations  are  numerous,  and 
their  produce,  with  that  of  the  vineyards,  forms  the 
chief  exports.  Mines,  both  of  silver  and  lead, 
were  formerly  wrought  in  the  mimntainous  dis- 
tricts, and  rich  specimens  of  ore  have  been 
found  near  Lamego;  but  since  Portugal  ob- 
tained her  American  possessions,  the  inhabitants 
have  been  prohibited  from  extracting  the  precious 
metals. 

BEIRAM,  or  Bairam.    See  Bairam. 

BEISCH  (Joachim  Francis),  a  painter  of 
landscapes  and  battles,  bom  at  Ravensburgh  in 
Suabia  m  1665.  He  was  taught  the  mdiments 
of  the  art  by  his  father ;  and  first  employed  at 
the  court  of  Munich  in  painting  the  battles  of  the 
emperor  Maximilian  Emanuel  in  Hungary, 
^hile  that  prince  was  absent  on  some  of  his 
expeditions,  Beisch  took  the  opportunity  of  visit- 
ing Italy,  and  it  is  a  sufficient  testimony  of  the 
perfection  to  which  he  arrived  to  say,  that  even 
Solimene  copied  several  of  his  landscapes.  The 
scenes  of  his  landscapes  are  agreeably  chosen, 
and  picturesque :  his  touch  is  light,  tender,  and 
full  of  spirit ;  and«his  style  of  composition  re- 
sembles that  of  Gaspar  Poussin,  or  Salvator 
Rosa.  He  etched  several  pleasing  views  in  a 
good  taste,  but  these  prints  are  scarce.  He  died 
in  1748. 

BEISSKER,  in  ichthyology,  a  name  given  by 
Gesner  and  others  to  the  fish  commonly  called 
mustela  fossilis.  It  is  a  species  of  the  cobitis, 
distinguished  by  Artedi  by  the  name  of  the  bluish 
cobitis,  with  fine  longitudinal  lines  on  each 
side.  Schonefeldt  calls  this  the  pecilia,  and 
Johnson  the  piscis  fossilis. 

BEISTON,  a  township  in  the  parbh  of  Bun- 
bury  and  couuty  of  Chester,  distinguished  for 
the  rains  of  a  fortress  built  in  the  year  1220,  by 
Handle  Blundeville,  earl  of  Chester.  It  enclosed 
an  area  of  about  five  or  six  acres,  and  viras 
guaid/Nl  on  the  accessible  side  by  a  vast  moat  cut 
in  the  solid  rock.  The  other  side  rose  on  a  mass 
of  insulated  rocks,  almost  perpendicularly,  to  the 
height  of  366  feet.  In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
Jiis  stately  pih>  was  almost  dilapidated :  yet  in 
the  civil  wars  of  Charles  I.'s  reign,  we  find  it  in 
a  state  of  defence,  which  rendered  it  a  most  im- 
portant post  ^t  was  garrisoned  for  the  parlia- 
ment, wnen  a  Oaptain  Sandford,  a  celeWated 
cavalier,  undertook  to  scale  its  perpendicular 
side;  and  having  thus  gained  entrance  with 
eight  men,  he  intimidated  the  commander.  Cap- 
tain Steel,  and  compelled  him  to  surrender.  Steel 
was  soon  afterwards  shot  for  cowardice.    The 


royalists  were  then  besieged  for  upwards  of  four 
months.  Prince  Rupert  relieved  them ;  but  the 
castle  was  a  second  time  invested,  and  a  block- 
ade of  eighteen  weeks  reduced  the  garrison  to 
the  most  piteous  extremity  of  famine.  Never- 
theless, after  a  gallant  defence,  they  obtained 
honorable  terms,  and  the  castle  was  immediately 
dismantled  by  order  of  the  parliament. 

BEIT-EL-FAKIH  (the  DoctorVhouse),  a 
town  and  district  of  Arabia,  in  lat.  14°  31'  N., 
long  43**  2'  E.  It  was  founded  by  a  Mussulman 
saint,  named  Ahmid  ibn  Musa,  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  is  the  great  emporium  of  the  coffee 
trade,  the  best  samples  of  that  article  being  pro- 
duced in  the  neighbouring  mountains.  The 
quantity  carried  to  Mocha,  twenty-five  leagues 
distant,  is  about  4000  bales  of  313  pounds  each, 
of  which  thirteen  pounds  are  allowed  for  pack- 
age, unless  the  English  or  French  happen  to  be 
there,  when  it  is  greater.  A  bale  generally  costs 
forty-two  Spanish  piastres,  which,  with  all  duties 
and  expenses,  makes  the  coffee  amount  to  14^d. 
per  pound.  Several  European  powers  have  had 
residents  at  Beit-el-Fakih,  and  merchants  resort 
thither  from  many  parts  of  the  east.  It  is  subject  to 
the  im&m  of  Yemen,  and  has  risen  considerably 
since  the  rain  of  Ghalefkah,  a  town  on  the  Red 
Sea,  formerly  the  port  of  this  part  of  Arabia. 

BEIZA,  or  BEIZATH,  in  Hebrew  antiquity, 
1,  a  word  signifying  an  egg;  2,  a  certain  mea- 
sure among  the  Jews ;  3,  a  gold  coin,  weighing 
forty  drachms,  among  the  Persians,  who  gave  out 
that  Philip  of  Macedon  owed  their  king  Darius 
1000  beizaths,  or  golden  eggs,  for  tribute  money, 
but  Alexander  the  Great  refused  to  pay  them, 
saying,  that  the  bird  which  laid  these  eggs  was 
flown  to  another  world.  4 

BEKESy  or  Bekesch,  a. populous  and 
thriving  market  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  above 
county.  It  is  situated  on  the  river  Black  Ka- 
rosch,  and  was  formerly  a  place  of  strength.  It 
is  inhabited  by  aboriginal  Hungarians,  who  pro- 
fess the  reformed  iiith,  and  have  a  parish 
church. 

BEKESCH,  acounWof  Hungary,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  great  Cumania  and  Bihar,  on 
the  east  by  Zarand,  on  the  south  by  Arad,  and 
on  the  west  by  Zolook  and  Czongrad.  It  forms 
a  square  of  nearly  forty  miles,  and  contains  four 
towns,  sixteen  villages,  and  about  55,000  inhabi- 
tants, who  are  composed  of  Hungarians,  Bohe- 
mians, Sclavonians,  and  Walachians,  professing 
the  Greek,  the  Lutheran,  and  the  Catnolic  reli- 
gions. 

BEKIA,  Becouya,  or  Bequia,  a  small  island 
among  the  Grenadilloes,  in  about  lat.  13®  N., 
belonging  to  Britain,  and  chiefly  valuable  for 
turtle.  It  produces  also  wild  cotton  and  water- 
melons. It  lies  sixty  miles  north-east  of  Gre- 
nada.   The  French  have  called  it  Little. 

BEKISS,  be  and  kiss.    See  Kiss. 

BEKKER  (Balthazar),  a  femous  Dutch  di- 
vine, bora  in  1634  at  Waithuisen,  in  the  province 
of  Groningen.  In  1679  he  was  chosen  minister 
at  Amste^am,  where  he  published  The  World 
Bewitched,  an  ingenious  pi^  against  the 
vulgar  notion  of  spirits,  it  raisal  such  a 
clamor  against  him,  that  he  was  deposed  from 
the  ministry,  but  the  magistrates  of  Amsterdam 


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oentiiiued  his  pension.  His  opinions  were»  that 
the  essence  ot  spirits  consists  in  thinking ;  that 
therefore  spirits  cannot  act  on  bodies  or  other 
spirits :  and  that  those  texts,  which  speak  of  their 
actions  arc  metaphorical.  The  possessions  in 
the  gospels  he  ascribes  to  mental  disorders.  He 
died  in  1608. 

BEKNOWE,  be  and  know.    See  Know. 

BEL,  "7^3,  i.  e.  the  Lord,  Heb.  Cbald.  or 
Belus,  the  supreme  god  of  the  ancient  Chaldeans, 
or  Babylonians.  He  was  considered  as  the 
foimder  of  the  Babylonian  empire;  and  supposed 
to  be  the  Nimrod  of  Scripture ;  the  same  with 
the  Phoenician  Baal.  See  Baal  and  Baby- 
lon. 

Bel,  in  botsny^  the  name  of  a  plant  called  by 
some  the  cucumis  capparis,  or  caper  cucumber. 
This  plant  b  very  imperfcMCtly  described  to  us ; 
and  we  find  among  the  Arabian  writers,  that  the 
fhrit  was  called  by  that  name,  as  well  as  the 
whole  plant.  Avicenna,  who  gives  the  fullest 
account  of  it,  says  that  it  was  an  Indian  plant, 
resembling  in  growth  the  common  cucumber, 
hot  hearing  a  frait  like  the  caper :  he  tells  us  that 
this  fhiit  was  the  onl^  part  ot  the  plant  used  in 
medicine,  and  that  it  was  very  hot  and  bitter, 
being  somewhat  like  ginger  in  the  fiery  taste. 

Bel  (Matthias),  an  eminent  Hungarian  divine, 
bom  at  Orsova  iq  1684.  He  at  first  studied 
physic  at  Halle,  but  gave  it  up  for  theology,  and 
jecame  rector  of  the  school  at  Presburg,  and 
minister  to  a  Lutheran  congregation  there.  He 
wrote,  among  other  works,  a  History  of  Hungary, 
which  was  so  much  admired,  that  the  emperor 
Charles  VL  appointed  him  his  historiographer, 
and  ennobled  turn ;  and  notwithstanding  his  be- 
ing a  Lutheran,  the  pope  m  1736  sent  him  his 
picture,  and  many  large  gold  medab.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  ttoyal  Society  of  London,  and  of 
the  academies  at  Berlin  and  Petersburg.  He 
died  in  1749,  aged  sixty-five, 

Bel  (Charles-Andrew,  son  of  Matthias),  was 
bom  at  Presburg  in  1717.  In  1741  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  extraordinary  at  Leipsic,  and 
m  1756  professor  of  poetry,  and  librarian  to  the 
university,  with  the  title  of  counsellor  of  state. 
He  wrote  De  Vera  Origine  et  Epocha  Ilunnomm, 
8cc.  4to. ;  besides  which  he  conducted  the  AcU 
Eruditorum  from  1754  to  1781.  He  died  in 
1782. 

Bel  and  the  Dragon,  the  History  of,  an 
apocryphal  and  uncanonical  book.  It  was  al- 
ways rejected  by  the  Jewish  church,  and  is  ex- 
tant neither  in  the  Hebrew  nor  the  Chaldee 
language,  nor  is  there  any  proof  that  it  ever  was 
so.  St.  Jerome  gives  it  the  title  of  the  Fable  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon. 

BELA,  a  laige  town  of  Hungary,  in  the 
county  of  Zips.  It  was  one  of  the  sixteen  towns 
which  were  mortgaged  to  Poland  in  1412,  and  is 
inhabited  bv  German  Lutherans,  who  gain  a  live- 
lihood by  the  tillage  of  the  ground,  and  a  trade 
in  wine,  iron,  and  tobacco. 

BELABOUR,  be  and  labor.    See  Labor. 

BELAC,  or  Bellac,  a  city  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Upper  Vienne,  and  ci-devant 
province  of  Lyonnois ;  seated  on  the  Vincon, 
twenty  miles  north  of  Dmoges^  and  160  south  of 
Paris.    It  conlains  3291  inhabitanU. 


be  and  late.    See  Late. 


BELACED,  be  and  laced.    See  Lace. 
BE'LAMIE,  >     Fr.  bd  omit,  bd  amom-;   a 
Be'lamour.  )  friend,  a  paramour,  a  galknt, 
a  consort. 

Wiw  Socrates 
Povr'd  out  his  Itfe,  and  last  philotophy. 
To  the  hit  Critiafl,  his  deaxest  beimmie. 

FaeH§  Qmme. 
ho,  lo,  how  brave  she  decks  her  bounteoas  bov'r 
With  silken  cortaina  and  gold  coverlets. 
Therein  to  shrood  her  sompCiums  beUumomr.  Id. 

BEL'ATE, 
Bel'atedness. 

Fairy  elves. 
Whose  midnight  rerels,  by  a  forest  side. 
Or  fountain,  some  bdaied  peasant  sees. 
Or  dreams  he  sees.  JfUtsn's  Pm  miliai  LmL 

Or  near  Fleetditch's  oozy  brinks. 
Belated,  seoms  on  watch  to  lie.  Smjt 

BELATUCADRUS,  the  name  of  an  ancient 
British  idol,  recorded  in  old  inscriptions ;  and 
supposed  by  Selden  and  Vossius  to  dc  the  same 
with  Belenus. 
BE'LAY,  i  Be  and  lay.  To  waylay,  to  lie 
Be'laysd.  )  in  wait,  to  place  in  ambosh,  to 
overlay,  to  tover. 

'Gminst  such  strong  castles  needeth  greater  mi^bty 
Than  those  small  forces  ye  were  wont  Wjy. 


All  in  a  Goodman's  jacket  he  was  dad. 
Of  Lincolne  greene,  bdayd  with  silver  lace.  /d. 

The  speedy  horse  all  passages  helajf. 
And  spur  their  smoking  steeds  to  cross  their  way. 

JTvysSH. 

To  Belay,  on  board  a  ship,  signifies  the  same 
as  fasten.  Thus  they  say,  beby  the  aheet,  or 
tack,  that  Is,  fasten  it  to  the  kevel,  by  winding  it 
several  times  round  a  last,  &r. 

To  Belay  a  Rope,  a  sea  term  ;  to  splice :  to 
mend  a  rope,  by  laying  one  end  over  another. 

Belbeis,  a  town  of  Egypt,  near  the  Syrian 
frontier,  four  miles  north-west  of  Suez.  It  was 
formerly  well  fortified,  and  the  only  bulwaik  of 
the  kingdom  on  this  side.  Buonaparte,  in  1798^ 
availed  himself  of  it,  and  strengthened  the  forti- 
fications against  the  Turks.  Its  population  is  now 
scarcely  a  third  of  what  it  formerly  was,  and 
does  not  exceed  5000.  It  has  been  suuposed  to 
be  the  ancient  fiubasturo,  but  D'Anville  ratha 
thinks  that  it  was  Pharbothus.  A  junction  here 
takes  place  of  the  canals  derived  from  different 
parts  of  the  Nile. 

BELCH',  V.  &  n. )     Sax.  bealcao.    To  eject 

Belch'ing.  (  wind  from  the  stomach;  to 

eruct.  To  issue  out,  as  by  eructation.  To  throw 
out  from  the  stomach ;  to  eject  from  any  hollow 
place.  It  is  a  word  implying  coarseness,  hate- 
tulness,  or  horror. 

The  bitterness  of  it  I  now  bekh  fimnmy  hrmtL 


They  are  all  but  stomachs,  and  we  all  bat  feed  ; 
They  eat  us  hongerly,  and,  when  they're  faO, 
They  beleki»M^  ML 

Tl.is  thing,  nor  man,  nor  beast,  tarns  al!  Us  wealth 
In  drink ;  his  days,  his  years,  in  liquor  drenching : 
So  quafis  he  sickness  down,  hy  qnalBnx  health; 
Firing  his  chaaks  vilik  qoeBtchiag  ;  sdaagsly  qaenrh 
iag 


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mt  eyes  tridi  firing ;  dnU  oad  f arft  th«y  rollM ; 
But,  nimble  lipt,  known  things  and  hid  unfold ; 
Bekkmgt,  oft  iips,  luge  spits  point  ont  the  tale  he 
told.  Fktcher't  Pwpfe  Idmd. 

Immediate  in  a  flame^ 
But  soon  obeenr'd  with  smoke,  all  heav'n  appeai'd. 
From  those  deep-throated  engines  b^eh'd,  whose  roar 
ImbowellM  with  outrageous  noise  the  air. 
And  all  her  entrails  tore,  disgorging  foul 
Their  devilish  glut,  chain'd  thunderbolu,  and  hail 
Of  iron  globes.  Milton, 

The  waters  boil,  and  belching  from  below. 
Black  sands  as  from  a  forceful  engine  throw. 

Dryien. 
A  triple  pile  of  plumes  his  crest  adom'd. 
On  which  with  belching  flames  Chimaera  bam'd. 

«. 
The  symptoms  are,  a  sour  smell  in  their  ioBees, 
heicMngt,  and  distensions  of  the  bowels. 

Arbuthmoi  m  AVmmi, 

BEXEAGUE,  ^     Be  and  league.    Genn. 

Be'leaguer,      >  lagen^  Dut.  laegherij  be-lae- 

Bc'LEAGTTERER.JgAen,  Swcd.  beieagray  Ang.- 
Sax.  licjan,  to  lay,  to  place  before,  to  attach,  to 
besiege ;  to  lie  before  a  town,  in  order  to  force 
it  to  capitulate. 

Their  business,  whirh  they  carry  on,  is  the  general 
concernment  of  the  Trojan  camp,  then  beleaguered  by 
Tumus  and  the  Latins.  Dryden'a  Dufremog, 

Against  beleaguer'd  heav'n  the  gianto  move ; 
Hills  pilM  on  hills,  on  moontuns  mountains  lie. 
To  make  theb  mad  approaehes  to  the  sky.      Dfjfdm, 

BE'LEE,  v.  a.  A  term  used  in  navigation. 
To  place  in  a  direction  unsuitable  to  the  ivind. 

But  he  (sir)  had  th'  election  ; 
And  I  (of  whom  his  eyes  had  seen  the  proof 
At  Rhodes,  at  Cyprus,  and  on  other  grounds 
Christian  and  heathen)  must  be  be-Ued,  and  calm'd, 
By  debitor  and  creditor.  Shaktpkare,  Othello. 

BELEM,  a  town  and  fortress  of  Portugal,  in 
Estreniadura,  about  a  mile  from  Lisbon,  on  the 
corth  side  of  the  Tagus,  and  designed  to  defend 
the  entrance  of  the  river.  Here  ail  ships  that 
sail  up  to  Lisbon  must  bring  to.  The  fortress  is 
on  an  island  in  the  middle  of  die  Taigus,  and  on 
the  opposite  side  is  the  station  for  quarantine. 
After  the  earthquake  of  1755  the  royal  family  of 
Portugal  removed  their  residence  to  this  town, 
where  they  occupied  a  wooden  house.  On  3d 
September,  1758,  king  Joseph  narrowly  escaped 
assassination  in  this  neighbourhood.  The  town 
was  founded  by  king  Emanuel,  and  contains, 
besides  the  royal  palace,  an  hospital  for  decayed 
noblemen,  and  a  rich  monastery  of  Hieronymites, 
the  church  of  which  encloses  the  tombs  (n  many 
kings  and  princes  of  the  royal  femily. 

BELEMNITE,  in  mineral  conchology,  a 
species  of  fossil  organic  remains,  occurring  in 
cnalk  formations,  but  very  sparingly  in  the 
upper  beds  of  that  substance.  It  is,  however, 
abundant  in  the  beds  immediately  below  the 
chalk :  its  form  is  cylindrical,  pointed  at  one  end, 
and  having  a  conical  hollow  at  the  other.  The 
animal  is  considered  to  have  belonged  to  the  tes- 
taceous molluscs,  and  to  have  been  contained  in 
a  muHilocular  univalve  shell ;  but  the  fossil  does 
Hot  present  itself  in  a  sufficiently  perfect  state  to 
furmsh  an  accuiate  knowledge  or  iu  form.  Its 
substance  is  fibrous  carbonate  of  lime,  radiating 
perpendicularly  ftom  the  axis  of  the  eylittdrical 


body.    1b  the  discritts  in  which  they  are  kmsA 
tfcey  have  been  vul^ly  called  thunderbolte. 

BELEM'NlTfiS,  n.  f .  From  jSeXoc,  a  dart  or 
arrow,  because  of  its  resemblance  to  the  point 
of  an  arrow.  Arrowhead,  or  finger-stone,  of  a 
whitish,  and  somethnes  a  gold  ccSor.     See  Be- 

LEMNITE. 

BELEMNOIDES,  or  Helenwoides,  in 
anatomy ;  from  ptkOQ  a  dart,  and  hSoq  ft)rm ;  the 
shooting  fbrtli  of  the  bone  called  alifbrmis,  which 
is  the  sixth  in  the  basis'  of  the  scull. 

BELENNUS,  in  ichthyology,  the  name  of  a 
small  anguiliform  fish,  called  by  some  biennis. 
It  is  a  sea  fish,  and  very  scarce.  It  approaches 
much  in  figure  to  the  English  bull-head,  or  mil- 
ler's thumb,  the  cottus  of  authors. 

BELENUS,  in  mythology,  a  name  which  the 
Gauls  gave  to  the  sun,  which  they  also  called 
Mithra ;  and,  as  some  suppose,  the  same  with 
the  Baal  of  Scripture,  and  the  Belus  of  the  As- 
syrians. 

BELERIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  pro- 
montory of  the  Dumnonii  or  Damnonii,  the  west- 
most  Britons.  It  is  now  called  the  Land's  End, 
in  Cornwall. 

BELESIS,  or  Nak y  brus,  said  by  some  ancient 
historians  to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  Baby- 
lonish empire,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Arbaces 
the  Mede,  to  have  put  an  end  to  the  kin«:dom  of 
the  Assyrians,  by  the  defeat  and  death  of  Sarda- 
napalus.  Belesis  is  represented  both  as  a  hero 
and  a  crafty  knave.  It  is  said  he  was  base 
enough  to  endeavour  to  obtain  from  his  col- 
leagues, by  treachery,  the  immense  treasures 
which  had  been  concealed  in  the  conflagration  at 
Nineveh.  When  the  secret  was  discovered ,  he 
was  called  to  an  account,  and  tried  by  the  other 
chiefs  who  had  been  assistant  in  the  war,  and 
who,  upon  his  confession,  condemned  him  to  lose 
hi«  head.  But  Arbaces  freely  forgave  hiro,  left 
him  in  possession  of  the  treasure,  and  also  the 
independent  government  of  Babylon,  saying. 
The  good  he  had  done  ought  to  serve  as  a  veil  to 
his  crime.  Under  the  successor  of  Arbaces  he 
became  a  man  of  show  and  effeminacy;  of  whom 
we  hear  nothing  more  that  is  wortliy  of  notice. 

BELESME,  or  Bellesme,  a  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  the  Ome,  and  ci-devant 
province  of  Perche ;  seventy-five  miles  south-west 
of  Paris. 

BELESTAT,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Arriege,  remarkable  for  a  spring 
which  regularly  (lows  and  ebbs. 

BELEZ,  or  Belz,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia, 
circle  of  Zokien,  not  far  from  the  river  Bug,  with 
a  castle.  It  once  belonged  to  Poland,  and  was 
the  capital  of  a  circle  in  Red  Russia ;  but  was 
annexed  to  Austria,  at  the  first  partition  of  Po- 
land, in  1772.  The  town  is  lai^,  but  neither 
rich  nor  commercial.    It  lies  in  the  middle  of  a 

Elain,  at  the  extremity  of  which  is  a  morass ;  the 
ouses  are  of  wood,  and  the  only  buildings  of 
note  are  the  churches  of  the  Catholic  and  Greek 
communions.  The  extensive  oak  forests  in  tlie 
neigbourhood  yield  abundance  of  potash.  148 
miles  east  of  Cracow,  and  152  S.S.E.  of  Warsaw. 
Long.  24*  12'  E.,  lat.  50°  24'  N. 

BELFAST,  a  town  of  Ireland,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  county  of  Antrim ;  seated  on  the 


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mouth  of  the  Lagan,  at  the  bottom  of  Carrickfergus 
Bay.  It  is  the  chief  town  and  port  in  this  part  of 
.  Ireland,  and  is  connected  with  the  lough  Neagh  by 
means  of  a  canal.  Its  local  situation  enables  it 
to  carry  on  an  extensive  export  trade  in  butter 
and  salt  provisions,  as  well  |tf  in  its  own  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  cambric,  sail-cloth,  and  linen. 
Here  are  also  some  flourishing  sugar  and  glass- 
houses,  potteries,  distilleries,  &c.    The  govern- 


found.    He  whose  trade  it  is  to  fband  or  cast 

belU. 

Those  that  make  recordert  know  this,  and  likewiae 
bdfnmdenia  fitting  the  tune  of  their  bella.  Bmbm. 
BELFRY,  Belfredus,  is  used  by  militaiy 
writers  of  the  middle  age,  for  a  sort  of  tower 
erected  by  besiegers,  to  overiook  and  command 
the  place  besieged.    Belfry  originally  denoted  a 

,  ^ ,  ^  high  tower,  where  sentinels  were  placed  to  watch 

ment  of  the  town  is  vested  in  the  marquis  of  tlie  avenues  of  a  place,  and  prevent  surprise  from 
Donegal,  as  lord  of  the  castle,  the  constable  of  parties  of  the  enemy,  or  to  give  notice  of  fires  by 
the  castle,  and  twelve  burgesses.  There  is  also  a  ringing  a  bell.  In  the  cities  of  Flanders,  where 
police  magistrate.  The  sister  kingdom  of  Scot-  there  is  no  belfry  on  purpose,  the  tower  of  the 
land  has  supplied  this  town  with  such  a  large  chief  church  serves  the  same  end.  The  word 
portion  of  its  inhabitants  that  it  has  sometimes  belfry  is  compounded  of  the  Teutonic  belly  and 
oeen  called  a  Scottish  colony.  The  streets  are  freid  peace,  because  the  bells  were  rung  for  pre- 
broad  and  regular,  and  the  houses  generally  of  serving  the  peace.  Belfry  is  now  us^  for  thai 
brick.  Among  the  best  of  the  public  buildings  part  of  a  steeple  wherein  the  bells  are  hung.  This 
are  the  new  church,  .the  assembly  room  over  the  is  sometimes  called  by  middle  age  writers  campa- 
exchange,  and  the  linen  hall,  surrounded  by  a  nile,  clocaria,  and  tristegum.  It  is  likewise  used 
garden.  Here  also  is  a  good  bridge  over  the  for  the  timber  work  which  susUins  the  bells  in  a 
Laggan,  built  of  free-stone  and  consisting  of  steeple,  or  that  wooden  structure  to  wfaidi  th^ 
twenty-one  arches ;  and  a  number  of  excellent    bells  in  church  steeples  are  fastened. 

BELGiE,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Gallia 
Belgica,  stiled  by  Csesar  the  bravest  of  the  Gauls, 
being  untainted  by  luxury.  See  Belgium.  The 
first  migration  of  the  Belgae  into  Britain  took 
place  at  a  very  early  period ;  some  of  the  latest 
colonies  were  established  here  but  a  short  time  prior 
to  the  Roman  invasion.  At  that  time  their  mp'm 
body  inhabited  the  present  Hampshire,  Wiltshire, 
and  Somersetshire.  Those  on  the  south  coast, 
according  to  Caesar,  Com.  1.  v.  c.  10,  had  passed 
over  from  different  parts,  and  still  retained  the 
names  of  the  states  from  which  they  deseeded. 


charitable  institutions,  to  which  the  gentlemen 
of  Belfast  carefully  attend  ;  also  a  public  libraiy, 
and  Catholic  and  dissenting  chapelst  From  its 
press  occasionally  issue  scientific  works  of  great 
merit,  as  well  as  some  well-edited  newspapers. 
In  1798  this  town  contained  only  3107  houses, 
and  about  18,320  inhabitants.  The  population 
in  1824,  inclusive  of  Ballymacarret,  was  nearly 
double  the  above  number;  immcrous  streets  are 
just  built,  various  public  buildings  efected,  and 
the  public  schools  are  rapidly  assuming  the 
character  of  a  northern  university.  Above  fifly 
vessels  belong  to  the  port,  the  united  burden  of   The  last  by  Divitiacus,thekingof  the  Suessiooes, 


which  exceeds  8330  tons,  and  they  employ  7200 
sailors.  The  custom-house  dues  have  of  late 
amounted  to  £400,000  per  annum.  Belfast  re- 
turns one  member  to  parliament ;  and  is  eighty 
miles  from  Dublin,  and  nine  from  Carrickfergus. 


one  of  the  most  powerful  Belgic  nations  of  Gaul; 
and,  having  obtained  a  firm  settlement  on  the 
British  coast,  he  continued  to  exercise  his  au- 
thority on  both  sides  of  the  channel.  The  Ro- 
mans found  in  these  tribes  tlie  most  powerful 


Belfast,  a  post  town  of  the  United  States  of  opponents  to  their  ^arms;  and  the  honor  of  their 

America,  in  the  district  of  Maine;  situated  on  the  final  subjugation  was  reserved  for   Vespasian, 

west  side  of  the  Penobscot ;  246  miles  from  Bos-  vvho  fought  thirty-two  battles,   and  took  more 

ton,  and  591  from  Philadelphia. — ^A  town   of  than  twenty  towns,  before  he  could  regard  his 

Pennsylvania,  in  the   county  of  Bedford — ^A  conquest  of  them  as  complete.    After  this  the 

township  of  the    United  States,    in   Hancock  Romans  greatly  improvea  the  country  of  the 


county,  district  of  Maine,  on  the  mouth  of  the 
Penobscot. 

Belfast  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  coast  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Maine,  which  runs  into  the  land  by  three 
arms. 

BELFLOWER,  n.  s.  From  bell  and  flower, 
because  of  the  shape  of  its  flower ;  in  Latin  cam- 
pana.  A  plant.  There  is  a  vast  number  of  the 
species  of  this  plant.  1.  The  tallest  pyramidal 
belflower.  2.  The  blue  peach-leaved  oelflower. 
3.  The  white  peach-leaved  belflower.  4.  Gar- 
den belflower,  with  oblong  leaves  and  flowers; 
commonly  called  Canterbury  bells.  5.  Canary 
belflower,  with  orrach  leaves  and  a  tuberose  root. 
6.  Blue  belflower,  with  edible  roots,  commonly 
called  rampioos.  7.  Venus  looking-glass  bel- 
flower, 8cc. — Miller. 

BELFORD,  a  market  town  in  Northumber- 
land, north  of  Wooller,  seated  on  the  ridge  of  a 
hill  on  the  Berwick  road,  twelve  miles  from 
Alnwick,  and  319  from  London. 

BEL'FOUNDER,  n.  «.       From   bell    and 


Beige  by  their  celebrated  military  ways,  the 
erection  and  rebuilding  of  towns,  &c. ;  among 
the  most  celebrated  of  which  were  Ven»  Bd- 
garum,  the  present  Winchester,  and  Aquae  Solis, 
the  modern  Bath.  See  Bath  and  Wibcmstml 
BEL'GARD,  n.<.  Fr.  beUe  eganL  A  soft 
glance;  a  kind  of  regard;  an  old  word,  now 
wholly  disused. 

Upon  her  eyelids  many  graces  sat. 
Under  the  shadow  of  her  even  brows. 
Working  hdgmrdt,  and  amorooa  letreals. 

BELGICA,  a  town  of  the  Ubii  in  Gallia  Bel- 
gica, midway  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Roer : 
now  called  Balchusen,  a  citadel  of  Juliers. 

Belgica  Gallia,  or  Belgic  Gaul,  one  of 
Caesar's  three  divisions  of  Gaul,  contained  be- 
tween the  ocean  to  the  north,  the  Seine  and  die 
Mame  to  the  west,  the  Rhine  to  the  east,  bat  on 
the  south  at  difierent  times  within  difiereDtlimi& 
Augustus,  instituting  everywhere  a  new  oaltitioo 
of  provinces,  added  the  Sequani  and  Iklfedi, 


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who  till  then  made  a  part  of  Celtic  Gaul,  to  the 
Beliric. 

BELGINtJM,  a  town  of  the  Treviri,  in  Gallia 
Belgica :  now  called  Baldenaii,  in  the  electorate 
of  Triers. 

B£LGIUM,  in  ancient  geography,  is  mani- 
festly distinguished  from  Belgica,  as  a  part  from 
the  whole,  by  Caesar;  who  makes  Belgium  the 
country  of  the  Bellovaci;  Hirtius  adding  the 
Atrebates.  But  as  the  Amhiani  lay  between  the 
Bellovaci  and  Atrebates,  we  must  also  add  these ; 
and  thus  Belgium  reached  to  the  sea,  because  the 
Ambiani  lay  upon  it,  and  these  three  people 
constituted  the  proper  and  genuine  Belgse  (all 
tlie  rest  being  .adventitious,  or  foreigners);  and 
were  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Beauvais,  Amiens, 
and  Artois.  In  modem  times  the  name  has  been 
applied  by  Famianus  and  others  to  the  whole  of 
the  Netherlands,  French,  Dutch,  and  Austrian. 

This  name  was  given  by  the  French,  during 
the  revolution,  to  that  tract  of  country  which 
was  previously  called  the  Austrian  Netherlands. 
It  now  forms  the  southern  portion  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Netherlands.     See  Netherlands. 

BELGRADE,  the  ancient  Alba  Graecorum,  a 
city  of  European  Turkey,  the  capital  of  Servia, 
seated  on  a  hill  a  little  above  the  confluence  of 
the  Save  and  the  Danube ;  which  near  this  city  is 
Tery  rapid,  and  the  water  singularly  white.  Bel- 
grade was  formerly  large,  strong,  and  populous, 
mirrounded  with  a  double  wall,  flanked  with 
towers,  and  defended  by  a  castle,  built  with  square 
stones.  The  suburbs  are  still  very  extensive,  and 
the  appearance  of  the  place  is  imposing.  The 
dilapidated  walls  of  the  fortress  enclo.<(e  the  prin- 
cipal mosque,  and  the  residence  of  the  pacha,  or 
governor,  of  Servia.  Between  these  walls  and  the 
other  portions  of  the  town  there  is  a  space  of 
about  400  paces,  the  best  part  of  which  is  towards 
the  north  of  these  building.  The  market-place 
is  large ;  and,  as  Belgrade  has  always  been  an  im- 
portant bulwark  on  the  north-west  of  Turkey,  a 
strong  garrison  is  maintained  here,  and  most  of 
the  inhabitants  consist  of  the  families  of  the  Janis- 
saries, who  defend  it.  The  whole  population  is 
estimated  at  twenty  or  twenty-five  thousand; 
and  when  the  town  was  taken  by  the  Austrians, 
in  1789,  about  7000  of  them  were  soldiers.  It 
is,  indeed,  rather  a  military  depot  than  a  trading 
city. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  it  was  unsuccessfully 
attacked  by  Amurath  II. ;  but  was  taken  by  Soly- 
man,  the  Ottoman  emperor,  in  15'22.  Being  re- 
taken by  the  Imperial  army,  under  the  elector  of 
Bai'ana,  in  1688,  it  reverted  again  to  the  Turks 
in  1690,  with  whom  it  remained  till  August  1717, 
when  it  surrendered  to  prince  Eugene ;  and  will 
always  be  famous  in  military  history  by  the  bat- 
tle fought  at  this  time  in  its  vicinity,  and  which 
was  the  last  grand  victory  obtamed  by  that  prince. 
It  then  remained  in  possession  of  the  Austrians 
for  twenty-two  years,  during  which  they  were  en- 
gaged in  repairing  and  strengthening  iUi  defensive 
works.  In  1739,  however,  it  was  given  up  to  the 
Turks,  on  condition  that  these  should  oe  de- 
molished ;  but  so  important  did  the  possession  of 
it  always  appear  to  the  Austrians,  that  they  again 
invested  it  m  1789,  under  the  command  of  Field- 
manhal  Laudohn.   The  suburbs  were  all  canied 


sword  in  hand,  and  the  garrison  sorreadered  upon 
honorable  terms.  About  300  pieces  of  artillery, 
and  vast  military  stores,  were  said  to  be  found  in 
the  fortress  on  this  capture.  It  was  again  re- 
stored to  the  Turks  however,  by  the  peace  of  Sis- 
tova,  in  1791,  under  whom  it  has  since  remained. 
Long.  20**  IC  E.,  lat.  44**  43'  N. 

BEi/}RADk,  a  small  town  of  Romania,  on  the 
strait  of  Constantinople. 

Belgraue,  a  township  of  the  United  States, 
in  Lincoln  county,  district  of  Maine,  between  the 
Kennebeck  and  the  Androscoggin. 

BELGRADO,  a  town,  late  of  Friuli,  in  the 
Venetian  territories  in  Italy.  It  stands  near  the 
river  Tagliamento. 

BELGRAM,  a  town  in  the  Nabob  of  Gude's 
territories,  twelve  miles  north-east  from  Kanoge, 
in  lat.  «7^  13'  N.,  long.  SO*'  3'  E.  It  is  of 
considerable  antiquity,  and  is  still  distinguished 
by  a  ruinous  fort  and  moat.  Tlie  buildings  ap- 
pear to  have  been  in  the  best  style  of  Mogul 
architecture.. 

BELIAL,  'jrSa,  Heb.  i.e.  wicked,  worthless, 
or  unprofitable ;  a  name  given  in  Scripture  to 
the  devil.  Thus  the  inhabitants  of  Gibeah,  who 
abused  the  Levite*s  wife.  Judges  xix.  22,  are 
styled  sons  of  Belial.  Ilophni  and  Phineas,  the 
high  priest  Eli*s  eldest  sons,  are  likewise  called 
sons  of  Belial,  1  Sam.  ii.  12,  upon  account  of 
their  crimes.  And  that  the  name  Belial,  denotes 
the  devil,  is  evident,  from  what  St.  Paul  says, 
2  Cor.  vi.  15. 

BEUDES,^  in  mythology,  the  fifty  daughtea 
of  Danaus.    See  Dan  aides. 

BELIDOR  (Bernard  Forest  de),  a  Catalo- 
nian  engineer  in  the  service  of  France,  member 
of  the  Academies  of  Sciences  at  Paris  and  Ber- 
lin, and  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London ;  he 
was  a  celebrated  mathematician,  and  author  of  a 
number  of  military  tracts,  in  which  the  science 
of  mathematics  is  applied  to  military  uses.  He 
died  1765,  aged  seventy. 

BE'LIE,  V.  a.  From  be  and  lie.  To  coun- 
terfeit ;  to  feign ;  to  mimic.  To  calumniate ;  to 
raise  fahe  reports  of  any  man.  To  give  the  lie 
to  ;  to  charge  with  falsehood.  To  give  a  false 
representation  of  any  thing.    To  fill  with  lies. 

Uncle,  for  heaven's  sake,  comfortable  words. 
Should  I  do  so,  I  should  belie  my  thoughts. 

Thou  dost  belie  him,  Percy,  thou  belieet  him  j 
He  never  did  encounter  with  Glendower.  Id, 

^Tis  slander,  whose  breath 
Rides  on  .the  posting  winds,  and  doth  bdie 
All  comeit  of  the  world.  Id.  Cymbeline. 

Which  durst,  wirh  horses'  hoofii  that  beat  the  ground. 
And  martial  brass,  beHe  the  thunder's  sound. 

Drydem, 

The  shape  of  man,  and  imiuted  beast. 
The  walk,  the  words,  the  gesture  could  supply. 
The  habit  mimic,  and  the  mien  beiie.  Id, 

Sure  there  is  none  but  fean  a  future  state  ; 
And  when  the  most  obdurate  swear  they  do  not. 
Their  trembling  hearts  bdie  their  boasUul  tongues. 


Id, 


Tuscan  Valerius  by  force  o'ereame, 
And  not  bei^d  his  mighty  father's 


Id, 


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Fafaty  ^mUhm,  jewdi  laid  and*. 
At  night  Mtroboman  agree 

The  evening  ha*  theMay  My''» 
And  PhiUifl  u  tome  forty-^uroe.  Prior. 

In  the  dispute  what'er  I  aaid. 
My  heart  was  by  the  tongue  Adjj^d, 

And  in  my  looks  you  might  haTO  vead 
How  much  1  "aignod  on  your  side.  Id. 

BELl'EVE,  V.    ^      The  old  Sax.  Isfan,  *e- 
BELt'EVE,  ft.  iyfinif  is  the   EDelish  to 

Beu'ef,  uve,  to  belive.    In  Pier^s 

Belie'ful,  Plouhroan  to  bring  forth 

BELifi'puLNESs,     >your  belyoe    is  to   bring 
Bel i'ev ABLE,  forth  that  by  which  you 

Belie'ver,  live.    It  was  early  applied 

Belie\^ing,  to  Christianity,  and  to  re- 

Believ'ingly,  J  ligion,  as  the  revelation  of 
life;  and  as  ci editing  the  divine  testimony  was 
the  means  of  life  immortal ;  that  credit  was 
called  life  and  belife — Whence  to  believe.  It  is 
now  of  much  more  comprehensive  import.  Be- 
lief is  credit  g:iven  to  something  whicti  we  know 
not  of  ourselves,  on  account  of  the  authority  by 
which  it  is  delivered.  It  is  likewise  the  theolo- 
gical notice  of  faith ;  the  creed  and  body  of 
tenets  held  by  the  proiiessors  of  ^ith ;  to  believe 
is  the  act  or  habit  of  the  mind ;  in  reference  to 
all  these  a  believer  is  one  that  gives  credit  to  a 
testimony ;  a  professor  of  Christianity. 

I  sey  to  yoa,  if  ye  hav  feith  and  douten  not,  alle 

thinges   wfajitevere   ye     biUevynge    ichalen    are    in 

preier,  ye  schulen  take.  Wiclif.     Matt,  xxi.  2. 

For  with  the  heart  man  beUeoeth  unto  righteousnesf , 

and  with  the  mouth  confenion  it  made  unto  salvation. 

Romam. 
Sire,  it  is  Cristas  might. 
That  helpeth  folk  oat  of  the  fendes  snare. 
And  so  ferforth,  she  gan  our  lay  declare. 
That  she  the  constable,  or  that  it  were  eve. 
Converted,  and  on  Crist  made  him  belMe. 

Chauem'. 

And  though  that  I.  unworthy  son  of  Eve, 

Be  sinful,  yet  accepteth  my  Mms.  Id. 

As  he  that  readeth  Caesar's  Commentaries,  bdieoimf 

the  same  to  be  true,  hath  hereby  a  knowledge  of 

Cssar's  life  and  notable  acts,  because  he  hetieoeth  the 

history  of  Cesar;  yet  it  is  not  properly  said,  that  he 

believeth  in  Cesar,  of  whom  he  looketh  for  no  help 

nor  benefit,  even  so,  he  that  bdieoeth  that  all  that  is 

spoken  of  God  in  the  Bible  is  true,  and  yet  liveth  so 

nngodlily,  that  he  cannot  look  to  ei\joy  the  promises 

and  benefits  of  God ;  although  it  may  be  said  that 

such  a  n>pi  hath  a  faith  and  belief  to  the  words  of 

God,  yet  it  is  not  properly  said  that  he  belieoeth  in 

God,  or  hath  such  a  fkith  and  trust  in  God,  whereby 

he  may  surely  look  for  grace,  men^,  and  everlasting 

life  at  God's  hand.  Hamilif  on  Faith. 

'  Infidels  thMBselves  did  discern,  in  matUrs  of  U£b, 

when  beUtmen  did  well,  when  otherwise.  Hooker. 

If  he  which  writeth  do  that  which  is  forcible,  how 

should  he  which  readeth  be  thought  to  do  that,  which, 

in  itself,  is  of  no  force  to  work  belief,  and  to  sava 

luiieoenf  Id. 

Discipline    began    to     enter    into    conflict    with 

churches,  ^iriuch«  in  extremity,  had  been  beUeoert  of 

it.  Id. 

And  sundry  battels,  which  she  had  atehieved 
With  great  successe,  that  her  hath  glorifide. 
And  made  her  famona,  more  than  is  Mi'twrf ; 
Na  would  I  it  hanra  ween'd  had  I  not  late  it  prieved. 


Sopexstitioiis  ptophodca  arc  nac  oaly  the  tdhf  af 
fools,  but  tho  talk  sometimes  of  wise  men.        Bt 
Kow  God  be  praia'd,  ihat  to  bOieoit^  lonk 
Gives  light  in  darkness,  comfort  in  dei|Nir. 


Horatio  says,  'tis  but  our  fantasy ; 

And  will  not  let  belief  take  hold  of  him 

Touching  this  dreaded  si^t,  twioe  seen  of  as.    Id 

When  suddenly  stood  at  my  head  a  dream. 

Whose  inward  apparition  gently  moved 

My  fancy  to  bdioM  I  yet  had  being 

And  liv'd.  lOto. 

The  action  is  baptizing  or  immersing  in  waters ; 
the  object  thereof,  those  persons  of  any  nation,  whom 
his  ministers  can  by  their  instruction  and  persoasbB 
render  disciples  ;  that  is,  such  as  do  sincerely  beiiete 
the  truth  of  his  doctrine,  and  seriously  resolve  lo 
obey  his  commandments.  Bmtom. 

Adherence  to  a  proposition  which  they  are  pea. 
saaded,  but  do  not  know,  to  be  true,  is  not  seeing, 
but  beliowtg.  Looko, 

Though  they  are,  I  baUooe,  as  high  aa  most  steepfea 
in  England,  yet  a  person,  in  his  drink,  fell  down, 
without  any  other  hmrt  than  the  breaking  of  an  am. 

AdAom  om  Ilalf. 

I  could  not  be  ao  duped,  even  by  the  arch-enemy 
himself,  as  to  be  made  to  qneation  the  divine  nataie 
of  those  conforta  ;  but  I  have  been  made  lo  Mmbt 
(which  yon  will  say,  is  being  doped  still  mo««)  thst 
God  gave  them  to  me  in  derision,  and  took  them 
away  in  vengeance.     Cowper's  Corretpomdemee.  vol.  2. 

Belief,  in  its  general  and  natural  sense,  de- 
notes, 1.  A  strong  assent  of  the  mind  to  the 
truth  of  any  proposition.  In  this  sense,  belief 
has  no  relation  to  any  particular  kind  of  means 
or  arguments,  but  may  be  produced  by  ai^ 
means  whatever.  Thus,  we  are  said  to  believe 
our  senses,  to  believe  our  reason,  to  believe  a 
witliess,  &c.  And  hence,  in  rhetoric,  all  sorts 
of  oiooMfs,  from  whatever  topics  deduced,  are 
called  irivcic,  because  apt  to  produce  bdief  or 
persuasion  touching  the  matter  in  hand.  2.  Be- 
lief, in  its  more  restraiaed  and  tedmical  sense, 
invented  by  the  schoolmen,  denotes  that  kind  of 
assent  wfaidi  is  grounded  only  on  the  authority  or 
testimony  of  some  person  or  persons,  asserting 
or  attesting  the  truth  of  any  matter  proposed . 
In  this  sense,  belief  stands  opposed  to  know- 
ledge and  science.  We  do  not  say  we  believe 
that  snow  is  white,  or  that  the  whole  is  eooal  to 
its  parts ;  but  we  see  and  know  them  to  be  «>. 
That  the  three  angles  of  a  triangle  ate  equal  to 
two  right  angles,  or  that  ail  motion  is  natvially 
rectilinear,  are  not  said  to  be  things  eradiUe, 
but  scientifical ;  aad  the  compiefaenaieo  of  nch 
truths  is  not  belief  but  science.  3.  But  when 
a  ^ng  propounded  to  us  is  neither  a|»peieBt  to 
our  senses,  fM>r  evident  to  our  undes^anding ; 
neither  certainly  to  be  collected  from  any  olar 
and  necessary  connexion  with  the  cause  from 
which  it  proceeds,  nor  with  the  efieoto  wfaidi  it 
nalumlly  produces;  nor  is  taken  up  apon  any 
real  arguments,  or  relation  thereof  lo  other  «&> 
knowl^ged  truths;  and  yet,  notwithstanding, 
appears  as  true,  not  by  manifestation,  but  by 
an  attestation  of  the  truth,  and  moves  us  to  as- 
sent, not  of  itself,  but  in  virtue  of  a  teatimoDy 
given  to  it — this  is  said  to  be  properiy  eiedible; 
and  an  assent  to  this  is  the  proper  notion  ef  be- 
lief or  laith. 


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Believers,  in  chuToh  history,  an  appellatioD 
giyen,  towards  the  dose  of  the  first  century,  to 
those  Christians  who  had  been  admitted  into  the 
church  by  baptism,  and  instructed  in  all  the 
mysteries  of  religion.  They  had  also  access  to 
all  parts  of  divine  worship,  and  were  authorised 
to  vote  in  the  ecclesiastical  assemblies.  They 
were  thus  called  in  contradistinction  to  the  ca- 
techumens who  had  not  been  baptised^  and  were 
debarred  from  these  privileges. 

BEl  TKK,  }      Be  and  like.    See  Like. 

Bei  rKELY,  }  Belike  in  our  older  writers, 
and  in  vulvar  speech,  at  the  present  day,  is  used 
for  it  IS  likely,  probably,  perhaps.  It  is  some- 
times used  in  a  sense  or  irony,  as  it  ma}  be 
supposed. 

There  came  oot  of  the  same  woods  a  horrible  fool 
bear,  which  fearing,  fte/iAe,  while  the  lion  was  pre- 
sent, came  furioosly  towards  the  place  where  I  was. 

Lord  Angelo,  bdike,  thinking  me  remiss  in  my 
office,  awakens  me  with  this  unwonted  putting  on. 

Shalupeare. 

Jos^phus  affirmeth,  that  one  of  them  remained  in 
his  time  j  meaning,  betike,  some  ruin  or  fooadation 
th*  r«»of. 


We  think,  Mike,  that  he  will  aecept  what  the 
meanest  of  them  would  disdain.  Hooker, 

God  appointed  the  sea  to  one  of  them,  and  the 
land  to  the  other,  because  they  were  so  grvat,  that 
the  sea  could  not  hold  them  both ;  or  else,  belike,  if 
the  sea  had  b>>f  n  lai^e  enough^  we  might  have  gone  a 
fishing  for  elephants.  Brtrew,  on  Lrnig, 

BELINGELA,  in  botany,  a  name  given  by 
some  authors  to  the  malum  intanum,  or  mad 
apple. 

BELIO,  in  ancient  geography,  a  river  of  Lu- 
sitania,  called  otherwise  Limxas,  Limeas,  Limius, 
and  Lethe,  or  the  Hiver  of  Oblivion :  the  boun- 
dary of  the  expedition  of  Decimus  Brutus.  The 
soldiers  refusing,  out  of  superstition,  to  cross, 
he  snatched  an  ensign  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
bearer,  and  passed  over,  hy  which  his  army  was 
encouraged  to  follow.  He  was  the  first  Roman 
who  ever  proceeded  so  far,  and  ventured  to  pass. 
The  reason  of  the  appellation,  according  to 
Strabo,  is,  that  in  a  militaiy  expedition  a  sedi- 
tion arising  between  the  Celtici  and  Turduli 
after  crossing  that  river,  in  which  the  general 
was  slain,  they  remained  dispersed  there;  and 
from  this  circumstance  it  came  to  be  called  the 
river  of  Lethe,  or  Oblivion.  It  is  now  called 
Lima. 

BELISARIUS,  general  of  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian's army,  who  overthrew  the  Persians  in  the 
East,  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  and  the  Goths  in 
Italy.  See  Rome.  But  after  all  his  great  ex- 
ploits, he  was  fiilsely  accused  of  a  conspiracy 
against  the  emperor.  The  real  conspirators  had 
been  detected  and  seized,  with  daggers  hidden 
under  their  garments.  One  of  them  died  by  his 
own  hand,  and  the  other  was  dragged  from  the 
sanctuary.  Pressed  by  remorse,  or  tempted  by 
the  hopes  of  safety,  he  accused  two  omcers  of 
the  household  of  Belisarius ;  and  torture  forced 
them  to  declare  that  they  had  acted  according  to 
th«  secret  instructions  of  their  patron.  Posterity 
will  not  hastily  believe,  that  a  hero,  who  in  the 
vigor  of  life  had  diadaioed  the  feiMst  offeia  of 


ambition  and  levenge,  should  stoop  to  the  nuider 
of  his  prince,  whom  he  could  not  long  expect  to 
survive.  His  followers  were  impatient  to  fly ; 
but  flight  must  have  been  supported  by  rebellion, 
and  he  had  lived  enough  for  nature  and  for 
glory.  Belisarius  appeared  before  the  counoil 
with  less  fear  than  indignation:  after  forty  years 
service,  the  emperor  had  prejudged  his  guilt ; 
and  injustice  was  sanctified  by  the  presence 
and  authority  of  the  patriarch.  The  life  of  Be- 
lisarius was  spared,  but  his  fortunes  were  se- 
questered; ana,  from  December  to  July,  he  was 
guarded  as  a  prisoner  in  his  own  palice.  At 
len(^h  his  innocence  was  acknowledged,  his 
freedom  and  honors  were  restored,  and  death, 
which  might  be  hastened  by  resentment  and 
grief,  removed  him  from  the  world  about  ei<;ht 
months  after  his  deliverance.  That  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  eyes,  and  i educed  by  envy  to  be<; 
nis  bread,  is  a  fiction  of  later  times ;  which  has 
obtained  credit,  or  rather  favor,  as  a  strange 
example  of  the  vicissitudes  of  foitune.  The 
source  of  this  idle  fable  may  be  derived  from  a 
miscellaneous  work  of  the  twelfth  century,  the 
Chiliads  of  John  Tzetzes,  a  monk.  He  relates 
the  blindness  and  beggary  of  Belisarius  in  ten 
verses,  Chiliad  iii.  No.  88.  339—318.  in  Corp. 
Poet.  Gnec.  tom.  ii.  p.  31 1.  This  romantic  tale 
was  imported  into  Italy  with  the  laii;<uatre  and 
MSS.  of  Greece ;  repeated  before-  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century  by  Crinitus,  PonUnus,  and 
Volaterranus ;  attacked  by  Alciat  for  the  honor 
of  the  law,  and  defended  by  Baronius,  A.  D. 
561,  No.  2,  &c.  for  the  honor  of  the  church. 
Tzetzes  himself  had  read  in  other  chronicles, 
that  Belisarius  did  not  lose  his  sight,  and  that  he 
recovered  his  fame  and  fortunes.  The  statue  in 
the  Villa  Borghese  at  Rome,  in  a  sitting  posture, 
with  an  open  hand,  which  is  vulgarly  given  to 
Belisarius,  may  be  ascribed  with  more  dignity  to 
Augustus  in  the  act  of  propitiating  Nemesis. — 
Winkelman't  Hitt,  de  PArt,  tom.  iii.  p.  266. 

BELI'VR.  adv.  bilive.  Sax.  probably  from  bi 
and  hpe,  in  the  sense  of  vivacity,  speed,  quick- 
ness.   Speedily ;  quickly :  a  word  out  of  use. 

By  that  same  way  the  direful  dames  do  drive 
Their  monrnful  chariot,  fill'd  with  rusty  blood. 
And  down  to  Pluto^s  house  are  come  beliee. 

Faerie  Qveene. 

BELK,  one  of  the  Serangani  islands  in  the 
Eastern  seas,  high,  and  with  a  bold  north  coast. 
It  is  partly  cultivated,  and  the  inhabitants  have 
plenty  of  cocoa  nuts  and  yellow  wax.  It  is  the 
most  northerly  of  the  group,  which  consists  of 
three,  and  ties  about  twelve  miles  from  JVIagin- 
danao. 

BELL,  V.  &  n.-^     Bel,    Sax.    supposed    by 

Bp.l'fry,  /  Skinner  to  come  m>m  pelvis, 

Bel'rope,         ^ Latin,  a  basin;    Ang.-Sax. 

Bel'rimoer.     Jbellan,  signifies    to  bellow, 

and   to  sound  a  bell.     A  vessel,  or  hollow 

body  of  cast  metal,  formed  to  make  a  noise 

by  the  act  of  a  clapper,  hammer,  or  some  other 

instrument  striking  against  it.    Bells  are  in  the 

towers  of  churches,  to  call  the  congregation 

together.    It  is  used  for  any  thing  in  the  form  of 

a  belly  as  the  cups  of  flowers.    &lfry  is  a  tower 

where  bells  are  nong. 


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BELL. 


G«t  thee  gone,  and  dig  my  grave  thyself. 
And  Ud  the  meny  Mb  ring  to  thy  ear. 
That  thoa  art  crowned,  not  that  I  am  dead. 

Shaitpeare, 

Now  see  that  nnble  and  most  sov'reign  reason 
Like  sweet  beUs  jangled  oat  of  tone.  Td, 

Am  the  ox  hath  his  yoke,  the  horse  his  curb,  and 
the  faolcon  his  bdit,  so  hath  man  his  desires. 

Id.     Am  You  Like  It. 
Where  the  bee  sncks,  there  sack  I, 
In  a  cowslip's  heU  I  lie.  Id,     Tmpest. 

What  time  the  native  bdbnan  of  the  night. 
The  bird  that  warned  Peter  of  his  fall, 
First  rings  his  silver  beU  t*  each  sleepy  wight. 
That  should  their  mindes  up  to  devotion  call. 
She  heard  a  monstrous  noise  below  the  hall. 

GpeMMT. 

The  humming  bees,  that  hunt  the  golden  dew. 
In  summer's  heat  on  tops  of  lilies  feed. 
And  creep  within  their  beUt  to  suck  the  balmy  seed. 

Drjfden. 

He  has  no  one  necessary  attention  to  any  thing 
but  the  bell,  which  calls  to  prayers  twice  a-day. 

Addmn.  Spectator. 

How  too-like  is  this  (cracked)  beU  to  scandalous 
and  iil-lived  teachers!  His  calling  is  honourable: 
his  noise  is  heard  far  enough :  but  the  flaw  which 
is  noted  in  his  life,  mars  his  doctrine,  and  offends 
those  ears  which  else  would  take  pleasure  in  his 
teaching.  Bi$hop  HaU. 

When  cockle-shells  turn  siller  bdlt. 
And  muscles  grow  on  every  tree. 

When  frost  and  snow  shall  warm  us  aw. 
Then  sail  my  love  prove  true  to  me. 

Bum's  BaOoA. 

But  the  sound  of  the  church-going  bdl 
These  vallies  and  rocks  never  heard, 

Never  sighed  at  the  sound  of  a  knell. 

Or  smil'd  when  a  Sabbath  appeared.         Cowper. 

To  bear  the  Bell.  To  be  the  first;  horn  the 
wether,  that  carries  a  heW  among  the  sheep,  or 
the  first  horse  of  a  drove  that  has  bells  on  his 
collar. 

The  Italians  have  carried  away  the  beU  from  all 
other  nations,  as  may  appear  both  by  their  books 
and  works.  Hakewett. 

To  shake  the  Bells.  A  phrase  in  Shakspeare, 
taken  from  the  bells  of  a  hawk. 

Neither  the  king,  nor  he  that  lovea  him  best. 
The  proudest  he  that  holds  up  Lancaster, 
Bares  stir  a  wing,  if  Warwick  thakeM  kit  beOe. 

Skaktpeare. 

10  Bell,  v.  n.  from  the  noun.  To  grow 
in  buds  or  flowers,  in  the  form  of  a  bell. 

Hops,  in  the  beginning  of  August,  hdl,  and  are 
aomeUmes  ripe.  Mortimer. 

Bell-fashioned,  adj,  from  bell  and  fi&shion. 
Having  the  form  of  a  bell ;  campaniform. 

The  thorn-apple  rises  with  a  strong  round  stalk, 
having  large  heU-foMomed  flowers  at  the  jointa. 

Mortimer. 

Bell.  The  parts  of  a  bell,  are  the  body  or 
barrel,  the  clapper,  on  the  inside,  and  the  ear  or 
cannon,  by  which  it  hangs  to  a  large  beam  of 
wood.  The  matter  of  which  it  is  usually  made 
is  a  composition  called  bell-metal.  The  thick- 
ness of  a  bell's  edge  is  usually  one-fifteenth 
of  the  diameter,  and  its  height  twelve  times  its 
thickness.  The  best  founders  have  a  diapason, 
or  bell-scale,  wherewith  they  measure  the  size, 


thickness,  weight,  and  tone,  of  their  bells.    For 
the  method  of  casthig  bells,  see  Foundry. 

The  theory  of  the  sound  of  bells  belongs  pro- 
perly to  acoustics,  but  we  may  here  observe, 
that  the  most  sonorous  bell,  according  to  &  paper 
by  M.  Reaumur  (Meir-  Acad.  Par.  1796),  may 
be  formed  of  the  segment  of  a  sphere.  The 
sound  of  a  bell,  says  the  Campanalogia,  arises 
from  a  vibratory  motion  of  the  parts  thereof, 
much  like  that  of  a  musical  chord.  The  stroke 
of  the  clapper,  it  is  evident,  must  change  the 
figure  of  the  bell,  and  of  round  make  it  oval ; 
but  the  metal  having  a  great  degree  of  elasticity, 
that  part  which  the  stroke  drove  &rthest  from 
the  centre  will  fly  back  t^n,  and  this  even 
somewhat  nearer  to  the  centre  than  before ;  so 
that  the  two  points,  which  before  were  the  ex- 
tremes of  the  longer  diameter,  now  become  those 
of  the  shorter.  Thus,  the  circumference  of  the 
bell  undc^oes  alternate  changes  of  figure,  and 
by  means  thereof  gives  that  tremulous  motion 
to  the  air,  in  which  sound  consists.  M.  Per- 
rault  maintains,  that  the  sound  of  the  same  beil, 
or  chord,  is  a  compound  of  the  sound  of  the 
several  parts  thereof;  so  that  where  the  parts  are 
homogeneous,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  figure 
uniform,  there  is  such  a  perfect  mixture  of  all 
these  sounds,  as  constitutes  one  uniform,  smooth, 
even  sound :  and    the  contrary  circumstances 

Eroduce  harshness.  This  he  proves  from  the 
elFs  difiering  in  tone  according  to  the  part  you 
strike;  and  yet  strike  it  anywhere,  there  is  a 
motion  of  all  the  parts.  lie,  therefore,  considers 
bells  as  composed  of  an  infinite  number  of  rings; 
which  according  to  their  diflferent  dimensions, 
have  difierent-  tones,  as  chords  of  diflTerem 
lengths  have ;  and  when  struck,  the  vibrations 
of  the  part5  immediately  struck,  determine  die 
tone ;  being  supported  by  a  suflldent  number  of 
consonant  tones  m  the  other  parts.  Mr.  Hawks- 
bee,  and  others,  have  found  by  experiment,  that 
the  sound  of  a  bell  struck  under  water  is  a 
fourth  deeper  than  in  the  air :  though  Mersennus 
says,  it  is  of  the  same  pitch  in  lx>th  elements. 
This  writer  has  treated  largely  of  the'  diiiereot 
metals  of  which  bells  are  formed,  o^  their  fignre» 
crassitude,  and  degrees  of  ponderosity,  as  they 
respect  each  other  in  a  given  series. 

bells  are  observed  to  be  heard  farthery  placed 
on  plains,  than  on  hills ;  and  still  feather  m  val- 
leys than  on  plains;  the  reason  of  whidi  it  wOl 
not  be  diflQcult  to  assign,  if  it  be  oonsideiedy 
that  the  higher  the  sonorous  body  is,  the  rarer 
is  its  medium;  consequently  the  less  impulse  it 
receives,  and  the  less  proper  vehicle  it  has  to 
convey  it  to  a  distance. 

The  use  of  bells  is  very  ancient  as  wdl  as  ex- 
tensive. We  find  them  among  Jews,  Gredcs^ 
Romans,  Christians,  and  Heathens,  varkrasly  ap- 

Elied,  as  on  the  necks  of  men,  beaMs,  biids» 
orses,  and  sheep:  but  chiefly  hung  in  build- 
ings, either  religious,  as  in  diurebes,  temples^ 
and  monasteries ;  or  civil,  as  in  houses^  maneis, 
and  baths;  or  military,  as  in  camps  and  frontier 
towns.  Among  the  Jews  H  was  ordained,  that 
the  lower  part  of  the  blue  tunic  which  the  high 
priest  wore,  when  he  performed  certain  reltgions 
ceremonies,  should  be  adorned  with  poougraa- 
ates  and  golden  bells|  intermixed  equally  sad  aft 


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equal  distances.  The  sacred  historian  mentions 
the  use  and  intent  of  them  in  Exod.  xxviii.  33 — 
35.  *  It  shall  be  upon  Aaron  to  minister,  and 
his  sound  shall  be  heard  when  he  goeth  in  unto 
the  holy  place  before  the  Lord,  and  when  he 
Cometh  out,  that  he  die  not.'  The  sound  of  the 
numerous  bells  gave  notice  to  the  assembled 
people  that  the  most  awful  ceremony  of  their 
religion  had  commenced.  It  was  a  signal,  per- 
haps, tiiat  they  should  prostrate  themselves  at 
the  moment  in  which  the  high  priest  entered  the 
sanctuary  with  a  vessel  of  incense,  in  order  that 
their  prayers  might  ascend  with  the  column  of 
fragrance  before  the  throne  of  heaven.  The 
kings  of  Persia,  from  a  remote  period,  are  said 
to  have  had  the  hems  of  their  robes  adorned 
like  the  Jewish  high  priests  with  pomegranates 
and  golden  bells. 

The  poet,  Cowper,  gives  a  moral  turn  to  this 
circumstance,  worth  remembering: 

With  golden  bellf ,  the  priestly  vMt, 
4nd  rich  pomegnnmtes  bordered  round, 

The  need  of  holiness  expressed. 
And  called  for  fruit  as  well  as  sound. 

The  prophet  Zachariah,  xiv.  20,  speaks  of  bells 
hung  to  war-horses. 

Among  the  Greeks,  those  who  went  the  nightly 
rounds  in  camps  or  garrisons,  carried  with  them 
a  little  bell,  which  they  rung  at  each  centry-box 
to  see  that  the  soldiers  on  each  watch  were  awake. 
A  codonophorouS;  or  bell-man,  also  walked  in 
funeral  processions,  at  a  distance  before  the 
corpse,  not  only  to  keep  off  the  crowd,  but  to 
advertise  the  flamen  diolis  to  keep  out  of  the 
way  for  fear  of  being  polluted  by  the  sight,  or 
by  the  funeral  music.  The  priest  of  Proserpine, 
at  Athens,  called  hierophantus,  rung  a  bell  to 
call  tlie  people  to  sacrifice.  There  were  also 
bells  in  the  nouses  of  great  men  to  call  up  the 
servants  each  morning.  Zonaras  assures  us,  that 
bells  were  hung  widi  whips  on  the  triumphal 
chariots  of  their  victorious  generals,  to  put  tnern 
in  mind  that  th^  were  still  liable  to  public  jus- 
tice. Beljs  were  put  on  the  necks  ot  criminals 
going  to  execution,  that  persons  might  be  warned 
by  the  sound  to  aVoid  meeting  so  ill  an  omen, 
as  the  sight  of  the  hangman,  or  the  condemned 
criminal.  Maggi  has  given  the  print  of  a  wretch 
whose  neck  is  weighed  down  oy  an  enormous 
bell,  while  his  back  is  exposed  to  the  lash  of  the 
hangman. 

The  responses  of  the  Dodonsan  oracle  were 
doubtless  in  part  conveyed  by  bells.  The  de- 
scription of  It  which  Strabo  has  left  (lib.  vii.), 
the  iebetes  of  Virgil,  the  pelves  of  Juvenal,  and 
the  tironkut  ahem  of  Ausonius,  admit  of  no  other 
interpretation.  The  bells  were  of  copper,  and 
so  suspended  round  the  temple,  that  one  being 
struck  put  the  whole  in  motion ;  and,  by  the 
manner  in  which  the  sounds  died  away,  the 
priestess  framed  her  revelation.  Plutarch  men- 
tions (Symp.  xiv.)  a  bell  in  the  Grecian  fish- 
markets,  which  reminds  the  writer  of  this  article 
of  an  exactly  similar  construction  in  the  little 
«ea-port  town  of  his  bird). 

Strabo  connects  with  this  custom  a  curious 
tftory.    A  musician  being  deserted  by  his  au* 
Vot.  III. 


ditoiy  in  the  town  of  Jassus,  found  it  was  the 
fish-bell  which  had  attracted  them  away.  One  per- 
son alone  remained,  as  if  decidedlypreferring  his 
melody.  The  grateful  harper  approached,  dianked 
his  hearer  for  the  honor  which  he  paid  to  the 
art,  and  congratulated  him  on  the  superior  pu- 
rity of  taste  which  prevented  him  from  accom- 
panying the  rabble,  which  had  vanished  at  the 
first  stroke  of  the  bell.  *Has  the  bell  rung?' 
answered  the  other,  'alas I  I  am  deaf;  good 
morning  to  you !' 

Ornamental  bells  in  building,  after  the  manner 
of  the  Chinese,  were  clearly  in  use  among  the 
Romans.  Pliny  (vii.  45,  xxxvi.  13,)  mentions 
the  monument  of  Porsenna  as  decorated  with 

Einnacles,  each  of  which  was  surmounted  by 
ells.  The  dream  of  Augustus  transferred  a 
similar  ornament  from  the  portals  to  the  roof  of 
the  Capitoline  Jove,  (Suetonius,  Oct.  xci.) 

On  the  origin  of  church  bells,  Mr.  Whitaker^ 
in  his  History  of  Manchester,  observes,  that 
bells  being  used,  among  other  purposes  by  the 
Romans,  to  signify  the  tiroes  of  bathing,  weie 
naturally  applied  by  the  Christians  of  Italy  to 
denote  tne. hours  of  devotion,  and  summon  the 
people  to  church. 

The  first  application  of  them  to  ecclesiastical 
purposes  is,  by  Polydore  Virgil  and  others, 
ascribed  to  Paulinns,  bishop  of  Nola,  a  city  oif 
Campania,  about  the  year  400.    Hence,  it  is 
said,  the  names  Nole  and  Campanse  were  given 
them;  the  one  referring  to  the  city,  the. other  to 
the  country.    Though  others  say  they  took  the 
latter  of  these  names,  not  from  their  being  in-  . 
vented  in  Campania,  but  because  it  was  here 
the  manner  of  hanging  and  balancing  them,  now 
in  use,  was  first  practised.    It  is  obvious,  that 
during  the  days  of  early  persecution,  any  public 
summous  to  the  meetmgs  of  Christians  would 
have  betrayed  them  to  their  enemies.    In  Bri- 
tain, bells  were  used  in  churches  before  the  con- 
clusion of  the  seventh  centui^,  in  the  monastic 
societies  of  Northumbria,  and  as  early  as  the 
sixth,  even  in  those  of  Caledonia.    Th^  were, 
therefore,  used  from  the  first  erection  of  parish 
churches  among  us.    Those  of  France  and  Eng- 
land appear  to  have  been  furnished  with  several 
bells.    In  the  time  of  Clothair  II .  king  of  France, 
A.  D.  610,  the  array  of  that  prince  was  frighted 
from  the  siege  of  Sens,  by  the  ringing  of  the 
bells  of  St.  Stephen's  church.    The  second  ex- 
cerption of  Egbert,  A.  D.  750,  which  is  adopted 
in  a  French  Capitulary  of  801,  commands  every 
priest,  at  the  proper  hours,  to  sound  the  bells  of 
nis  church,  and  tnen  to  go  through  the  sacred 
offices  to  God.    And  the  council  of  Euham,  in 
1011,  requires  all  the  mulcts  for  sins  to  be  ex- 
pended in  the  reparation  of  the  church,  clothing 
and  feeding  the  minister  of  God,  and  the  pur- 
chase of  cTkurch  vestments,  church  books,  and 
church  bells.     These  were    sometimes    com- 
posed of  iron  in  France;  and  in  England,  as 
formerly  at  Rome,  were  frequently  made  of 
brass.    As  early  as  the  ninth  century  there  were 
many  cast  of  a  large  size  and  deep  note.    In* 
gulphus  mentions,  that  Turketulus,  abbot  of 
Croyland,  who  died  about  A.D.  870,  g^ave  a 
great  bell  to  the  church  of  that  abbey,  wluch  be 

3D 


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BELL. 


named  Guthlac ;  and  afterwards  six  othen,  tiz. 
two  which  be  called  Bartholomew  and  Betelin, 
two  called  Turketul  and  Tatwin,  and  two  named 
Pega  and  Bega,  all  which  rang  together;  the 
same  author  says,  Non  erat  tunc  tanta  conso- 
nantia  campanarum  in  tota  Anglia.  Not  long 
after,  Kinseus,  archbishop  of  York,  gave  two 
great  bells  to  the  church  or  St.  John  at  Beverly, 
and  at  the  same  time  provided  that  other  churches 
in  his  diocese  should  be  furnished  with  bells. 
Mention  is  made  by  St.  Aldhem,  and  William 
of  Malmesbuiy,  of  bells  given  by  St.  Dunstan  to 
the  churches  in  the  west.  The  number  of  bells 
in  every  church  gave  occasion  to  a  curious 
and  singular  piece  of  architecture  in  the  cam- 
panile or  bell-tower ;  an  addition,  which  is  more 
susceptible  of  the  grander  beauties  of  architec- 
ture than  any  other  part  of  the  edifice,  and  is 
generally  therefore  the  principal  or  rudiments  of 
it.  It  vras  the  constant  appenaage  to  every  parish 
church  of  the  Saxons,  and  is  actually  mentioned 
as  such  in  the  laws  of  Athelstan.  Tlie  Greek 
Christians  are  usually  said  to  have  been  unao- 

auainted  with  bells  till  the  ninth  centuiy,  when 
leir  construction  was  first  taught  them  by  a 
Venetian.  But  it  is  not  true  Ubat  the  use  of 
bells  was  entirely  unknown  in  the  ancient  eastern 
churches,  and  that  they  called  the  peopl6  to 
.  church,  as  at  present,  with  wooden  mallets.  Leo 
Allatius,  in  his  Dissertation  on  the  Greek  Tem- 
ples, proves  the  contrary  from  several  ancient 
writers.  He  says  bells  first  began  to  be  disused 
among  them  after  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks;  who,  it  seems,  prohibited  them, 
lest  their  sound  should  disturo  the  repose  of 
souls,  whidi,  according  to  them,  wander  in  the 
air.  He  adds,  that  they  still  retain  the  use  of 
bells  in  places  remote  from  the  intercourse  of  the 
Turks,  particularly  very  ancient  ones  in  Mount 
Athos.  F.  Simon  thinks  the  Turks  prohibited 
the  Christians  the  use  of  bells,  rather  from  poli- 
tical than  religious  reasons,  as  the  ringing  of 
bells  might  serve  as  a  signal  for  the  execution  of 
revolts,  &c. 

In  the  dark  ^s  bells  were  constantly  baptised 
and  anointed,  oleo  chrismatis,  as  well  as  exor- 
cised and  blessed  by  the  bishop ;  from  a  belief, 
that  when  these  ceremonies  were  performed,  they 
had  a  power  to  drive  the  devil  out  of  the  air,  to 
calm  tempests,  extinguish  fire,  and  even  to  re- 
vive the  dead.  The  ritual  for  these  ceremonies 
is  contained  in  the  Roman  pontifical;  and  it 
was  usual  in  their  baptism  to  give  to  bells  the 
.  name  of  some  saint,  in  Chauncey's' History  of 
Hertfordshire,  p.  383,  there  is  a  relation  of  the 
baptism  of  a  set  of  bells  in  Italy  with  great  ce- 
remony, a  short  time  ^before  the  publication  of 
that  work :  and  so  late  as  September,  1782,  the 
St.  James's  Chronicle  contains  an  account  of 
the  lovers  6f  ecclesiastical  ceremonies  running 
in  crowds  at  Paris,  to  see  the  ceremony  of 
christening  the  new  bells  of  St.  Sulpicius,  of  which 
the  king  and  queen,  monsieur,  and  madame,  were 
the  sponsors.  The  bells  of  Osney  Abbey,  near 
Oxford,  were  very  famous ;  their  several  names 
were  Douce,  Clement,  Austin,  Hautecter,  or  ra- 
ther Hautclerif  Gabriel,  and  John.  The  bells  of 
the  parish  church  of  Winnington,  in  Bedford'^ 


shire,  had  their  names  cast  about  the  verge  of 
every  one  in  particular,  with  these  rfaiming  hex- 
ameters : — 
tfomina  Campuiis  hme  indita  •vnt  quoqne  nortm. 

1.  Hoc  signam  Petri  palsatar  nomine  Chriali. 

2.  Komen  Magdalen  campana  lonate  melode. 

3.  Sit  nomen  Domini  benedictom  lemper  in  ervm. 

4.  Mnta  Raphaelit  lonatanribiu  ImmanneUs. 

5.  Sam  Rosa  polsata  mandioae  Moria  vocaCa. 

Hte.  Fmu  132. 


By  an  old  chartulary,  once  in  the  possession  of 
Weever  the  antiquary,  it  appears  that  the  beUs  of 
the  priory  of  Little  Dunmow  in  Essex,  were, 
A.  D.  1501,  new  cast,  and  b^tised  by  the  names 
5f  St.  Michael,  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  Holy  Tri- 
nity. Weever  further  mentions,  that  bells  had 
frequently  this  inscription : 

Fonera  plango,  Fnlgora  frango,  Sabbata  pufo, 
Exdto  lentoB,  ditsipo  ventos,  Paoo  cnientoa. 

Durandtts  mentions  six  kinds  of  bells  in  the 
ancient  monasteries,  viz.  Squilla  rang  in  the 
refectory;  cymbalom  in  the  cloister;  n^  in  the 
choir;  ndula  or  dupla  in  the  dock;  campana  in 
Ae  steeple;  and  signum  in  the  tower.  Beledius 
has  much  ^e  same;  only  that  for  sqnlUa  he  pots 
tintinnahulum,  and  places  the  campana  in  the 
tower,  and  campanella  in  the  cloister.  Otheis 
place  the  tintinnahulum  or  tinniolnm  in  the 
refectory  or  dormitory;  and  add  another  bell 
called  corrigiuncula,  rung  at  the  time  of  giving 
discipline  or  to  call  the  monks  to  be  flogged. 
The  cymbalum  is  sometimes,  also,  said  to  have  beea 
rung  in  the  cloister,  to  call  the  monks  to  meat. 

Abroad,  bells  are  found  of  great  magnitude. 
In  the  steeple  of  the  great  churcb  at  £U>Qen  in 
Normandy  tnere  was  in  modem  times  a  bdl  with 
the  following  inscription: 

Je  suit  George  de  Anbois, 

Qoi  trente  dnqne  miUe  poit. 

Met  Ini  qui  me  peteia, 

Trente  six  mille  me  tnovcfa. 

I  am  G«orge  of  Amboia, 

Thittie  five  thousand  in  pois  ; 

But  he  that  ahall  weigh  me^ 

ThiTtie  six  thousand  shall  find  me. 
The  great  bell  at  St  Peter's  in  Rome  weighs 
18,607  pounds.  In  the  Palano  Vecdiio  at  Flo- 
rence, is  one  weighing  17,000  pounds;  and  it  is 
raised  275  feet  fnm  me  ground.  Great  Tom,  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  wdghs  17,000  pounds; 
of  Xincoln,  9894  pounds.  Thebdlof  St.  Fanl*s, 
London,  8400  pounds. 

It  is  a  common  tradition  that  the  heOs  of 
King's  College  chapel,  in  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, were  taken  by  Henry  V.  fipom  some 
church  in  France,  after  the  battle  of  Agineowt. 
They  were  taken  down  some  years  ago,  and  sold 
to  Phelps,  a  bell-founder,  in  Whitedbapel. 

The  Musurgia  Universalis  of  Kircher  deacribei 
a  bell  at  Erfurth,  which  was  east  in  the  year 
1497|  by  Gerard  Von  de  Campis,  at  the  eqMBse 
of  the  citizens,  the  neighbouring  priaoes,  and 
noblemen.  Its  thickness  is  a  quarter  ami  half 
quarter  of  an  ell;  its  heiriit  ibur  elb  and  dvee 
quarters;  its  exterior  periphery  foartecfi  db  and 
a  half;. and  its  wei^^t  252 cwt    Twentf^ouT 


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BELL. 


771 


men  tre  required  to  ring  it,  besides  two  men 
who,  on  each  side,  push  forward  the  clapper.  Its 
sonnd  is  plainly  heard  at  the  distance  of  three 
German  leagues.  Its  iundaroeiital  note  is  D  sol 
re,  but  it  gives  also  F  faut,  making  a  consonance 
of  a  minor  third.  But  from  the  above  account, 
Sir  John  Hawkins  (Hist,  of  Music,  iv,  211)  has 
doubted  whether  the  bell  is  ever  rung  at  all ;  that 
b,  whether  it  is  elevated  by  a  rope  and  wheel. 
The  action  of  the  twenty-four  men  is  obscurely 
described ;  but  the  two  are  plainly  employed  not 
in  ringing  but  in  tolling. 

A  bell  in  the  church  of  St.  Ivan,  at  Moscow, 
weighs  197,836  pounds.  But  the  wonder  of 
mveUers  is  the  unsuspended  bell  in  the  Krem- 
bn  of  tliat  city.  It  was  cast  in  1653,  in  the 
ceign  of  the  empress  Anne,  and  a  fire  took  place 
in  the  building  erected  over  it.  The  metal  thus 
became  hot.  Sad  the  water,  which  fell  upon  it 
while,  in  this  state,  occasioned  a  fracture,  by 
which  it  was  rendered  useless.  Dr.  Clarke,  in 
his  Travels,  has  given  the  following  aooount  of 
it: — *  It  reaches  from  the  bottom  of  the  cave  to 
the  roof.  The  entrance  is  by  atiap-door,  placed 
even  with  the  surfiice  of-  the  eartn.  We  found 
the  steps  very  dangerous ;  some  of  them  were 
wanting,  and.  others  broken,  which  occasioned 
me  a  severe  fall  down  the  whole  exteut  of  the 
first  flight,  and  a  narrow  escape  for  my  life  in  not 
being  dashed  upon  the  bell.  In  consequence  of 
this  accident,  a  sentinel  was  stationed  afterwards 
at  the  trap-door,  to  prevent  people  becoming  vic- 
tims to  their  curiosity.  He  might  have  been  as 
well  employed  in  mending  the  steps,  as  in  wait- 
ing all  day  to*  say  they  were  broken.  The  bell 
is  truly  a  mountain  of  metal.  They  relate  that 
it  contains  a  vory  Urge  proportion  o(  gold  and 
silver;  for  that,  while  it  was  in  fusion,  the  nobles 
and  the  people  cast  in,  as  votive  offerings^  their 
plate  and  money.  It  is  permitted  to  doubt  the 
truth  of  traditiooary  tales,  particularly  in  Russia, 
where  people  are  much  disposed  to  relate  what 
they  have  lieard,  without  reflecting  on  its  proba- 
lity.  I  have  endeavoured,  in  vain,  to  assay  a 
small  part.  The  natives  regard  it  with  super- 
stitious veneration,  and  they  would  not  aUow 
even  a  grain  to  be  filed  off.  At  the  same  time 
it  may  be  said,  the  compound  has  a  white  shinr 
ing  appearance,  unlike  bell-metal  in  general; 
and  perhaps  its  silvery  aspect  has  strengthened, 
if  not  given  rise  to,  a  conjecture  respecting  ^e 
richness  of  iu  materials.  On  festival  davs,  the 
peasants  visit  the  bdl  as  they  would  a  cnurch, 
considering  it  an  act  of  devotion;  and  they  cross 
themselves  as  they  descend  and  ascend  the  steps. 
The  bottom  of  the  pit  is  covered  by  water,  mud, 
and  large  pieces  ot  timber,  which,  added  to  the 
darkness,  render  it  always  an  unpleasant  and 
unwholesome  place,  in  addition  to  the  danger 
arising  from  the  steps  which  lead  to  the  bottom. 
I  went  frequently  there,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
dimensions  of  the  bell  with  exactness.  We 
applied  a  strong  cord  close  to  die  metal  in  all 
parts  of  its  periphecy,  and  round  the  lower  part 
where  it  touched  die  ground;  taking  care  at  the 
same  lime  not.  to  stretch  the  cord.  From  the 
piece  of  the  bell  broken  off,  it  was  ascertained 
that  we  had  thus  measured  within  two  feet  of  its 


lower  extremity.  .The  circumferen<ie  obtained 
was  sixty-seven  feet  and  four  inches;  which 
allows  a  diameter  of  twenty-two  feet,  five  inches, 
and  one  third  of  an  inch.  We  then  took  the 
perpendicular  height  from  the  top  of  the  bell, 
and  found  it  correspond  exactly  with  the  state- 
ment made  by  Hanway,  namely,  twenty-one 
feet,'  four  inches  and  a  half.  In  the  stoutest 
part,  that  in  which  it  should  have  received  the 
blow  of  the  hammer,  its  thickness  equalled  twenty- 
three  inches.  We  were  able  to  ascertain  this,  by 
placing  our  hands  under  water  where  the  fracture 
nad  taScen  place,  which  is  above  seven  feet  high 
from  the  lip  of  the  bell.  The  weight  of  this  enor- 
mous mass  of  metal  has  been  computed  to  be 
443,772  pounds;  which,  if  valued  at  three  shil- 
lings a  pound,  amounts  to  £66,565. 16s.  lying 
unemployed,  and  of  no  use  to  any  one. 

In  1684,,  Abraham  Rudhall,  of  Gloucester, 
brought  the  art  of  bell-founding  to  great  perfec- 
tion. His  descendants  in  succession  continued 
tho  business ;  and  by  a  list  published  by  them,  it 
appears,  that  at  Lady-day,  1774,  the  family,  in 
peals  and  odd  bells,  had  cast  to  the  amount  of 
3594.  The  peals  of  St.  Dunstan*s  in  the  east, 
and  St.  Bride's,  London,  and  St.  Martin's  in  the 
Field's,  Westminster,  are  in  the  number.    See 

FOUWDRY. 

The  practice  of  ringing  bells  in  change,  or 
regular  peals,  is  said  to  be  peculiar  to  £n«;land ; 
whence  Britain  has  been  termed  the  bell-ringing 
island.  The  custom  seems  to  have  commenced 
in  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  and  was  common 
before  the  conquest.  The  tolling  a  bell  is  nothing 
more  tlian  the  producing  a  sound  by  a  stroke 
with  the  clapper  against  the  side  of  the  bell,  the 
^11  itself  being  in  a  pendent  position  and  at 
rest.  In  ryiging,  the  bell,  by  means  of  a  wheel 
and  a  rope,  is  elevated  to  a  perpendicular;  in  its 
motion  to  this  situation  the  clapper  strikes  forci- 
bly on  one  side,  and  in  its  return  downwards  on 
the  other  side  of  the  bell,  producing  at  each 
stroke  a  sound.  There  were  in  London,  for- 
merly, many  societies  of  ringers,  particularly  one 
known  by  the  name  of  the  College  Youths:  of 
this  it  is  said  the  celebrated  Sir  Matthew  Hale, 
was,  in  his  youthful  days,  a  member ;  and  in  the 
life  of  that  judge,  by  bishop  Burnet,  are  some 
fiicts  that  at  least  prove  nis  attachment  to 
such  exercises.  Hingmg  has  sometimes  claimed 
the  name  of  a  science,  and  peals  have  been  com- 
posed which  bear  the  name  of  inventors.  Some 
of  the  most  celebrated  of  these  were  composed 
about  fifty  years  ago  by  one  Patrick.  This  man 
was  a  maker  of  barometers ;  in  his  advertise- 
ments he  styled  himself  Torricellian  Operator, 
from  Torricelli,  who  invented  instruments  of 
this  kind.  The  ancient  peiils  do  not  appear  to 
have  exceeded  five  in  number.  Holden,  in  his 
Treatise  on  the  natural  grounds  of  Harmony, 
remarks,  that '  the  completest  and  most  perfect 
ring  is  a  peal  of  six,  in  which,  whether  ascend- 
ing or  descending,  the  hemitone  holds  the  mid- 
dle position,  as  it  does  in  both  the  natural  and 
the  durum  heic^chord ;  in  the  molle  hexachord 
the  tritonus  intervenes.'  cap.  vi.  Stowe,  in  bis 
Survey  of  Comhill  Ward,  mentions,  diat  in 
1430,  a  sixth  bell  was  added  to  the  peal  of  five 

3D2 


Digitized  by 


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772 


BELL 


in  the  church  of  St.  Michael ;  after  which  it  was 
accounted  the  best  ring  of  bells,  forhannony 
and  sweetness,  in  all  England. 

The  theory  of  ringing  may  be  completely 
learned  from  either  the  Campanologia  (of  1733), 
or  the  Harmonia  Universalis  (the  «Latin  hot  the 
French  work)  of  Mersennus,  in  which  he  lias  enu- 
merated and  reduced  to  musical  notation,  the 
changes  of  the  hexachord,  or  the  Tintinnalo- 
gia,  or  Art  of  Ringing,  (1668),  in  which  every 
possible  change  of  diatonic  sound,  from  two 
Dells  to  twelve,  is  laid  down ;  and  innumerable 
passages  presented  wholly  new  to  musical  com- 
position. This  may  easily  be  imagined,  when  it 
IS  recollected,  that  in  the  simple  arrangements  of 
natural  sound,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
single  flat  or  sharp,  twelve  bells  produce 
479,001,600  changes.  Not  all  the  changes, 
however,  if  reduced  into  an  air,  would  be  equally 
agreeable  or  practicable;  and  it  is  somewhat 
remarkable,  that  in  tlie  art  of  rinsring,  melody 
has  never  been  studied.  Mechanical  order  and 
succession  has  been  all  in  all ;  and  Dr.  Bumey, 
from  whom  we  borrow  the  observation,  states, 
that  even  in  the  clams  or  collision  of  two  bells 
together  in  counterpoint,  no  knowledge  of  har- 
mony has  ever  been  displayed. 

The  number  of  changes  upon  a  given  number 
4>f  bells  is  readily  calculated :  Sz  1x2x3^X4 
X n.    So  that  the  changes  upov     . 


13345 


2  bells  are  2 


3  — 

4  — 

5  — 

6  — 

7  — 

8  — 

9  — 

10  — 

11  — 

12  — 


6 

24 

120 

720 

5,040 

40,320 

362,880 

3,628,800 

39,916,800 

479,001,600 


Vo  peal,  beyond  twelve,  we  believe,  has  ever  been 
erected.  Ihe  churches  having  twelve  bells,  in 
London,  are  St.  Bride's,  St.  Martin's  in  the 
Fields,  St.  Michaers  Comhill,  St.  Leonard's 
Shoreditch,  St.  Saviour's  Southwark,  St.  Giles's 
Pripplegate,  and  Christ  Church  Spitalfields. 
In  the  country,  York  Minster,  Cirencester,  Great 
St.  Maiy's  Cambridge,  St.  Martin's  Birming- 
ham, St.  Peter's  Mancroft  Norwich,  St.  Chad's 
Shrewsbury,  and  Payne  Church  Gloucestershire, 
have  the  same  number. 

It  is  calculated  that  twelve^changes  may  be  rung 
in  one  minute,  that  is  720  in  an  hour.  On  tliis 
computation,  all  the  possible  cl\anges  on  twelve 
bells  could  not  be  rjang  in  less  than  seventy-five 
year^  ten  months,  and  ten  days. 

A  peal  is  the  whole  number  of  .changes  which 
can  be  rungx>n  any  given  number  of  bells:  and 
as  the  style  of  each  peal  differs  according  to  the 
variation  in  the  succession  of  these  changes,  so 
each  peal  is  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  name, 
as  times  are  in  psalmody.  The  peal  of  regular 
permutations  on  five  bells,  is  called  a  granosire. 
These  permutations  are  represented  in  the  hl- 
iowing  diagram. 


13542 

31254 

31524 

32145 

35142 

23415 

53412 

24.351 

54321 

42531 

45231 

45213 

42513 

54123 

24153 

51432 

B  21435 

15342 

12453 

13524 

14235 

31542 

41253 

35124 

42135 

53214 

24315 

52341 

23451 

25431 

32541 

24313 

35214 

42153 

53124 

B  41235 

51342 

14253 

15432 

12435 

14523 

21453 

41532 

24135 

45123 

42315 

54213 

43251 

52431 

34521 

25341 

35412 

23514 

53142 

32154 

51324 

S  32145 

15234 

13254 

12543 

13245 

21534 

25143 
52413 
54231 
45321 
43512 
34152 

B  31425 
13452 
14325 
41352 
43125 
34215 
32451 
23541 
25314 
52134 
51243 
15423 
14532 
41523 
45132 
54312 
53421 
35241 
32514 
23154 

S  21345 
12354 
12345 


The  letter  B,  in  the  above  example,  signifies  a 
•bob,  or  an  alteration  in  the  direction  of  the 
changes.  S  denotes  single;  a  term  used  when 
half  the  peal  is  rung,  and,  also,  when  one  change 
only  remains.  A  plain  bob,  grandsire  bob,  or 
single  bob  minor,  is  the  peal  of  regular  permuta- 
tion on  six  bells.  A  grandsire  treble  is  the  same 
4)n  seven.  A  bob  major  the  same  on  eight 
Caters  the  same  on  nine.  Ten  in,  or  bob  royal, 
the  same  on  ten.  Cinques  the  same  on  eleven. 
Twelve  in,  or  bob  maximus,  the  same  on  twelve. 
In  the  grandsire  treble  complete,  there  ar^  5040 
changes :  to  ring  through  which,  admitting  720 
changes  in  an  hour  (a  number  which  cannot  be 
kept  up),  seven  hours  would  be  required.  It  is 
plain  tiuit  this  is  the  most  extensive  complete 
peal  which  can  be  rung.  The  next  in  order, 
the  bob  major,  contains  40,320  changes,  and 
could  not  be  rung  even  on  a  light  peal  in  kss 
than  twenty-four  hours,  a  lengUi  of  time  during 
which  no  eight  men  could  stand  to  the  labor. 

These  regular  clianges,  in  which  the  place  of 
two  bells  only  is  altered  in  each  round,  are 
called  plain  changes.  Whep  the  place  d  more 
tlian  two  bells  is  altered,  and  the  dianges  do  not 
succeed  each  other  progressively,  but  by  inter- 
vals, they  are  called  cross  changes.  > 
.  Tne  bell,  the  regular  motion  of  wfaidi  guides 
the  rest,  is  called  the  hunt,  and  it  is  generally 
the  treble  bell.  In  the  above  example,  thf  Bgutt 
1  represents  the  hunt;  it  moves  from  Its  own 
place  into  the  second's  place,  and  so  dn  till  it 
reaches  fifth's  place,  whicn  is  called  fanntiiig  up 
behind.  Herts  it  strikes  two  blows,  called  fay- 
ing behind  a  whole  pull;  and  it  then  hunts  back 
again  in  the  reverse  order,  and  so  on  to  the  end 


Digitized  by 


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B    E    1.    L. 


773 


of  the  peal.  <  The  first  step/  says  the  Campa- 
nologia,  *  he  (the  learner)  makes  in  this  art,  is 
to  learn  perfectly  to  set  a  bell,  both  back  stroke 
and  fo*-e;  and  to  have  it  so  much  at  his  com- 
mand, asT  that  he  may  be  able  to  cut  it  down  at 
either  hand  (beinj;  the  sally  or  back  stroke),  and 
set  it  again  the  next  pull;  without  which  he  can- 
not attain  to  any  perfection  or  knowledge  in  this 
art.  And,  to  make  this  the  more  easy  to  him,  he 
must  observe  to  keep  the  rope  tight  or  stiff,  to 
stand* upright  to  his  bell,  not  stirring,  or  using 
any  ungenteel  posture;  which  in  ringing,  as  well 
as  dancing,  is  very  ridiculous.  When  he  is  mas- 
ter of  this,  he  may  then  try  to  ring  one  round  in. 
three,  four,  five,  or  six  bells,  and  afterwards  in 
eight  or  ten,  wherein,  as  in  all  ringing,  the  princi- 
pal thing  to  be  observed  is  a  true  and'  exact 
compass,  which  in  music  is  cdled  time,  other- 
wise the  ringing  becomes  very  unpleasing  and 
disturbing  to  the  hearers,  and  may  be  compared 
to  the  nauseous  music  of  a  country  fiddle-player 
'  oefore  a  company  of  boors  and  peasants  gomg  to 
the  celebration  of  a  homely  country-wedding.' 
p.  11. 

In  the  Low  Countries,  particularly  at  Ghent 
and  Antwerp,  is  a  species  of  chime  termed  caril- 
lons, playea  with  great  labor  by  a  performer, 
the  carrilloneuT,  upon  a  number  of  bells,  disposed 
in  a  scale  of  tones  and  semitones  like  a  harpsi- 
chord. The  bass  is  played  by  pedals ;  the  treble 
by  violent  strokes  of  the  hands  edgeways  upon  a 
series  of  projecting  sticks,  which  act  as  keys. 
From  this  barbarous  and  unwieldy  music,  the 
term  carillon  has  been  applied  to  a  small  keyed 
instrument,  imitating  a  peal  of  hand-bells,  in 
which  box  hammers  are  made  to  strike  iron  bars 
of  different  lengths.  Handel  employed  this 
instrument  as  an  accompaniment  in  his  air,  '  0 
let  the  merry  bells  ring  round,'  in  L'Allegro; 
and  to  the  chorus,  *  Welcome,  welcome,  mighty 
king,'  in  Saul.    See  Chimes. 

The  Famng  Bell  was  anciently  rung  for  two 
purposes ;  one,  to  bespeak  the  prayers  of  the  mi- 
nister and  all  good  Christians  for  a  soul  just 
departing;  the  other,  to  drive  away  the  evil 
spirits  who  were  supposed  to  wait  about  the 
^ouse,  ready  to  seize  their  prey,  or  to  molest  and 
terrifv  the  soul  in  its  passage.  By  the  ringing  of 
this  Dell,  for  Durandus  informs  us  evil  spirits 
are  much  afraid  of  bells,  they  were  thought  to 
be  kept  aloof:  and  the  soul,  like  a  hunted  hare, 
gainea  the  start,  or  had  what  is  by  sportsmen 
called  law.  Hence,  perhaps,  exclusive  of  the 
additional  labor,  was  occasioned  the  high  price 
demanded,  for  tolling  the  greatest  bell  in  the 
church.  This  dislike  of  spirits  to  bells  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Golden  Legend,  by  W.  de  Worde. 
'  It  is  said,  the  evil  spirytes  that  ben  in  the 
regyon  of  thayre,  doubte  moche  when  thev  here 
the  belles  rongen:  and  this  is  the  cause  why  the 
bells  ben  rongen  whan  it  thondreth,  and  whan 
grete  tempeste  and  outrages  of  wether  happen, 
to  the  ende  tliat  the  fiends  and  wycked  spiiytes 
shold  be  abashed  and  flee,  and.  cease  of  the 
movynge  of  tempeste.'  Lobiueau  observes,  that 
tJie  custom  of  ringing  bells,  at  the  approach  of 
thunder,  is  of  some  antiouity;  but  that  the 
design  was  not  so  much  to  snake  the  air  and  so 
dissipate  the  thunder,  as  to  call  the  people  to 


church,  to  pray  that  the  parish  might  be  pre- 
served from  disasters. 

Legends  Concerning  Bellas  as  mtgnt  oe  ex- 
pected, are  endless.  The  bells  at  Canterburv  are 
said  to  have  rung  of  themselves  on  the  murder  of 
Thomas  ^  Becket :  but  the  influence  of  bells  as 
exorcists  has  occasionally  failed.  The  history 
and  antiquities  of  Shrewsbury,  by  Phillips,  con- 
tains the  following  item :  *  Tliis  yere  1533 
upon  twelffe  daye  in  Shrewsbury,  The  Dyvyll 
appearyd  in  Saint  Alkmondp  churche  there  when 
the  priest  was  at  high  masse,  with  great  tempeste 
and  darknesse,  so  that  as  he  passyd  througn  the 
churche,  he  minted  up  the  steeple  in  the  sayde 
churche,  tering  the  wyers  of  the  seid  docke,  and 
put  the  print  of  hys  clawes  upon  the  4th  bell, 
and  tooke  one  of  the  pynnades  away  with  hym, 
and  for  thetyme  stayed  all  the  bells  in  the  church- 
es within  the  said  towne,  that  they  could  ney- 
ther  toll  nor  ringe.'  It  is  clear  that  this  is 
simply  the  reference  of  a  tiiunder  storm  to 
diabolical  agency.  W&  are  told  of  a  bell  of  Sl 
David,  which  cured  the  King  of  Dublin  of  a 
mortal  disease  by  applying  it  to  his  cheek.  This 
was  preserved  in  the  church  of  Glascwm  in  Rad- 
norshire. It  was  portable,  and  endowed  with 
great  virtue.  Giraldus  Cambrensis  says,  that  *  a 
certain  woman  secretly  conveved  this  bell  to  her 
husband,  who  was  confined  in  the  castle  of 
Raiderswy  near  Warthrenia,  which  Rhys,  son  of 
Gruffydd,  had  lately  built,  for  the  purpose  of  his 
deliverance.  The  keeper  of  the  castle  not  only 
refused  to  liberate  him  for  this  consideration  but 
seized  and  detained  the  bell ;  and  in  the  same 
night,  by  Divine  vengeance,  the  whole  town,  ex- 
cept the  wall  on  which  the  bell  hung,  was  con- 
sumed by  fire.'  A  similar  bell,  called  Baogu, 
was  kept  in  all  Welsh  churches  during  Popish 
times.  On  the  day  of  a  funeral,  the  sexton  took 
it  to  the  house  of  the  deceased.  When  the  pro- 
cession began  a  Psalm  was  sung,  and  the  bell- 
man sounded  the  fiangu  in  a  solemn  manner, 
till  the  corpse  arrived  at  the  church.  Within 
the  memory  of  living  persons  this  custom  is  said 
to  have  prevailed  in  Wales.  We  must  mention 
yet  one  more  marvellous  bell  in  Ireland,  which, 
unless  it  were  tied  fast  every  night,  used  to 
wander  far  from  home  into  another  church  1  We 
read  also  of  a  comet,  which  in  the  time  of  Pope 
Calixtus  III.  cast  upon  the  Turks  all  the  mis- 
chief which  it  threatened,  in  consequence  of  the 
ringing  of  bells,  by  order  of  the  pontiff,  pre- 
cisely at  noon.     Plat,  in  vita. 

We  may  finally  observe  (with  Stavely,  on 
Churches,)  that  anciently  and  sometimes  besides 
the  befote  specified  offices,  an  extraordinary 
and  dreadful  use  was  also  made  of  bells,  and 
that  was  the  cursing  by  Bell,  Book,  and  Candle : 
the  manner  whereof,  he  adds,  I  hope,  will  not  be 
altogether  impertinent  here  to  relate ;  out  of  an 
anciert  Festival,  and  the  articles  of  the  general 
great  curse,  found  at  Canterbury,  A.  D.  1562. 
It  was  solemnly  thundered  out  otice  in  every 
Quarter ;  '  The  Fyrst  Sonday  of  Advent,  at 
comyng  of  our  Lord  Jhesu  Cryst :  the  fyrst 
Sonday  of  Lenteen :  The  Sonday  in  the  Feste  of 
the  Trynyte :  and  Sonday  within  tilie  Utas  (Oc- 
taves) of  the  blessed  Vyrgin  our  Lady  St.  Mary.' 
At  which  action  the  prelate  stands  in  the  pulpit 


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774 


BELL. 


in  his  Aulbe,  the  cross  beSbg  lifted  up  before  bim 
and  the  candles  lighted  on  both  sides  of  it,  and 
begins  thus,  «  By  authority,  God,  Fader,  Son, 
and  Uoly-Ghost,  and  the  glorious  Moder  and 
Mayden,  our  Lady  St.  Mary,  and  the  Blessed 
Apostles  Peter,  and  Pattl,  and  all  Apostles, 
Martyrs,  Confessors,  Vyrgyne,  and  the  tallows 
of  God ;  All  thos  byn  accursed  that  purchases 
writts,  or  letters  of  any  leud  court,  or  to  let  the 

f>rocesse  of  tlie  law  of  holy  church  of  causes  that 
ongen  skilfully  to  christen  court,  the  which 
should  not  be  demed  by  none  other  law :  And 
all  that  maliciously  bereaven  hoW  chirch  of  her 
right,  or  maken  holy  chirch  lay  fee,  that  is  hal- 
lowed and  blessed.  And  also  all  thos  that  for 
inalyce  or  wrathe  of  parson,  vicare,  or  priest,  or 
of  any  other,  or  for  wrongfuU  cove^e  of  himself 
witholden  rightful  tylfas,  and  offerings,  rents,  or 
mortuaries  irom  her  own  parish  church,  and  by 
way  of  covetyse  Ms  lyche  taking  to  God  the 
worse,  and  to  hemself  the  better,  or  else  torn  him 
into  another  use,  then .  hem  oweth.  For  all 
chrysten  man  and  women  been  hard  bound  on 
pain  of  deadly  sin,  not  onlyche  by  ordinance  of 
man,  but  both  in  the  ould  law,  and  also  in  the 
new  law,  for  to  pay  trulydie  to  God  and  holy 
chirch  the  tyth  part  of  all  manner  of  encrease  that 
they  winnen  trulyclie  by  tlie  grace  of  God,  both 
with  her  travell,  and  alsoe  with  her  craftes  whatsoe 
they  be  truly  gotten.'  '  And  then  concludes  all 
with  the  curse  itself,  thus :'  *  And  now  by 
authoritie  aforesaid  we  denounce  all  thos  accur- 
syd  that  are  so  founden  guyltie,  and  all  thos  that 
maintaine  hem  in  her  sins  or  gyven  hem  hereto 
eitlier  help  or  councell,  soe  they  be  departed  froe 
God,  and  all  holi  chirch  :  and  that  they  have  noe 
part  of  the  passyon  of  our  Lord  Jhesu  Cryst,  ne 
of  noe  Sacraments,  ne  no  part  of  the  prayers 
among  christen  folk :  But  that  they  be  accursed' 
of  God,  and  of  the  chirch,  froe  the  sole  of  her 
foot  to  the  crown  of  her  hede,  sleaping  and 
waking,  sitting  and  standing,  and  in  all  her 
words,  and  in  all  her  werks ;  but  if  they  have 
noe  grace  of  God  to  amend  them  here  in  this 
lyfe,  for  to  dwell  in  the  pain  of  hell  for  ever 
witbouten  end:  fiat:  fiat.  Doe  to  the  boke: 
quench  the  candles:  ring  the  bell:  Amen, 
Amen.'  *  And  then  the  book  is  clapp'd  together, 
the  candles  blown  out,  and  the  bells  rung,  with 
a  most  dreadful  noise  made  by  the  congregation 
present  bewailing  the  accursed  persons  concerned 
in  that  black  doom  denounced  against  them.*  236. 

The  uses  of  bells  were  summed  up  in  the  fol- 
lowing distich,  as  well  as  one  above  mentioned : 
liaado  Deam  Tenim,  plebem  voco,  conjuga  cierum, 
0efoncto8  ploro,  pestem  fugo,  festa  decoro. 

Bell,  in  architecture,  is  used  to  denote  the 
body  of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite  capital, 
by  reason  of  its  resemblance  to  the  figure  of  a 
bell  inverted.  It  is  also  called  vase  and  tambour, 
and  sometimes  corl>eil.  The  naked  of  the  bell 
should  always  be  even  and  perpendicular  with 
the  bottom  of  the  flutings  of  the  column.  See 
Architecture. 

Bell,  in  chemistry,  denotes  a  glass  vessel 
placed  over  some  matter  in  a  state  of  exhalation, 
either  to  collect  the  vapor  or  gather  the  flowers. 
Chemical  bells  are  a  sort  of  receptacles  chiefly 
mod. in  preparing  the  oil  or  spirit  of  sulphur,  for 


gathering  and  cond^^nsing  fumes  intoa  liqiior. 
Bell,  Diviko.  See  Divixo. 
Bell  (Benjamin),  member  of  the  Royal  Colle^ 
of  Surgeons,  and  F.  R.S.  Edinbufgh,  was  bor« 
at  Dumfries,  in  1749,  and  after  a  classical  educa- 
tion, under  the  celebrated  Dr.  George  Chapman, 
began  his  medical  studies  at  Edinburgh,  in  1766. 
About  1770  he'weiA  to  Paris,  and  from  thence 
to  London.  Mr.  Bellxetufned  to  Edinbnigk 
in  1772,  with  a  design  of  settling  there.  His 
address  and  dexterity,  and  the  success  df  his 
cures  in  the  infirmary,  were  soon  observed,  bat 
his  fame  was  not  confined  to  the  circle  of  prac- 
tice :  in  1778  he  published  A  Treatise  on  the 
management  of  Ulcers,  &c.  which  soon  pa»ed 
through  several  editions,  and  was  occasionally  im- 
proved by  the  author.  He  afterwards  incorpo- 
rated it  into  his  System  of  Surgery,  of  whi<^  Mr. 
Bell  published  the  first  volume  in  t783whi6hwas 
well  received.  He  completed  it  in  1788.  Before 
the  year  1801  it  had  gone  through  six  editions, 
receiving,  as  they  came  out,  whatever  improve- 
ments his  experience  oould  add :  the  7th  edition, 
considerably  improved,  was  that  year  published 
in  7  vols.  8vo.  In  the  year  1793  Mr.  Bell  pub- 
lished a  Treatise  on  the  Gonorrhcea  Vimlenta, 
and  Lues  Venerea,  2  vols.  8vo.  which  passed  to 
a  third  edition.  In  1794  appeared  a  more  en- 
lareed  treatise  on  The  Hydrocele,  on  Saioooele 
or  Cancer,  and  other  diseases  of  the  Testes,  than 
what  was  contained  in  his  System  of  Sftfgery. 
In  1782  Mr.  Bell  published  the  first  v(^un)e  of 
a  Series  of  Essays  on  Agriculture,  with  a  plan 
for  the  speedy  improvement  of  land  in  Great  Bri- 
tain ;  the  2d  volume  of  which  be  vras  preparing 
for  the  press  immediatdy  before  his  death.  He 
also  sent  abroad  into  the  worid  several  anony* 
mous  political  tiacu.  Mr.  Bell  married  a 
dau^ter  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hamilton,  profiessor  of 
Divinity ;  and  some  years  before  his  death  he 
was  assisted  in  his  professional  pursuits  by  his 
eldest  son,  Mr.  George  Bell.  He  made  difierent 
tours  for  the  improvement^  his  health  about  ibe 
year  1800,  but  nature  continued  Uyfiiil,  and  he 
expired  without  any  sympton  of  pain,  on  4tk 
April,  1806. 

Bell  (John),  an  eminent  surgeon  of  Edin- 
burgh, delivered  anatomical  lectures  there,  and 
published  some  professional  works  of  oonsideiable 
lAiportance.  Among  these  are  Discourses  on  the 
Nattire  and  Cure  of  Wounds,  8vo ;  The  Anatomy 
of  the  Human  Body,  3  vols.  8vo ;  Principles  of 
Surgery,  3  vols.  4to.  A  few  v^un  ago  be  travel- 
led to  Italy,  and  dying  at  Rome  in  1820,  left 
for  tile  press  a  work  published  in  1825  with  the 
title  of  Observations  on  Italy,  4to. 

Bell  (Henry  Nugent),  a  student  of  die  Innef 
Temple,  Of  considerable  heraldic  and  genalogi- 
cal  research.  His  exertions  were  the  mmm  of 
the  recovery  of  the  dormant  Huntingdon  Peer- 
age. He  died  October  18, 1822,  on  the  day  a 
verdict  was  given  against  him  for  a  sum  of  money 
advanced  to  him  by  Mr.  Cooke,  an  engraver,  to- 
wards the  investigation  of  a  claim  to  an  estue. 
He  published  an  account  of  the  claim  to  the 
Huntingdon  peerage. 

Bell  (Elizabeth),  of  Kinvaid,  and  her  friend 
Mary  Gray,  of  Lednock,  cdebraied  in  the  weQ 
known  song,  Bessy  Bell  and  Mary  Gray,  wmt 


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both  natives  of_PeTthshire,  where  these  estates 

are  situated. 

is  recorded 

Monedie, 

604;  and  X.  621. 

BELLA  (Stefano  De  la),  an  eminent  engraver, 
born  at  Florence,  A.D.  1610.  His  father  was  a 
goldsmith ;  and  he  began  to  follow  that  business, 
but  whilst  learning  to  draw,  Callot's  prints  fell 
into  his  hands ;  with  which  he  was  so  aeliffhted, 
that  he  prevailed  upon  his  father'  to  permit  him 
to  apply  to  engraving ;  and  he  became  the  dis- 
ciple of  C&nto  Gallioa,  the  instructor  of  Callot 
Bella  at  first  imitated  the  manner  of  Callot,  but 
soon  adopted  one,  his  own,  which  in  freedom 
and  spirit  is  said  even  to  have  surpassed  that  of 
his  fellow  pupil.  He  went  to  Paris  A.  D.  1642, 
where  he  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Israel 
Silvestre,  and  was  much  employed  by  Henriete, 
Silvestre's  uncle.  Some  time  afler,  Cardinal 
Richelieu  engaged  him  to  go  to  Arras  and  make 
drawings  of  Sie  siege  of  that  town  by  the  royal 
army.  After  staying  a  considerable  time  at 
Paris,  his  femily  affairs  obliged  him  to  return  to 
Florence ;  where  he  obtained  a  pension  from  the 
Great  Duke,  and  was  appointed  to  instruct 
Cosmo,  his  son,  in  the  art  of  design.  He  was 
subject  to  violent  head-aches,  which  terminated  his 
life,  A  J).  1664,  when  he  was  only  fifty-four  years 
of  age.  He  drew  ver^  correctly,  with  great  taste, 
and  vast  fertility  of  mvention.  The  animation 
which  appears  in  his  works  compensates  for  their 
slightness,  which  we  can  hardly  be  surprised  at 
when  we  are  told  that  he  engraved  1400  plates. 

BELLADONA,  in  botany  the  trivial  name  of 
a  species  of  Atropa.    See  Atropa. 

Belladona  Lily.    See  Amaryllis. 

BELLAI  (William  du),  lord  of  Langey,  a 
French  general  who  signalised  himself  in  the 
service  of  Francis  I.  He  was  also  ad  able  nego- 
ciator,  so  that  the  emperor  Charles  V.  used  to  say, 
that  Langey's  pen  had  fought  more  against  him 
than  all  the  lances  in  France.  He  was  sent  to 
Piedmont  in  quality  of  viceroy,  where  he  took 
several  towns  from  the  Imperialists.  His  address 
in  penetrating  into  the  enemy's  designs  was  sur- 
prising. In  this  he  spared  no  expense,  and 
thereby  had  intelligence  of  the  most  secret  of  the 
imperial  councils.  It  being  then  the  interest  of 
France  to  favor  the  king  of  England,  he  was 
extremely  active  in  influencing  some  of  the 
French  universities  to  give  meir  judgment 
agreeable  to  the  desire  of  Henry  VIU.  on  the 
subject  of  divorcing  Queen  Catharine.  He  was 
sent  several  times  mto  Germany  to  the  princes 
of  the  Protestant  league,  and  vras  made  a  knight 
of  the  order  of  St.  Michael.  He  was  also  a  man 
of  learning,  and  composed  several  works;  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  was  the  History  of  his 
Own  Times,  in  Latin,  divided  into  several  parts, 
each  consisting  of  eight  books ;  most  of  which, 
however,  have  been  lost.  He  died  at  St.  Sapho- 
rin,  between  Lyons  and  Roan,  the  9th  January, 
1542,  and  was  buried  in  the  chureh  of  Mans. 

BELLAMORESKOY-LEPOROI,aprovince 
of  Russian  Lapland,  on  the  White  Sea,  whidi  is 
called  in  the  language  of  the  countiy  Bella  or 
Bidoi  More. 


BELLAMY  (Thomas),  was  bom  at  Kingstoor 
upon-Thames  in  1745,  and  bred  a  hosier,  became 
subsequently  a  publisher,  and  also  an  autho"*. 
Among  other  things,  he  produced  Sadaski,  a 
novel.  Lessons  from  Life,  Miscellanies,  and  The 
Friends,  a  musical  interlude.  He  was  the 
original  projector  and  editor  of  the  Monthly 
Mirror.    He  died  in  1800. 

BELLARDIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  plants, 
of  the  class  tetandria :  order  monogynia :  cal. 
four-cleft:  nect.  with  a  four-lobed  margin, 
surrounding  the  style:  caps,  two-celled,  two- 
partible,  many-seeded.  One  species ;  a  native 
of  Guiana. 

BELLARMIN  (Robert),  an  Italian  Jesuit,  one 
of  the  best  controversial  writers  of  his  time.  In 
1576  he  read  lectures  at  Rome  with  such  ap- 

flause,  that  Sixtus  V.  sending  a  legate  into 
'ranee  in  1590,  appointed  him  as  an  attendant 
divine,  in  case  any  dbpute  should  arise  in  re- 
ligion. He  returned  to  Rome,  and  wa.s  'raised 
successively  to  different  offices,  till  at  last,  in 
1599,  he  was  honored  with  a  cardinal's  hat ;  his' 
acceptance  of  which,  it  is  said,  they  were  ob- 
liged to  force,  by  threatening  him  with  an  ana- 
thema, in  case  of  refusal.  It  is  certain  that  no 
Jesuit  ever  did  greater  honor  to  his  order,  and 
that  no  author  ever  so  well  defended  the  Romish 
church.  Protestants  have  owned  this ;  for,  during 
the  space  of  fifty  years,  there  was  scarcely  any 
considerable  divine  among  them,  who  did  not 
fix  upon  this  author  for  the  subject  of  his  books 
of  controversy.  Notwithstanding  the  zeal  with 
which  he  maintained'  the  power  of  the  pope  over 
the  temporality  of  kings j  he  displeased  Sixtus  V. 
in  his  work  De  Romano  Pontifice,  by  insisting 
that  the  power  which  Jesus  Christ  gave  to  his 
vicegerent  was  only  indirect,  and  had  the  morti- 
fication to  see  it  put  into  Uie  index  of  the  In- 
quisition, though  it  was  afterwards  removed.  He 
left,  at  his  death,  one  half  of  his  soul  to  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and  the  other  to  Jesus  Christ. 

BELLASPOOR,  a  town  of  Delhi,  Hindostan, 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Sutubje  river,  which  is 
here  100  yards  broad.  Lat.  31°  35'  N.,  long. 
76<>  21'  E.  It  is  well  built,  and  exhibits  a  re-' 
gularity  not  often  seen  in  this  part  of  Hindostan.' 
The  streets  are  roughly  pa?ed,  and  the  houses 
built  of  stone  and  mortar.  From  Bellaspoor, 
fertile  valleys,  though  not  wide,  extend  to  Bi- 
polie ;  and  it  is  the  residence  of  the  ranny,  or 
temale  ruler  of  the  Calowr  territory. 

BELLATRIX,  in  astronomy,  a  ruddy  glittering 

star  of  the  second  magnitude,  in  the  left  shoulder 

of  Orion.    It  takes  its  name  from,  helium,,  war, 

as  being  anciently  supposed  to  have  a  great 

influence  in  kindling  wars,  and  forming  warriois. 

BELLE,     -V      Belle,  Fr.,  from  the  Latin 

Bell'ycue,  f  belltUf  is  applied  to  the  female, 

Bel'dam,     >  as  beau  to  the  male.    Beldwt, 

Bel'sire,     i  now  a  term  of  derision  and  re- 

BELL'iBONE.y  proach,  literally  signifies   &ir 

lady.      Bellibone,    bonny    belle;    bonny  lass; 

BeUvche  occurs  in  Pier's  Plouhman.     Beldam, 

in  Ford,    simply,  as    an    aged  woman;   and 

Shakspeare  applies  it  to  the  earth,— shakes  the 

old  beldame  earth :  he  uses  it,  however,  in  its 

common  acceptation.   BeUire  occurs  in  Drayton. 


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Who  this  land  in  aach  estate  mainuin'd« 
As  his  great  belnre  Brute  from  Albion's  heirs  it  won. 

DragfUm. 

Pan  may  be  proud  that  ever  he  begot 
Such  a  hdlibone. 

And  Syrinx  rejoice  iht  ever  was  her  lot 
To  bear  such  a  one. 

Per.  I  saw  the  bouncing  heUibone, 

Will.  Hey,  ho.  BombeU, 

Per.  Tripping  over  the  dale  alone. 

Will.  She  can  trip  it  very  well. 

Id.     Shepherd's  Calendar. 

What  motive  could  compel 

A  well-bred  lord  t'  assault  a  gentle  heUeT 

O  say,  what  stranger  cau»e,  yet  unexplor'd^ 

Could  make  a  gentle  hdle  reject  a  lord.  Pope, 

BELLEAU  (Remi),  a  French  poet,  bom  at 
Nogent  le  Rotrou.'  He  lived  in  the  family  of 
Renatus  of  Lorraine,  Marquis  of  Elbeuf,  general 
of  the  French  galleys;  and  attended  him  in  his 
expedition  into  Italy  in  1557.  This  pnnce 
highly  esteemed  Belleau  for  his  courage  and 
abilities,  and  entrusted  him  with  the  education 
of  his  son,  Charles  of  Lorraine.  Belleau  was 
'one  of  the  seven  poets  of  his  time,  who  were 
denominated  the  French  Pleiades.  He  translated 
the  odes  of  Anacreon,  but  is  thought  not  to  have 
preserved  all  the  natural  beauties  of  the  original. 
His  pastoral  pieces  are  most  in  esteem.  He 
also  wrote  an  excellent  poem  on  the  Nature  of 
Precious  Stones ;  he  died  at  Paris  in  1577,  in 
the  family  of  the  Duke  d'Elbeuf. 

BELLE  PE  NuiT,  in  botany,  a  name  given 
by  the  French  to  the  flower  of  the  jalap. 

BELLEFOREST  (Frangis  de),  a  French  an- 
,  thor,  bom  in  Guienne  in  1530.  He  was  seven 
years  of  age  when  he  lost  his  father ;  but  his 
mother,  though  left  in  poor  circumstances,  con- 
tributed all  in  her  power  to  his  education.  He 
was  supported  some  ^ears  by  the  queen  of  Na- 
varre, sister  to  Francis  I.  Some  time  after,  he 
1  went  to  study  at  Bourdeaux,  then*at  Toulouse, 
and  at  last  at  Paris ;  where  he  became  acauainted 
with  several  men  of  learning,  and  was  honored 
with  the  friendship  of  many  persons  of  quality. 
He  wrote,  1.  A  Iiistory  of  the  Nine  Charleses 
of  France.  2.  Annotations  on  the  Books  of  St. 
Augustine.  3.  An  Universal  History  of  the 
World.  4.  The  Chronicles  of  Nicholas  Gillet 
augmented.  5.  An  Universal  Cosmography. 
6.  Annals,  or  a  General  History  of  France :  and 
many  other  works.    He  died  in  1583. 

BELLEGARDE,  a  strong  barrier  town  of 
France,  in  the  defuirtment  of  the  Eastern  Py- 
renees, and  ci-devant  province  of  Roussillon,  on 
the  frontiers  of  Catalonia.  It  commands  a  pas- 
sage through  the  Pyrenean  mountains.  Early  in 
the  revolutionary  war  it  was  taken  by  Spain,  and 
stood  a  severe  siege  by  the  French  in  July  and  Aug. 
1794;  but  was  obliged  to  surrender  at  discretion 
on  the  17th  of  September  to  General  Dugommier, 
who  named  it  Sud-Libre.  It  is  four  miles  South- 
east of  Ceret,  and  fifteen  south  of  Perpigan. 

Bellegaede,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Saone  and  Loi/e,  and  late  pro- 
vince of  Burgundy,  seated  on  the  Saone,  fifteen 
miles  north-east  of  Chalons.  Long.  5°  10'  E.,' 
lat.  460  57'  N. 

BELLEISLE,  an  island  of  France,  called  also 
Belle-Is^£-£n-Mer,  115  miles  from  the  coast 


of  the  department  of  the  Moibibaiiy  m  the  ci- 
devant  Bnttany.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  French 
European  islands,  bcmg  fifteen  miles  long  and 
five  broad.  It  is  a  mixture  of  craggy  rocks  and 
fertile  6oil ;  but  the  inhabitants  are  very  poor, 
and  th^  principal  trade  carried  on  in  it  is  the 
curing  of  pilchards.  There  are  three  hariwuis  in 
the  island,  every  one  of  which  is  defective,  either 
in  being  exposed,  shallow,  or  dangerous  of  en- 
trance. Its  chief  town  is  Le  Ptdais,  besides 
which  it  contains  three  county  towns,  103  rillages, 
and  about  5000  inhabitants.  In  1742  it  was 
erected  into  a  duchy,  in  favor  of  Marshal 
Belleisle.  The  town  of  Palais  has  a  citadel 
fronting  the  sea,  fortified  principally  by  horn- 
works,  provided  with  twd  dry  ditches,  the  one 
next  the  counterscarp,  and  the  other  so  contrived 
as  to  secure  the  interior  fortifications.  This  ci- 
tadel is  divided  from  the  laiger  part  of  the  town 
by  an  inlet  of  the  sea,  over  which  there  is  a 
bridge  of  communication.  In  this  stale  was  the 
island  in  1761,  when  an  expedition  was  under- 
taken against  it  by  a  British  fleet,  under  tht* 
command  of  Commodore  Keppel,  having  on 
board  a  considerable  land  force,  commanded  by 
General  Hodgson.  The  fleet  sailed  from  Spit- 
head  on  the  29th  of  March,  and  arrived  bemre 
Belleisle  on  the  7th  of  April.  The  attempt  to 
land  was  made  in  three  places  with  {vreat  reso- 
lution ;  but  die  British  were  at  last  rnralsed, 
with  the  loss  of  500  men.  It  was  not  before  the 
25th  of  April  that  the  weather  allowed  a  second 
attempt,  which  was  successful,  though  the  as- 
sailants had  many  obstacles  to  encounter.  The 
French  were  driven  into  Palais,  and  (aett  die 
chevalier  de  St.  Croix,  a  brave  and  experienced 
officer,  resolved  to  hold  out  to  the  last  extremity. 
It  was  not  till  the  7th  of  June  that  he  capitu- 
lated, and  the  garrison  marched  out  with  the 
honors  of  war.  At  this  siege  the  marine  corps, 
then  newly  formed,  gave  the  first  signal  prooCi 
of  that  intrepidity,  discipline,  and  fideli^,  for 
which  they  have  ever  since  been  so  mndi  dis- 
tinguished. Tlie  island  was  restored  to  the 
French  by  the  treaty  of  1763.  Long.  3**  C  W., 
lat.  47*»  18*  N. 

Belle-Isle,  an  island  of  North  America, 
lying  at  the  mouth  of  the  strait  between  New 
Britain  and  the  north  end  of  Newfoundland; 
whence  the  passage  between  them  is  called  the 
Straits  of  Belle-Isle.  The  bland  is  twenty-one 
miles  in  circuit,  and  the  nearest  land  of  the  La- 
brador cbast  is  sixteen  miles  distance.  It  has  a 
harbour  for  fishing  vessels,  and  a  cove  which 
will  admit  shallops.  Long.  55°  15'  W.,  lat.  51' 
58' N. 

BELLENDEN,  or  Ballantine  (William),  a 
Scottish  writer,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  professor  of  hu- 
manity, 01  belles-lettres,  at  Edinburgh,  and 
master  of  the  requests  to  James  I.  of  Eoglaod. 
But  both  appointments  are  supposed  to  have 
been  only  nominal,  since  he  appears  to  hare  re- 
sided almost  constantly  at  Pans,  where,  by  the 
favor  of  his  sovereign,  he  was  ensdbled  to  live  in 
easy  circumstances.  There  be  published  in  1 608 
hjs  Cicero  Princeps,  a  singular  work ;  in  which 
he  extracted,  from  Cicero*s  writings,  detached 
passages  respecting  monarchial  government,  with 


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the  line  of  conduct  to  be  pursued,  and  the  virtues 
proper  to  be  encouraged  by  the  prince  himself. 
This  treatise,  when  finished,  he  dedicated  to 
the  son  of  his  master,  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales. 
In  1612  he  published  a  work  of  a  similar  nature, 
called  Cicero  Consul,  Senator  Senatusque  Ro- 
manus.  He  now  conceived  a  plan  of  a  third 
work,  Dc  Statu  prisci  Orbis,  which  was  to  con- 
tain a  history  of  the  progress  of  government 
and  philosophy,  to  their  various  degrees  of  im- 
provement under  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and 
Romans.  He  proceeded  so  far  as  to  print  a  few 
copies  of  this  work  in  1615,  when  it  was 
suggested  to  him  that  his  treatises  De  Statu  Prin- 
cipis,  De  Statu  Reipublics,  and  De  Statu  Orbis, 
being  on  subjects  so  nearly  resembling  each 
other,  there  might  be  a  propriety  in  uniting  them 
into  one  work,  by  republisning  the  whole  under 
the  title  of  Eiellendenus  de  Statu.  With  this 
view  he  recalled  the  few  copies  of  his  last  work, 
and  the  three  treatises  appeared  together  under 
the  new  title  in  1616.  These  pieces  were  re- 
printed by  the  late  Dr.  Parr.  He  inscribed 
them  to  IVfr.  Burke,  Lord  North,  and  Mr.  Fox, 
whose  talents  and  virtues  he  celebrates  in  a 
preface  of  seventy-six  pages,  and  enters  upon  a 
very  free  and  bold  discussion  of  public  men  and 
measures,  undernames  borrowed  from  antiquity. 
Bellenden  wrote  another  work,  published  after 
his  death,  De  tribus  Luminibus  Romanorum, 
whom  he  conceives  to  be  Cicero,  Seneca,  and  the 
elder  Pliny.  Dr.  Middleton  has  been  charged 
with  borrowing  not  only  tlie  matter,  but  the  ar- 
rangement, of  his  Life  of  Cicero,  from  Bellenden, 
without  the  least  acknowledgment. 

BELLENDENA,  in  botany,  so  called  by  Mr. 
Brown,  in  honor  of  John  Bellenden  Ker,  Esq.  a 
scientific  botanist ;  class  tetrandria,  order  mono- 
gynia :  natural  order  proteacese.  Its  essential 
characters  are :  pet.  four,  regular  and  spreading : 
COR.  white,  and  soon  falling:  stam.  inserted 
into  the  receptacle :  germ,  two-seeded :  stig. 
simple :  CAPS,  without  wings,  not  bursting : 
SEEDS  one  or  two.  1.  B.  montana,  mountain 
bellendena. — ^Ihe  only  known  species;  found 
by  Mr.  Bro^n  on  the  mountains  ot  Van  Diemen^s 
land,  but  as  yet  unknown  in  our  gardens.  This 
is  a  perfectly  smooth  shrub :  the  leaves  are  scat- 
tered, flat  *  three-cleft  at  the  extremity :  flowers 
scattered,  rarely  in  pairs:  seed-vessel  colored, 
furrowed  along  one  edge. 

BELLER,  Bella Y,  or  Belley,  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  the  Ain,  and  capital 
of  the  ci-devant  district  of  Bugey ;  seated  near 
the  Rhone,  among  the  hills,  on  the  borders  of 
Mont  Blanc,  twelve  or  sixteen  miles  north-west 
of  Chamberry,  and  250  south-^ast  of  Paris. 

BELLEROPHON,  or  Bpllerophontes,  in 
fabulous  history,  the  son  of  Glaucus,  king  of 
Epirus,  happening  accidentally  to  kill  his  brother, 
he  fled  to  Proetas,  king  of  Argos,  who  gave  him  a 
hospitable  reception :  but  SUienobea,  his  queen, 
falling  in  love  with  him,  and  finding  that  nothing 
could  induce  him  to  injure  his  bene&ctor,  she 
accused  him  to  her  husband  of  an  attempt  to 
violate  her  honor.  Prtftus,  however,  not  willing 
to  infringe  the  laws  of  hospitality,  sent  him  to 
lobates,  king  of  Lysia,  and  father  of  Sthenobea, 
with  letters  desiring  him  to  put  him  to  death ; 


whence  the  proverb,  Bellerophontis  Hteras  aflferet, 
equivalent  to  carrying  the  letters  of  Uriah.  Iliat 
prince,  at  the  receipt  of  these  letters,  was  cele- 
brating a  festival,  wnich  prevented  Bellerophon's 
destruction.  lobatcs,  however,  sent  him  m  the 
mean  time  to  subdue  the  Solymi,  the  Amaions, 
and  Lysians,  and  thought  to  get  rid  of  him  by 
exposing  him  to  the  greatest  dangers ;  but  by  his 
prudence  and  courage  he  came  off  victorious, 
lobates  next  employed  him  to  destroy  the  Chi- 
mera :  when  Minerva,  or,  according  to  others^ 
Neptune,  in  consideration  of  his  innocence,  fur- 
nished him  with  the  horse  Pegasus,  by  whose 
assistance  he  killed  the  Chimaera.  lobates,  on 
his  return,  being  convinced  of  his  truth  and  in- 
tegrity, and  charmed  with  his  heroic  virtues 
gave  him  his  daughter  Philonoe  in  marriage, 
and  declared  him  his  successor;  which  when 
Sthenobea  heard,  she  killed  herself.  Bellerophon 
at  length  growing  vain  with  his  prosperity,  re- 
.  solved,  by  the  assistance  of  Pegasus,  to  ascend 
the  skies ;  when  Jupiter  checked  his  presumption, 
by  striking  him  blind ;  on  which  he  fell  down 
to  the  earth,  and  wandered  till  his  death  in  con- 
tempt and  misery :  but  Pegasus  mounting  into 
heaven,  Jupiter  placed  him  among  the  constel- 
lations. 

Belles  Lettres. — Of  the  meaning  of  this 
term  no  precise  definition  has  yet  been  given. 
It  appears  to  be  a  vague  designation,  under 
whicn  every  one  may  include  whatever  he  pleases. 
Sometimes  we  are  told,  that  by  the  belles  lettres 
is  meant  the  knowledge  of  the  arts  of  poetiy  and 
oratory;  sometimes  tnat  the  true  belles  lettres 
are  natural  philosophy,  geometry,  and  other 
essential  parts  of  learning ;  and  sometimes  that 
they  comprehend  the  art  of  war,  by  land  and 
sea.  In  treating  on  the  belles  lettres,  some  even 
talk  of  the  use  of  the  sacraments,  &c.  See 
Rollin  on  the  Belles  Lettres.  Some  comprehend 
under  the  term  all  those  instructive  and  pleasing 
sciences  which  occupy  the  memory  and  the 
judgment,  and  do  not  make  part  either  of  the 
superior  sciences,  or  of  the  polite  arts  (see  Arts), 
or  of  mechanic  professions,  hence  they  make 
history,  chronology,  geography,  genealogy,  bla- 
Eoury,  philology,  &c.  the  belles  lettres.  In  a 
word,  it  were  an  endless  task  to  attempt  to 
enumerate  all  the  parts  of  literature  which  dif- 
ferent learned  meu  have  comprehended  under 
this  title. 

BELLEVILLE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Rhone,  and  ci-devant  district  of 
Beaujolois,  seated  near  the  Saone.  Wine  is  its 
principal  article  of  commerce. 

BELLEVOIS,  .painter  of  sea-pieces,  is  known 
through  all  parts  of  Europe,  though  no  parti- 
culars have  been  handed  down  concerning  his 
life.  He  died  in  1684.  His  subjects  are  views 
of  havens,  sea-ports,  shores,  calms,  and  storms 
at  sea.  In  his  calms  he  shows  peculiar  excellence. 
His  pictures  are  often  in  public  sales ;  and  those 
of  his  best  style  are  sold  pretty  high. 

BELHEIM,  a  large  market  town  in  the  circle 
of  the  Rhine,  and  district  of  Spire,  subject  to 
Bavaria.  The  population,  which  amounts  to 
1500,  is  partly  Catholic,  partly  Calvinistic,  and 
partly  Lutheran.  The  first  two  persuasions  have 
churches. 


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B£LLICA  Cohvu^k,  in  antiquity,  a  column 

n^ar  the  temple  of  Bellona,  from  which  the 

consuls  or  feciales  threw  javelins  towards  the 

enemy's  country,    by  way  of  declaration    of 

war. 

BELU'CAL,  -\     Latin,    helium,    belliaon, 

Belli'cous,      f  warlike;  waging  war.    Old 

Belli'que,        i  Douglas  introduces,  in  his 

Belli'gerekt.  J  translation  of  the  £neid,  the 

word  bellicai  in  the  sense  given.    Feltham,  in 

his  Resolves,  denominates  Cssat  '  the  bellique 

C«sar/ 

Never  mind,  brother  Toby,  he  would  say,  by  God's 
Uessiag  we  shall  have. another  war  break  out  again 
tome  of  these  days ;  and  when  it  does  the  beUigereni 
powers,  if  they  woidd  hang  themselves,  cannot  keep 
OS  oQt  of  the  play.  8tem§, 

BEIXICULI,  or  Bellirxci  Marin i,  among 
naturalists,  denote  a  species  of  sea-shells  of  an 
umbilical  figure,  sometimes  of  a  white  color, 
spotted  with  yellow ;  and  sometimes  of  a  yellow, 
sbreaked  with  black  lines. 

BELUDUFF,  an  ancient  tumulus,  in  the 
parish  of  Meigle,  Angus-shire,  which  tradition 
says  is  the  spot  where  Macbeth  fell.  At  some 
distance,  a  stone  of  granite,  twenty  tons  in 
weight,  stands  almost  erect,  to  commemorate,  it 
is  said,  the  death  of  one  of  his  genemls.  '  But, 
(Dr.  PlayflBdr,  who  records  this  tradition,  observes 


them,  that  he  wrote  to  the  republic,  ntresting 
them  .to  send  him.  Bellini  accordin^y  went  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  executed  many  excel- 
lent pieces.  Amongst  the  rest,  he  painted  the 
decollation  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  whom  the 
Turks  revere  as  a  great  prophet  Mahomet  ad- 
mired the  proportion  andf  shadowing  of  the  work ; 
but  he  remarked  one  defect  in  regard  to  the  dun 
of  the  neck,  from  which  the  head  was  separated ; 
and,  in  order  to  prove  the  truth  of  his  observation, 
he  sent  for  a  slave  and  ordered  his  head  to  be 
struck  off.  This  sight  so  shocked  the  painter, 
that  he  could  not  be  easy  till  he  had  obtained  his 
dismission ;  which  the  grand  seignor  granted, 
and  made  him  a  present  of  a  sold  chain.  The 
republic  settled  a  pension  upon  him  at  his  return, 
and  made  him  a  knight  of  St  Mark.  He  died 
in  1501. 

Bellini  (John),  brother  to  Gentil,  painted 
with  more  art  and  sweetness;  and  died  in  1512, 
aged  ninety. 

Bellini  (Laurence),  an  eminent  phyaidan, 
bom  at  Florence  in  1643.  After  haying  finished 
his  early  education,  he  went  to  Pisa,  where  he 
was  assisted  by  the  generosity  of  the  grand  duke 
Ferdinand  II.  and  studied  under  two  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  that  age,  Oliva  and  BoreUi.  At 
twenty  years  of  age  he  was  chosen  professor  o^ 
philosophy  at  Pisa,  but  had  acquired  such  a  repu- 


tbat)  that  tyrant,  it  is  more  probable  was  slain  at    tation  tor  his  skill  in  anatomy,  that  the  grand 


Lumphanan,  in  the  Meams. 

BELLIE,  from  Beul  aith,  Gaelic,  i.  e.  the 
mouth  of  the  Ford ;  a  parish  of  Scotland,  situated 
in  Banf|[shire  (except  the  tovm  of  Fochabers, 
which  lies  in  the  county  of  Murray,)  extending 


duke  procured  Tiim  a  professorship  in  that  sci- 
ence. This  prince  was  often  present  at  his  lec- 
tures. About  thirty  years  after,  Bellini,  now  in 
his  fiftieth  vear,  accepted  of  an  invitation  to 
Florence,  where  he  practised  physic  widi  great 


from  north  to  south  about  six  miles,  and  from    success,  and  vns  advanced  to  be  firat  physician 


east  to  west  nearly  four,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  Spey.=  It  contains  about  1900  inhabitants. 
The  soil  IS  abundaiitly  fertile  in  grain,  sown  grass, 
potatoes,  and  pasturage  fi>r  cattle.  Among  its 
spontaneous  productions  is  the  rare  plant,  called 
aatyrium  repens.  The  town  of  Fochabers  lies 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  the  parish 
church  is  now  buih  there.  A  handsome  bridge 
has  been  thrown  over  the  Spey  at  this  place  by 
the  duke  of  Gordon.  On  a  rising  ground  st(ln(U 
Gordon  Gastle,  the  seat  of  the  duke  of  Gordon, 
the  front  of  which  is  568  feet  in  length.  Near 
this  place  the  duke  has  a  capital  salmon  fishery 
OB  the  Spey. 

BELLING,  applied  to  hops,  denotes  their 
opening  and  expanding  to  their  customaiy  shape, 
supposed  to  bear  some  relation  to  that  of  a  bell. 
Hops  blow  towards  the  end  of  July,  and  bell  the 
latter  end  of  August  or  the  begimiing  of  Sep- 
tember. 

BELLINGHAM'S  Bitr  is  on  the  west  coast 
of  America,  in  the  gulf  of  Georgia,  extends  from 
north  to  south  about  twelve  miles,  and  has  every- 
where good  anchoraffe.     The  bordering  shores 


to  the  grand  duke  Cosmo  III.  He  wrote  is 
Latin:  1.  An  Anatomical  Discourse  on  the 
structure  and  use  of  the  Kidneys.  2.  A  Speech 
by  way  of  thanks  to  the  serene  duke  of  Tuacany. 
3.  Of  the  Urine  and  Pulse,  of  Blood-letting, 
Fevers,  and  Diseases  of  the  Head  and  Breasts.  4. 
Several  Tracts  concerning  urine^  the  motion  of  die 
heart,  and  bile,  &c.  He  died  January  8th,  1703, 
His  works  were  read  and  explained  publicly, 
during  his  hfe,  by  the  femous  Scotch  physiciaD, 
Dr.  Pitcaim,  of  Leyden. 

BELLINZONA,  a  district  of  Switzerland,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Ticino.  It  has  for  boundaries 
the  country  called  the  Gray  League  of  the  Ori- 
sons, the  lake  of  Como,  and  the  districts  of 
Riviera,  Locarno,  and  Lugano,  containing  530 
square  miles,  46,000  inhabitants,  and  tfventy 
parishes.  On  the  re-organisation  of  the  Swiss 
republic  in  1798,  Bellinzona  constituted  for  some 
time  an  independent  canton,  but  was  formed  in 
1801,  along  with  the  other  Italian  districts  of 
Switzerland,  into  the  canton  of  tEe  Ticino,  of 
which  the  town  of  Bellinzona  is  capital. 

Bellinzona.,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  formeiiy 


are  high  and  rocky,  but  the  interior  consists  of    the  capital  of  the  preceding  district,  and  now  of 


beautiful  lawns. 

BELLINI  (Gentil),  a  Venetian  painter,  bom 
in  1421.  He  was  employed  by  the  republic  of 
Venice :  and  to  him  and  his  brodier  John,  the 
Venetians  are  indebted  for  the  beautiful  paint- 
ings which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  councit^hall. 
Mahomet  II.  emperor  of  the  Turks,  having  seen 
some  of  his  performances,  was  so  struck  with 


the  dmton  of  the  Ticino,  is  at  the  extremity  of  a 
valley  of  the  same  name,  where  two  projecting 
rocks  leave  only  sufficient  room  for  the  coarse  <? 
the  Ticino,  and  the  road  to  Milan.  Hie  town  is 
built  on  these  rocks,  and  forms  the  main  rnss  on 
the  Italian  side  of  nount  St.  Gothaxd.  It  con> 
tains  1500  inhabitants,  an  old  'citadel  (fomeriy 
the  residence  of  the  governor  of  the  district;,  a 


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collegiate  charch,  and  tfkree  convents.  It  is  well 
built,  has  its  own  magistrates,  and  is  much  bene- 
fited by  the  contimi^  passage  of  merchandise 
between  Switzerland  and  Italy.  It  suffered  much 
in  the  campaign  of  the  French  and  Russians  in 
1 799.  Twenty-five  miles  S.  S.W.  of  Como,  and 
forty  south  of  Zurich. 

BELXIRICI  Marini     See  Belliculi. 

BELLIS,  in  botany,  the  daisy ;  a  genus  of  the 
syngenesia  order,  and  the  polygamia  superflua 
class  of  plants ;  ranking  in  the  natural  method 
under  the  forty-ninth  order,  composite  discoides. 
The  receptacle  is  naked  and  conic ;  there  is  no 
pappus ;  the  calyx  is  hemispherical,  with  equal 
scales;  and  the  seeds  are  ovated.  There  are 
three  species,  and  many  varieties.  1.  B.  annua, 
with  leaves  on  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk,  is  a 
low  annual  plant  growing  naturally  on  the  Alps, 
and  the  hilly  parts  of  Italy.  2.  B.  hortensis,  the 
garden  daisy,  with  a  large  double  flower..  3.  B. 
perennis,  U.e  common  daisy,  with  a  naked  stalk, 
and  one  flower,  grows  naturally  in  pasture  lands 
in  most  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  often  a  trouble- 
some weed  in  the  grass  of  gardens,  and  so  is 
never  cultivated. 

Bellis  Major.    See  Chrysanthemum. 

BELLI  UM,  in  botany,  bastard  daisy ;  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the  class  synsenesia,  order  polyga- 
mia superflua.  Generic  character  is  receptacle 
naked;  seeds  conical;  crown  paleaceous^  of 
ei^ht  leaves;  9wned,  and  furnished  with  a  pap- 
pus :  leaflets  of  the  calyx  equal.  It  is  a  genus 
allied  to  bellis,  containing  two  species,  one  of 
which  is  a  native  of  Italy,  and  the  other  of  the 
Levant. 

Bell-metal,  a  composition  of  tin  and  cop- 
per melted  together,  which  is  more  sonorous 
than  e\ther  of  these  ingredients  taken  apaM.  The 
ordinary  proportion  is  about  twenty-two  or 
twerjiy-three  pounds  oftin  to  100  pounds  of  cop- 
per ;  though  it  varies  according  to  the  size  of  the 
bells ;  a  greater  quantity  of  copper  being  used  in 
the  greater  bells  than  in  the  smaller.  Some  add 
lead  and  brass,  others  zinc  or  spelter.  Though 
tin  is  specifically  lighter  than  copper,  yet  the 
gravity  of  the  compound  is  greater  than  that  of 
copper.  Some  speak  of  a  native  mineral  under 
the  denomination  bell-metal,  from  which  Becher 
a£Srms  he  procured  zafier  and  smalt.    See  Che^ 

MISTRY. 

BELL-MUSCHUS,  in  botany,  a  name  given 
by  some  authors  to  the  plant  called  bamia  mos- 
chata,  the  mosch  seed. 

BELLON,  a  distemper  common  in  countries 
where  they  smelt  lead  ore.  It  is  attended  vrith 
languor,  intolerable  pains  and  sensations  of  gri^* 
ping,  and  generally  costiveness.  It  frequently 
proves  fatal.  Beasts,  poultry,  &c.  as  well  as 
men,  are  subject  to  this  disorder:  hence  the  term 

Bellon  uround,  for  the  space  round  the 
smelting  l^ouses^  beoiuse  it  is  dangerous  for  an 
amimal  to  feed  upon  it. 

Blllon,  or  BcLLONius  (Peter),  a  celebrated 
French  physician,  bom  at  Caen,  in  NormaQdy» 
was  the  author  of  many  tracts  on  botany,  natuial 
history,  &c.  and  gave  name  to  the  genus  of 
plants  called  Bellonia. 

BELLONA,  in  Pagan  mythology,  the  goddess 
of  war,  is  generally  r^onedthe  sister  of  Mars; 


some  lepiesent  her  as  both  his  sister  and  wife. 
She  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventress  of  the 
needle;  and  from  that  instrument  is  supposed  to 
have  taken  her  name.  BiXov^,  a  needle.  She 
was  of  a  cruel  and  savage  disposition,  and  is 
commonly  represented  in  an  attitude  expressive 
of  fury;  her  hair  composed  of  snakes,  clotted 
with  gore,  and  her  garments  stained  with  blood  : 
thus  she  drives  the  chariot  of  Mars,  with  a  bloody 
whip  in  her  hand ;  or  sometimes  holding  a  light- 
ed torch  or  brand;  at  others  a  trumpet  She 
had  a  temple  at  Rome,near  the  circus  Flaminius, 
before  which  stood  the  column  of  war,  from 
whence  the  consul  threw  his  lance  when  he  de- 
clared war.  She  was  also  worshipped  at  Cu- 
mana,  in  Cappadocia:  and  Camoen  observes, 
that  in  the  time  of  the  empe- 
ror Severus,  there  was  a  tem- 
ple to  Bellona  in  the  city  of 
York*  This  goddess  is  repre- 
sented on  m^Uds  of  the  Brutii^ 
&c.  as  in  the  annexed  figure, 
with  a  shield  in  both  her 
hands,  and  a  spear  resting  on 
her  shoulders. 

BELLON ARII,  in  antiquiw,  priests  of  Bel- 
lona. The  bellonarii  cut  and  mangled  their 
bodies  witn  knives  and  daggers,  to  pacify  the 
deity.  In  this  they  are  singular,  that  they  offered 
their  own  blood,  not  that  o£  other  creatures,  in 
sacrifice.  In  the  fiiry  and  enthusiasm  wherewith 
they  were  seized  on  these  occasions,  they  ran 
about  raging^  uttering  prophecies,  and  foretell- 
ing slau^ter,  devastations  of  cities,  and  revolu- 
tions of  states :  whence  Martial  calls  them  turbai 
en^eata  Blouse.  In  alterwtimes  they  seem  to 
have  abated  much  of  their  zeal,  and  to  have 
turned  the  whole  into  a  kind  of  farce,  content- 
ing themselves  with  making  signs  and  appear- 
ances of  cutting.  Lampridius  tells  us,  the 
emperor  Commodus,  out  of  a  spirit  of  cruelty, 
turned  the  &rce  again  into  a  tragedy,  obliging 
them  to  cut  and  mangle  their  bodies  really. 

BELLONIA,  in  botany,  a  genus  of  the  mono- 
gynia  order,  and  pentandria  class  of  plants. 
The  characters  are,  the  flower  is  wheel-shaped, 
of  one  leaf  with  a  short  tube,  but  spread  open 
above,  and  cut  into  five  obtuse  segments;  it  nas 
five  stamina,  which  close  together ;  the  germcD 
is  situated  under  the  receptacle  of  the  flower, 
which  afterwards  becomes  an  open  turbinated 
seed-vesBsel,  ending  in  a  point,  having  one  cell 
filled  with  small  round  seeds.  Of  this  genus 
there  is  only  one  species  known,  viz.  B.  aspera,- 
or  shrubby  bellonia,  which  has  a  rough  oalm 
leaf.  It  is  very  common  in  the  waraa  islands  of 
America. 

BELLORI  (John  Peter),  of  Rome,  a  cele. 
brated  antiquary  and  connoisseur :  author  of  the 
lives  of  the  modem  painters,  architects,  and 
sculptors,  and  other  works  on  antiquities.  He 
died  in  1696. 

BELLOVACI,  a  people  of  Gallia  Belgica^ 

reckoned  the  bravest  of  the  Beige ;  who  anciently 

possessed  that  part  of  France  called  Beauvoisis, 

nefore  the  revolution  in  the  isle  of  France. 

BEL'LOW,     ^     Ang.-Sax.  hlowan ;  a  low- 

Bel' LOWER,      >ing;  a  lond  roaring  noise, 

Bellow'ing.   3  like  a  bolU  9r  like  the  sea  in 


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a  stonn;  any  continued  noise  that  may  cause 
terror. 

Till,  at  the  last,  he  heard  a  dreadful  soond. 
Which  thro'  the  wood  loud  beUowmg  did  rebound. 

Jupiter  became  a  bull,  and  heOowed;  the  green 
Neptune  a  ram,  and  bleated.  ShaMtpean. 

He  fastened  on  my  neck,  and  beUaw'd  out. 
As  he'd  burst  heaven.  Id. 

The  rising  rivers  float  the  nether  ground  ; 
And  rocks  the  bellowing  voice  of  boiling  seas  rebound. 

Dryden, 

What  bull  dares  bellow,  or  what  sheep  dares  bleat, 
Within  the  lion's  den  ?  Id, 

But  now  the  husband  of  a  herd  must  be 
Thy  mate,  and  beUowing  sons  thy  progeny.  Id, 

The  dull  fat  captain,  with  a  hound's  deep  throat. 
Would  bellow  out  a  laugh  in  a  base  note.  Id, 

This  gentleman  is  accustomed  to  roar  and  bellow  so 
terribly  loud,  that  he  frightens  us.  Tail^, 

Bellows  are  properly  defined  a  machine,  so 
contrived  as  to  expire  and  inspire  the  air  by 
turns,  by  enlarging  and  contracting  its  capacity. 
This  machine  Is  used  in  chambers  and  kitchens,' 
in  forges,  funiaces,  and  foundries,  to  blow  up 
the  fire:  it  serves  also  for  organs  and  other 
pneumatic  instruments,  to  give  them  a  proper 
degree  of  air.  All  these  are  of  various  construc- 
tions, according  to  their  different  purposes ;  but 
in  general  they  are  composed  of  two  flat  boards, 
sometimes  of  an  oval,  sometimes  of  a  triangular 
figure.  Two  or  more  hoops,  bent  according  to 
the  figure  of  the  boards,  are  placed  between  them ; 
a  piece  of  leather,  broad  in  the  middle,  and  nar- 
row at  both  ends,  is  nailed  on  the  edges  of  the 
boards,  which  it  tlms  unites  together ;  as  well  as 
on  the  hoops  whioh  separate  the  boards,  that  the 
leather  may  the  easier  open  and  fold  again: 
a  tube  of  iron,  brass,  or  copper,  is  fastened  to  the 
undermost  board,  and  there  is  a  valve  within 
that  covers  the  holes  in  the  under  board,  to  keep 
in  the  air 

Anacharsis,  the  Scythian,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  inventor  of  bellows.  Their  action  bears  a  near 
affinity  to  that  of  the  lungs ;  and  what  we  call 
blowing  in  the  latter,  afTorels  a  good  illustration 
of  what  is  called  respiring  in  the  former.  Ani- 
mal life  itself  may  on  some  occasions  be  subsisted 
by  blowing  into  the  lungb  with  a  pair  of  bellows. 
Dr.  IIooke*s  experiment  is  remarkable :  having 
laid  the  thorax  of  a  dog  bare,  by  cutting  away 
the  ribs  and  diaphragm,  pericardium,  &c.  and 
having  cut  off  the  aspera  arteria  below  the  epi- 
glottis, and  bound  it  on  the  nose  of  a  bellows,  he 
found,  that  as  he  blowed,  the  dog  recovered,  and 
as  he  ceased,  fell  convulsive ;  and  thus  was  the 
animal  kept  alternately  alive  and  dead  above  the 
space  of  an  hour.  There  are  bellows  made  wholly 
of  wood,  without  any  leather  about  them ;  one 
of  which  is  preserved  in  the  repository  of  the 
Royal  Society ;  and  Dr.  Plot  describes  another 
in  the  copper-works  at  Ellaston  in  Staffordshire. 
Bellows  are  in  constant  use  among  the  apparatus 
of  the  Royal  Humane  Society,  for  the  recovery 
of  the  apparently  drowned  :  and  will  enable  any 
intelligent  person  to  inflate  the  lungs,  and  by 
ocouional  pressure  on  the  breast  to  imitate  the 
action  of  natural  breathing. 

For  the  great  operations  of  metallurgy,  such  as 
are  of  uncommon  construction,  and  great'power, 


are  found  necessary,  and  have  generally  assume 
the  name  of  Blowing  Machines,  which  see. 

Chinese  Bellows  consist  of  a  box  of  woor: 
about  two  feet  long,  and  one  foot  square ;  thouirl 
the  machine  may  be  made  of  any  requisite  dimen 
sions.    The  opposite  boards  are  exactly  paralle 
to  each  other,  smooth,  and  varnished  both  on  tb* 
outer  and  inner  sides.    A  thick  square  hoard  o 
wood,  which  exactly  fits  the  internal  cavity  of  th< 
box,  is  pushed  baickwards  and  forwards,  froir 
end  to  end  of  the  box,  by  means  of  a  cylindrical 
rod  of  wood,  which  comes  out  at  an  aperture 
in  the  centre  of  one  end  of  the  box,  and  in  ordei 
to  make  the  rod  move  steadily,  and  prevent  the 
escape  of  air,  the  aperture  through  which  the  rod 
passes  has  a  wooden  tube  projected  from  it  to 
the  distance  of  a  little  more  than  an  inch.     For 
the  conveniency  of  pushing  the  rod  backwards 
and  forwards,  its  extremity  is  furnished  with  a 
handle,  or  cross  bar  of  wood,  like  the  head  of  a 
gimlet,  by  which  it  can  be  laid  hold  of.      In  the 
bottom  of  the  box,  at  each  end,  there  is  a  small 
conical  or  plug  valve,  concealed  in  the  upper 
board  of  the  box.    The  two  valves  below  admit 
air  alternately  into   the  box,  while  the  valves 
above  alternately  discharge  the  air;  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  valves  prevent  tlie  air  from  return- 
ing the  same  way  it  had  once  passed.  The  upper 
board  is  double,  and  the  space  betwixt  them 
serves  as  a  reservoir  in  which  the  accumulated  air 
is  condensed.    Into  the  side  of  this  reservoir, 
between  the  boards,  a  metallic  pipe  is  inserted, 
which  conducts  the  air,  in  a  constant  stream,  into 
the  furnace  or  forge.    It  is  evident  that  if  the 
movable  board  or  piston,  within  the  box,  be 
pushed  by  the  rod  from  the  end  next  the  handle 
to  the  opposite  end  of  the  box,  all  the  air  in  the 
box  will  he  forced  up  through  the  valve  above 
that  end  of  the  box ;  while  the  under  valve  at 
tliat  edd  will  shut,  and  prevent  its  escape  down- 
wards :  at  the  same  time  new  air  will  rush  in 
through  the  under  valve  next  tlic  handle,  and 
again  fill  the  box.    By  pulling  out  the  rod,  the 
movable  board  or  piston  will  be  drawn  in  the 
opposite  direction,  and  all  tlic  air  in  the  box  will 
now  be  forced  up  through  the  upper  valve  next 
the  handle,  into  the  reservoir,  and  from  thence, 
as  it  cannot  escape  by  the  opposite  valve,  rush 
through  the  metallic  pipe  into  the  furnace.  Thus 
these  valves,  by  opening  and  shutting  alternately, 
as  long  as  the  piston  or  movable  board  is  pushed 
or  drawn  by  the  rod,  backwards  and  forwards, 
from  end  to  end  of  the  box,  a  constant  and  pow- 
erful stream  of  air  will  be  blown  into. the  furnace. 
The  above  description  is  copied  from  a  machine 
of  this  sort,  which  the  ingenious  Dr.  lind,  of 
Windsor,  brought  from  Canton,  in  China.    By 
its  help  he  could  melt  pig-iron  in  a  smaU  fur- 
nace, consisting  of  an  Austrian  crucible,  fixed  oo 
a  table.    Such  bellows  are  neither  so  costly,  nor 
so  apt  to  go  wrong,  as  those  composed  of  leiuher. 
They  may  be  made  of  any  dimensions,  and  may 
bo  wrought  by  any  power  as  well  as  that  of  the 
hand.    It  is  surprising  that  no  attempts  have 
been   made  to  bring  them  into    use    in  this 
country. 

.  Bellows,  Hydrostatic  SeellrDRosTiTics. 

Bellows  of  an  Organ  are  commonly  six  feet 

long,  and  four  broad ;  each  having  an  aperture 


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ii  I' 


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Aliie/SJ.rohS 


]LIGHT-H®FSEo 
'Jielf-'Jioek  Light-Souse. 


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>?' 


BELL. ROCK. 


781 


of  four  inchps,  that  the  valve  may  play  easily. 
There  should  likewise  be  a  valve  at  the  nose  of 
the  bellows,  that  the  one  may  not  take  the  air 
from  the  other.  To  blow  an  organ  of  sixteen 
feet,  there  are  required  four  pairs  ofthese  bellows. 
They  are  wrought  by  a  man  called  the  blower; 
and,  in  small  organs,  by  the  foot  of  the  player. 

Bellows,  Water,  a  contrivance  to  save  ex- 
pense in  the  fusion  of  metals,  wherein  water, 
mlling  through  a  lunnel  into  a  close  vessel,  sends 
from  it  so  much  air  as  blows  the  fire.    See  Ftjr- 


botany.     See  Capsi- 


KACE. 

BELL-PEPPER, 

CUM. 

BELL-ROCK,  or  Cape,  a  dangerous  ridge  of 
sunken  rocks,,  lying  about  twelve  miles  east  from 
the  point  of  Ftfe-ness,  and  an  equal  distance  south 
from  Arbroadi  harbour,  between  the  openings  of 
the  Friths  of  Tay  and  Forth.  The  ridge  extends 
about  a  mile  in  length,  and  half  a  mile  in  breadth ; 
the  top  of  the  rock  only  being  seen  a  few  hours 
at  low  water,  in  spring  tides.  This  rock  not  only 
renders  the  navigation  of  the  Tay  and  Forth  very 
hazardous,  but  is  also  highly  dangerous  to  all  ves- 
sels navigating  coast-wise.  Every  year,  formerly, 
vessels  of  great  value  were  wrecked  upon  it,  and 
there  is  season  to  suspect  that  many  which  were 
supposed  to  have  foundered  at  sea,  have  suffered 
on  tnis  dangerous  reef.  It  is  a  remarkable  &ct 
that  hardly  a  single  instance  has  been  known  of 
a  vessel  being  saved  which  had  the  misfortune 
Jto  strike  upon  this  rock.  Captain  ^rodie  of  the 
royal  navy  placed  a  beacon  on  it  some  years  ago, 
but  though  the  greatest  care  was  taken  to  have  it 
properly  secured,  the  first  storm  broke  the  chains, 
and  the  beacon  was  driven  ashore.  Previous  to 
the  erection  of  the  new  and  noble  light-house 
now  placed  here,  it  was  commonly  remarked  that 
even  if  it  were  practicable  to  erect  it  upon  such 
a  sunken  rock,  no  one  would  be  found  hardy 
enough  to  live  in  an  abode  so  dread  and  dreary, 
and  that  it  would  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  projectors 
themselves  to  possess  it  for  the  first  winter.  The 
bill  appointing  commissioners  for  this-great  under- 
taking, however,  passed  both  houses  of  parliament 
.ate  in  the  session  of  1806.  In  the  folldwing 
summer,  a  vessel  was  fitted  out  as  a  floating-light, 
and  moored  off  the  Bell-rock.  Captain  Brodie 
had  previously  constructed  a  veiy  ingenious 
model  of  a  cast-iron  light-house  standing  on  pil- 
lars ;  and  Mr.  Murdoch  Downie,  author  of  se- 
veral marine  surveys,  brought  forward  a  plan  of 
a  light-house,  to  stand  upon  pillars  of  stone. 
Mr.  Telford,  the  engineer,  was  also  employed  in 
some  preliminary  steps,  connected  with  Mr. 
Downie's  enquiries,  but  Mr.  Stevenson,  engi- 
neer for  the  commissioners  of  the  northern  light- 
houses, modelled  the  first  design,  whict^was  sub-^ 
mitted  to  the  opinion  and.  advice  of  Mr.  Rennie. 
This  distinguisned  engineer  coincided  with  Mr. 
Stevenson  .in  preferring  a  building  of  stone,  upon 
the  principles  of  the  ^Idystone  light-house. 

The  Bell-rock  LiOHT-uouse  is  a  circular 
building,  the  Ibundation-stone  of  which  is  neariy 
on  a  level  with  the  surface  of  the  sea  at  bw-water 
of  ordinary  spring-tides;  and  consequently  at 
high-water  of  these  tides,  the  building  is  immer- 
sed to  the  height  of  about  fifteen  feet.  The  two 
first  or  lower  coar<e^  of  the  masonry  are  imbed- 


ded into,  the  rock,  and  the  stones  of  all  th^ 
courses  are  dovetailed  and  joined  with  each  other^^ 
forming  one  cfonnected  mass  from  centre  to  cir- 
cumference. The  successive  courses  of  the  work 
are  also  connected  by  joggles  of  stone ;  and  to 
prevent  the  stones  from  being  lifted  up  by  the 
force  of  the  sea,  while  the  work  was  in  progress, 
each  stone  of  the  solid  part  of  the  builaing  had 
two  holes  bored  througk  it,  entering  six  inches 
into  the  course  immediately  below,  into  which 
oaken  tree  nails,  two  inches  in  diameter,  were 
driven,  after  Mr.  Smeaton  splan  at  the  Eddystone. 
The  cement  used  at  the  bcU-rock,  like  that  of  the 
Eddystone,  was  a  mixture  of  pozzolano,  earth, 
lime,  and  sand,  in  equal  parts,  by  measure.  The 
building  is  of  a  circular  form,  composed  of  stones 
of  the  weight  of  from  two  torus  to  naif  a  ton  each. 
The  ground  course  measures  42  feet  in  diameter, 
and  the  building  diminishes,  as  it  rises 
to  the  top,  where  the  parapet-wall  of  the  light- 
room  measures  only  13  feet  in  diameter.  The 
height  of  the  masonry  is  100  feet,  but  including 
the  light-room,  the  total  height  b  115  fcet  Tlie 
building  is  solid  from  the  ground  course  to  the 
height  of  30  feet,  where  the  entrv-door  is  situate, 
to  which  the  ascent  is  by  a  kind  of  rope-ladder 
with  wooden  steps,  hung  out  at  ebb  tide,  and 
taken  into  the  building  again  when  the  water 
covers  the  rock;  but  strangers  to  thi&  sort  of 
climbing  are  taken  up  in  a  cnair,  by  a  movable 
crane  projected  from  the  door,  from  which  a 
narrow  passage  leads  to  a  stone  stair-case  1 3  feet 
in  heigfkt.  Here  the  walls  are  seven  feet  in 
thickness,  but  they  generally  diminish  from  the 
top  of  the  stair-case  to  the  parapet-waU  of  the 
light  room,  where  they  measure  one  foot  in  thick- 
ness. The  upper  half  of  the  building  may  be 
described  as  divided  into  six  apartments  for  the 
use  of  the  light-keepera,  and  for  containing  light- 
house stores.  The  lower  or  first,  formed  by  an 
inside  scarfement  of  the  walls  at  the  top  or  the 
stair-case  is  chiefly  occupied  with  water  tanks,  fiiel, 
and  the  other  balky  articles ;  the  second  floor  is 
for  the  oil,  cisterns,  glass,  and  other  light-room 
stores ;  the  third  is  occupied  as  a  kitehen ;  the 
fourth  is  the  bed-room,  tne  fiftli  the  library  or 
strangers'  room,  and  the  upper  apartinent  forms 
thclightrroom.  The  floors  of  the  apartments  are 
of  stone,  and  the  communication  is  made  by 
means  of  wooden  ladders,  excepting  in  tlie  light- 
room,  where  every  article  being  nre  proof,  the 
steps  are  made  of  iron.  There  are  two  windows 
in  each  of  the  three  lower  apartments,  but  the 
upper  have  each  four  windows.  The  casements 
are  all  double,  and  are  glazed  with  plate-glass, 
having  besides  an  outer  storm-shutter,  or  dead 
light  of  timber,  to  defend  the  glass  from  the 
waves  and  spray.  The  parapet  wall  of  the  light- 
room  is  six  feet  in  height,  and  has  a  door  which 
leads  out  to  the  balcony  or  walk  formed  by  the 
cornice  round  the  upp^r  part  of  the  building; 
which  is  surrounded  by  a  cast-it  on  rail,  wrought 
like  net-work.  This  rail  rests  upon  b^tts  of 
brass  and  has  a  massive  coping,  or  top  rail,  of  the 
same  metal.  In  the  kitchen,  there  is  a  grate  or 
open  fire-place  of  cast  iron,  with  a  smoke  tube 
or  the  same  metal,  which  passes  throu^  the 
several  apartments  of  the  light-rooni,  and  heats 
them  in  ilt  passage  upwards.    This  grate  and 


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782 


BBL 


chiniiiey  merely  toocb  the  Imflding,  without 
being  included  or  bmlt  into  thewalUy  wfaichy  by 
^is  means,  aie  neither  weakened,  nor  liable  to 
be  injured  by  it.  The  timber  of  the  doors,  the 
pannelled  partitioning  of  the  rooms  from  the 
•tairs,  and  the  bed  frames  and  furniture  in  general, 
are  of  wainseot. 

The  light-room,  and  its  apparatus  was  entirely 
prepared  at  Bdinburgh.  It  is  of  an  octagonal 
ngnre,  12  feet  across,  and  15.  in  height,  formed 
with  cast-irpn  sashes,  glazed  with  lai^  plates  of 
polished  glass,. measuring^  about  2  feet  6  inches 
t>y  2  feet  8  incites,  each  plate  being  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  thick.  The  light-room  is  covered  with 
a.  dome  roof  of  copper,  terminating  in  a  large 
gilded  ball,  with  a  vent-hole  in  the  top.  The 
light  of  the  Bell-rock  is  very  powerAil,  >  and  is 
readjty  seen  at  the  distance  of  six  or  seven  leagues, 
when  the  jitmosphere  is  clear.  The  light  is  from 
oily  with  Argand  burners  placed  in  tlie  focus  of 
silver  pfatted  reflectors,  measuring  24  inches  over 
the  lips ;  the  silvered  sur&ce  or  feice  being 
hollowed  or  wroughtto  the  parabolic  curve.  Thai 
ihe  Bell-rock  l%lit  may  be  easily  distinguished 
(fora  all  other  lights  upon  the  coast,  the  reftec^ 
fors  are  ranged  upon  a  frame  with  four  &ces  or 
fides,  which,  by  a'  train  of  machinery,  is'  made 
^o  revolve  upon  a  perpendicular  axis  once  in  sit 
minutes.  Between  the  observer  and  the  reflectors^ 
Ob  two  opposite  sides  of  the  revolving  frame, 
shades  of  red  glass  are  interposed,  in  such  a 
manner, -that  during  each  entire  revolution  of 
the  reflectors,  two  appearances,  distinctly  differ- 
ing from  each  other,  are  produced;  one  is  the 
common  bright  light  famihar  to  every  one,  but, 
on  the  other,  or  shaded  sides,  the  rays  are  tinged 
of  a  red  color.  These  red  and  bright  lights,  in 
the  course  of  each  revolution,  alternate  with 
Intervals  of  darkness,  which,  in  a  very  beaatifiil 
and  simple  manner,  characterise  this  light 

In  foffgy  weather  two  large  bells  of  about  12 
cwt.  each,  are  tolled  day  and  night  by  machinery. 
Vessels  who  cannot  see  the  lights,  thus  get 
warning  to  put  about.  The  establishment 
at  the  Bell-rock,  consists  of  a  principal  light- 
keeper,  who  has  60  guineas  per  annum,  paid 
quarterly,  a  principal  assistant,  who  has  55  gui- 
neas ;  and  two  other  assistants  at  50  guineas  each, 
besides  a  suit  of  uniform  clothes,  in  common 
with  the  other  light-keepers  of  the  northern  light- 
houses^ every  three  years.  While  at  the  rock, 
these  men  get  a  stated  allowance  of  bread,  beef, 
butter,  oat-meal,*  pOt-barley,  and  vegetables, 
besides  small  beer,  and  an  allowance  of  fburpence 
per  day  each  for  the  purchase  of  tea  and  other 
necessaries.  At  Arbroath,  the  most  contiguous 
town  on  the  opposite  coast,  a  suite*  of  buildinfi 
-has  been  erected,  where  each  light-keeper  has 
three  apartments  for  his  family.  Here  the  master 
and  mate  of  the  light-house  tender,  have  also 
■accommodation  for  their  families ;  a  plot  or  piece 
of  an  enclosed  garden  ground  is  attached  to  each 
house,  and  likewise  a  seat  in  one  of  the  pews  in 
the  parish  church  of  Arbroath.  Connected  vrith 
these  Imildings  there  is  a  signal  tower  erected, 
which  is  about  50  feet  in  height.  At  the  top  of 
it,  there  is  a  room  with  an  excellent  five  feet 
achromatic  telescope,  placed  upon  aetand.  From 
4hii  tower,  a  set  ot  corrsaponding  signals  is 


ananged,  and  kept  up  with  the  light-keepers  at 
the  roek<  Three  of  the  lightrkeepersare  always 
at  the  light-house,  while  one  is  aanore  on  Ubertf, 
whose  duty  it  is  for  the  time  to  attend  the  signal 
room ;  and  when  the  weather  will  admit  of  the 
regular  removal  of  the  light-keepers  they  aie  six 
weeks  at  the  rock,  and  a  fortnight  ashore  with 
their  &milies. 

The  attending  vessel  for  the  BeH-tock,  and  the 
lightr-houses  at  the  isle  of  May  and  Inchkeith,  in 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  .is  a  very  handsome  little 
cutter  of  about  50  tons  register,  carrying  npoa 
her  prow  a  model  of  the  light-house,  ana  is 
appropriately  named  the  Pharos.  She  is  stationed 
at  Arbroath,  and  is  in  readiness  to  proceed  for  the 
rock  at  new  and  full  moon,  or  at  spring-tides, 
carryingneoessaries,  and  the  light-keeper  on  leave, 
to  the  rock,  and  returning  vnth  another.  This 
vessel  is  navigated  by  four.. men,  indnding  the 
master,  and  is  calculated  for  oarrjring.  a  bwt  of 
16  feet  keel,  or  of  sufficient  dimensions  for  lasd- 
tng  at  the  rock  in  moderate  weather.  The  anster 
and  mate  are  kept  in  constant  pay,  and  have 
apartments  iathe  establishment  ashore ;  the  for- 
mer, acting  as  a  superintendent,  has  the  chaige 
of  the  buildings  ana  stores  kept  at  Arfaroatfa. 

BELLUL/E,  in  soology,  the  sixth  order  of  the 
mammalia ;  the  character  of  which  is,  that  their 
fore  teeth  are  obtusely  truncated,  ibeix  feet  hookd 
their  walk  heavy^  and  their  food  vegetables.  -See 
ZooLooi. 

B£LLU<jfA,  in  ichthyology,  a  large  &h, 
accounted  a  species  of  stargeon,  and  cdled  by 
Artedi,  accipenser  tuberculis  caiens  It  is  like 
the  sturgeon  in  shape,  but  its  snout  is  shorter  and 
thicker.  Of  its  row  or  spawn  is  made  cavear, 
-and  some  of  them  are  so  large  as  to  yidd  900 
weight  of  it  The  fish  is  very  common  and  wy 
large  in  the  Volga,  near  the  city  of  Astracao.  It 
haa  been  caught  there  thirty-six  feet  long,  and 
eighteen  thick.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Dra,  ani 
other  rivers,  and  in  tiM  Baltic  and  Caspian  seas. 
See  AcciPENBBR. 

BELLULA  Bos,  in  icthyology,  a  name  giiea 
by  Paulus  Jovius  to  that  species  of  the  ray  fish 
which  was  called  by  the  old  Greek  and  Latin 
writers  bos  marinus,  uid  by  the  late  andwEsraja 
oxyrynchus.  It  is  distinguished  by  Aitedi,  by 
the  name  of  the  variegated  ray,  with  ten  prkkly 
tubercles  on  the  middle  of  die  back. 

BELLUM,.  Lat.  war;  in  old  law, trial  by 
combat. 

BELLUNESE,  a  territory  of  Italy,  which  be- 
longed to  the  Venetians,  till  ceded  to  Aastaa, 
by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio.  •  It  now  forms 
-a  part  of  the  LomlMirdo-Venetian  kingdom,  and 
lies  between  Frioli,  Cedorino,  Feltrino.  the 
bishopri«of  Trent  and  Tyrol.  It  is.  diirty  miles 
long,  and  twenty-two  broad,  and  produces  plenty 
of  corn,  wine^  nruits,  &c.  besides  rearing  great 
numbers  of  cattle.  It  contains  besides  the  cap- 
tal,  Belluno,  200  towns^  villages,,  and  lot^  with 
40,000  inhabitants. 

BELLUNO,  a  town  of  Italy,  and  a  bishop^ 
see;  is  situated  among,  the  Alp8,^on  the  river 
Piave. 

BELLUTUS  (Sidnius),  a  plebeian  Bmam, 
who,  about' the  year  of  Rome  S56,  headed  the 
-people  in  their  «^poaition  to  Ab  exodniantpomr 


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Sax.  balg;  Lat.  bulga; 
that  part  of  the  human 
body  which  reaches  from 
the  head  to  the  thighs, 
>>containiDg  the  bowels; 
the  womb;  any  thing 
that  swells  out  to  a  large 
capacity.  To  belly  out, 
is  to  swell  out;  to  ixt- 
flate;  to  sketch;  to  dis- 


of  the  Senate  and  Patricians ;  and  under  whom 
tiiey  retired  to  the  Mons  Sacer,  about  three  miles 
from  Rome,  intending  to  form  a  new  establish- 
ment for  themselves,  till,  after  repeated  messages 
sent  in  vain  by  the  senate,  Menenius  Agrippa 
persuaded  them  to  return,  by  the  well  known 
table  of  the  belly  and  the  other  members.  On  this 
occasion  the  tribune-ship  being  first  instituted, 
Bellutus  was  appointed  the  first  of  the  five  Tri- 
bunes, A.  U.  C.  560.    See  Rome 

BELLY,  V.  &.  n.   ")  ^  Gothic,  balgs;  Aug. 

Bblly'ache, 

Bellt'bound, 

Bbllx'cheeb, 

Belly'full, 

Belly'fare, 

Belly'slave, 

Belly'god, 

Belly'pincbed, 

Belly'timber, 

Belly'wo&m. 
teod. 

The  body's 
RebellM  agftinit  the  heUy ;  thus  accu'd  it : — 
That  only  like  a  gulf  it  did  lemain. 
Stall  cOpboarding  the  viand,  never  bearingj 
Like  labour  with  the  xefc 

Do  yon  set  down  your  name  in  the  scroll  of  yonth, 
that  an  written  down  old  with  all  the  character!  of 
age?  Have  yon  not  a  moist  eye,  a  dry  hand,  a 
yellow  cheek,  a  white  beard,  a  decreasing  leg,  an 
mereasing  heUjf  f  Id, 

This  night,  wherein  the  cabdrawn  bear  would 
couch. 
The  lion  and  the  beU$f^pinoked  wolf 
Keep  their  fur  dry;  unbonnetted  he  runs.  Id. 

Back  and  side  go  bare,  go  bare. 

Both  hand  and  foot  go  cold : 
But  beUjf,  God  send  thee  good  ale  enough. 

Whether  it  be  new  or  old.  fiUff.     Old  8(mg. 

With  Methos,  Gluttony,  his  gutdang  brother. 

Twin  parallels,' drawn  firom  the  self-same  line ; 
80  foully  like  was  either  to  the  other. 

And  both  most  Uke  a  monstrous  M^d  swine. 

Fletcher.  Purple  ItUmi. 
'  What  infinite  waste  they  made  this  way,  the  only 
story  of  Apicius,  a  famous  hdiifgod,  may  suffice  to 
shew.  HakeweU. 

Thus,  by  f|egrees,  day  wastes,  signs  cease  to  rise. 
For  laying  esjrth,  still  rising  up,  denies 
Their  light  a  passage,  and  confines  our  eyes. 

Creeek'i  jfam'tfin. 

Loud  rattliBg  shakes  the  mountains  and  the  plain, 
Heav'n  hSlUee  dowwirards,  and  deeeends  in  rain. 

•IHydbii* 

'Midst  these  disports,  forget  they  not  to  drench 
llKmselves  with  btUg/mg  goblets,  PkOipt, 

The  strength  of  eveiv  other  member 
.Is  founded  on  your  he^-tilnber.  Prior. 

Belly  in  anatomy,  the  abdomen.  See  Ana- 
tomy, Index. 

Belly,  Deacon's,  venter  draoonis,  is  used  by 
tome  astronomers  to  denote  the  point  in  a  pla- 
net's orbit,  wherein  it  has  its  greatest  lalitiide,  or 
is  &rther  distant  from  the  ecliptic^  more  frequentr 
ly  called  its  limit 

BELMONTE,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  hither 
Calabria  and  kingdom  of  Naples.  It  is  situated 
on  the  coast  of  the  Tuscan  sea.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  fine  marbles. 

BELOCK,  be  and  lock.    See  Lock. 


BELOE  (William),  a  native  of  Notwich, 
educated  at  Cambridge.  About  1 773  he  became 
assistant  to  Dr.  Parr,  who  was  then  head  master 
of  the  Norwich  grammar  school.  He  shortly 
after  obtained  the  vicarage  of  Earlham.  Re* 
moving  to  the  metropolis,  he  was  made  master  of 
Emanuel  College,  Westminster,  and  he  joined 
with  Archdeacon  Naresin  establishing  and  editing 
the  British  Critic.  His  connexion  with  this 
work  continued  till  the  dose  of  the  fortv-second 
volume.  He  also  obtained  the  living  of  Allhal- 
lows,  London-wall,  a  prebend  in  St.  Paul's,  and 
the  desirable  post  of  a  librarian  to  the  British 
Museum.  Of^the  last  situation,  howevte,  he  was 
deprived,  in  conseauence  of  the  loss  ef  some 
valuable  prints,  whicn  were  stolen  by  a  dishonest 
artist.  lie  died  at  Kensington  in  1817.  He 
translated  Herodotus,  and  AuUus  Gellus,andwas 
the  author  of  Miscelhmies,  3  vols.  Anecdotes 
of  Literature  and  Scarce  books,  6  vols.  8vo.  The 
Sexagenarian  (his  own  memoirs),  2  vols.  Bvo.and 
some  works  of  minor  importance. 

BEXOM ANCY,  n.  f .  From  /StXoc  and  itav 
rua. 

Bdamaneyi  or  divination  hy  urrows^  hath  been  la 
request  with  Scythians,  Alans,  GennkAs,  with  the 
Afiicans  and  Turks  of  Algiers. 

Broem'i  Vulgar  Btremt. 

Bblohanct,  Belomantia,  was  practised  in 
the  east,  but  chiefly  among  the  Arabians,  and 
in  different  ways.  One  was  to  mark  a  parcel 
of  arrows,  and  put  eleven  or  more  of  them  into 
a  bag :  these  were  drawn  out ;  and  according  as 
they  were  marked  or  not,  they  judged  of  future 
events.  Another  way  was  to  have  three  arrows, 
upon  one  of  which  was  written,  '  God  orders  it 
me:'  upon  another,  'God  forbids  it  me;'  and 
upon  the  third  nothing.  These  were  put  into 
a  quiver,  out  of  which  one  was  drawn  at  ran- 
dom ;  if  it  happened  to  be  that  with  the  iifst 
inscription,  the  thing  was  to  be  done :  if  it 
chan(^  to  be  that  with  the  second,  it  was  let 
alone ;  but  if  it  it  proved  that  without  inscrip- 
tion, they  drew  over  again.  Belomancy  is  an 
ancient  practice,  and  probably  that  which  Ezekiel 
mentions,  chap.  xxi.  21.  At  least  St.  Jerome 
understands  it  so,  and  observes  that  the  practice 
was  frequent  among  the  Assyrians,  and  Baby- 
lonians. Something  like  it  is  also  mentioned  m 
Hosea,  chap.  iv.  only  that  slaves  are  mentioned 
inst^  of  arrows,  which  is  rather  tliat  of  de- 
mancy  than  belomancy.  Grotius,  as  well  as  Je- 
rome, confounds  the  two  tosetlier,  and  shows  that  it 
prevailed  among  the  Magi,  Chaldeans,  and  Scy- 
thians ;  whence  it  passed  to  the  Sdavonians,  and 
thence  to  the  Germans,  who,  as  Tacitus  observes^ 
made  use  of  it- 

BELON  (Peter),  bom  at  Mans,  in  France^ 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  was  murdered  near  Paris  by  one 
of  his  enemies,  in  1565.  His  principal  works 
are,  1.  De  Afboribns  Coniferis,  4to.  Paris, 
1553.  2.  Histoire  de  la  Nature  des  Giseaux, 
fol.  1555.    3.  Portraits  d'Oiseaux,  4to.  1557. 

4.  Hist6ire  des  Poissons,  4to.  1551,  with  plates. 

5.  De  la  Nature  et  Diversity  des  Poissons,  Bvo. 
1555. 

BEIX)NE,  in  ichthyology,  the  trivial  name  of 
a  species  of  esox.    See  Esox. 


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BE'LONG,  r.  n. .    Dutch  belangen.    To  be 
the  property,  provioce,  of  business  of;  to  ad- 
here, appertain,  or  have  relation  to. 
To  light  on  a  part  of  a  field  helonging  to  Boaz.  Ruth, 
There  is  no  need  of  such  redress ; 
Or  if  there  were  it  not  heUm^  to  yon. 

Shahtpeare, 
The  declaration  of  these  latent  philosophers  belongs 
to  another 'paper.  *  Boyle. 

To  Jove  the  care  of  heav'n  and  earth  belongt 

Dryden, 
He  went  into  a  desart  belonging  to  Bethsaida. 

Luke, 
To  whom  belongeit  thou  ?  whence  art  thou  ? 

1  Sanniel. 
The  faculties   belonging  to  the  supreme  spirit,  are 
unlimited  and  boundless,  fitted  and  designed  for  in- 
finite objects.  Cheyne» 
He  careth  for  things  that  behng  to  the  Lord. 

1  Corinth, 

BELOSTOMA,  in  zoology,  a  eenus  of  insects 
of  tiie  order  heroiptera,  ikmily  hydrocoriss.  Its 
generic  character  is,  fore  feet  terminated  by  a 
single  hook ;  antennae  semi-pectinated.  There 
is  no  European  species. 

BELOVED,  part.  From  belove,  derived  of 
love.  It  is  observable,  that  though  the  partici- 
ple be  of  very  frequent  use,  the  verb  is  seldom 
or  never  admitted ;  as  we  say '  you  are  much  be- 
loved by  me,'  but  not '  I  belove  you.'  Loved ; 
dear. 

1  tnink  it  is  not  meet, 
Mark  Antony,  so  well  bdmed  of  C«sar, 
Should  outlive  Caesar.  Shaktpeare. 

In  likeness  of  a  dove 
The  Spirit  descended,  while  the  Father's  voice' 
Fnom  heav*n  pronounc'd  him  his  beloced  Son. 

Miltm, 
Each  lonely  scene  shall  thee  restore. 
For  thee  the  tear  be  daily  shed  ; 
Bdon*d  till  life  can  charm  no  more. 
And  moum'd  till  pity's  self  be  dead. 

CdUnt' Ditge, 

BE'LOViy  prep,  k  adv.  7     Be  and  low.  Low 
Be'lowt,  v.  $  is  the  past  participle 

of  the  Ang.-Sax.  verb,  licjan,  jacere,  cubiere. 
Behwtj  is  to  treat  as  a  loivt.  Under,  in  place  ; 
not  high ;  unbefitting ;  unworthy  of;  in  the  lower 
place;  in  hell;  in  earth,  in  opposition  to 
neaven. 

For  all  beiow  the  moon  T  would  not  leap. 

Shaktpeare. 
Hell  beat  Aufidius*  head  belcw  his  knee, 
Atid  tread  upon  his  neck.  Id. 

To  men  standintc  below  on  the  ground,  those  that  be 
on  the  top  of  Paul's  seem  much  less  than  they  are, 
and  cannot  be  known ;  but,  to  men  above,  those  below 
seem  nothing  so  much  lessened,  and  may  be  known. 

Baoun, 

The  upper  regions  of  the  air  perceive  the  collection 

of  the  matter  of  the  tempests  and  winds  before  the 

air  here  Moid  ;  and  therefore  the  obscuring  of  the 

■mailer  stars,  is  a  sign  of  tempest  following.  Id, 

His  sultry  heat  infects  the  sky  ; 
The  ground  behw  is-parchM,the  heav'ns  above  us  fry. 

Drydon, 


Tu  much  Mmd  me  on  his  throne  to  sit ; 
But  when  1  do,  you  .shall  petition  it.  Id*  \ 

This  said,  he  led  them  up  the  mountain's  brow. 
And  fihow'd  them  all  the  shining  fields  behw.  Id, 

The  gladsome  ghosts  in  circling  troops  attend  ; 
Delight  to  hover  near,  and  long  to  know 
What  bus*ness  brought  him  to  the  realms  bdotr.      Id, 

When  suff*ring  sainu  aloft  in  beaau»  shall  glow. 
And  prosp'rous  traitors  gnash  their  teet^  below.^ 

TickelL 

And  let  no  tean  from  erring  pity  flow. 
For  one  that's  bless'd  above,  immortaliz'd  bdow. 


The  fairest  child  of  Jove, 
Behfw  for  ever  sought,  and  bless'd  above.  Prior. 

The  noble  Venetians  think  themselves  eqnal  at 
least  to  Jie  electon  of  the  empire,  and  but  one  d(»gree 
beiow  kings.  A  ddisim. 

His  Idylliums  of  Theocritus  are  as  much  below  his 
Manilius,  as  the  fields  are  below  the  stars.         Felton, 

Sieur  Gaulard,  when  he  heard  a  gentleman  report, 
that  at  supper  they  had  not  only  good  cheer,  bat  also 
savoury  epigrams  and  fine  anagrams,  returning  home, 
rated  and  beiowtod  his  copk  as  an  ignorant  scullion, 
that  never  dressed  him  either  epigrams  or  anagrams. 

Cwmden. 

Father  of  all  above  and  all  beiow, 
O  great !  and  far  beyond  expression  so. 
No  bounds  thy  knowledge,  none  thy  power  confine. 
For  power  and  knowledge  in  their  source  are  thine. 

PcaitelL 

BELPECH,  a  town  of  France,  in  Languedoc, 
department  of  the  Aude.  In  1369  this  place 
was  taken  by  the  English,  and  among  the  pri- 
soners was  isabella,  mother  of  the  queen  of 
France.  It  is  seven  miles  north-west  of  Mire- 
poiz,  and  twelve  south-west  of  Castelnaudaiy. 
Long.  150°  E.,  lat.  43°  12'  N. 

BELSHAZZAR,  Nabonadius,  or  Labyki- 
Tt7s,  the  last  king  of  Babylon,  is  generally  agreed 
to  have  been  the  son  of  Evil-Merodach,  by  the 
celebrated  Nitocris,  and  grandson  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar the  Great.  He  succeeded  upon  the  deaths 
of  his  uncle-in-law  Neriglisaar,  and  his  in&nt 
cousin  Laborosoarchod  (with  whom  some  authors 
<x>nfound  him),  about  A.  M.  3393,  or,  according 
to  others,  3449.  He  is  said  to  have  reigned 
seventeen  years,  but  was  so  devoted  to  pleasure, 
that  nothing  is  recorded  of  him,  excepting  hxi 
folly,  dissipation,  and  impiety,  till  the  last  day 
of  his  reign  and  life :  when  the  miraculous  vision 
of  the  hand-writing  on  the  wall,  denouncing  the 
immediate  overthrow  of  his  empire,  alarmed  him 
and  his  impious  nobles,  in  the  midst  of  their 
guilty  festival ;  and  led  him  to  apply  for  advice, 
when  too  late,  to  the  long  neglected  prime 
minister  and  propthetic  instructor  of  his  grand- 
father. See  Daniel,  chap.  v.  Babykm  was 
taken  by  Cyrus,  Belshazzar  slain,  and  the  king- 
dom transferred  to  the  Medes  and  Persians; 
A.  M.  3410,  or  3466,  and  about  A.  A.  C.  538. 
See  Babylonia. 

BEL'SWAGGER,  n,t,    A  cant  word  for  a 
whoremaster. 

You  are  a  charitable  bekwagger  ;  my  wife  cried  tnt 
fire,  and  you  cried  oat  for  engines.  Jhyim. 


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